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[ { "plaintext": "Year 1023 (MXXIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 311439, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 25, 56 ], [ 102, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lý Thánh Tông, Vietnamese emperor (d. 1072)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14573100, 35934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Otto I (or Odon), count of Savoy (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 68852, 882830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 28, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ramon Berenguer I, count of Barcelona (d. 1076)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 242517, 3409591, 42461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 29, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William VII (\"the Bold\"), duke of Aquitaine (d. 1058)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 544547, 546092, 36210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 35, 44 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 27 Gebhard I, bishop of Regensburg", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20585, 5353513, 6839884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 20 ], [ 32, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 28 Wulfstan (or Lupus), archbishop of York", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19672, 848148, 2321009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 17 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "October 18 Zirid princess and regent", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22545, 645486, 35348624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 12, 17 ], [ 31, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 21 Gero, archbishop of Magdeburg", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22570, 11638441, 20804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 17 ], [ 33, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 24 Kou Zhun, Chinese grand chancellor ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22345, 37132137, 2452013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 21 ], [ 31, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 24 Eilward, bishop of Dresden-Meissen", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21522, 52822951, 6819207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 21 ], [ 33, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 5 Hartwig, archbishop of Salzburg", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8353, 41264583, 14779778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 20 ], [ 36, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abū Hayyān al-Tawhīdī, Muslim intellectual (b. 923)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19814012, 227107, 36421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 31, 43 ], [ 48, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Godfrey II, count and duke of Lower Lorraine (b. 965)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3047432, 2776799, 47220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 31, 45 ], [ 50, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Llywelyn ap Seisyll, king of Gwynedd and Powys", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2678418, 52508, 143738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 30, 37 ], [ 42, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oda of Haldensleben, duchess of the Polans", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 58988, 945395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 37, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sitt al-Mulk, Fatimid princess and regent (b. 970)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2099676, 56176, 35348624, 50440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 22 ], [ 36, 42 ], [ 47, 50 ] ] } ]

[ "1023" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1022 (MXXII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168880, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 16 ], [ 24, 54 ], [ 100, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fujiwara no Nobunaga, Japanese nobleman (d. 1094)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15040603, 28978421, 42471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 32, 40 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harold II, king of England (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 40148, 407950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 20, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Manasses III, French nobleman (d. 1065)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35299231, 42456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michael Attaleiates, Byzantine historian (d. 1080)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2531966, 36039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ordulf, duke of Saxony (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4552480, 264007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 17, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rajaraja Narendra, Indian ruler (d. 1061)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4964980, 36037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 12 Symeon (the New Theologian), Byzantine monk (b. 949)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20197, 2802890, 36415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 17 ], [ 59, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 23 Zhen Zong, emperor of the Song Dynasty (b. 968)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20210, 30873283, 56978, 36436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 20 ], [ 37, 49 ], [ 54, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 30 Atenulf, Italian nobleman and Benedictine abbot", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19849, 49656819, 4240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 18 ], [ 41, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 28 Notker III, German Benedictine monk and writer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15802, 4969218, 419369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 20 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 23 Lei Yungong, Chinese palace eunuch and adviser", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16181, 49265979, 68555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 21 ], [ 38, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 15 Nikephoros Phokas, Byzantine aristocrat", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1442, 46417661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 2 Máel Sechnaill II, High King of Ireland", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27531, 7075822, 841919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 33, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 20 Bernward, bishop of Hildesheim ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21575, 4051591, 2695663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 22 ], [ 34, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 2 Elvira Menéndez, queen of León ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8356, 2889107, 336544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid, Twelver Shia theologian ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4040023, 18369071, 26961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 21, 28 ], [ 29, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arikesarin, Indian ruler of the Shilahara Dynasty", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 12567582, 3354744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 33, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aziz al-Dawla, Fatimid governor of Aleppo", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51522392, 159244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 36, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Konstantin Dobrynich, mayor of Novgorod", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5516579, 21488120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 32, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Moninho Viegas, French knight (b. 950)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 46555845, 16897, 36433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 24, 30 ], [ 35, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Olof Skötkonung, king of Sweden ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 255539, 5058739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 26, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rededya, leader of the Kassogians", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 30154730, 517916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 24, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sidi Mahrez, Tunisian scholar (b. 951)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 42931882, 51105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 35, 38 ] ] } ]

[ "1022" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1021 (MXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168851, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 15 ], [ 23, 53 ], [ 99, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 8 Wang Anshi, Chinese chancellor (d. 1086)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8194, 207508, 2452013, 36699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 23 ], [ 33, 43 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eudokia Makrembolitissa, Byzantine empress (d. 1096)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 423749, 42440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fujiwara no Kanshi, Japanese empress consort (d. 1102)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 33812278, 42472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wugunai, Chinese chieftain of the Wanyan tribe (d. 1074)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 12491522, 12489418, 42459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 35, 41 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 13 Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, Fatimid caliph (b. 985)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11170, 482939, 48026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 35 ], [ 56, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 5 Arnulf, French archbishop and illegitimate son of Lothair III", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20314, 3380129, 574821, 638030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 16 ], [ 40, 52 ], [ 60, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 16 Heribert, archbishop of Cologne (b. c. 970)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19818, 3008832, 253147, 50440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 19 ], [ 35, 42 ], [ 50, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 7 Fujiwara no Akimitsu, Japanese bureaucrat (b. 944)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15863, 5715860, 52587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 29 ], [ 55, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 17 Erkanbald, German abbot and archbishop", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1490, 11371225, 1143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 21 ], [ 30, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 29 Minamoto no Yorimitsu, Japanese nobleman (b. 948)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1793, 2082487, 28978421, 36258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 33 ], [ 44, 52 ], [ 57, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fujiwara no Yoshikane, Japanese nobleman (b. 957)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5682507, 49144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 46, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani, Fatimid scholar and philosopher", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8230922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hamza ibn 'Ali ibn-Ahmad, founding leader of the Druze", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2441763, 8632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 50, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Liu Mei, Chinese official and general (approximate date)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51847075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mac Cú Ceanain, king of Uí Díarmata (Ireland)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 24307178, 24011185, 147575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 25, 36 ], [ 38, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shams al-Dawla, Buyid emir of Hamadan (Iran)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2827998, 43610555, 14653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 31, 38 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trilochanapala, king of the Kabul Shani dynasty", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 30994122, 30994122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 29, 48 ] ] } ]

[ "1021" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1020 (MXX) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321374, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 14 ], [ 22, 50 ], [ 96, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Almodis de la Marche, French noblewoman (d. 1071)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1484325, 28978421, 35164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 30, 40 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beatrice of Bar, French duchess and regent (d. 1076)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5187555, 35348624, 42461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 37, 43 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Benno II, German bishop and architect (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 17458133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bernard of Menthon, French priest and saint (d. 1081)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2320029, 23707, 42463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 28, 34 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Conrad I (or Cuno), duke of Bavaria (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4688887, 1463463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 29, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Filarete of Calabria, Sicilian saint (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 41427709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gonzalo Sánchez, Spanish nobleman (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3602268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gunhilda of Denmark, German queen (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9950248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Guo Xi, Chinese landscape painter (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1256339, 1359329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 17, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hallvard Vebjørnsson, Norwegian saint (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4297489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kunigunde of Altdorf, German noblewoman (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35348884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Maria of Gaeta, Italian noblewoman (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6188124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Osbern Giffard, Norman nobleman (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 32426859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Otto of Nordheim, duke of Bavaria (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1801575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stephen IX, pope of the Catholic Church (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 24340, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 25, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Su Song, Chinese statesman and scientist (d. 1101)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1861611, 26997, 36301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 32, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sweyn Godwinson, English nobleman (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2700505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vladimir Yaroslavich, Grand Prince of Kiev (d. 1052)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 40590, 21486360, 40050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 39, 43 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William I (the Great), count of Burgundy (d. 1087)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3373629, 441670, 35069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 33, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Busac, English nobleman (jure uxoris) (d. 1076)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 52422314, 13170237, 42461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 34, 45 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William FitzOsbern, 1st Earl of Hereford (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 440570, 797218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 25, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William of Poitiers, French priest and writer (d. 1090)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 252427, 42468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wulfhild of Norway, duchess consort of Saxony (d. 1071)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 24511275, 264007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 40, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zhang Zai, Chinese philosopher and cosmologist (d. 1077)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2159154, 1864889, 42462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 36, 47 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 12 Lyfing, archbishop of Canterbury", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15806, 98076, 1916875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 16 ], [ 32, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 15 Dattus (or Datto), Lombard rebel leader", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15936, 7131438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 16 Zhou Huaizheng, Chinese eunuch", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1448, 49265786, 68555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 26 ], [ 36, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Mu'ayyad Ahmad, Muslim imam (b. 944)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 30359597, 15240, 52587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 27, 31 ], [ 36, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Sijzi, Persian mathematician (approximate date)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1766793, 18902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 19, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bernard I (Taillefer), Spanish nobleman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22461664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bouchard II (the Bearded), French nobleman (b. 975)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36976660, 50356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 48, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Einar Sigurdsson, Norse Viking nobleman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5860091, 32610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 25, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ferdowsi, Persian poet and author (b. 940)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 193580, 462477, 52586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 19, 23 ], [ 39, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gagik I, king of Bagratid Armenia (approximate date)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4571047, 16954537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 18, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gerald I (Tranche-Lion), French nobleman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8755069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gojslav, king of Croatia (approximate date)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3579211, 2582233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 18, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Leif Ericson, Norse Viking explorer (approximate date)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 146803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Melus of Bari, Lombard nobleman and rebel leader", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4090313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Radim Gaudentius, Polish archbishop (b. 970)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2569810, 50440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 41, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stephen I of Vermandois, French nobleman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6496610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trdat the Architect, Armenian chief architect", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8612708, 1170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 37, 46 ] ] } ]

[ "1020" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The cosmos (, ) is another name for the Universe. Using the word cosmos implies viewing the universe as a complex and orderly system or entity.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 31880, 8286675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 48 ], [ 126, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The cosmos, and our understanding of the reasons for its existence and significance, are studied in cosmologya broad discipline covering scientific, religious or philosophical aspects of the cosmos and its nature. Religious and philosophical approaches may include the cosmos among spiritual entities or other matters deemed to exist outside our physical universe.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1864889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The philosopher Pythagoras first used the term kosmos (, Latinized kósmos) for the order of the universe. Greek κόσμος \"order, good order, orderly arrangement\" is a word with several main senses rooted in those notions. The verb κοσμεῖν (κοσμεῖν) meant generally \"to dispose, prepare\", but especially \"to order and arrange (troops for battle), to set (an army) in array\"; also \"to establish (a government or regime)\", \"to adorn, dress\" (especially of women). Thus kosmos had an important secondary sense of \"ornaments, decoration\" (compare kosmokomes \"dressing the hair,\" and cosmetic). In Modern Greek, κόσμος has developed, along with primary \"the universe, the world\", the meaning of \"people\" (collectively).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 23276, 23275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 16, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term became part of modern language in the 19th century when geographer and polymath Alexander von Humboldt resurrected the use of the word, assigning it to his five-volume treatise, Kosmos (1845–1862), which influenced modern and somewhat holistic perception of the universe as one interacting entity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 70631, 24239277, 206358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 111 ], [ 187, 193 ], [ 244, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cosmology is the study of the cosmos, and in its broadest sense covers a variety of very different approaches: scientific, religious and philosophical. All cosmologies have in common an attempt to understand the implicit order within the whole of being. In this way, most religions and philosophical systems have a cosmology.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cosmology", "target_page_ids": [ 1864889, 13692155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 286, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When cosmology is used without a qualifier, it often signifies physical cosmology, unless the context makes clear that a different meaning is intended.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cosmology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Physical cosmology (often simply described as 'cosmology') is the scientific study of the universe, from the beginning of its physical existence. It includes speculative concepts such as a multiverse, when these are being discussed. In physical cosmology, the term cosmos is often used in a technical way, referring to a particular spacetime continuum within a (postulated) multiverse. Our particular cosmos, the observable universe, is generally capitalized as the Cosmos.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cosmology", "target_page_ids": [ 5378, 28758, 20911, 251399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 236, 254 ], [ 332, 341 ], [ 374, 384 ], [ 413, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In physical cosmology, the uncapitalized term cosmic signifies a subject with a relationship to the universe, such as 'cosmic time' (time since the Big Bang), 'cosmic rays' (high energy particles or radiation detected from space), and 'cosmic microwave background' (microwave radiation detectable from all directions in space).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cosmology", "target_page_ids": [ 4116, 47687, 177602, 7376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 156 ], [ 160, 171 ], [ 223, 228 ], [ 236, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Charles Peter Mason in Sir William Smith Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology (1870, see book screenshot for full quote), Pythagoreans described the universe.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cosmology", "target_page_ids": [ 1395165, 2055360, 291170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 53 ], [ 54, 107 ], [ 152, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cosmology is a branch of metaphysics that deals with the nature of the universe, a theory or doctrine describing the natural order of the universe. The basic definition of Cosmology is the science of the origin and development of the universe. In modern astronomy, the Big Bang theory is the dominant postulation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cosmology", "target_page_ids": [ 18895, 4116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ], [ 269, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Philosophy of cosmology is an expanding discipline, directed to the conceptual foundations of cosmology and the philosophical contemplation of the universe as a totality. It draws on the fundamental theories of physicsthermodynamics, statistical mechanics, quantum mechanics, quantum field theory, and special and general relativityand on several branches of philosophyphilosophy of physics, philosophy of science, metaphysics, philosophy of mathematics, and epistemology.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cosmology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In theology, the cosmos is the created heavenly bodies (sun, moon, wandering stars, and fixed stars). The concept of cosmos as the created universe and its arrangement has been important in Christendom since its very inception, as it is heavily used in the New Testament and occurs over 180 times. In Christian theology, the word is sometimes used synonymously with aion to refer to \"worldly life\" or \"this world\" or \"this age\" as opposed to the afterlife or world to come, although \"aion/aeon\" is also at times used in a more other-worldly sense as the eternal plane of the divine ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cosmology", "target_page_ids": [ 30503, 7322, 659190, 6704, 21433, 27968837, 1941, 1178, 8163829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 31, 38 ], [ 88, 99 ], [ 190, 201 ], [ 257, 270 ], [ 301, 319 ], [ 366, 370 ], [ 446, 455 ], [ 459, 472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1870 book Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology noted", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cosmology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thales dogma that water is the origin of things, that is, that it is that out of which every thing arises, and into which every thing resolves itself, Thales may have followed Orphic cosmogonies, while, unlike them, he sought to establish the truth of the assertion. Hence, Aristotle, immediately after he has called him the originator of philosophy brings forward the reasons which Thales was believed to have adduced in confirmation of that assertion; for that no written development of it, or indeed any book by Thales, was extant, is proved by the expressions which Aristotle uses when he brings forward the doctrines and proofs of the Milesian. (p. 1016)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cosmology", "target_page_ids": [ 30072, 70997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 640, 648 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Plato, describes the idea of the good, or the Godhead, sometimes teleologically, as the ultimate purpose of all conditioned existence; sometimes cosmologically, as the ultimate operative cause; and has begun to develop the cosmological, as also the physico-theological proof for the being of God; but has referred both back to the idea of the Good, as the necessary presupposition to all other ideas, and our cognition of them. (p. 402)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cosmology", "target_page_ids": [ 22954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The book The Works of Aristotle (1908, p.80 Fragments) mentioned", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cosmology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aristotle says the poet Orpheus never existed; the Pythagoreans ascribe this Orphic poem to a certain Cercon (see Cercops).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cosmology", "target_page_ids": [ 14095722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bertrand Russell (1947) noted", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cosmology", "target_page_ids": [ 4163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Orphics were an ascetic sect; wine, to them, was only a symbol, as, later, in the Christian sacrament. The intoxication that they sought was that of \"enthusiasm,\" of union with the god. They believed themselves, in this way, to acquire mystic knowledge not obtainable by ordinary means. This mystical element entered into Greek philosophy with Pythagoras, who was a reformer of Orphism as Orpheus was a reformer of the religion of Dionysus. From Pythagoras Orphic elements entered into the philosophy of Plato, and from Plato into most later philosophy that was in any degree religious.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cosmology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Physical cosmology has achieved a consensus Standard Model (SM), based on extending the local physics governing gravity and the other forces to describe the overall structure of the universe and its evolution. According to the SM, the universe has evolved from an extremely high temperature early state, by expanding, cooling, and developing structures at various scales, such as galaxies and stars. This model is based on bold extrapolations of existing theoriesapplying general relativity, for example, at length scales 14 orders of magnitude larger than the those at which it has been testedand requires several novel ingredients, such as dark matter and dark energy. The last few decades have been a golden age of physical cosmology, as the SM has been developed in rich detail and substantiated by compatibility with a growing body of observations. Here we will briefly introduce some of the central concepts of the SM to provide the minimal background needed for the ensuing discussion.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cosmology’s Standard Model", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Eastern and Western thought differed greatly in their understanding of space and the organization of the cosmos. The Chinese saw the Cosmos as empty, infinite, and intertwined with the Earth. Western ideas, based on the ancient Greeks' understanding of the cosmos, believed in a multi-planar divided cosmos that was finite and filled with air.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early views of cosmos", "target_page_ids": [ 66540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early Europeans viewed the cosmos as a divinely created, spatially finite, bifurcated cosmos, divided into sublunary and superlunary realms. Objects above the lunar disc were believed to be stable, with heavenly bodies believed to be made out of a refined substance called \"quintessence\". This was understood to be a crystalline, completely transparent substance that held all of the superlunary spheres in perfect order. After their creation by God, these spheres did not change except for their rotation above the Earth. Objects below the lunar sphere were subject to constant combination, separation, and recombination. This was because they consisted of the chaotic elements of earth, air, fire, and water.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early views of cosmos", "target_page_ids": [ 39137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 274, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The idea of celestial spheres was developed in the cosmological models of Plato, Eudoxus, Aristotle, Ptolemy, Copernicus, and others. They believed in a stable cosmos created by God, where distinct realms were subject to different kinds of order. Europeans maintained the Aristotelian view that infinity could only be seen as an attribute of God, with the cosmos being finite. Furthermore, following the Aristotelian view that \"nature abhors a vacuum\", Europeans believed that the space between the spheres were filled with air. This theory persisted until the Scientific Revolution, when the discovery that the Sun was in the center of the planetary system rocked cosmological understanding to its core.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early views of cosmos", "target_page_ids": [ 22954, 48388, 308, 23979, 323592, 29544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 79 ], [ 81, 88 ], [ 90, 99 ], [ 101, 108 ], [ 110, 120 ], [ 561, 582 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Chinese had multiple theories of the processes and components of the cosmos. The most popular of these beliefs was the Xuan Ye theory, the astronomical view of the cosmos as an infinite space with floating pieces of condensed vapor. The Chinese believed that the Earth consisted of condensed yin and the heavens of yang; and that these properties coexisted in constant relation to each other, with yin and yang being used together to explain processes on Earth as well of those relating the Earth in conjunction with the heavens. This idea was described by Joseph Needham as a cosmos that functioned similarly to a complex organism, with discernible patterns in an ever-changing structure. There was both a pattern and a randomness to the cosmos. Because of this, the Chinese believed that earthly phenomena could affect heavenly bodies.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early views of cosmos", "target_page_ids": [ 144804, 144804, 357826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 296, 299 ], [ 319, 323 ], [ 561, 575 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Chinese believed that qi was the substance of all things in the cosmos and Earth, including inanimate matter, humans, ideas, emotions, celestial bodies and everything that exists or has existed; and that it was qi condensing that created all the matter within the cosmos. This is relatively consistent with our modern understanding of the congregation of matter through gravitational fields.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early views of cosmos", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Chinese held a belief associated with the Xuan Ye theory, which held space as both empty and infinite. This was inconsistent with the Aristotelian concepts that nature would not contain a vacuum, and that infinity could only be a divine attribute. The idea of the nothingness of space was later recognized as one of the most important discoveries of modern science.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early views of cosmos", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Indians believed in a cyclic universe and is related to three other beliefs: (i), time is endless and space has infinite extension; (ii), earth is not the center of the universe; and (iii), laws govern all development, including the creation and destruction of the universe. The Indians believed that there were three types of space, physiological, physical, and infinite space. The infinite space is conducted of undivided consciousness and everything that consist inside and outside. However, finite division of space is where time begins and the division of time is where all beings were first created. It was believed that there are connections between the physical and the psychological worlds, and an equivalence existed between the outer cosmos and the inner cosmos of the individual. This is expressed in the famous sentenceyat pinḍe tad brahmṇḍe,", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early views of cosmos", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "“as in the cell so in the universe”. The ancient Indians mapped out the outer world or the universe at an altar where Yajurveda listed multiples of ten that reached ten million. The numbers used to count to ten million was used as a reference to show the relation of the planets in the universe to earth, it was not a relevant scale to the entire universe, therefore backing that they believed the universe to be infinite and endless. Another astonishing belief that the Indians believed in was that they calculated the speed of light to be four thousand four hundred and four (4,404) yojanas per nimesa, or about one hundred eighty six thousand (186,000) miles per second. Ancient Indian beliefs included the belief that the earth was created after certain stars, these stars include the sun, Gemini, Aja, and Kurma. Evidence from the Etymological considerations prove this belief and also points towards the discovery of the twin asses, which in western astrology can be found next to the Cancer constellation as Asellus, Borealis, and Asellus Australis", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early views of cosmos", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Indian cyclic model assumes the existence of countless island universes, which go through their own periods of development and destruction. The conception of cyclicity is taken to be recursive. For an early exposition of these astronomical and cosmological ideas, one may read al-Bīrūnī’s classic history of Indian science, composed in 1030 AD, and for an even earlier, popular, view of Indian ideas, one may consult the Vedantic text called the Yoga Vāsiṣṭha (YV), which at 32,000 shlokas is one of the longest books in world literature.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early views of cosmos", "target_page_ids": [ 7702313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 450, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australian cosmology has a vast and varied history.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early views of cosmos", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Australian cosmology beliefs were based around the Aboriginal and Teres Straight Islander people's ideas, also known as Indigenous astronomy, and it was around before the Babylonians, Greeks, and the Renaissance period. They found ways to observe the moon, stars, and the sun, this enabled them to create a sense of time. This also allowed them to navigate across the continent, create calendars, and predict the weather. One of the most important constellations in Australia for the Aboriginal people is the Emu. The Emu constellation represents the connection between the earth and the sky, you can see stories and representations of their constellations written on some cave walls in Australia. Another indigenous tribe known as the Euahlayi saw the Milky Way as a river and between the two bright sides represented a Galactic Bulge where the two sons of the creator Baiame and the river made a connection from the earth and the sky. The Yolgnu people were one of the first to discover how the tide of the ocean works. They discovered the tide had a direct correlation with the moon. Their reasoning as to why the ocean did not fill up as much as perhaps when the moon was full versus a crescent moon is because the moon was not as full either. This contradicts the father of science, Galileo, who said that the tides correlated with the earth's orbit around the sun. Multiple indigenous tribes described winter by the seven sisters, a group of stars in the sky that provided hunter-gatherers a sort of calendar to indicate whether they should be hunting or gathering, based on the season.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early views of cosmos", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is one way that both the Chinese and the Europeans, along with countless other ancient societies, related to the cosmos. This was through meaning, placed on celestial bodies, that were observed moving above the Earth. The Chinese had a very complex astronomical understanding of the stars and the cosmos that influenced everything from their art and architecture to their myths and science. This was also true of the Greeks and Romans, whose 48 constellations, including the zodiac signs and the constellation of Orion, have been passed down to modern Western cultures. These were likely passed down to them from ancient Babylonian and Egyptian astronomers. Copernicus is said to have been inspired by the fecund sun deity of neoplatonic thought, which may have initially inspired his vision of a heliocentric universe.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early views of cosmos", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anaximander was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who is widely referred to as the \"father of astronomy\" and even as the \"father of cosmology\" as a result of his works to explain the origin and makeup of the physical universe. He is regarded as the most important of the Ionian philosophers, and was a pupil of Thales. Traditionally, details of his life and opinions are perpetuated not only by Aristotle and Theophrastos, but also by a great number of secondary authors. He lived throughout the fifth and fourth centuries, BCE, and was most likely the first philosopher to try to rationalize the system of the Earth, Sun, and Moon by the use of geometry and mathematics. Anaximander was also said to have created the first map of the world, however, like much of the rest of his works, this has been lost since his time. There is, however, documentation of Anaximander being responsible for the conception of the first mechanical model of the world, which is outlined by a geocentric model. He postulated that the Earth was at the very center of the universe, and that its shape was convex and cylindrical, with life existing on one of the two flat sides. Beyond the earth, sits the other planets, which Anaximander also details the order of. Next are the fixed stars, which he regarded as wheel-like condensations of air filled with fire, provided at certain places with openings through which flames are discharged. Anaximander places the moon beyond these stars, and assumed it to also be wheel-like in shape, being nineteen times the size of earth. Finally, on the top of the universe is the sun, which interacts with the moon, and the relationship between them is described in terms of aperture, in which a stoppage in would lead to eclipses. In this model, the sun is a ring, 28 times the size of the earth, with a hollow rim, filled with fire, which at a certain place is seen through an aperture as in a pair of bellows. He also postulated regarding the formation of thunder and lightning, maintaining that they are caused by the wind becoming compressed inside a thick cloud and suddenly breaking through, causing the loud sound to be heard as the cloud is bursting. He claimed the fissure then looked like a spark because of the contrast with the dark cloud. Anaximander's model set a precedent for succeeding theories, including Copernicus's system, with the major change being the shift away from the geocentric model and towards the heliocentric model of the universe. The explained model, although accredited to Anaximander, did necessarily take from ideas originated in foreign cultures, such as the astronomical wheels which are known from Persian cosmology. But even without detailed commentary, these elements of the Anaximander tradition give a strong impression of an original and courageous thinker making conscious efforts towards producing a rational explanation of fundamental physical principles, the nature and motion of heavenly bodies, the shape of earth, its place in the universe, etc.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "First Cosmos", "target_page_ids": [ 1168, 25664190, 302626, 30072, 308, 98409, 83754, 47474, 323592, 83754, 244588, 24607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 22, 30 ], [ 270, 276 ], [ 310, 316 ], [ 394, 403 ], [ 408, 420 ], [ 973, 989 ], [ 1691, 1699 ], [ 2340, 2350 ], [ 2413, 2429 ], [ 2446, 2464 ], [ 2656, 2663 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commonly regarded as the foundation of modern astronomy, the common universal view of the cosmos shifted as Nicolaus Copernicus positioned the Sun as the center of the Universe.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Copernican Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 323592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to the Copernican Revolution, the Ptolemaic system, also known as the geocentric model, was widely accepted. This put the Earth at the center of the universe, with the sun and other planets revolving around the earth in an epicyclic orbit. Aristotle's geocentric model was also broadly acknowledged, along with his claim that the planets rotated but did not orbit. The reasoning behind this was due to the belief that all objects outside of the lunar sphere were celestial bodies, and therefore could not change, as they were made of quintessence.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Copernican Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 83754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were notable critiques of this model prior to Copernicus. In the Islamic world, Ibn al-Haytham doubted Ptolemy's notion of the planetary orbits, and Muhammad al-Battani recalculated the parameters. However, both still agreed with the geocentric model.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Copernican Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 1645, 858914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 100 ], [ 155, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the first known astronomers that supported the Heliocentric theory was Aristarchus of Samos. After observing a lunar eclipse, he came to the conclusion that the sun was farther away from earth than the moon and that the sun was much larger than Earth. He also claimed the sun was a star. While Aristarchus was later an influence on Copernicus and his groundbreaking work, prior to the 17th century Aristarchus' findings were obstructed by the more established theories of Ptolemy and Aristotle. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Copernican Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 74857, 18298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 98 ], [ 118, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Astronomer and mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus was appointed by the Catholic Church as an official, as his uncle was a bishop in the church. He used his income to further his studies, eventually studying at the University of Bologna in Italy. Copernicus began doubting the knowledge of natural philosophers and their beliefs, claiming that geometrical astronomy instead would result in the true reality of the cosmos. His manuscript, De revolutionibus, pioneered ideas that would change the course of how both the cosmos and astrology were viewed. Most notably, Copernicus claimed that the sun was the stationary center of the universe. His work also included calculations on the motions of the moon, and the motions in latitude and longitude of the planets, all which orbit the sun. Copernicus' work was not immediately published as it disagreed with Biblical teachings, and he feared his work would be rejected by Catholic officials.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Copernican Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 263329, 1028515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 214, 235 ], [ 437, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Copernicus' work was not entirely mathematical conviction. There is evidence that Copernicus was influenced by Neoplatonism. Founded by philosopher Plotinus, neoplatonism believes that the sun is the symbol of The One, or The Universal Soul. It would make sense then that Copernicus would place the god-like figure at the center of the universe. Neoplatonist Nicholas of Cusa claimed the universe was infinite, containing multiple earths and suns. This changed the belief of a finite universe to an infinite one, which emphasized a more obscure and incomplete version of God. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Copernican Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 38422, 282522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 156 ], [ 359, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Carl Sagan", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cosmos (Carl Sagan book)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3789887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Personal Voyage", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Spacetime Odyssey", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cosmic View", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4759382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cosmic Zoom", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13040918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cosmonaut", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cosmicism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4682125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cosmogony", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 42882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cosmogram", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3635755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cosmography", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 585226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Macrocosm and microcosm", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 247908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Megaverse (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3753210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oikeiôsis (Stoic cosmopolitanism)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38053200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Omega point (de Chardin)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 217422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Omniverse (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37983125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rerikhism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 42018105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Russian cosmism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1540117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cosmos – an Illustrated Dimensional Journey from microcosmos to macrocosmos– from Digital Nature Agency", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " JPL Spitzer telescope photos of macrocosmos ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Macrocosm and Microcosm, in Dictionary of the History of Ideas", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Encyclopedia of Cosmos This is in Japanese.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cosmos – Illustrated Encyclopedia of Cosmos and Cosmic Law ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Greene, B. (1999). The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory. W.W. Norton, New York", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hawking, S.W. (2001). The Universe in a Nutshell. Bantam Book.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Yulsman, T. (2003). Origins: The Quest for our Cosmic Roots. Institute of Physics Publishing, London.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Concepts_in_aesthetics", "Concepts_in_ancient_Greek_aesthetics", "Concepts_in_ancient_Greek_metaphysics", "Concepts_in_astronomy", "Concepts_in_metaphysics", "Concepts_in_the_philosophy_of_science", "Cosmology", "History_of_philosophy", "History_of_science", "Neoplatonism", "New_Testament_Greek_words_and_phrases", "Physical_cosmology", "Theories_in_ancient_Greek_philosophy", "Universe" ]

[ "the Cosmos", "Cosmos", "the cosmos" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Louis I, also Louis the Great (; ; ) or Louis the Hungarian (; 5 March 132610 September 1382), was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1342 and King of Poland from 1370. He was the first child of Charles I of Hungary and his wife, Elizabeth of Poland, to survive infancy. A 1338 treaty between his father and Casimir III of Poland, Louis's maternal uncle, confirmed Louis's right to inherit the Kingdom of Poland if his uncle died without a son. In exchange, Louis was obliged to assist his uncle to reoccupy the lands that Poland had lost in previous decades. He bore the title of Duke of Transylvania between 1339 and 1342 but did not administer the province.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 324235, 484933, 26288, 70219, 4974687, 7362, 393229, 36830546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 114 ], [ 119, 126 ], [ 141, 155 ], [ 193, 213 ], [ 228, 247 ], [ 306, 327 ], [ 392, 409 ], [ 579, 599 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis was of age when he succeeded his father in 1342, but his deeply religious mother exerted a powerful influence on him. He inherited a centralized kingdom and a rich treasury from his father. During the first years of his reign, Louis launched a crusade against the Lithuanians and restored royal power in Croatia; his troops defeated a Tatar army, expanding his authority towards the Black Sea. When his brother, Andrew, Duke of Calabria, husband of Queen Joanna I of Naples, was assassinated in 1345, Louis accused the queen of his murder and punishing her became the principal goal of his foreign policy. He launched two campaigns to the Kingdom of Naples between 1347 and 1350. His troops occupied large territories on both occasions, and Louis adopted the styles of Neapolitan sovereigns (including the title of King of Sicily and Jerusalem), but the Holy See never recognized his claim. Louis's arbitrary acts and atrocities committed by his mercenaries made his rule unpopular in Southern Italy. He withdrew all his troops from the Kingdom of Naples in 1351.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 50919173, 459375, 755314, 56877, 3386, 3038383, 204804, 258779, 14729397, 1127640, 13393, 897351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 250, 257 ], [ 270, 281 ], [ 310, 317 ], [ 341, 346 ], [ 389, 398 ], [ 418, 442 ], [ 461, 479 ], [ 645, 662 ], [ 775, 796 ], [ 840, 849 ], [ 860, 868 ], [ 991, 1005 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like his father, Louis administered Hungary with absolute power and used royal prerogatives to grant privileges to his courtiers. However, he also confirmed the liberties of the Hungarian nobility at the Diet of 1351, emphasizing the equal status of all noblemen. At the same Diet, he introduced an entail system and a uniform rent payable by the peasants to the landowners, and confirmed the right to free movement for all peasants. He waged wars against the Lithuanians, Serbia, and the Golden Horde in the 1350s, restoring the authority of Hungarian monarchs over territories along frontiers that had been lost during previous decades. He forced the Republic of Venice to renounce the Dalmatian towns in 1358. He also made several attempts to expand his suzerainty over the rulers of Bosnia, Moldavia, Wallachia, and parts of Bulgaria and Serbia. These rulers were sometimes willing to yield to him, either under duress or in the hope of support against their internal opponents, but Louis's rule in these regions was only nominal during most of his reign. His attempts to convert his pagan or Orthodox subjects to Catholicism made him unpopular in the Balkan states. Louis established a university in Pécs in 1367, but it was closed within two decades because he did not arrange for sufficient revenues to maintain it.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30876385, 998432, 25016167, 256695, 239509, 147911, 613492, 47286, 23861380, 46007, 46026, 2843773, 211931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 90 ], [ 178, 196 ], [ 204, 208 ], [ 299, 305 ], [ 473, 479 ], [ 489, 501 ], [ 653, 671 ], [ 688, 696 ], [ 787, 793 ], [ 795, 803 ], [ 805, 814 ], [ 829, 837 ], [ 1205, 1209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis inherited Poland after his uncle's death in 1370. Since he had no sons, he wanted his subjects to acknowledge the right of his daughters to succeed him in both Hungary and Poland. For this purpose, he issued the Privilege of Koszyce in 1374 spelling out the liberties of Polish noblemen. However, his rule remained unpopular in Poland. In Hungary, he authorized the royal free cities to delegate jurors to the high court hearing their cases and set up a new high court. Suffering from a skin disease, Louis became even more religious during the last years of his life. At the beginning of the Western Schism, he acknowledged Urban VI as the legitimate pope. After Urban deposed Joanna and put Louis's relative Charles of Durazzo on the throne of Naples, Louis helped Charles occupy the kingdom. In Hungarian historiography, Louis was regarded for centuries as the most powerful Hungarian monarch who ruled over an empire \"whose shores were washed by three seas\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5641059, 29050, 33275984, 771986, 543939, 24302, 23056, 204989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 238 ], [ 277, 292 ], [ 372, 389 ], [ 493, 505 ], [ 599, 613 ], [ 631, 639 ], [ 658, 662 ], [ 716, 734 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born on 5 March 1326, Louis was the third son of Charles I of Hungary and his wife, Elizabeth of Poland. He was named for his father's uncle, Louis, Bishop of Toulouse, canonized in 1317. The first-born son of his parents, Charles, died before Louis was born. Louis became his father's heir after the death of his brother Ladislaus in 1329.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Childhood and youth (1326–1342)", "target_page_ids": [ 70219, 4974687, 581635, 13989522, 6097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 69 ], [ 84, 103 ], [ 142, 147 ], [ 149, 167 ], [ 169, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He had a liberal education by the standards of his age and learned French, German and Latin. He showed a special interest in history and astrology. A cleric from Wrocław, Nicholas, taught him the basic principles of Christian faith. However, Louis's religious zeal was due to his mother's influence. In a royal charter, Louis remembered that in his childhood, a knight of the royal court, Peter Poháros, often carried him on his shoulders. His two tutors, Nicholas Drugeth and Nicholas Tapolcsányi, saved the lives of both Louis and his younger brother, Andrew, when Felician Záh attempted to assassinate the royal family in Visegrád on 17 April 1330.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Childhood and youth (1326–1342)", "target_page_ids": [ 2122, 33603, 38263372, 66477491, 3038383, 44855740, 790583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 146 ], [ 162, 169 ], [ 171, 179 ], [ 456, 472 ], [ 554, 560 ], [ 567, 579 ], [ 625, 633 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis was only nine when he stamped a treaty of alliance between his father and John of Bohemia. A year later, Louis accompanied his father in invading Austria. On 1 March 1338, John of Bohemia's son and heir, Charles, Margrave of Moravia, signed a new treaty with Charles I of Hungary and Louis in Visegrád. According to the treaty, Charles of Moravia acknowledged the right of Charles I's sons to succeed their maternal uncle, Casimir III of Poland, if Casimir died without a male issue. Louis also pledged that he would marry the margrave's three-year-old daughter, Margaret.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Childhood and youth (1326–1342)", "target_page_ids": [ 38197, 6490884, 38895, 38130219, 790583, 7362, 20277747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 95 ], [ 152, 159 ], [ 210, 217 ], [ 219, 238 ], [ 299, 307 ], [ 429, 450 ], [ 569, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Casimir III's first wife, Aldona of Lithuania, died on 26 May 1339. Two leading Polish noblemenZbigniew, chancellor of Cracow, and Spycimir Leliwitapersuaded Casimir, who had not fathered a son, to make his sister, Elizabeth, and her offspring his heirs. According to the 15th-century Jan Długosz, Casimir held a general sejm in Cracow where \"the assembled prelates and nobles\" proclaimed Louis as Casimir's heir, but the reference to the sejm is anachronistic. Historian Paul W. Knoll writes that Casimir preferred his sister's family to his own daughters or a member of a cadet branch of the Piast dynasty, because he wanted to ensure the king of Hungary's support against the Teutonic Knights. Louis's father and uncle signed a treaty in Visegrád in July whereby Casimir III made Louis his heir if he died without a son. In exchange, Charles I pledged that Louis would reoccupy Pomerania and other Polish lands lost to the Teutonic Order without Polish funds and would only employ Poles in the royal administration in Poland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Childhood and youth (1326–1342)", "target_page_ids": [ 2810, 29050, 16417, 1794553, 16815, 1769438, 60738, 30776, 790583, 24261, 30776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 45 ], [ 80, 95 ], [ 285, 296 ], [ 313, 325 ], [ 329, 335 ], [ 574, 586 ], [ 594, 607 ], [ 679, 695 ], [ 741, 749 ], [ 881, 890 ], [ 926, 940 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis received the title of Duke of Transylvania from his father in 1339, but he did not administer the province. According to a royal charter from the same year, Louis's bride, Margaret of Bohemia, lived in the Hungarian royal court. Louis's separate ducal court was first mentioned in a royal charter of 1340.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Childhood and youth (1326–1342)", "target_page_ids": [ 36830546, 20277747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 48 ], [ 178, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles I died on 16 July 1342. Five days later, Csanád Telegdi, Archbishop of Esztergom, crowned Louis king with the Holy Crown of Hungary in Székesfehérvár. Although Louis had attained the age of majority, his mother Elizabeth \"acted as a sort of co-regent\" for decades, because she exerted a powerful influence on him. Louis inherited a rich treasury from his father, who had strengthened royal authority and ruled without holding Diets during the last decades of his reign.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 57756929, 1704328, 598066, 847836, 25016167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 63 ], [ 79, 88 ], [ 118, 139 ], [ 143, 157 ], [ 434, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis introduced a new system of land grants, excluding the grantee's brothers and other kinsmen from the donation in contrast with customary law: such estates escheated to the Crown if the grantee's last male descendants died. On the other hand, Louis often \"promoted a daughter to a son\", that is authorized a daughter to inherit her father's estates, although customary law prescribed that the landed property of a deceased nobleman who had no sons was to be inherited by his kinsmen. Louis often granted this privilege to the wives of his favorites. Louis also frequently authorized landowners to apply capital punishment in their estates, limiting the authority of the magistrates of the counties.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 175519, 44971617, 2310908, 991952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 167 ], [ 260, 288 ], [ 576, 625 ], [ 693, 701 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Drugeth, an influential advisor of Louis's late father, died in September 1342. He bequeathed his landed property to his brother, Nicholas, but Louis confiscated those estates. In late autumn, Louis dismissed his father's Voivode of Transylvania, Thomas Szécsényi, although Szécsényi's wife was a distant cousin of the queen mother. Louis especially favored the Lackfis: eight members of the family held high offices during his reign. Andrew Lackfi was the commander of the royal army during the first war of Louis's reign. In late 1342 or early 1343, he invaded Serbia and restored the Banate of Macsó, which had been lost during his father's reign.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 44891681, 21304871, 44891672, 18823806, 1927494, 45605445, 239509, 37008202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 230, 253 ], [ 255, 271 ], [ 327, 339 ], [ 370, 376 ], [ 443, 456 ], [ 571, 577 ], [ 595, 610 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Robert the Wise, King of Naples, died on 20 January 1343. In his testament, he declared his granddaughter, Joanna I, his sole heir, excluding Louis's younger brother, Andrew, Joanna's husband, from becoming co-ruler. Louis and his mother regarded this as an infringement of a previous agreement between the late kings of Naples and Hungary. He visited his bride's father, Charles of Moravia, in Prague to persuade him to intervene on Andrew's behalf with Charles's former tutor, Pope Clement VI, the overlord of the Kingdom of Naples. Louis also sent envoys to his Neapolitan relatives and the high officials of the kingdom, urging them to promote his brother's interests. Their mother, Elizabeth, left for Naples in the summer, taking with her almost the whole royal treasure, including more than of silver and of gold. During her seven-month-long stay in Italy, she was only able to persuade her daughter-in-law and the pope to promise that Andrew would be crowned as Joanna's husband.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 204279, 14729397, 77697, 204804, 38895, 23844, 24103, 258779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 17, 31 ], [ 65, 74 ], [ 107, 115 ], [ 372, 390 ], [ 395, 401 ], [ 479, 494 ], [ 516, 533 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the nearly contemporaneous chronicle of John of Küküllő, Louis launched his first campaign against a group of Transylvanian Saxons, who had refused to pay taxes, and forced them to yield in the summer of 1344. During his stay in Transylvania, Nicholas Alexanderwho was the son of Basarab, the ruling prince of Wallachiaswore loyalty to Louis on his father's behalf in Brassó (now Brașov in Romania); thus the suzerainty of the Hungarian monarchs over Wallachia was, at least outwardly, restored.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 45540034, 1212186, 1047454, 52750, 154820, 66326, 25445, 46026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 68 ], [ 123, 143 ], [ 256, 274 ], [ 293, 300 ], [ 313, 332 ], [ 381, 387 ], [ 403, 410 ], [ 464, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis joined a crusade against the pagan Lithuanians in December 1344. The crusadersincluding John of Bohemia, Charles of Moravia, Peter of Bourbon, and William of Hainaut and Holland laid siege to Vilnius. However, a Lithuanian invasion of the lands of the Teutonic Knights forced them to lift the siege. Louis returned to Hungary in late February 1345. He dispatched Andrew Lackfi, Count of the Székelys to invade the lands of the Golden Horde in retaliation for the Tatars' earlier plundering raids against Transylvania and the Szepesség (now Spiš in Slovakia). Lackfi and his army of mainly Székely warriors inflicted a defeat on a large Tatar army on 2 February 1345. Hungarian warriors were victorious in their campaign, decapitating the local Tatar leader, the brother-in-law of the Khan, Atlamïş, and making the Tatars flee toward the coastal area. The Golden Horde was pushed back behind the Dniester River, thereafter the Golden Horde's control of the lands between the Eastern Carpathians and the Black Sea weakened. A conflict between Louis's uncle and father-in-law (Casimir III of Poland and Charles of Moravia) led to a war between Poland and Bohemia in April. In this war Louis supported his uncle with reinforcements in accordance with the agreement of 1339.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 21921, 459375, 38197, 703394, 690976, 32597, 45605445, 36560638, 147911, 56877, 30853, 349043, 45605445, 415477, 56877, 56877, 56877, 147911, 376633, 147911, 2184631, 3386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 22 ], [ 41, 52 ], [ 94, 109 ], [ 131, 147 ], [ 153, 183 ], [ 198, 205 ], [ 369, 382 ], [ 384, 405 ], [ 433, 445 ], [ 469, 475 ], [ 510, 522 ], [ 531, 540 ], [ 565, 571 ], [ 595, 602 ], [ 642, 647 ], [ 750, 755 ], [ 820, 826 ], [ 861, 873 ], [ 901, 915 ], [ 932, 946 ], [ 980, 999 ], [ 1008, 1017 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Louis's armies were fighting in Poland and against the Tatars, Louis marched to Croatia in June 1345 and besieged Knin, the former seat of the late Ivan Nelipac, who had successfully resisted Louis's father, forcing his widow and son to surrender. The counts of Corbavia and other Croatian noblemen also yielded to him during his stay in Croatia. The citizens of Zadar rebelled against the Republic of Venice and accepted his suzerainty. Louis meanwhile returned to Visegrád. He dispatched Stephen II, Ban of Bosnia, to assist the burghers of Zadar, but the ban did not fight against the Venetians.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 755314, 864960, 22148948, 70561216, 50659486, 292128, 613492, 790583, 462319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 93 ], [ 120, 124 ], [ 154, 166 ], [ 222, 231 ], [ 258, 276 ], [ 369, 374 ], [ 396, 414 ], [ 472, 480 ], [ 496, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis's brother Andrew was murdered in Aversa on 18 September 1345. Louis and his mother accused Queen Joanna I, Prince Robert of Taranto, Duke Charles of Durazzo, and other members of the Neapolitan branches of the Capetian House of Anjou of plotting against Andrew. In his letter of 15 January 1346 to Pope Clement VI, Louis demanded that the pope dethrone the \"husband-killer\" queen in favor of Charles Martel, her infant son by Andrew. Louis also laid claim to the regency of the kingdom during the minority of his nephew, referring to his patrilinear descent from the first-born son of Robert the Wise's father, Charles II of Naples. He even promised to increase the amount of yearly tribute that the kings of Naples would pay to the Holy See. After the pope failed to fully investigate Andrew's murder, Louis decided to invade southern Italy. In preparation for the invasion, he sent his envoys to Ancona and other Italian towns before summer 1346.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 1118228, 3499310, 5778156, 10518745, 24103, 33976968, 673254, 161745, 13393, 52612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 45 ], [ 113, 137 ], [ 139, 162 ], [ 216, 239 ], [ 304, 319 ], [ 398, 412 ], [ 573, 587 ], [ 617, 637 ], [ 739, 747 ], [ 904, 910 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While his envoys negotiated in Italy, Louis marched to Dalmatia to relieve Zadar, but the Venetians bribed his commanders. When the citizens broke out and attacked the besiegers on 1 July, the royal army failed to intervene, and the Venetians overcame the defenders outside the walls of the town. Louis withdrew but refused to renounce Dalmatia, although the Venetians offered to pay 320,000 golden florins as compensation. Lacking military support from Louis, however, Zadar surrendered to the Venetians on 21 December 1346.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Louis sent small expeditions one after one to Italy at the beginning of his war against Joanna, because he did not want to harass the Italians who had suffered from a famine the previous year. His first troops departed under the command of Nicholas Vásári, Bishop of Nyitra (now Nitra in Slovakia), on 24 April 1347. Louis also hired German mercenaries. He departed from Visegrád on 11 November. After marching through Udine, Verona, Modena, Bologna, Urbino, and Perugia, he entered the Kingdom of Naples on 24 December near L'Aquila, which had yielded to him.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 58657678, 14334393, 349028, 223464, 263991, 62418, 21069333, 410081, 51594, 505955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 240, 255 ], [ 257, 273 ], [ 279, 284 ], [ 419, 424 ], [ 426, 432 ], [ 434, 440 ], [ 442, 449 ], [ 451, 457 ], [ 463, 470 ], [ 525, 533 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Queen Joanna remarried, wedding a cousin, Louis of Taranto, and fled for Marseille on 11 January 1348. Their other relatives, Robert of Taranto and Charles of Durazzo, visited Louis in Aversa to yield to him. Louis received them amicably and convinced them to persuade their brothers, Philip of Taranto and Louis of Durazzo, to join them. After their arrival, King Louis's \"smile was replaced by the harshest expression as he unveiled with terrible words the true feelings he had for the princes and that he had kept hidden until then\", according to the contemporaneous Domenico da Gravina. He repeated his former accusations, blamed his kinsmen for his brother's murder, and had them captured on 22 January. The next day Charles of Durazzo the husband of Joanna I's sister, Marywas beheaded upon Louis's orders. The other princes were kept captive and sent to Hungary, together with Louis's infant nephew, Charles Martel.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 1183665, 40888948, 1205234, 2077801, 17559336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 58 ], [ 73, 82 ], [ 285, 302 ], [ 307, 323 ], [ 775, 779 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis marched to Naples in February. The citizens offered him a ceremonious entry, but he refused, threatening to let his soldiers sack the town if they did not raise the taxes. He adopted the traditional titles of the kings of Naples\"King of Sicily and Jerusalem, Duke of Apulia and Prince of Capua\"and administered the kingdom from the Castel Nuovo, garrisoning his mercenaries in the most important forts. He used unusually brutal methods of investigation to capture all accomplices in the death of his brother, according to Domenico da Gravina. Most local noble families (including the Balzos and the Sanseverinos) refused to cooperate with him. The pope refused to confirm Louis's rule in Naples, which would have united two powerful kingdoms under Louis's rule. The pope and the cardinals declared Queen Joanna innocent of her husband's murder at a formal meeting of the College of Cardinals.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 1127640, 25241483, 4232390, 6929210, 6900324, 32968249, 6221, 40953423, 308790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 254, 263 ], [ 273, 279 ], [ 284, 299 ], [ 338, 350 ], [ 590, 596 ], [ 605, 617 ], [ 785, 794 ], [ 855, 869 ], [ 877, 897 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The arrival of the Black Death forced Louis to leave Italy in May. He made Ulrich Wolfhardt governor of Naples, but his mercenaries did not hinder Joanna I and her husband from returning in September. Louis, who had signed a truce for eight years with Venice on 5 August, sent new troops to Naples under the command of Stephen Lackfi, Voivode of Transylvania, in late 1349. Lackfi reoccupied Capua, Aversa and other forts that had been lost to Joanna I, but a mutiny among his German mercenaries forced him to return to Hungary. The Black Death had meanwhile reached Hungary. The first wave of the epidemic ended in June, but it returned in September, killing Louis's first wife, Margaret. Louis also fell ill, but survived the plague. Although the Black Death was less devastating in the sparsely populated Hungary than in other parts of Europe, there were regions that became depopulated in 1349, and the demand for work force increased in the subsequent years.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 4501, 54307564, 21304871, 75845, 1118228, 4746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 30 ], [ 319, 333 ], [ 335, 358 ], [ 392, 397 ], [ 399, 405 ], [ 728, 734 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis proposed to renounce the Kingdom of Naples if Clement dethroned Joanna. After the pope refused, Louis departed for his second Neapolitan campaign in April 1350. He suppressed a mutiny that occurred among his mercenaries while he and his troops were waiting for the arrival of further troops in Barletta. While marching towards Naples, he faced resistance at many towns because his vanguards, which were under the command of Stephen Lackfi, had become notorious for their cruelty.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 936265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 300, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the campaign, Louis personally led assaults and climbed city walls together with his soldiers, endangering his own life. While besieging Canosa di Puglia, Louis fell into the moat from a ladder when a defender of the fort hit him with a stone. He dove into a river without hesitation to save a young soldier who was swept away while exploring a ford upon his order. An arrow pierced Louis's left leg during the siege of Aversa. After the fall of Aversa to Hungarian troops on 3 August, Queen Joanna and her husband again fled from Naples. However, Louis decided to return to Hungary. According to the contemporaneous historian Matteo Villani, Louis attempted to \"leave the kingdom without losing face\" after he had run out of money and experienced the resistance of the local population.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 338842, 153861, 147518, 30432825, 50623486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 160 ], [ 182, 186 ], [ 194, 200 ], [ 352, 356 ], [ 634, 648 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To celebrate the Jubilee of 1350, Louis visited Rome during his journey back to Hungary. He arrived in Buda on 25 October 1350. With the mediation of the Holy See, the envoys of Louis and Queen Joanna's husband, Louis of Taranto, signed a truce for six months. The pope promised Louis that the queen's role in her husband's murder would again be investigated, and he ordered her to pay 300,000 gold florins as a ransom for the imprisoned Neapolitan princes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 228853, 25458, 95472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 32 ], [ 48, 52 ], [ 103, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Casimir III of Poland urged Louis to intervene in his war with the Lithuanians who had occupied Brest, Volodymyr-Volynskyi, and other important towns in Halych and Lodomeria in the previous years. The two monarchs agreed that Halych and Lodomeria would be integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary after Casimir's death. Casimir also authorized Louis to redeem the two realms for 100,000 florins if Casimir fathered a son. Louis led his army to Cracow in June 1351. Because Casimir fell ill, Louis became the sole commander of the united Polish and Hungarian army. He invaded the lands of the Lithuanian prince, Kęstutis, in July. Kęstutis seemingly accepted Louis's suzerainty on 15 August and agreed to be baptised, along with his brothers, in Buda. However, Kęstutis did nothing to fulfill his promises after Polish and Hungarian troops were withdrawn. In an attempt to capture Kęstutis, Louis returned, but he could not defeat the Lithuanians, who even killed one of his allies, Boleslaus III of Płock, in battle. Louis returned to Buda before 13 September. A papal legate visited Louis to persuade him to wage war against Stefan Dušan, Emperor of the Serbs, who had forced his Roman Catholic subjects to be re-baptised and join the Serbian Orthodox Church.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 162243, 514131, 639283, 1175507, 45499822, 236637, 26736086, 11970483, 344447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 101 ], [ 103, 122 ], [ 153, 173 ], [ 609, 617 ], [ 980, 1002 ], [ 1124, 1136 ], [ 1138, 1158 ], [ 1209, 1220 ], [ 1234, 1257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To deal with the grievances of the Hungarian noblemen, Louis held a Diet in late 1351. He confirmed all but one of the provisions of the Golden Bull of 1222, declaring that all noblemen enjoyed the same liberties in his realms. He rejected only the provision that authorized noblemen who died without a son to freely bequeath their estates. Instead, he introduced an entail system, prescribing that the estates of a nobleman who had no male descendants passed to his kinsmen, or if there were no male relatives to the Crown, upon his death. At the same Diet, Louis ordered that all landowners were to collect the \"ninth\", that is one tenth of specified agricultural products, from the peasants who held plots on their estates. On the other hand, he confirmed the right of all peasants to freely move to another landowner's estates.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 639925, 2048381, 256695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 72 ], [ 137, 156 ], [ 367, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"general accord\" between Louis and the royal couple of Naples \"was accepted by both sides\" during 1351, according to the contemporaneous Niccolò Acciaioli. Joanna I and her husband returned to the Kingdom of Naples and Louis's troops were withdrawn. Louis even renounced the ransom that Joanna I had promised to pay for the liberation of the imprisoned Neapolitan princes, stating that he had not gone to \"war for greed, but to avenge the death of his brother\". Louis continued to use the titles of his grandfather, Charles Martel of Anjou (the firstborn son of Charles II of Naples), styling himself as \"Prince of Salerno and lord of Monte Sant'Angelo\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 25510907, 673254, 4239441, 2661751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 158 ], [ 520, 543 ], [ 609, 626 ], [ 639, 656 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Casimir III laid siege to Belz and Louis joined his uncle in March 1352. During the siege, which ended without the surrender of the fort, Louis was heavily injured in his head. Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, hired Tatar mercenaries who stormed into Podolia, Louis returned to Hungary because he feared a Tatar invasion of Transylvania. Pope Clement proclaimed a crusade against the Lithuanians and the Tatars in May, authorizing Louis to collect a tithe from Church revenues during the next four years. The pope stated that he had never \"granted a tenth of such duration\", emphasizing the link between his magnanimity and the release of the imprisoned Neapolitan princes. The pope also authorized Louis to seize the pagans' and schismatics' lands bordering on his kingdom.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 1109918, 1175523, 70287700, 347437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 30 ], [ 177, 185 ], [ 187, 210 ], [ 253, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Louis signed an alliance with the Republic of Genoa in October 1352, he did not intervene in the Genoese–Venetian War, because his truce of 1349 with Venice was still in force. Louis married Elizabeth of Bosnia, who was the daughter of his vassal, Stephen II, in 1353. Historian Gyula Kristó says that this marriage showed Louis's renewed interest in the affairs of the Balkan Peninsula. While he was hunting in Zólyom County (now in Slovakia) in late November 1353, a brown bear attacked him, inflicting 24 wounds on his legs. Louis's life was saved by a knight of the court, John Besenyő, who killed the beast with his sword.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 559961, 12299684, 5693937, 462319, 46358197, 4829, 923899, 4402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 60 ], [ 106, 126 ], [ 200, 219 ], [ 257, 267 ], [ 288, 300 ], [ 379, 395 ], [ 421, 434 ], [ 478, 488 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Matteo Villani, Louis launched an expedition against the Golden Horde at the head of an army of 200,000 horsemen in April 1354. The young Tatar ruler, whom historian Iván Bertényi identified as Jani Beg, did not want to wage war against Hungary and agreed to sign a peace treaty. Although no other primary source mentioned that campaign and treaty, the Tatars made no plundering raids in Transylvania after 1354, which suggests that Villani's report is reliable. In the same year, Louis invaded Serbia, forcing Stefan Dušan to withdraw from the region along the river Sava. Under duress, Dušan initiated negotiations with the Holy See for acknowledgement of the popes' primacy. The following year, Louis sent reinforcements to Casimir III to fight against the Lithuanians, and Hungarian troops supported Albert II, Duke of Austria, against Zürich. The Venetian delegates offered Louis 6–7,000 golden ducats as a compensation for Dalmatia, but Louis refused to give up his plan to reconquer the province. He signed an alliance with Albert II of Austria and Nicolaus of Luxemburg, Patriarch of Aquileia, against Venice. Upon his order, Croatian lords besieged and captured Klis, a Dalmatian fortress that Stefan Dušan's sister, Jelena, had inherited from her husband, Mladen Šubić.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 1755270, 236637, 587845, 718929, 1151624, 40334603, 769512, 23453447, 1103488, 5600090, 14410904, 22024371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 215 ], [ 524, 536 ], [ 581, 585 ], [ 675, 689 ], [ 817, 843 ], [ 853, 859 ], [ 913, 918 ], [ 1069, 1090 ], [ 1092, 1113 ], [ 1184, 1188 ], [ 1239, 1245 ], [ 1279, 1291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In summer 1356, Louis invaded Venetian territories without a formal declaration of war. He laid siege to Treviso on 27 July. A local nobleman, Giuliano Baldachino, noticed that Louis sat alone while writing his letters on the banks of Sile River on each morning. Baldachino proposed the Venetians to assassinate him in exchange for 12,000 golden florins and Castelfranco Veneto, but they refused his offer because he did not share the details of his plans with them. Louis returned to Buda in the autumn, but his troops continued the siege. Pope Innocent VI urged the Venetians to make a peace with Hungary. The pope made Louis the \"standard-bearer of the Church\" and granted him a three-year tithe to fight against Francesco II Ordelaffi and other rebellious lords in the Papal States. Louis sent an army under Nicholas Lackfi's command to support the pope's troops in Italy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 925340, 2634822, 2913624, 24473, 10869049, 59534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 112 ], [ 235, 245 ], [ 358, 377 ], [ 541, 557 ], [ 716, 738 ], [ 773, 785 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis marched to Dalmatia in July 1357. Split, Trogir, and Šibenik soon got rid of Venetian governors and yielded to Louis. After a short siege, Louis's army also captured Zadar with the assistance of its townspeople. Tvrtko I of Bosnia, who had succeeded Louis's father-in-law in 1353, surrendered western Hum to Louis, who claimed that territory as his wife's dowry. In the Treaty of Zadar, which was signed on 18 February 1358, the Republic of Venice renounced all Dalmatian towns and islands between the Gulf of Kvarner and Durazzo in favor of Louis. The Republic of Ragusa also accepted Louis's suzerainty. The Dalmatian towns remained self-governing communities, owing only a yearly tribute and naval service to Louis, who also abolished all commercial restrictions that had been introduced during the Venetians' rule. The merchants of Ragusa were explicitly entitled to freely trade in Serbia even during a war between Hungary and Serbia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 18952408, 342735, 342743, 461806, 461676, 3321826, 1711674, 263530, 2946786, 29265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 45 ], [ 47, 53 ], [ 59, 66 ], [ 218, 236 ], [ 307, 310 ], [ 376, 391 ], [ 508, 523 ], [ 528, 535 ], [ 559, 577 ], [ 893, 899 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Serbia started to disintegrate after the death of Stefan Dušan. According to Matteo Villani, an unidentified Serbian lord sought Hungarian assistance against his more powerful (and also unnamed) enemy in the late 1350s. Historians John V. A. Fine and Pál Engel write that the Serbian lord was a member of the Rastislalić family; Gyula Kristó and Iván Bertényi identify him as Lazar Hrebeljanović. Royal charters of 1358 show that Hungarian troops fought in Serbia in October 1358. The next summer Louis also marched to Serbia, but Stefan Uroš V of Serbia avoided battle.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 32929983, 39870883, 10511971, 46358197, 326125, 252013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 30 ], [ 231, 246 ], [ 309, 320 ], [ 329, 341 ], [ 376, 395 ], [ 531, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis and the royal army stayed in Transylvania in November 1359 and January 1360, implying that he planned a military expedition against Wallachia or another neighboring territory. A charter of 1360 said that a Romanian voivode, Dragoș of Giulești, restored Louis's suzerainty in Moldavia after a rebellion of local Romanians. According to most Moldavian chronicles, Dragoș, who is sometimes identified with Dragoș of Giulești and sometimes as Dragoș of Bedeu, departed \"from the Hungarian country, from Maramureș\" at the head of his retinue, crossed the Carpathian Mountains while chasing an aurochs and settled in the valley of the Moldova River in 1359. The same chronicles presented this \"dismounting\" by Dragoș as a decisive step towards the development of the Principality of Moldavia. Another Romanian voivode, Bogdan, who had rebelled against Louis and plundered the estates of the Romanian landowners loyal to the king already in the 1340s, departed from Hungary and invaded Moldavia in the early 1360s. Bogdan expelled the descendants of Louis's vassal, Dragoș, from the principality. According to John of Küküllő, Louis launched several expeditions against Bogdan, but their dates cannot be determined. Bogdan ruled Moldavia as an independent prince.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 46026, 322831, 149044, 2355367, 46007, 46007, 2355367, 70722743, 45746, 2494, 1322727, 18077682, 46007, 2356641, 45540034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 147 ], [ 212, 220 ], [ 221, 228 ], [ 230, 248 ], [ 281, 289 ], [ 346, 355 ], [ 368, 374 ], [ 505, 514 ], [ 556, 576 ], [ 594, 601 ], [ 635, 648 ], [ 693, 716 ], [ 767, 791 ], [ 819, 825 ], [ 1109, 1124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon the pope's request, Louis sent Hungarian troops to relieve Bologna, which was besieged by Bernabò Visconti's troops. After Visconti lifted the siege, Louis's mercenaries pillaged the region and refused to cooperate with the papal legate; Louis had the commander of the army imprisoned. After a conflict emerged between Emperor Charles IV and Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria, rumors spread about a conspiracy to dethrone the emperor in favor of Louis or Rudolf. Charles IV, Rudolf IV and Louis met in Nagyszombat (now Trnava in Slovakia) in May. The emperor and the duke mutually surrendered their claims to the other party's realms. Louis also persuaded the emperor to renounce his suzerainty over the Duchy of Płock in Poland.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 21069333, 1734284, 730694, 743182, 349032, 1357591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 71 ], [ 95, 111 ], [ 229, 241 ], [ 347, 373 ], [ 500, 511 ], [ 702, 716 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis decided to convert the Jews in Hungary to Catholicism around 1360. After experiencing resistance, he expelled them from his realms. Their immovable property was confiscated, but they were allowed to take their personal property with them and also to recover the loans they had made. No pogrom took place, which was unusual in Europe in the 14th century, according to historian Raphael Patai.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 2378869, 47707505, 24695, 140704, 5138501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 44 ], [ 144, 162 ], [ 216, 233 ], [ 292, 298 ], [ 383, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emperor Charles IV and Rudolf IV of Austria signed a treaty of alliance against the patriarch of Aquileia, who was Louis's ally, in August 1361. Fearing the formation of a coalition along the western borders of Hungary, Louis asked his former enemy, Louis of Taranto (Joanna I's husband), to send at least one of his brothers to Buda, and mediated a reconciliation between Rudolph IV and the patriarch. At a meeting with Louis's envoys in Prague, Emperor Charles made an insulting remark about Louis's mother, stating that she \"was shameless\", according to Jan Długosz's chronicle. Louis demanded an apology, but the emperor did not answer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 75839, 16417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 105 ], [ 557, 568 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In preparation for a war against Bohemia, Louis ordered the mobilization of the royal army and marched to Trencsén (now Trenčín in Slovakia). However, his supposed allies (Rudolf IV of Austria, Meinhard III of Tyrol and Casimir III of Poland) failed to join him, and the emperor initiated negotiations that lasted for months with the mediation of Casimir III. Louis was finally reconciled with Charles IV at their meeting in Uherské Hradiště on 8 May 1363.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 349031, 1376601, 716887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 114 ], [ 194, 215 ], [ 425, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis invaded Bosnia from two directions in the spring of 1363. An army under the command of Palatine Nicholas Kont and Nicholas Apáti, Archbishop of Esztergom, laid siege to Srebrenica, but the fortress did not surrender. As the royal seal was stolen during the siege, a new seal was made and all Louis's former charters were to be confirmed with the new seal. The army under Louis's personal command besieged Sokolac in July, but could not capture it. Hungarian troops returned to Hungary in the same month. Pope Urban V proclaimed a crusade against the Muslim powers of the Mediterraneum upon Peter I of Cyprus's request on 31 March 1363. Urban V urged Louis to join the crusade, emphasizing that he was a powerful monarch, a devout Christian, and \"well-placed to help\". The next month the pope levied a three-year tithe on the church revenues in Hungary and asked Louis to support the papal officials to collect the tax. However, Louis made every effort to hinder the activities of the papal tax collectors, stating that he needed resources to cover the costs of his future wars against the infidels and the pope's enemies in Italy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 33504351, 58835392, 1704328, 28912, 4841003, 24297, 2063844, 24297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 115 ], [ 120, 134 ], [ 136, 159 ], [ 175, 185 ], [ 411, 418 ], [ 510, 522 ], [ 596, 613 ], [ 642, 649 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis signed a treaty with Emperor Charles and Rudolf IV of Austria in Brno in early 1364, which put an end to their conflicts. In September, Louis visited Cracow to attend the large congress where Peter I of Cyprus attempted to persuade a dozen European monarchs to join the crusade. Louis was the only monarch to promise assistance, but later failed to fulfill his promise. At the congress, Casimir III of Poland confirmed Louis's right to succeed him in Poland if he died without a male issue. Louis, who had not fathered a son either, invited a distant relative of his, Charles of Durazzo, to Hungary in 1364, but did not make the young prince his official heir. Louis allowed the Jews to return to Hungary in the same year; legal proceedings between the Jews and those who had seized their houses lasted for years.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 57575, 20439009, 2063844, 204989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 75 ], [ 177, 191 ], [ 198, 215 ], [ 574, 592 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis assembled his armies in Temesvár (now Timișoara in Romania) in February 1365. According to a royal charter that year, he was planning to invade Wallachia because the new voivode, Vladislav Vlaicu, had refused to obey him. However, he ended up heading a campaign against the Bulgarian Tsardom of Vidin and its ruler Ivan Sratsimir, which suggests that Vladislav Vlaicu had in the meantime yielded to him. Louis seized Vidin and imprisoned Ivan Stratsimir in May or June. Within three months, his troops occupied Ivan Stratsimir's realm, which was organized into a separate border province, or banate, under the command of Hungarian lords.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 60817, 1047458, 3415, 9789165, 2096875, 296911, 20207373, 843461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 38 ], [ 185, 201 ], [ 280, 288 ], [ 290, 306 ], [ 321, 335 ], [ 423, 428 ], [ 508, 540 ], [ 598, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Byzantine Emperor, John V Palaiologos visited Louis in Buda in early 1366, seeking his assistance against the Ottoman Turks, who had set foot in Europe. This was the first occasion that a Byzantine Emperor left his empire to plead for a foreign monarch's assistance. According to Louis's physician, Giovanni Conversini, at his first meeting with Louis, the emperor refused to dismount and to take off his hat, which offended Louis. John V pledged that he would promote the union of the Byzantine Church with the Papacy, and Louis promised to send him help, but neither the emperor nor Louis fulfilled their promises. Pope Urban encouraged Louis not to send help to Constantinople before the emperor guaranteed the Church union.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 4016, 74224, 22629, 998454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 23, 41 ], [ 114, 127 ], [ 303, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis stayed in Transylvania between June and September 1366, implying that he waged war against Moldavia. He issued a decree authorizing the Transylvanian noblemen to pass judgments against \"malefactors belonging to any nation, especially Romanians\". He also decreed that testimony of a Romanian knez who had received a royal charter of grant weighed the same as that of a nobleman. In the same year, Louis granted the Banate of Severin and the district of Fogaras to Vladislav Vlaicu of Wallachia, who had accepted his suzerainty. Tvrtko I of Bosnia also accepted Louis's suzerainty after Hungarian troops assisted him in regaining his throne in early 1367.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 4443201, 35552061, 934318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 125 ], [ 420, 437 ], [ 446, 465 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis made attempts to convert his pagan or \"schismatic\" subjects to Catholicism, even by force. The conversion of the pagan Cumans who had settled in Hungary a century before was completed during his reign, according to John of Küküllő. After the conquest of Vidin, he sent Franciscan friars to the new banate to convert the local Orthodox population, which caused widespread discontent among the Bulgarians. In 1366, he ordered that all Serbian priests be converted and rebaptised. He also decreed that only Roman Catholic noblemen and knezes were allowed to hold landed property in the district of Sebes in Temes County. Louis supported the religious orders, especially the Franciscans and the Paulines, for whom he and his mother set up dozens of new monasteries. Upon Louis's request, Pope Urban V sanctioned the establishment of a university in Pécs in 1367, with the exception of a faculty of theology. However, Louis did not arrange for sufficient revenues and the university was closed by 1390.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 922690, 45540034, 64176, 843461, 62224, 932055, 1088817, 9634006, 211931, 30503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 131 ], [ 221, 236 ], [ 275, 285 ], [ 304, 310 ], [ 601, 606 ], [ 610, 622 ], [ 644, 660 ], [ 697, 705 ], [ 851, 855 ], [ 900, 908 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vladislav Vlaicu of Wallachia made an alliance with Ivan Shishman, a half-brother of the former ruler of Vidin, Ivan Sratsimir. Their united armies imposed a blockade on Vidin. Louis marched to the Lower Danube and ordered Nicholas Lackfi, Voivode of Transylvania, to invade Wallachia in the autumn of 1368. The voivode's army marched through the valley of the Ialomița River, but the Wallachians ambushed it and killed many Hungarian soldiers, including the voivode. However, Louis's campaign against Wallachia from the west was successful and Vladislav Vlaicu yield to him in next summer. Upon his initiative, Louis restored Ivan Stratsimir in Vidin. Ivan Stratsimir swore loyalty to Louis and sent his two daughters as hostages to Hungary.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 2096887, 21209639, 1237661, 2096875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 65 ], [ 204, 210 ], [ 361, 375 ], [ 701, 718 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the late 1360s, Louis suffered from a skin disease with symptoms similar to leprosy. Thereafter he became even more zealous and dedicated more time to praying and religious contemplation. After his meeting with Louis in 1372, the papal legate, John de Cardailhac, stated: \"I call God as my witness that I have never seen a monarch more majestic and more or one who desires peace and calm as much as he.\" He also changed the priorities of his foreign policy and began neglecting the Balkan states. Casimir III of Poland and Louis signed a treaty against Emperor Charles IV in Buda in February 1369. At their next meeting in Pressburg (now Bratislava in Slovakia) in September, Albert I of Bavaria, and Rupert I of the Palatinate joined their coalition against the emperor and the Habsburgs. However, Emperor Charles IV persuaded the two Wittelsbachs (Albert I and Rupert I) to break off the coalition in September 1370.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 771986, 44700, 18933194, 2598206, 5710525, 13824, 38848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 55 ], [ 81, 88 ], [ 629, 638 ], [ 682, 701 ], [ 707, 733 ], [ 785, 794 ], [ 842, 854 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Casimir III of Poland died on 5 November 1370. Louis arrived after his uncle's funeral and ordered the erection of a splendid Gothic marble monument to the deceased king. He was crowned king of Poland in the Cracow Cathedral on 17 November. Casimir III had willed his patrimonyincluding the duchies of Sieradz, Łęczyca and Dobrzyńto his grandson, Casimir IV, Duke of Pomerania. However, the Polish prelates and lords were opposed to the disintegration of Poland and Casimir III's testament was declared void. Louis visited Gniezno and made his Polish mother, Elizabeth, regent before returning to Hungary in December. His uncle's two surviving daughters (Anna and Jadwiga) accompanied him, and the Polish Crown Jewels were transferred to Buda, which raised discontent among Louis's new subjects. Louis's wife gave birth to a daughter, Catherine, in 1370, seventeen years after their marriage; a second daughter, Mary, was born in 1371. Thereafter Louis's made several attempts to safeguard his daughters' right to succeed him.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 54044, 1132032, 23308849, 37137006, 5326076, 438983, 60628, 5477468, 2024733, 23981834, 20677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 132 ], [ 208, 224 ], [ 302, 309 ], [ 311, 318 ], [ 323, 330 ], [ 347, 376 ], [ 523, 530 ], [ 655, 659 ], [ 698, 717 ], [ 835, 844 ], [ 912, 916 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During a war between Emperor Charles IV and Stephen II, Duke of Bavaria, Louis intervened on the duke's behalf and the Hungarian army invaded Moravia. After the duke and the emperor signed a peace treaty, Louis and the emperor agreed upon the betrothal of their children early the next year. The Ottomans annihilated the Serbian armies in the Battle of Marica on 26 September 1371. Lazar Hrebeljanović, one of the Serbian lords, swore loyalty to Louis. Pope Gregory XI urged Louis to resist the Ottomans but also pleaded with him to send reinforcements to Italy to fight against Bernabò Visconti. A war broke out between the Republic of Venice and Francesco I da Carrara, Lord of Padova, who was an ally of Louis, in the summer of 1372. Louis sent reinforcements to Italy to assist Francesco da Carrara. The Venetians defeated the Hungarian troops at Treviso and captured its commander, Nicholas Lackfi, forcing Louis I to sign a peace treaty on 23 September 1373.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 3129714, 2202429, 326125, 24227, 1734284, 31649329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 71 ], [ 343, 359 ], [ 382, 401 ], [ 453, 468 ], [ 579, 595 ], [ 648, 670 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis and the representatives of the Polish nobility started negotiations of Louis's succession in Poland in the autumn of 1373. After a year of negotiations, he issued the so-called Privilege of Koszyce on 17 September 1374, reducing the tax that Polish noblemen paid to the king by about 84% and promising a remuneration to noblemen who participated in foreign military campaigns. In exchange, the Polish lords confirmed the right of Louis's daughters to inherit Poland.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 5641059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis invaded Wallachia in May 1375, because the new prince of Wallachia, Radu I, had formed an alliance with the Bulgarian ruler, Ivan Shishman, and the Ottoman Sultan Murad I. The Hungarian army routed the united forces of the Wallachians and their allies, and Louis occupied the Banate of Severin, but Radu I did not yield. During the summer, Wallachian troops stormed into Transylvania and Ottomans pillaged the Banat.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 1047464, 20427700, 19986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 80 ], [ 154, 168 ], [ 169, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the middle of the 1370s, the Lackfis' influence diminished and new favorites emerged in the royal court. James Szepesi was appointed judge royal in 1373, and Nicholas Garay became the palatine in 1375. The organization of central government was also modified to create a more centralized power structure. Louis's \"secret seal\", that he had always taken with him during his wars and journeys, was declared authentic, and Louis entrusted it to the secret chancellor who was always to accompany him. A new high official, the Lord Chancellor were authorized to use the great seal in the king's name in 1376 or 1377. Demetrius, Bishop of Zagreb, who was of humble origin, was the first to hold this new office. The Lord Chancellor became the head of a new central court of justice, called the court of \"the king's special presence\" in 1377. From around the same time, the royal free towns delegated jurors to assist the master of the treasury, who headed the court of appeal for the towns. A new official, the treasurer, took over the financial duties of the master of the treasury.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 36808288, 17915903, 996688, 35971419, 5815050, 33275984, 36808720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 149 ], [ 163, 177 ], [ 189, 197 ], [ 617, 626 ], [ 628, 644 ], [ 872, 888 ], [ 920, 942 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Lithuanians made raids in Halych, Lodomeria, and Poland, almost reaching Cracow in November 1376. A riot broke out in Cracow against the unpopular queen mother, Elizabeth, on 6 December. The rioters slaughtered about 160 servants of the queen-mother, forcing her to flee to Hungary. Taking advantage of the situation, Władysław the White, Duke of Gniewkowo, who was a male member of the royal Piast dynasty, announced his claim to the Polish crown. However, Louis's partisans defeated the pretender, and Louis made him abbot of the Pannonhalma Archabbey in Hungary. Louis appointed Vladislaus II of Opole his governor in Poland. In summer 1377, Louis invaded the territories held by the Lithuanian prince, George, in Lodomeria. His Polish troops soon captured Chełm, while Louis seized George's seat, Belz, after besieging it for seven weeks. He incorporated the occupied territories in Lodomeria, together with Galicia, into the Kingdom of Hungary. Three Lithuanian princesFedor, Prince of Ratno, and two princes of Podolia, Alexander and Borisaccepted Louis's suzerainty.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 15487307, 490533, 1671580, 6874916, 390476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 322, 341 ], [ 343, 360 ], [ 536, 557 ], [ 586, 608 ], [ 764, 769 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tvrtko I of Bosnia had himself crowned king, adopting the title of \"King of Serbia, Bosnia and the Coastland\", in 1377. Whether Louis had approved Tvrtko's coronation cannot be decided. A new war broke out between Venice and Genoa in 1378. Louis supported the Genoese and Trogir became the regular base of the Genoese fleet, which transformed Dalmatia into an important theater of war. Louis also sent reinforcements to Francesco I da Carrara to fight against the Venetians.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 3396566, 1373705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 205 ], [ 370, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The cardinals who had turned against Pope Urban VI elected a new pope, Clement VII on 20 September 1378, which gave rise to the Western Schism. Louis acknowledged Urban VI as the legitimate pope and offered him support to fight against his opponents in Italy. As Joanna I of Naples decided to join Clement VII's camp, Pope Urban excommunicated and dethroned her on 17 June 1380. The pope acknowledged Charles of Durazzo, who had lived in Louis's court, as the lawful king of Naples. After Charles of Durazzo promised that he would not claim Hungary against Louis's daughters, Louis dispatched him to invade Southern Italy at the head of a large army. Within a year, Charles of Durazzo occupied the Kingdom of Naples, and forced Queen Joanna to surrender to him on 26 August 1381.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 24302, 30876488, 543939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 50 ], [ 71, 82 ], [ 128, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The envoys of Louis and Venice had meanwhile started negotiations on a new peace treaty, which was signed in Turin on 24 August 1381. According to the treaty, Venice renounced Dalmatia and also promised to pay 7,000 golden florins as an annual tribute to Hungary. Louis also stipulated that Venice was to transfer the relics of St Paul of Thebes to the newly established Pauline monastery at Budaszentlőrinc.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 24276540, 1971329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 87 ], [ 331, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Royal charters referred to military actions in Lodomeria and Wallachia in the first half of 1382, but no further information of those wars was preserved. Louis, whose health was quickly deteriorating, invited the representatives of the Polish prelates and lord for a meeting in Zólyom. Upon his demand, the Poles swore loyalty to his daughter, Mary, and her fiancé, Sigismund of Luxemburg, on 25 July 1382. Louis died in Nagyszombat in the night on 10 or 11 September 1382. He was buried in the Székesfehérvár Cathedral in a chapel that had been built upon his orders.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 349033, 38889, 35965427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 284 ], [ 366, 388 ], [ 495, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis's first wife, Margaret, was the oldest child of Charles, Margrave of Moravia, and his first wife, Blanche of Valois. Margaret was born in 1335. The exact date of the marriage of Louis and Margaret is unknown, but it occurred between 1342 and 1345. Margaret died childless on 7 September 1349.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 20277747, 38895, 38130219, 10907658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 28 ], [ 54, 61 ], [ 63, 82 ], [ 104, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Chronicle of Parthénope, the Neapolitan princes whom Louis had imprisoned during his first campaign in Southern Italy proposed him to marry Queen Joanna I's younger sister and heir, Mary. She was the widow of Charles of Durazzo, who had been executed on Louis's orders. During the siege of Aversa in the summer of 1350, Louis met her envoy in the nearby Trentola-Ducenta and the terms of their marriage were accepted. However, Mary was forced to marry Robet of Baux after Louis left Southern Italy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 17559336, 6769862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 203 ], [ 371, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis married his second wife, Elizabeth, around 20 June 1353. Elizabeth was the daughter of Stephen II, Ban of Bosnia, and Stephen's wife, Elizabeth of Kuyavia. Louis and his new wife were within the prohibited degree of kinship, because Louis's mother and his wife's grandmother were cousins, but they applied for a papal dispensation only about four months after their marriage. Historian Iván Bertényi says that this haste suggests that Elizabeth, who had been living in the court of Louis's mother, was pregnant at the time of the marriage. If this theory is valid, Louis's and his wife's first child was stillborn. Their next child, Catherine, was born in 1370 and died in 1378. The next daughter, Mary, who would succeed Louis in Hungary, was born in 1371. Louis's youngest daughter, Jadwiga, who was born in 1373, became queen regnant of Poland.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 5693937, 462319, 20832858, 6171963, 4086742, 226748, 23981834, 20677, 16419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 40 ], [ 93, 118 ], [ 140, 160 ], [ 201, 229 ], [ 318, 336 ], [ 610, 619 ], [ 639, 648 ], [ 704, 708 ], [ 791, 798 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis was the only Hungarian monarch to receive the epithet \"Great\". He was mentioned under this byname not only in Hungarian chronicles in the 14th and 15th centuries, but also in a 17th-century genealogy of the Capetians. Both his chivalrous personality and his successful military campaigns contributed to the development of his fame as a \"great king\". Louis waged wars in almost each year during his reign. Louis \"always desired peace at home and war abroad for neither can be made without the other\", according to Antonio Bonfini's late 15th-century chronicle. Historian Enikő Csukovits writes that Louis's military actions show that he continued and accomplished his father's policy through recovering Croatia and Dalmatia and waging wars in Southern Italy, in Lithuania and in the Balkan Peninsula. On the other hand, Pál Engel says that Louis's \"expeditions often lacked a realistic goal and sometimes even a reasonable it was war itself that gave him pleasure\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 882333, 6279, 1900337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 66 ], [ 213, 222 ], [ 519, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the age of Romantic nationalism, Hungary during Louis's reign was described as an empire \"whose shores were washed by three seas\" in reference to the Adriatic, Baltic and Black Seas. For instance, in 1845 the poet Sándor Petőfi referred to Louis's reign as a period when \"the falling stars of the north, the east and the south were all extinguished in Hungarian seas\". Poland remained an independent country during Louis's reign and its borders did not extend to the Baltic Sea, and Louis's suzerainty along the northwestern shores of the Black Sea was also uncertain.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 26096, 23275478, 3335, 3386, 552327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 34 ], [ 153, 161 ], [ 163, 169 ], [ 174, 183 ], [ 217, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Polish historiography, two contrasting evaluation of Louis's reign in Poland coexisted. The \"pessimistic\" tradition can be traced back to the views of the late 14th-century Jan of Czarnków, who was banished from Poland during Louis's reign. Czarnków emphasized that \"there was no stability in the Kingdom of Poland\" and the royal officials \"continually pillaged the property of the poor people\" during Louis's reign. According to the \"optimistic\" historiographic tradition, Louis continued Casimir the Great's policy of preserving the unity of Poland against the separatist magnates of Greater Poland with the assistance of lords from Lesser Poland.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 14321033, 45367947, 18671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 191 ], [ 589, 603 ], [ 638, 651 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John of Küküllő emphasized that Louis \"ruled neither with passion, nor with arbitrariness, but rather as the guardian of righteousness\". Antonio Bonfini also described Louis as a just king wandering among his subjects in disguise to protect them the royal officials' arbitrary acts. Even Jan of Czarnków underlined that Louis \"did not rule in an absolute manner; on the contrary, the foundations ... of [the Poles'] freedom were laid by him\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "New palaces and castles built at Zólyom, Diósgyőr and Louis's other favorite hunting places were \"masterpieces of the highest European standards\" of his age, according to historian László Kontler. Louis initiated the compellation of the Illuminated Chronicle, which preserved the text of earlier chronicles. The 147 miniatures decorating the Illuminated Chronicle testify the mastery of Hungarian workshops during Louis's reign.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 349033, 1533954, 1971456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 39 ], [ 41, 49 ], [ 237, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Annals of Jan Długosz (An English abridgement by Maurice Michael, with commentary by Paul Smith) (1997). IM Publications. .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle: Chronica de Gestis Hungarorum (Edited by Dezső Dercsényi) (1970). Corvina, Taplinger Publishing. .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1326_births", "1382_deaths", "14th-century_Polish_monarchs", "Hungarian_Roman_Catholics", "Polish_Roman_Catholics", "Burials_at_the_Basilica_of_the_Assumption_of_the_Blessed_Virgin_Mary", "House_of_Anjou-Hungary", "Kings_of_Hungary", "Kings_of_Croatia", "14th-century_Hungarian_people", "Sons_of_kings", "Athleta_Christi" ]

[ "Anjou I Lajos", "Ludwik Węgierski" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Cape Cod is a geographic cape extending into the Atlantic Ocean from the southeastern corner of mainland Massachusetts, in the northeastern United States. Its historic, maritime character and ample beaches attract heavy tourism during the summer months. The name Cape Cod, coined in 1602 by Bartholomew Gosnold, is the ninth oldest English place-name in the U.S.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1364340, 1645518, 345383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 29 ], [ 105, 118 ], [ 291, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As defined by the Cape Cod Commission's enabling legislation, Cape Cod is conterminous with Barnstable County, Massachusetts. It extends from Provincetown in the northeast to Woods Hole in the southwest, and is bordered by Plymouth to the northwest. The Cape is divided into fifteen towns, several of which are in turn made up of multiple named villages. Cape Cod forms the southern boundary of the Gulf of Maine, which extends north-eastward to Nova Scotia.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6899708, 76185, 39052, 116673, 259486, 3400990, 714653, 21184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 37 ], [ 92, 124 ], [ 142, 154 ], [ 175, 185 ], [ 223, 231 ], [ 283, 288 ], [ 399, 412 ], [ 446, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1914, most of Cape Cod has been separated from the mainland by the Cape Cod Canal. The canal cuts roughly across the base of the peninsula, though small portions of the Cape Cod towns of Bourne and Sandwich lie on the mainland side of the canal. Two highway bridges cross the Cape Cod Canal: the Sagamore Bridge and the Bourne Bridge. In addition, the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge carries railway freight and provides limited passenger service onto the Cape.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39772, 259375, 259390, 2487138, 2487111, 2781634, 220118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 87 ], [ 194, 200 ], [ 205, 213 ], [ 303, 318 ], [ 327, 340 ], [ 359, 389 ], [ 398, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like Cape Cod itself, the islands south of the Cape have evolved from whaling and trading areas to become resort destinations, attracting wealthy families, celebrities, and tourists. These include the large nearby islands of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Region of Cape Cod and the Islands", "target_page_ids": [ 62254, 62207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 235 ], [ 240, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both islands are also famous summer tourist destinations, commonly accessed by ferry from several locations on the cape. The phrases Cape Cod and the Islands and the Cape and Islands are often used to describe the whole region of Barnstable County, Dukes County (including Martha's Vineyard and the smaller Elizabeth Islands), and Nantucket County.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Region of Cape Cod and the Islands", "target_page_ids": [ 76189, 593996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 261 ], [ 307, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several small islands right off Cape Cod, including Monomoy Island, Monomoscoy Island, Popponesset Island, and Seconsett Island, are also in Barnstable County.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Region of Cape Cod and the Islands", "target_page_ids": [ 1959105, 116653, 116661, 116664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 66 ], [ 68, 85 ], [ 87, 105 ], [ 111, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Forbes family-owned Naushon Island was first purchased by John Murray Forbes. Naushon is one of the Elizabeth Islands, many of which are privately owned. One of the publicly accessible Elizabeths is the southernmost island in the chain, Cuttyhunk Island, with a year-round population of 52 people. Several prominent families have established compounds or estates on the larger islands, making these islands some of the wealthiest resorts in the Northeast, yet they retain much of the early merchant trading and whaling culture.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Region of Cape Cod and the Islands", "target_page_ids": [ 491848, 587818, 493256, 2039186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 24, 38 ], [ 62, 80 ], [ 241, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod in particular is a popular retirement area; 27.8% of the population of Barnstable County is 65 years old or older., and the average age of residents is the highest of any area in New England. Cape Cod is majority Democrat, but by a smaller margin than the rest of Massachusetts.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Region of Cape Cod and the Islands", "target_page_ids": [ 21531764, 5043544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 199 ], [ 222, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The bulk of the land in the area is glacial terminal moraine and represents the southernmost extent of glacial coverage in southeast New England; similar glacial formations make up Long Island in New York and Block Island in Rhode Island.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Region of Cape Cod and the Islands", "target_page_ids": [ 1067415, 2345028, 437471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 43 ], [ 44, 60 ], [ 209, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name \"Cape Cod\", as it was first used in 1602, applied only to the very tip of the peninsula. It remained that way for 125 years, until the \"Precinct of Cape Cod\" was incorporated as the Town of Provincetown. No longer in \"official\" use over the ensuing decades, the name came to mean all of the land east of the Manomet and Scusset rivers – essentially along the line that became the Cape Cod Canal. The creation of the canal separated the majority of the peninsula from the mainland. Most agencies, including the Cape Cod Commission and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), treat the Cape as an island with regard to disaster preparedness, groundwater management, and the like. Cape Codders tend to refer to the land on the mainland side of the canal as \"off-Cape\", though the legal delineation of Cape Cod, coincident to the boundaries of Barnstable County, includes portions of the towns of Bourne and Sandwich that are located north of the canal.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography and political divisions", "target_page_ids": [ 6899708, 73797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 519, 538 ], [ 547, 582 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod Bay lies in between Cape Cod and the mainland – bounded on the north by a line between Provincetown and Marshfield. North of Cape Cod Bay (and Provincetown) is Massachusetts Bay, which contains the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary, located north of Provincetown. Cape Cod Bay and Massachusetts Bay are both part of the Gulf of Maine, which includes the waters between the Cape and Nova Scotia. The Atlantic Ocean is to the east of Cape Cod, and to the southwest of the Cape is Buzzards Bay. The Cape Cod Canal, completed in 1916, connects Buzzards Bay to Cape Cod Bay; its creation shortened the trade route between New York and Boston by .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography and political divisions", "target_page_ids": [ 1246817, 39052, 259484, 237485, 6765651, 2412816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 96, 108 ], [ 113, 123 ], [ 169, 186 ], [ 207, 248 ], [ 497, 509 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod extends into the Atlantic Ocean, with a breadth of between , and covers more than of shoreline. Its elevation ranges from at its highest point, at the top of Pine Hill, in the Bourne portion of Joint Base Cape Cod, down to sea level.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography and political divisions", "target_page_ids": [ 18376249, 14536263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 179 ], [ 206, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod and the Islands form part of a continuous archipelagic region consisting of a chain of islands running from Long Island to the tip of the Cape. This region is historically and collectively known by naturalists as the Outer Lands.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography and political divisions", "target_page_ids": [ 911, 6206592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 70 ], [ 226, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod incorporates all of Barnstable County, which comprises 15 towns: Bourne, Sandwich, Falmouth, Mashpee, Barnstable, Yarmouth, Harwich, Dennis, Brewster, Chatham, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown. Each of these towns include a number of villages; see Barnstable County for a complete list.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography and political divisions", "target_page_ids": [ 259375, 259390, 259383, 116651, 26691040, 116674, 14089, 339646, 259377, 259379, 259385, 116647, 39058, 116668, 39052, 76185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 80 ], [ 82, 90 ], [ 92, 100 ], [ 102, 109 ], [ 111, 121 ], [ 123, 131 ], [ 133, 140 ], [ 142, 148 ], [ 150, 158 ], [ 160, 167 ], [ 169, 176 ], [ 178, 185 ], [ 187, 196 ], [ 198, 203 ], [ 209, 221 ], [ 277, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Barnstable, the most populated municipality on Cape Cod, is the only one to have adopted a city form of government, whose legislative body is an elected 13-member council. However, like other smaller Massachusetts cities, Barnstable retained its \"Town of Barnstable\" moniker. All of the other towns elect a 5-member Board of Selectmen as the executive policy-setting board, and utilize Town Meetings as their legislative body.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography and political divisions", "target_page_ids": [ 3532493, 722222, 366312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 170 ], [ 318, 336 ], [ 388, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To the south of Cape Cod lie Nantucket Sound; Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, both large islands; and the mostly privately owned Elizabeth Islands.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography and political divisions", "target_page_ids": [ 1251693, 62254, 62207, 593996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 44 ], [ 46, 55 ], [ 60, 77 ], [ 130, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For most of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, Cape Cod was considered to consist of three sections (see map):", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography and political divisions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Upper Cape is the part of Cape Cod closest to the mainland, comprising the towns of Bourne, Sandwich, Falmouth, and Mashpee. Falmouth is the home of the famous Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and Marine Biological Laboratory as well as several other research organizations, and is also the most-used ferry connection to Martha's Vineyard. Falmouth is composed of several separate villages, including East Falmouth, Falmouth Village, Hatchville, North Falmouth, Teaticket, Waquoit, West Falmouth, and Woods Hole, as well as several smaller hamlets that are incorporated into their larger neighbors (e.g., Davisville, Hatchville, Falmouth Heights, Quissett, Sippewissett, and others). Bourne is home to the Massachusetts Maritime Academy, in the village of Buzzards Bay, along the canal, Joint Base Cape Cod, Aptucxet Trading Post, the annual Bourne Scallop Festival in September, and, until 1884, was part of Sandwich. Sandwich, the oldest town on Cape Cod, founded in 1637, is home to the Dexter Grist Mill, the historic Hoxie House, Heritage Museums and Gardens, and the Sandwich Glass Museum. Mashpee, is the home of the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe of Native Americans.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography and political divisions", "target_page_ids": [ 259375, 102918, 391313, 116644, 259382, 35928051, 116657, 116667, 116671, 116673, 259375, 2305205, 116641, 14536263, 54538710, 48710654, 21577971, 3232178, 43819311, 116651, 38236123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 95 ], [ 166, 202 ], [ 207, 235 ], [ 411, 424 ], [ 426, 442 ], [ 444, 454 ], [ 456, 470 ], [ 472, 481 ], [ 492, 505 ], [ 511, 521 ], [ 694, 700 ], [ 716, 746 ], [ 766, 778 ], [ 797, 816 ], [ 818, 839 ], [ 1000, 1017 ], [ 1032, 1043 ], [ 1045, 1073 ], [ 1083, 1104 ], [ 1106, 1113 ], [ 1134, 1157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Mid-Cape area includes the towns of Barnstable, Yarmouth and Dennis. The area features many beautiful beaches, including warm-water beaches along Nantucket Sound, e.g., Kalmus Beach in Hyannis, which gets its name from one of the inventors of Technicolor, Herbert Kalmus. This popular windsurfing destination was bequeathed to the town of Barnstable by Dr. Kalmus on condition that it not be developed, possibly one of the first instances of open-space preservation in the US. The Mid-Cape is also the commercial and industrial center of the region. There are seven villages in Barnstable, including Barnstable Village, Centerville, Cotuit, Hyannis, Marstons Mills, Osterville, and West Barnstable, as well as several smaller hamlets that are incorporated into their larger neighbors (e.g., Craigville, Cummaquid, Hyannis Port, Santuit, Wianno, and others). The villages of Yarmouth are South Yarmouth, West Yarmouth and Yarmouth Port. There are five villages in Dennis, including North Dennis, East Dennis, West Dennis, Dennis Port, and South Dennis.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography and political divisions", "target_page_ids": [ 1251693, 30691222, 403925, 403015, 402998, 402978, 14650120, 403004, 403006, 29557625, 403925, 402986, 116666, 116672, 116675, 259380, 116643, 116670, 116642, 116665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 166 ], [ 248, 259 ], [ 606, 624 ], [ 626, 637 ], [ 639, 645 ], [ 647, 654 ], [ 656, 670 ], [ 672, 682 ], [ 688, 703 ], [ 797, 807 ], [ 809, 818 ], [ 820, 832 ], [ 894, 908 ], [ 910, 923 ], [ 928, 941 ], [ 988, 1000 ], [ 1002, 1013 ], [ 1015, 1026 ], [ 1028, 1039 ], [ 1045, 1057 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Lower Cape & Outer Cape traditionally includes all of the rest of the Cape, or the towns of Harwich, Brewster, Chatham, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown. In the present day, the five outermost towns (Provincetown, Truro, Wellfleet, Eastham and Orleans) are more commonly and collectively known as the Outer Cape. This area is home to the Cape Cod National Seashore, a national park that encompasses much of the Outer Cape, including the entire east-facing coast from Orleans to Provincetown. The Outer Cape is home to popular beaches such as Nauset Light Beach and Coast Guard Beach in Eastham, Race Point Beach in Provincetown, Ballston Beach in Truro, and Skaket Beach in Orleans. This area is less populated than the rest of Cape Cod, though Provincetown can have a crowded, city-like atmosphere during the summer season. Provincetown has become a major gay & lesbian resort destination the town is regarded as one of the largest LGBT resort communities in the United States. Provincetown is also renowned for its historic fishing fleets and Stellwagen Bank, a popular fishing ground and whale watching destination, is located a few miles north of Race Point.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography and political divisions", "target_page_ids": [ 14089, 259377, 259379, 259385, 116647, 39058, 116668, 39052, 39051, 66936, 6765651, 300591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 104 ], [ 106, 114 ], [ 116, 123 ], [ 125, 132 ], [ 134, 141 ], [ 143, 152 ], [ 154, 159 ], [ 165, 177 ], [ 363, 389 ], [ 959, 963 ], [ 1071, 1086 ], [ 1117, 1131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The bulk of the land on Cape Cod consists of glacial landforms, formed by terminal moraine and outwash plains. This represents the southernmost extent of glacial coverage in southeast New England; similar glacial formations make up Long Island in New York and Block Island in Rhode Island. Together, these formations are known as the Outer Lands, or more obscurely as the \"Isles of Stirling\". Geologically speaking, Cape Cod is quite young, having been laid down some 16,000 to 20,000 years ago.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geology", "target_page_ids": [ 1494235, 2345028, 928368, 18315, 437471, 25410, 6206592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 61 ], [ 74, 90 ], [ 95, 108 ], [ 232, 243 ], [ 260, 272 ], [ 276, 288 ], [ 334, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of Cape Cod's geological history involves the advance and retreat of the Laurentide Ice Sheet in the late Pleistocene geological era and the subsequent changes in sea level. Using radiocarbon dating techniques, researchers have determined that around 23,000 years ago, the ice sheet reached its maximum southward advance over North America, and then started to retreat. Many kettle ponds – clear, cold lakes – were formed and remain on Cape Cod as a result of the receding glacier. By about 18,000 years ago, the ice sheet had retreated past Cape Cod. By roughly 15,000 years ago, it had retreated past southern New England. When so much of Earth's water was locked up in massive ice sheets, the sea level was lower. Truro's bayside beaches used to be a petrified forest, before it became a beach.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geology", "target_page_ids": [ 1354987, 23310, 26197, 882162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 98 ], [ 111, 122 ], [ 185, 203 ], [ 380, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the ice began to melt, the sea began to rise. Initially, sea level rose quickly, about per 1,000 years, but then the rate declined. On Cape Cod, sea level rose roughly per millennium between 6,000 and 2,000 years ago. After that, it continued to rise at about per millennium. By 6,000 years ago, the sea level was high enough to start eroding the glacial deposits that the vanished continental ice sheet had left on Cape Cod. The water transported the eroded deposits north and south along the outer Cape's shoreline through a process known as longshore drift. Those reworked sediments that moved north went to the tip of Cape Cod. The entire town of Provincetown, at the extreme tip of the Cape, is a spit consisting largely of deposited marine sediment that was eroded and transported from farther south along the shore. Those sediments that instead moved south created the islands and shoals of Monomoy. So while other parts of the Cape have dwindled from the action of the waves, these parts of the Cape have grown through the deposition of sediment in just the last 6,000 years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geology", "target_page_ids": [ 297209, 297180, 11779912, 406430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 550, 565 ], [ 708, 712 ], [ 745, 760 ], [ 1037, 1047 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This process continues today. Due to their exposure to the open ocean, the Cape and islands are subject to considerable coastal erosion. Geologists say that due to erosion, the Cape will be completely submerged by the sea within several thousand years. This erosion causes the washout of beaches and the destruction of the barrier islands; for example, the ocean broke through the barrier island at Chatham during Hurricane Bob in 1991, allowing waves and storm surges to hit the coast with no obstruction. Consequently, the sediment and sand from the beaches is being washed away and deposited elsewhere. While this destroys land in some places, it creates land elsewhere, most noticeably in marshes where sediment is deposited by flowing water.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geology", "target_page_ids": [ 149261, 18934991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 135 ], [ 414, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod's aquifer consists of six hydrologically independent lenses from which all the towns on the Cape obtain drinking water (except Falmouth, which, in 2015, drew 43.5% of its water from Long Pond). Contamination with industrial chemicals and pharmaceutical drugs from septic systems is a concern.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geology", "target_page_ids": [ 29751912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Cape Cod's weather is typically more moderate than inland locations, on occasion it takes the brunt of extreme weather systems such as the Blizzard of 2005 and Hurricane Bob. Because of the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, temperatures are typically a few degrees lower in the summer and a few degrees higher in the winter than the adjacent mainland. A common misconception is that the climate is influenced largely by the warm Gulf Stream current; however, that current turns eastward off the coast of Virginia, and the waters off the Cape are more influenced by the cold Canadian Labrador Current. As a result, the ocean temperature rarely gets above , except along the shallow west coast of the Upper Cape and along the southern coast (Nantucket Sound), where water temperatures can sometimes reach or higher.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Climate", "target_page_ids": [ 1423322, 18934991, 23686446, 1454318, 1251693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 164 ], [ 169, 182 ], [ 437, 448 ], [ 591, 607 ], [ 748, 763 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod's climate is also known for a delayed spring season due to the sea remaining cold from the winter; by the same token, the summer heat retained in the sea moderates fall temperatures in comparison to the adjacent inland area. The highest temperature yet recorded on the peninsula was in Provincetown,; the lowest temperature recorded was in Barnstable.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Climate", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The water surrounding Cape Cod moderates winter temperatures nearly enough to extend the humid subtropical climate zone to what could be its northernmost limit in eastern North America, as the majority of Cape Cod is in USDA hardiness zone 7a. Consequently, many subtropical indicator plant species typically found in more southerly latitudes are grown there, including Camellias, Ilex opaca, Magnolia grandiflora and Albizia julibrissin. However, Cape Cod falls below the threshold, as the warmest month, July, averages around . Therefore, the climate may be better characterized as either a maritime climate or a humid continental climate (particularly on the northern coast of the upper and mid cape, which is somewhat sheltered from the cooler onshore wind to the south).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Climate", "target_page_ids": [ 19792392, 1720511, 76099, 463912, 496263, 2256166, 560047, 1225918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 106 ], [ 225, 239 ], [ 370, 379 ], [ 381, 391 ], [ 393, 413 ], [ 418, 437 ], [ 595, 611 ], [ 617, 634 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Precipitation on Cape Cod and the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket is the lowest in the southern New England region, averaging slightly less than a year (most parts of New England average ). This is due to the maritime influence inhibiting summertime thunderstorm development and maintenance. The region does not experience a greater number of sunny days, however, as the number of cloudy days is the same as inland locales, in addition to increased fog. On average, roughly of snow, which is about less than Boston, falls in an average winter.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Climate", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Once every five or six years, a tropical storm, accompanied by very high and potentially damaging winds and heavy rain, will strike the region. About once every 11 or 12 years a hurricane brings damaging winds and storm surges to the region. Several Category 3 storms have struck Cape Cod since record-keeping began, such as a hurricane in 1869, the 1938 New England hurricane, and Hurricane Carol in 1954. Strong Category 2 storms, such as the 1869 Saxby Gale, Hurricane Edna in 1954, and Hurricane Bob in 1991, also caused considerable damage. Notable Category 1 storms include the 1944 Great Atlantic hurricane and Hurricane Donna in 1960. Other notable storms include the Gale of 1815, which would likely have been rated a strong hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson scale, and the so-called \"Perfect Storm\" of October 31, 1991. The February 2013 nor'easter produced winds in excess of and dropped over of snow on some parts of Cape Cod. The storm knocked out power to tens of thousands of Cape Cod residents, some for up to two weeks.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Climate", "target_page_ids": [ 8282374, 8282374, 449744, 255313, 31186261, 449732, 1587360, 255313, 2981350, 1827706, 18934991, 255313, 2248031, 902934, 2944898, 3775426, 38458091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 46 ], [ 178, 187 ], [ 214, 225 ], [ 250, 260 ], [ 327, 344 ], [ 350, 376 ], [ 382, 397 ], [ 414, 424 ], [ 445, 460 ], [ 462, 476 ], [ 490, 503 ], [ 554, 564 ], [ 584, 613 ], [ 618, 633 ], [ 676, 688 ], [ 792, 805 ], [ 832, 856 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod has been the home of the indigenous Wampanoag for centuries prior to European colonization. They lived from the sea and were accomplished farmers. They understood the principles of sustainable forest management, and were known to light controlled fires to keep the underbrush in check. They helped the Pilgrims, who arrived in the fall of 1620, survive at their new Plymouth Colony.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Native population", "target_page_ids": [ 2402376, 390881, 52447, 4473245, 616992, 40442, 218110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 44 ], [ 45, 54 ], [ 78, 99 ], [ 190, 219 ], [ 245, 261 ], [ 312, 320 ], [ 376, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Wampanoag gradually lost their lands during the period of European colonization through land cessions and violent conflict with white settlers. The documentary Natives of the Narrowland (1993), narrated by actress Julie Harris, shows the history of the Wampanoag people through Cape Cod archaeological sites.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Native population", "target_page_ids": [ 187109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1974, the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribal Council was formed to articulate the concerns of those with Native American ancestry. They petitioned the federal government in 1975 and again in 1990 for official recognition of the Mashpee Wampanoag as a tribe. In May 2007, the Wampanoag tribe was federally recognized.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Native population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod was a landmark for early explorers. It may have been the \"Promontory of Vinland\" mentioned by the Norse voyagers (985–1025). The Manomet River area (taken up by the western end of the Cape Cod Canal in the early 20th century) is claimed by some to have been visited by Leif Eiriksson, and a stone wall discovered in Provincetown in 1805 is also claimed to have been built by his younger brother Thorvald Eiriksson around 1007 AD, when the keel of his ship was repaired in the harbor, according to Norse sagas. He was killed later in the same journey, and is said to have been returned to this spot for burial. However, there is no tangible support of the presence of Norse voyagers in Cape Cod, and the view is not generally accepted by archaeologists or historians.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32545, 153473, 146803, 1250802, 300166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 89 ], [ 108, 113 ], [ 280, 294 ], [ 406, 424 ], [ 508, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Giovanni da Verrazzano approached it from the south in 1524. He named Martha's Vineyard Claudia, after Claude of France, the wife of Francis I of France. In 1525, Portuguese explorer Estêvão Gomes called it Cabo de la Arenas while sailing under the Spanish crown.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 76934, 62207, 1058883, 50012, 4685416, 303062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 71, 88 ], [ 104, 120 ], [ 134, 153 ], [ 184, 197 ], [ 250, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1602, Bartholomew Gosnold named the tip Cape Cod, the surviving term and the ninth oldest English place-name in the U.S. Samuel de Champlain charted its sand-silted harbors in 1606, and Henry Hudson landed there in 1609. Captain John Smith noted it on his map of 1614, and at last the Pilgrims entered the \"Cape Harbor\" and – contrary to the popular myth of Plymouth Rock – made their first landing near present-day Provincetown on November 11, 1620. Nearby, in what is now Eastham, they had their first encounter with Native Americans.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 345383, 39071, 44014, 163151, 40442, 586559, 39052, 116647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 28 ], [ 124, 143 ], [ 189, 201 ], [ 232, 242 ], [ 288, 296 ], [ 361, 374 ], [ 419, 431 ], [ 477, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod was among the first places settled by Puritan colonists in North America. The Cape's fifteen towns developed slowly, aside from Barnstable (1639), Sandwich (1637), and Yarmouth (1639). The final town to be established on the Cape was Bourne in 1884, breaking off from Sandwich. Provincetown was a group of huts until the 18th century. A channel from Massachusetts Bay to Buzzards Bay is shown on Southack's map of 1717. The present Cape Cod Canal was slowly developed from 1870 to 1914. The federal government purchased it in 1928.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 27705397, 26691040, 259390, 116674, 259375, 237485, 2412816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 64 ], [ 137, 147 ], [ 156, 164 ], [ 177, 185 ], [ 243, 249 ], [ 361, 378 ], [ 382, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Cape's vegetation was depauperate and trees were scarce by the time that Henry Thoreau saw Cape Cod during his four visits over 1849 to 1857, because of early colonial settlement and intensive land use. The settlers heated by fires, and it took 10 to 20 cords (40 to 80 m3) of wood to heat a home, so they cleared most of Cape Cod of timber early on. They planted familiar crops, but these were unsuited to Cape Cod's thin, glacially derived soils. For instance, much of Eastham was planted to wheat. The settlers practiced burning of woodlands to release nutrients into the soil. Improper and intensive farming led to erosion and the loss of topsoil. Farmers grazed their cattle on the grassy dunes of coastal Massachusetts, only to watch \"in horror as the denuded sands 'walked' over richer lands, burying cultivated fields and fences.\" Dunes on the outer Cape became more common, and many harbors filled in with eroded soils.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 29162655, 43421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 37 ], [ 77, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1800, much of Cape Cod's firewood had to be transported by boat from Maine. The paucity of vegetation was worsened by the raising of merino sheep that reached its peak in New England around 1840. The early industrial revolution occurred through much of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, but it mostly bypassed Cape Cod due to a lack of significant water power in the area. The Cape developed as a large fishing and whaling center as a result, and also because of its geographic position. After 1860 and the opening of the American West, farmers abandoned agriculture on the Cape. By 1950, forests had recovered to an extent not seen since the 18th century.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19977, 524283, 14914, 25410, 33557, 179578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 77 ], [ 136, 142 ], [ 209, 230 ], [ 274, 286 ], [ 416, 423 ], [ 523, 536 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod became a summer haven for city dwellers beginning at the end of the 19th century. Improved rail transportation made the towns of the Upper Cape, such as Bourne and Falmouth, accessible to Bostonians. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Northeastern mercantile elite built many large, shingled \"cottages\" along Buzzards Bay. The relaxed summer environment offered by Cape Cod was highlighted by writers including Joseph C. Lincoln, who published novels and countless short stories about Cape Cod folks in popular magazines such as The Saturday Evening Post and the Delineator.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 259375, 259383, 24437894, 2412816, 8202993, 510910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 169 ], [ 174, 182 ], [ 198, 204 ], [ 331, 343 ], [ 434, 451 ], [ 552, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Guglielmo Marconi made the first transatlantic wireless transmission originating in the United States from Cape Cod, at Wellfleet. The beach below the bluffs where his station was located is now called Marconi Beach. In 1914, he began construction of a new transatlantic wireless receiver station in Chatham and a companion transmitter station in Marion. In 1920, the stations were acquired by RCA and, in 1921, Chatham began operations as a maritime radio station communicating to ships at sea using the callsign WCC. WCC supported the communications of Amelia Earhart, Howard Hughes, Admiral Byrd, and the Hindenburg. Marconi chose Chatham due to its vantage point on the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded on three sides by water. Walter Cronkite narrated a 17-minute documentary in 2005 about the history of the Chatham Station.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12104, 185868, 39058, 8783459, 259379, 116891, 4408880, 85234, 14059, 203317, 55106, 167289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 47, 55 ], [ 120, 129 ], [ 202, 215 ], [ 301, 308 ], [ 348, 354 ], [ 516, 519 ], [ 558, 572 ], [ 574, 587 ], [ 589, 601 ], [ 611, 621 ], [ 729, 744 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Much of the east-facing Atlantic seacoast of Cape Cod consists of wide, sandy beaches. In 1961, a significant portion of this coastline, already slated for housing subdivisions, was made a part of the Cape Cod National Seashore by President John F. Kennedy. It was protected from private development and preserved for public use. Large portions are open to the public, including the Marconi Site in Wellfleet. This is a park encompassing the site of the first two-way transoceanic radio transmission from the United States. (Theodore Roosevelt used Marconi's equipment for this transmission.)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39051, 5119376, 39058, 30535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 201, 227 ], [ 241, 256 ], [ 401, 410 ], [ 528, 546 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Kennedy Compound in Hyannis Port was President Kennedy's summer White House during his presidency, and the Kennedy family continues to maintain residences on the compound. President Grover Cleveland maintained a summer home in the Gray Gables section of Bourne. Other notable residents of Cape Cod have included actress Julie Harris, US Supreme Court justice Louis Brandeis, figure skater Todd Eldredge, composer and radio personality Canary Burton, and novelists Norman Mailer and Kurt Vonnegut. Influential natives included patriot James Otis, historian and writer Mercy Otis Warren, jurist Lemuel Shaw, and naval officer John Percival.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1822827, 402986, 448452, 12495, 187109, 24102656, 1346260, 30683768, 189774, 16861, 21384148, 342957, 1165155, 2097616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 24, 36 ], [ 61, 79 ], [ 186, 202 ], [ 324, 336 ], [ 363, 377 ], [ 393, 406 ], [ 439, 452 ], [ 468, 481 ], [ 486, 499 ], [ 539, 549 ], [ 572, 589 ], [ 598, 609 ], [ 629, 642 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beginning in 1797, lighthouses were erected along Cape Cod to aid in navigation. Highland Light (or Cape Cod Light) is the oldest and tallest of these, and remains as one of a number of working lighthouses on Cape Cod and the Islands. Many of Cape Cod's earliest lighthouses featured a light tower that was attached directly to – and centered on the roof of – the keeper's dwelling. A stairway to the lantern room was accessible only from the top floor of the house. This came to be known as a Cape Cod style lighthouse, yet today, the only fully intact specimens are on the west coast of the United States.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Lighthouses", "target_page_ids": [ 17725, 9914307, 6511122, 6532844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ], [ 81, 95 ], [ 365, 382 ], [ 495, 509 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of Cape Cod's lighthouses are operated by the U.S. Coast Guard, with some exceptions, such as the Nauset Light, which has been owned since 1997 by the Cape Cod National Seashore (National Park Service) and operated since 2004 in partnership between that agency and the non-profit Nauset Light Preservation Society.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Lighthouses", "target_page_ids": [ 5645661, 39051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 115 ], [ 156, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1996, both Highland Light and Nauset Light were moved further from the shore because they were each at risk of being lost due to erosion by the sea. Highland Light, then from the ocean, was moved to the west, and Nauset Light, from the bluff, was moved west.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Lighthouses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The lighthouses of Cape Cod include:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Lighthouses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Upper Cape: Nobska Light, Wing's Neck Light (privately owned), and Cleveland Ledge Light (also private).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Lighthouses", "target_page_ids": [ 2408222, 18678896, 17718895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 25 ], [ 27, 44 ], [ 68, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mid Cape: Sandy Neck Light, Hyannis Harbor Light, Lewis Bay Light (or Hyannis Inner Harbor Light, also private), Bishop and Clerks Light, West Dennis Light (formerly the Bass River Light)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Lighthouses", "target_page_ids": [ 24201393, 25070113, 23812396, 18134453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ], [ 29, 49 ], [ 114, 137 ], [ 139, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lower Cape: Chatham Light, Monomoy Point Light, Stage Harbor Light", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Lighthouses", "target_page_ids": [ 1994295, 18702773, 24201757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 26 ], [ 28, 47 ], [ 49, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Outer Cape: Long Point Light, Wood End Light, Race Point Light, Highland Light, Nauset Light, Three Sisters of Nauset, Mayo Beach Light, Billingsgate Island Light", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Lighthouses", "target_page_ids": [ 17719016, 18678879, 9516374, 9914307, 5645661, 18703148, 17782307, 24201306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 30 ], [ 32, 46 ], [ 48, 64 ], [ 66, 80 ], [ 82, 94 ], [ 96, 119 ], [ 121, 137 ], [ 139, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod is connected to the mainland by a pair of canal-spanning highway bridges, the Bourne and Sagamore that were constructed in the 1930s (replacing a 1912 drawbridge). The two parallel road bridges are four miles apart, with the Bourne Bridge to the west, and the Sagamore to the east. The bridges form a bottleneck, resulting in traffic backups of several miles during the tourist season - especially going on-cape at the beginning of the weekend and off-cape at the end of the weekend.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 2487111, 2487138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 93 ], [ 98, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The entire Cape is roughly bisected lengthwise by U.S. Route 6, locally known as the Mid-Cape Highway and officially as the Grand Army of the Republic Highway.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 643425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commercial air service to Cape Cod operates out of Cape Cod Gateway Airport and Provincetown Municipal Airport. General aviation airports are:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 1847110, 2547022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 75 ], [ 80, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chatham Municipal Airport", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 4914501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Falmouth Airpark", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 4914365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cape Cod Airfield in Marstons Mills, Barnstable", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 4914387, 14650120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 22, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is one military airport at Otis Air National Guard Base.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 4843151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are ferry connections from Boston to Provincetown, as well as from Hyannis and Woods Hole to the islands.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod Regional Transit Authority operates a year-round public bus system comprising three long-distance routes and a local bus in Hyannis and Barnstable Village. From mid June until October, additional local routes are added in Falmouth and Provincetown. CCRTA also operates Barnstable County's ADA-required paratransit (dial-a-ride) service, under the name \"B-Bus.\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 5406335, 1338, 1218564, 16280838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ], [ 298, 301 ], [ 311, 322 ], [ 324, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Long-distance bus service is available through Plymouth and Brockton Street Railway, with regular service to downtown Boston and Logan International Airport, as well as less frequent service to Provincetown. Peter Pan Bus Lines also runs long-distance service to T.F. Green Airport in Providence, Rhode Island; New York City; and service between Logan Airport, Boston South Station, and Woods Hole.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 62025340, 211579, 1389361, 267865, 19356538, 963515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 83 ], [ 129, 156 ], [ 208, 227 ], [ 263, 281 ], [ 285, 309 ], [ 368, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The third bridge over the Cape Cod Canal is a vertical-lift railroad bridge, providing an alternative land transport option. After the bridge, the track splits in two directions, heading towards Hyannis in one direction and North Falmouth in the other. The track to Hyannis is used for both freight and passenger services, while the Falmouth track is used mostly for freight with very limited passenger service.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 1218292, 2781634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 59 ], [ 60, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The CapeFlyer is a seasonal passenger rail service between Boston and Hyannis that operates on summer weekends from Memorial Day through Labor Day. Stops along or near the Cape include Buzzards Bay, Bourne, and Hyannis", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 37918801, 56191, 26948982, 43851654, 16123237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ], [ 116, 128 ], [ 185, 197 ], [ 199, 205 ], [ 211, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Cape Cod Central Railroad is a heritage railroad on Cape Cod. The service is primarily tourist-oriented and includes a dinner train over a scenic route between Hyannis and the Cape Cod Canal lasting about 2 hours round trip. Select trains feature stops at West Barnstable and Sandwich. Additional service is also provided from the Buzzards Bay station, and a small number of trains also depart from North Falmouth.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 2007072, 154176, 16064841, 1757996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ], [ 35, 52 ], [ 260, 275 ], [ 280, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Active freight service remains in the Upper Cape, both along the main line from Bourne to Hyannis and on the spur to North Falmouth. One of the more frequent operations is the transport of municipal waste to a waste-to-energy plant in Rochester, as well as removal of debris and refuse from Joint Base Cape Cod in Falmouth. Massachusetts Coastal Railroad is currently the sole operator of freight rail on the Cape, taking over from Bay Colony Railroad in 2007.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 116908, 14536263, 15582026, 4419356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 235, 244 ], [ 291, 310 ], [ 324, 354 ], [ 432, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Daily passenger rail service by the New Haven Railroad from Boston to Cape Cod ended in June 1959. Summertime Day Cape Codder service by the New Haven from New York City to the Cape ended in 1964. In 1978, the tracks east of South Dennis were abandoned and replaced with the Cape Cod Rail Trail. Another bike path, the Shining Sea Bikeway, was built over abandoned tracks between Woods Hole and Falmouth in 1975, and in 2008 the rail line between Falmouth and North Falmouth was removed and the right-of-way converted into an extension of the Shining Sea Bikeway.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 351876, 64620007, 7847065, 12264242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 54 ], [ 110, 125 ], [ 275, 294 ], [ 319, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1986, Amtrak operated a seasonal service in the summer from New York City to Hyannis called the Cape Codder. From 1988, Amtrak and the Massachusetts Department of Transportation increased service to a daily frequency, until service ended in 1996, leaving a gap until the current CapeFlyer service began in 2013.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 51928, 2621511, 7941136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 15 ], [ 99, 110 ], [ 138, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bicycle and pedestrian access to the Cape is possible via a sidewalk on the southbound side of the Bourne Bridge. There are a number of dedicated bike trails and paths around the Cape, including:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 2487111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cape Cod Rail Trail - South Dennis to Wellfleet", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 7847065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Old Colony Rail Trail - Harwich and Chatham, connecting with the Cape Cod Rail Trail", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 29589378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Various trails in the Cape Cod National Seashore", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 39051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Various trails in Nickerson State Park, connecting with the Cape Cod Rail Trail", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 16178906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shining Sea Bikeway - Woods Hole to North Falmouth", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 12264242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cape Cod Canal path on both sides of the canal", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Various unpaved Mid-Cape trails", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For long-distance biking, the mostly on-road Claire Saltonstall Bikeway connects Cape Cod to the Charles River Bike Path in Boston.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 13199099, 17545079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 71 ], [ 97, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod has a year-round population of about 220,000, and it experiences a tourist season each summer, the beginning and end of which can be roughly approximated as Memorial Day and Labor Day, respectively. Many businesses specifically target summer visitors, although the \"on season\" has been expanding somewhat in recent years due to Indian Summer, reduced lodging rates, the number of people visiting the Cape after Labor Day who have no school-age children, and the elderly—reducing the true \"off season\" to six or seven months. In the late 20th century, tourists and owners of second homes began visiting the Cape more and more in the spring and fall, softening the definition of the high season and expanding it somewhat.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 56191, 351263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 178 ], [ 338, 351 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Provincetown berths the original East Coast whale watching fleet (Dolphin Fleet) who patrol the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary. The fleet guarantee a whale sighting (mostly humpback whale, fin whale, minke whale, sei whale, and the critically endangered North Atlantic right whale) and is the only federally certified operation qualified to rescue whales. Provincetown has also long been known as an art colony, attracting writers and artists. The town is home to the Cape's most attended art museum, the Provincetown Art Association and Museum.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 39052, 300591, 6765651, 231728, 230361, 300064, 377441, 311103, 23947953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 44, 58 ], [ 96, 137 ], [ 185, 199 ], [ 201, 210 ], [ 212, 223 ], [ 225, 234 ], [ 266, 292 ], [ 518, 557 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod is a popular destination for beachgoers from all over, with of coastline. Beaches—both public and private—are easily accessible. The Cape has upwards of sixty public beaches, many of which offer parking for non-residents for a daily fee (in summer). The Cape Cod National Seashore has of sandy beach and many walking paths.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 39051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod is also popular for its outdoor activities, such as beach walking, biking, boating, fishing, go-karts, golfing, kayaking, miniature golf, and unique shopping. There are 27 public, daily-fee golf courses and 15 private courses on Cape Cod. Bed and breakfasts or vacation houses are often used for lodging.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 334935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Each summer, the Naukabout Music Festival is held at the Barnstable County Fair Grounds located in East Falmouth, typically during the first weekend of August. The festival features local, regional, and national talent, along with food, arts, and family-friendly activities. Some particularly well-known Cape products and industries include cranberries, shellfish (particularly oysters and clams), and lobstering.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 116644, 7025, 55037, 133824, 1459316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 112 ], [ 341, 352 ], [ 354, 363 ], [ 378, 384 ], [ 402, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod is known around the world as a spring-to-fall destination for sport anglers. Among the species most widely pursued are striped bass, bluefish, bluefin tuna, false albacore (little tunny), bonito, tautog, flounder and fluke. The Cape Cod Bay side of the Cape, from Sandwich to Provincetown, has numerous harbors, saltwater creeks, and shoals that hold bait fish and attract the larger game fish, such as striped bass, bluefish and bluefin tuna.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sport fishing", "target_page_ids": [ 47576, 47333, 680270, 11777130, 810266, 425730, 46311, 18288894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 140 ], [ 142, 150 ], [ 152, 164 ], [ 182, 194 ], [ 197, 203 ], [ 205, 211 ], [ 213, 221 ], [ 226, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The outer edge of the Cape, from Provincetown to Falmouth, faces the open Atlantic from Provincetown to Chatham, and then the more protected water of Nantucket and Vineyard Sounds, from Chatham to Falmouth. The bays, harbors and shoals along this coastline also provide a robust habitat for game species, and during the late summer months warm-water species such as mahi-mahi and marlin will also appear on the southern edge of Cape Cod's waters. Nearly every harbor on Cape Cod hosts sport fishing charter boats, which run from May through October.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sport fishing", "target_page_ids": [ 211280, 161507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 366, 375 ], [ 380, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the most popular fishing spots on the East Coast is the Cape Cod Canal. Striped bass, especially, in season attract anglers from far and wide. A large part of the attraction involves ease of access. Ample free parking exists all along the waterway, and the banks are a short walk from one's vehicle. This reduces fishing to the basics – a pole and a few lures.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sport fishing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Cape has nine amateur baseball franchises playing within Barnstable County in the Cape Cod Baseball League. The Wareham Gatemen also play in the Cape Cod Baseball League in nearby Wareham in Plymouth County. The league's beginning is unsettled, even fanciful. Without any basis whatsoever, some claim a start date of 1875. However, the first Cape Cod League formed in Sandwich in 1910. It did not last. Three years later - in 1913 - another Cape Cod Baseball League organized. This venture lasted two years. In 1916, a third attempt at league play barely got off the ground. Then, in 1923, an initial four teams met in Hyannis and started a successful federation along the lines of the present league. Outstanding players from throughout the region competed until the war effort led to a shutdown in 1940. In 1946, the local town teams from the prewar County Twilight League and Lower Cape Cod League organized under the Cape Cod Baseball League banner. As the years passed, local players were moved aside by outside college stars. Finally, in 1963, the league became a wholly summer collegiate circuit sanctioned by the National Collegiate Athletic Association with some Major Leagues financial support. The current teams in the league are the Bourne Braves, Brewster Whitecaps, Chatham Anglers (formerly the Chatham Athletics), Cotuit Kettleers, Falmouth Commodores, Harwich Mariners, Hyannis Harbor Hawks (formerly the Hyannis Mets), Orleans Firebirds (formerly the Orleans Cardinals), Wareham Gatemen and the Yarmouth–Dennis Red Sox. MLB scouts frequent the games in the summer, looking for stars of the future.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 1213498, 12094283, 116911, 76200, 12092718, 12090926, 2468713, 12093820, 8963737, 12092199, 12093249, 8977793, 12094283, 8970302, 38776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 110 ], [ 117, 132 ], [ 185, 192 ], [ 196, 211 ], [ 1261, 1274 ], [ 1276, 1294 ], [ 1296, 1311 ], [ 1346, 1362 ], [ 1364, 1383 ], [ 1385, 1401 ], [ 1403, 1423 ], [ 1453, 1470 ], [ 1505, 1520 ], [ 1529, 1552 ], [ 1554, 1564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Along with the Cape Cod Baseball League and the new Junior Hockey League team, the Cape Cod Islanders, many high school players are being recruited as well. Barnstable and Harwich have each sent multiple players to Division 1 colleges for baseball. Harwich has also won three state titles since 1996 (1996, 2006, 2007). Bourne and Sandwich, rivals in hockey, have each won state championships recently, Bourne in 2004 and Sandwich in 2007. Nauset, Barnstable, and Martha's Vineyard are also state hockey powerhouses. Barnstable and Falmouth hold the title of having one of the longest Thanksgiving football rivalries in the country. The teams have played each other every year on Thanksgiving since 1895. High school football teams on the Cape have also recently become successful and the region has also become a hot-spot for college recruiting. In 2011, four high school football teams from the Cape won state championships in their respective divisions; Dennis-Yarmouth (Division 2A), Bourne (Division 3A), Mashpee (Division 4), as well as Nantucket and Upper Cape Cod Tech (Division 5). Also, numerous other Cape schools have made appearances in the football state championship game recently, including Barnstable in 2012, Martha's Vineyard in 2008, Cape Cod Tech in 2006, and Dennis-Yarmouth in 2013. The Bourne and Barnstable girls' volleyball teams are two of the best teams in the state and Barnstable is considered one of the best programs in the country. Bourne won the state title in 2003 and 2007, and Barnstable has won 12 Division 1 state titles in the past 13 years and has won the state title the three years in a row (2011–2013). In the 2010 cross country season, Sturgis Charter Public School's Division 4 cross country team remained virtually unbeaten throughout their running season.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 1213498, 23036497, 7207748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 39 ], [ 83, 101 ], [ 566, 631 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Cape is home to the Cape Cod Frenzy, a team in the American Basketball Association.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 1997358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soccer on Cape Cod is represented by the Cape Cod Crusaders, playing in the USL Premier Development League (PDL) based in Hyannis. In addition, a summer Cape Cod Adult Soccer League (CCASL) is active in several towns on the Cape.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 2511876, 746584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 59 ], [ 76, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod is the home of the Cape Cod Cubs, a new junior league hockey team that is based out of Hyannis at the new community center being built on Bearses Way.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 23036497, 402978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 41 ], [ 96, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The end of each summer is marked with the running of the Falmouth Road Race, held on the third Saturday in August. It draws about 10,000 runners to the Cape and showcases the finest runners in the world (mainly for the large purse that the race is able to offer). The race is long, which is a non-standard distance. The reason for the unusual distance is that the man who thought the race up (Tommy Leonard) was a bartender who wanted a race along the coast from one bar (The Cap'n Kidd in Woods Hole) to another (The Brothers Four in Falmouth Heights). While the bar in Falmouth Heights is now the British Beer Company, the race still starts at the front door of the Cap'n Kidd in Woods Hole and now finishes at the beach in Falmouth Heights. Prior to the Falmouth race is an annual race through Brewster called the Brew Run, held early in August.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 6642919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most Cape Cod towns have a few elementary schools, one or two middle schools and one large public high school that serves the entire town. Exceptions to this include Dennis-Yarmouth Regional High School, located in Yarmouth, which serves the two towns in its name; Monomoy Regional High School, located in Harwich and serving that town as well as Chatham; and Nauset Regional High School in Eastham, which serves the towns of Brewster, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown. Bourne High School serves students in that town, which includes the villages of Sagamore, Sagamore Beach, and Buzzards Bay. Barnstable High School is the Cape's largest. Sturgis Charter Public School, a public school in Hyannis that was featured in Newsweek magazine's \"Best High Schools\" ranking, offers the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme in their junior and senior year and is open to students from as far away as Plymouth. The Cape also has two vocational high schools. One is the Cape Cod Regional Technical High School in Harwich, and the other is Upper Cape Cod Regional Technical High School in Bourne.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 3051164, 36511951, 7624373, 16203951, 2860381, 1868794, 1983262, 259486, 9327767, 15308928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 202 ], [ 265, 293 ], [ 360, 387 ], [ 490, 508 ], [ 614, 636 ], [ 660, 689 ], [ 799, 844 ], [ 921, 929 ], [ 989, 1028 ], [ 1058, 1103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1976 the Cape schools and districts petitioned the Massachusetts Legislature to create an educational collaborative, the Cape Cod Collaborative, to facilitate cooperation and efficiency in providing gifted and talented, and special needs programs. With locations in Osterville and Bourne the Cape Cod Collaborative provides transportation services, professional development, autism support, developmental training, itinerant services and an alternative education program. Each summer, in cooperation with the Massachusetts Maritime Academy, it operates a science-based program for gifted and talented students from around the Cape.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mashpee High School is home to the Mashpee Chapter of SMPTE, the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. This chapter is the first and only high school chapter in the world to be a part of this organization and has received much recognition within the Los Angeles broadcasting industry as a result.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 13683647, 164346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 65, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to public schools, Cape Cod has a wide range of private schools. The town of Barnstable has Trinity Christian Academy, Cape Cod Academy, St. Francis Xavier Preparatory School, and Saint John Paul II High School. Bourne offers the Waldorf School of Cape Cod, Harwich offers the Lighthouse Charter School for elementary and middle school students, and Falmouth offers Falmouth Academy. Riverview School is located in East Sandwich and is a special co-ed boarding school which serves students as old as 22 who have learning disabilities. Another specialized school is the Penikese Island School, located in the Elizabeth Islands off southwestern Cape Cod, which serves struggling and troubled teenage boys.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 10237755, 11276244, 3846485, 8648590, 581210, 593996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 147 ], [ 192, 222 ], [ 378, 394 ], [ 396, 412 ], [ 581, 596 ], [ 620, 637 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod contains three institutions of higher education. One is the Cape Cod Community College located in West Barnstable. The second is Massachusetts Maritime Academy in the village of Buzzards Bay. Massachusetts Maritime Academy is the oldest continuously operating maritime college in the United States. The third is Bridgewater State University, which opened a satellite campus in South Yarmouth in January 2015. The school will provide 40 undergraduate and graduate courses leading to the completion of bachelor's degree and master's degree programs in Early Childhood Education, Educational Leadership, Secondary Education, Reading, and Special Education. The campus will also offer Certificate Programs in Business and Social Work. Beginning in the Summer 2015, the campus will begin to offer undergraduate credit courses in History.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 2317238, 2305205, 116641, 721772, 116666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 95 ], [ 138, 168 ], [ 187, 199 ], [ 321, 349 ], [ 386, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Celebrated naturalist and philosopher Henry David Thoreau wrote about an 1849 trip along the Cape. His book Cape Cod was published posthumously in 1865.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In popular culture and art", "target_page_ids": [ 43421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Cape Codder cocktail is named after the peninsula; both are notable for cranberry. Cape Cod also generated a distinctive Cape style house and Cape lighthouse.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In popular culture and art", "target_page_ids": [ 17160464, 7025, 2038055, 6532844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ], [ 76, 85 ], [ 126, 142 ], [ 147, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The virtues of Cape Cod are extolled in the song \"Old Cape Cod\".", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In popular culture and art", "target_page_ids": [ 2512576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Artist Edward Hopper owned a summer house in Truro, and painted numerous Cape scenes including Corn Hill (1930), Highland Light, North Truro (1930), Rich's House (1930), High Road (1931), House on Dune Edge (1931), Cold Storage Plant (1933), and Cottages at North Truro (1936).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In popular culture and art", "target_page_ids": [ 65319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Cole Porter's song \"Let's Do It,\" \"cold Cape Cod clams 'gainst their wish do it.\"", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In popular culture and art", "target_page_ids": [ 53360, 2071688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 24 ], [ 33, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The band Vampire Weekend's self-titled LP contains two songs mentioning Cape Cod, \"Cape Cod Kwassa Kwassa\" and \"Walcott\".", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In popular culture and art", "target_page_ids": [ 11838253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1996, Massachusetts began issuing a \"Cape & Islands\" specialty registration plate.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In popular culture and art", "target_page_ids": [ 16738620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mayflower", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18622102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wildfire history of Cape Cod", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18790395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Geologic History of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, by the United States Geological Survey (USGS)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 23814944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cumbler, John T. Cape Cod: An Environmental History of a Fragile Ecosystem. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2014.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Freeman, Frederick. (1860). The History of Cape Cod: The Annals of Barnstable County and of Its Several Towns (Vol. 1). Harvard University.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Freeman, Frederick. (1862). The History of Cape Cod: The Annals of Barnstable County and of Its Several Towns (Vol. 2). Harvard University. ", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " LeBlanc, D.R. (1986). Ground-water resources of Cape Cod, Massachusetts [Hydrologic Investigations Atlas HA-692]. Reston, Va.: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Massey, A.J., C.S. Carlson, and D.R. LeBlanc. (2006). Ground-water levels near the top of the water-table mound, western Cape Cod, Massachusetts, 2002–04 [Scientific Investigations Report 2006-5054]. Reston, VA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Masterson, J.P. and J.W. Portnoy. (2005). Potential changes in ground-water flow and their effects on the ecology and water resources of the Cape Cod National Seashore, Massachusetts [General Information Product 13]. Reston, VA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Walter, D.A. and A.T. Whealan. (2005). Simulated water sources and effects of pumping on surface and ground water, Sagamore and Monomoy flow lenses, Cape Cod, Massachusetts [Scientific Investigations Report 2004-5181]. Reston, VA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cape Cod Chamber of Commerce", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Geologic History of Cape Cod, Massachusetts\", U.S. Geological Survey", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Barrier_islands_of_Massachusetts", "Cape_Cod_and_the_Islands", "Geology_of_Massachusetts", "Headlands_of_Massachusetts", "Islands_of_Barnstable_County,_Massachusetts", "Moraines_of_the_United_States", "New_England", "Peninsulas_of_Massachusetts", "Regions_of_Massachusetts" ]

[ "Cape Cod, the Cape", "Cape Cod, Massachusetts" ]

[ { "plaintext": "U-96 may refer to one of the following German submarines:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11867, 28825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 45 ], [ 46, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " , a Type U 93 submarine launched in 1917 and that served in the First World War until surrendered on 20 November 1918; broken up at Bo'ness in 1920–21", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26327711, 4764461, 358240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 24 ], [ 65, 80 ], [ 133, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " During the First World War, Germany also had these submarines with similar names:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , a Type UB III submarine launched in 1918 and surrendered on 21 November 1918; broken up at Bo'ness in 1920–21", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5453584, 358240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 26 ], [ 94, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " , a Type UC III submarine launched in 1918 and surrendered on 24 November 1918; broken up at Morecambe in 1919–20", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38554646, 13421731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 26 ], [ 94, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " , a Type VIIC submarine that served in the Second World War until sunk on 30 March 1945; the subject of the director Wolfgang Petersen's 1981 film, Das Boot.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 31294, 32927, 33230, 8994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 24 ], [ 44, 60 ], [ 118, 135 ], [ 149, 157 ] ] } ]

[ "Submarines_of_Germany" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Oscar I (born Joseph François Oscar Bernadotte; 4 July 1799 – 8 July 1859) was King of Sweden and Norway from 8 March 1844 until his death. He was the second monarch of the House of Bernadotte.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 170174, 66051, 156365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 93 ], [ 98, 104 ], [ 173, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The only child of King Charles XIV John, Oscar inherited the thrones upon the death of his father. Throughout his reign he would pursue a liberal course in politics in contrast to Charles XIV John, instituting reforms and improving ties between Sweden and Norway. In an address to him in 1857, the Riksdag declared that he had promoted the material prosperity of the kingdom more than any of his predecessors.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38585, 158651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 39 ], [ 298, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oscar was born at 291 Rue Cisalpine in Paris (today: 32 Rue Monceau) to Jean-Baptiste Jules Bernadotte, then-French Minister of War and later Marshal of the Empire and Sovereign Prince of Pontecorvo, and Désirée Clary, Napoleon Bonaparte's former fiancée. He was named Joseph after his godfather Joseph Bonaparte, who was married to his mother's elder sister Julie, but was also given the names François Oscar. The latter name was chosen by Napoleon after one of the heroes in the Ossian cycle of poems, and was the name that came to be used in the family, mainly by the mother and the aunt. Désirée is said to have chosen Napoleon to be Oscar's godfather. He spent his first years in France, living with his mother and aunt, partly in Paris, partly at Joseph Bonaparte's country residence, the Château de Mortefontaine north of Paris. In 1807, he received his first tutor, Le Moine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and family", "target_page_ids": [ 63338703, 39402961, 295998, 69880, 9214386, 376049, 62556, 227623, 2140510, 13092670, 22655, 299965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 131 ], [ 178, 198 ], [ 204, 217 ], [ 219, 237 ], [ 269, 275 ], [ 286, 295 ], [ 296, 312 ], [ 359, 364 ], [ 395, 403 ], [ 404, 409 ], [ 481, 487 ], [ 867, 872 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the Swedish king Charles XIII was without legitimate heirs, and Sweden therefore was without an heir to the throne, Oscar's father was proposed as a possible candidate to the Swedish throne in 1810. As one of the arguments for his election, it was argued that he already had a son and the future succession to the throne was secured. A portrait of the young Oscar was handed out at the Riksdag, the Diet of the Four Estates assembled in Örebro to elect an heir to the throne, serving as a lever for the election of Bernadotte. On 21 August 1810, the Riksdag elected Oscar's father as heir-presumptive to the Swedish throne. Two months later, on 5 November, he was formally adopted by the king under the name of \"Charles John\"; Oscar was then created a Prince of Sweden with the style of Royal Highness, and further accorded the title of Duke of Södermanland. Oscar and his mother moved from Paris to Stockholm in June 1811; while Oscar soon acclimated to life at the royal court, quickly acquiring the Swedish language, Désirée had difficulty adjusting and despised the cold weather. Consequently, she left Sweden in the summer of 1811, and would not return until 1823.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Prince of Sweden", "target_page_ids": [ 104784, 213047, 170320, 639925, 393404, 1016778, 238594, 651616, 190816, 22989, 26741, 26689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 32 ], [ 99, 117 ], [ 389, 396 ], [ 402, 406 ], [ 414, 426 ], [ 440, 446 ], [ 587, 603 ], [ 790, 804 ], [ 848, 860 ], [ 894, 899 ], [ 903, 912 ], [ 1005, 1021 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oscar, who was accompanied to Sweden by Le Moine, immediately got a teacher of Swedish and was soon able to serve as his father's interpreter. On 17 January 1816, Oscar was elected an honorary member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and in 1818 was appointed chancellor of Uppsala University, where he spent one semester.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Prince of Sweden", "target_page_ids": [ 210815, 31801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 240 ], [ 282, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oscar became Crown Prince in 1818 upon the death of his adoptive grandfather, and the accession of Charles John to the Swedish and Norwegian thrones.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Prince of Sweden", "target_page_ids": [ 236210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Seeking to legitimise the new Bernadotte dynasty, Charles XIV John had selected four princesses as candidates for marriage, in order of his priority:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and issue", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Vilhelmina of Denmark (born 18 January 1808), daughter of Frederick VI of Denmark and Marie Sophie of Hesse-Kassel (ultimately she married first Frederick VII of Denmark and second Karl, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 13825579, 186955, 1796009, 171789, 19135026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 59, 82 ], [ 87, 115 ], [ 146, 170 ], [ 182, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Josephine of Leuchtenberg (born 14 March 1807), daughter of Eugene, 1st Duke of Leuchtenberg and Augusta of Bavaria, and granddaughter of the Empress Josephine.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 1086295, 62627, 13520373, 62626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 61, 93 ], [ 98, 116 ], [ 151, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marie of Hesse-Kassel (born 6 September 1804), daughter of William II, Elector of Hesse and Augusta of Prussia (ultimately she married Bernard II of Saxe-Meiningen)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 25465167, 14142603, 13412293, 6376915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 60, 88 ], [ 93, 111 ], [ 136, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marie of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (born 3 February 1808), daughter of Charles Frederick I of Saxe-Weimar and Maria Pavlovna of Russia (ultimately she married Prince Charles of Prussia)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 6099377, 3405136, 5450694, 6099225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ], [ 67, 101 ], [ 106, 130 ], [ 155, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oscar would eventually marry Josephine, first by proxy at the Leuchtenberg Palace in Munich on 22 May 1823 and in person at a wedding ceremony conducted in Stockholm on 19 June 1823.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 2515100, 38639191, 19058, 26741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 54 ], [ 62, 81 ], [ 85, 91 ], [ 156, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The couple had five children:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and issue", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " King Charles XV & IV (1826–1872)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 39946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prince Gustaf, Duke of Uppland (1827–1852)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 5600197, 190847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 14 ], [ 24, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " King Oscar II (1829–1907)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 104650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Princess Eugenie (1830–1889)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 17055839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prince August, Duke of Dalarna (1831–1873)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 8672725, 190812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 14 ], [ 24, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oscar also had two extramarital sons (unofficially called the Princes of Lapland) by actress Emilie Högquist:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 2869893, 2271390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 80 ], [ 93, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hjalmar Högquist, born 18 June 1839 in Hamburg, died 1874 in London.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 13467, 17867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 47 ], [ 62, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Max Högquist, born 12 August 1840 in Stockholm, died 1872 in China.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 26741, 5405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 47 ], [ 62, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By Countess Jaquette Löwenhielm (née Gyldenstolpe) Oscar had a premarital daughter:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 2887646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oscara Hilder née Meijergeer (1819–1880)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Marriage and issue", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1824 and 1833, Oscar briefly served as Viceroy of Norway.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Crown Prince", "target_page_ids": [ 276380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1832-34 he completed the romantic opera Ryno, the errant knight, which had been left unfinished on the death of the young composer Eduard Brendler. In 1839 he wrote a series of articles on popular education, and in 1841 anonymously published Om Straff och straffanstalter, a work advocating prison reforms.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Crown Prince", "target_page_ids": [ 32811660, 1160233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 149 ], [ 294, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1838 Charles XIV John began to suspect that his son was plotting with the Liberal politicians to bring about a change of ministry, or even his own abdication. If Oscar did not actively assist the Opposition on this occasion, his disapprobation of his father's despotic behaviour was notorious, though he avoided an actual rupture. Yet his liberalism was of the most cautious and moderate character, as the Oppositionshortly after his accession to the thrones in 1844discovered to their great chagrin. The new king would not hear of any radical reform of the cumbersome and obsolete 1809 Instrument of Government, which made the king a near-autocrat. However, one of his earliest measures was to establish freedom of the press. He also passed the first law supporting gender equality in Sweden when he in 1845 declared that in the absence of a will specifying otherwise, brothers and sisters should have equal inheritance. Oscar I also formally established equality between his two kingdoms by introducing new flags with the common Union badge of Norway and Sweden, as well as a new coat of arms for the union.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 18951402, 47497309, 19280734, 216464, 105323, 1271927, 4341152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 160 ], [ 263, 269 ], [ 342, 352 ], [ 585, 614 ], [ 708, 728 ], [ 770, 785 ], [ 1034, 1066 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In foreign affairs, Oscar I was a friend of the principle of nationality; in 1848 he supported Denmark against the Kingdom of Prussia in the First War of Schleswig by placing Swedish and Norwegian troops in cantonments in Funen and North Schleswig (1849–1850), and was the mediator of the Truce of Malmö (26 August 1848). He was also one of the guarantors of the integrity of Denmark (the London Protocol, 8 May 1852).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 21748, 242701, 554232, 2074294, 14983541, 45582, 58227251, 39934504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 72 ], [ 115, 133 ], [ 141, 163 ], [ 207, 217 ], [ 222, 227 ], [ 238, 247 ], [ 289, 303 ], [ 389, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As early as 1850, Oscar I had conceived the plan of a dynastic union of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, but such difficulties presented themselves that the scheme had to be abandoned. He succeeded, however, in reversing his father's favored-nation policy towards Imperial Russia. His fear lest Russia should demand a stretch of coast along the Varanger Fjord induced him to remain neutral during the Crimean War, and, subsequently, to conclude an alliance with Great Britain and the Second French Empire (25 November 1855) for preserving the territorial integrity of Sweden-Norway.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 26740, 20611504, 1806911, 46763, 216066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 93 ], [ 264, 279 ], [ 345, 359 ], [ 401, 412 ], [ 484, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1850s, Oscar's health began to rapidly deteriorate, becoming paralyzed in 1857; he died two years later at the Royal Palace in Stockholm on 8 July 1859. He was buried in the traditional burial site for Swedish monarchs, the Riddarholmen Church on the islet of Riddarholmen in central Stockholm. His eldest son, who served as Regent during his absence, succeeded him as Charles XV.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 322843, 322836, 39946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 250 ], [ 267, 279 ], [ 376, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Swedish and Norwegian honours", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Honours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Knight and Commander of the Order of the Seraphim, 26 September 1810", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Honours", "target_page_ids": [ 2355796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Knight of the Order of Charles XIII, 26 September 1810", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Honours", "target_page_ids": [ 1380062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword, 26 September 1810", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Honours", "target_page_ids": [ 1853423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star, 26 September 1810", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Honours", "target_page_ids": [ 3531131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Commander Grand Cross of the Order of Vasa, 26 September 1810", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Honours", "target_page_ids": [ 3359014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Founder and Master of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav, 21 August 1847", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Honours", "target_page_ids": [ 1932025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Foreign honours", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Honours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ulvros, Eva Helen (2007) Oscar I: en biografi (Stockholm: Historiska media) ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1799_births", "1859_deaths", "19th-century_male_musicians", "19th-century_Norwegian_composers", "19th-century_Norwegian_monarchs", "19th-century_Swedish_monarchs", "Burials_at_Riddarholmen_Church", "Converts_to_Lutheranism_from_Roman_Catholicism", "Dukes_of_Galliera", "Dukes_of_Södermanland", "Honorary_members_of_the_Saint_Petersburg_Academy_of_Sciences", "House_of_Bernadotte", "Lycée_Louis-le-Grand_alumni", "Members_of_the_Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences", "Norwegian_composers", "Norwegian_male_composers", "Norwegian_monarchs", "French_emigrants_to_Sweden", "Swedish_composers", "Swedish_Freemasons", "Swedish_male_composers", "Swedish_Lutherans", "Uppsala_University_alumni", "Grand_Masters_of_the_Order_of_Charles_XIII", "Knights_of_the_Order_of_Charles_XIII", "Commanders_Grand_Cross_of_the_Order_of_the_Sword", "Commanders_Grand_Cross_of_the_Order_of_the_Polar_Star", "Grand_Crosses_of_the_Order_of_Vasa", "Knights_Grand_Cross_of_the_Military_Order_of_William", "Knights_of_the_Golden_Fleece_of_Spain", "Grand_Crosses_of_the_Order_of_Saint_Stephen_of_Hungary", "Sons_of_kings" ]

[ "Oscar I", "Oskar", "Oskar I" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Brittany (; ; , ; Gallo: Bertaèyn ) is a peninsula, historical country, and cultural area in the west of modern France, covering the western part of what was known as Armorica during the period of Roman occupation. It became an independent kingdom and then a duchy before being united with the Kingdom of France in 1532 as a province governed as a separate nation under the crown.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 693712, 51807646, 17627929, 1526009, 5843419, 154491, 32636626, 286865, 21176841, 2687967, 81167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 26 ], [ 44, 53 ], [ 55, 73 ], [ 79, 92 ], [ 115, 121 ], [ 170, 178 ], [ 231, 250 ], [ 262, 267 ], [ 281, 287 ], [ 297, 314 ], [ 328, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany has also been referred to as Little Britain (as opposed to Great Britain, with which it shares an etymology). It is bordered by the English Channel to the north, Normandy to the northeast, eastern Pays de la Loire to the southeast, the Bay of Biscay to the south, and the Celtic Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Its land area is 34,023km2 .", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13530298, 9230, 21724, 198748, 49609, 623479, 698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 81 ], [ 141, 156 ], [ 171, 179 ], [ 206, 222 ], [ 245, 258 ], [ 281, 291 ], [ 300, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany is the site of some of the world's oldest standing architecture, home to the Barnenez, the Tumulus Saint-Michel and others, which date to the early 5th millennium BC. Today, the historical province of Brittany is split among five French departments: Finistère in the west, Côtes-d'Armor in the north, Ille-et-Vilaine in the northeast, Morbihan in the south and Loire-Atlantique in the southeast. Loire-Atlantique now belongs to the Pays de la Loire region while the other four departments make up the Brittany region.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13707411, 37391704, 61129, 90670, 90575, 90586, 90579, 90579, 198748, 61130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 94 ], [ 100, 120 ], [ 259, 268 ], [ 282, 295 ], [ 310, 325 ], [ 344, 352 ], [ 370, 386 ], [ 405, 421 ], [ 441, 457 ], [ 510, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 2010 census, the population of historic Brittany was estimated to be 4,475,295. In 2017, the largest metropolitan areas were Nantes (934,165 inhabitants), Rennes (733,320 inhabitants), and Brest (321,364 inhabitants). Brittany is the traditional homeland of the Breton people and is one of the six Celtic nations, retaining a distinct cultural identity that reflects its history. A nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within the French Republic, or independence from it.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 67453, 46132, 57912, 3362281, 3857577, 3239660, 1002172, 2407060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 138 ], [ 162, 168 ], [ 196, 201 ], [ 269, 282 ], [ 305, 319 ], [ 342, 359 ], [ 378, 385 ], [ 389, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The word Brittany, along with its French, Breton and Gallo equivalents Bretagne, Breizh and Bertaèyn, derive from the Latin Britannia, which means \"land of the Britons\". This word had been used by the Romans since the 1st century to refer to Great Britain, and more specifically the Roman province of Britain. This word derives from a Greek word, Πρεττανικη (Prettanike) or Βρεττανίαι (Brettaniai), used by Pytheas, an explorer from Massalia who visited the British Isles around 320 BC. The Greek word itself comes from the common Brythonic ethnonym reconstructed as *Pritanī, itself from Proto-Celtic *kʷritanoi (ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *kʷer- 'to cut, make').", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 10597, 4647, 693712, 17730, 86124, 2208391, 25507, 13525, 148363, 23348, 40888948, 3736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 40 ], [ 42, 48 ], [ 53, 58 ], [ 118, 123 ], [ 124, 133 ], [ 160, 167 ], [ 201, 207 ], [ 283, 308 ], [ 335, 340 ], [ 407, 414 ], [ 433, 441 ], [ 458, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Romans called Brittany Armorica. It was a quite indefinite region that extended along the English Channel coast from the Seine estuary, then along the Atlantic coast to the Loire estuary and, according to several sources, maybe to the Garonne estuary. This term probably comes from a Gallic word, aremorica, which means \"close to the sea\". Another name, Letauia (in English \"Litavis\"), was used until the 12th century. It possibly means \"wide and flat\" or \"to expand\" and it gave the Welsh name for Brittany: Llydaw.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 154491, 9230, 54006, 31464821, 45369, 30875813, 11457848, 33545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 35 ], [ 94, 109 ], [ 125, 130 ], [ 177, 182 ], [ 239, 246 ], [ 288, 294 ], [ 379, 386 ], [ 488, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, many Britons settled in western Armorica, and the region started to be called Britannia, although this name only replaced Armorica in the sixth century or perhaps by the end of the fifth.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 504379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Breton-speaking people may pronounce the word Breizh in two different ways, according to their region of origin. Breton can be divided into two main dialects: the KLT (Kerne-Leon-Tregor) and the dialect of Vannes. KLT speakers pronounce it and would write it Breiz, while the Vannetais speakers pronounce it and would write it Breih. The official spelling is a compromise between both variants, with a z and an h together. In 1941, efforts to unify the dialects led to the creation of the so-called Breton zh, a standard which has never been widely accepted. On its side, Gallo has never had a widely accepted writing system and several ones coexist. For instance, the name of the region in that language can be written Bertaèyn in ELG script, or Bertègn in MOGA, and a couple of other scripts also exist.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 1164725, 21176718, 716980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 173 ], [ 179, 185 ], [ 206, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany has been inhabited by humans since the Lower Palaeolithic. This population was scarce and very similar to the other Neanderthals found in the whole of Western Europe. Their only original feature was a distinct culture, called \"Colombanian\". One of the oldest hearths in the world has been found in Plouhinec, Finistère.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1158798, 27298083, 143176, 4936423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 66 ], [ 125, 137 ], [ 268, 274 ], [ 307, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Homo sapiens settled in Brittany around 35,000 years ago. They replaced or absorbed the Neanderthals and developed local industries, similar to the Châtelperronian or to the Magdalenian. After the last glacial period, the warmer climate allowed the area to become heavily wooded. At that time, Brittany was populated by relatively large communities who started to change their lifestyles from a life of hunting and gathering, to become settled farmers. Agriculture was introduced during the 5th millennium BC by migrants from the south and east. However, the Neolithic Revolution in Brittany did not happen due to a radical change of population, but by slow immigration and exchange of skills.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 682482, 642885, 661331, 879366, 557672, 35944, 639115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 121, 131 ], [ 148, 163 ], [ 174, 185 ], [ 197, 216 ], [ 491, 508 ], [ 559, 579 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Neolithic Brittany is characterised by important megalithic production and sites such as Quelfénnec, it is sometimes designated as the \"core area\" of megalithic culture. The oldest monuments, cairns, were followed by princely tombs and stone rows. The Morbihan département, on the southern coast, comprises a large share of these structures, including the Carnac stones and the Broken Menhir of Er Grah in the Locmariaquer megaliths, the largest single stone erected by Neolithic people.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7613285, 61764415, 7196, 1374409, 90586, 38523, 5073606, 17290175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 70 ], [ 89, 99 ], [ 192, 197 ], [ 236, 245 ], [ 252, 260 ], [ 261, 272 ], [ 356, 369 ], [ 410, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the protohistorical period, Brittany was inhabited by five Celtic tribes:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2416824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Curiosolitae, who lived around the present town of Corseul. Their territory encompassed parts of Côtes-d'Armor, Ille-et-Vilaine and Morbihan départements.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 17408142, 15170110, 90670, 90586, 38523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 17 ], [ 56, 63 ], [ 102, 115 ], [ 137, 145 ], [ 146, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Namnetes, who lived in the current Loire-Atlantique département (in today's administrative région of Pays de la Loire), north of the Loire. They gave their name to the city of Nantes. The south bank of the river was occupied by an allied tribe, the Ambilatres, whose existence and territory remain unsure.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 24687064, 90579, 38523, 198748, 31464821, 67453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 13 ], [ 40, 56 ], [ 57, 68 ], [ 106, 122 ], [ 138, 143 ], [ 181, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Osismii, who lived in the western part of Brittany. Their territory comprised the Finistère département and the western extremity of Côtes-d'Armor and Morbihan.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11564826, 61129, 38523, 90670, 90586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 12 ], [ 87, 96 ], [ 97, 108 ], [ 138, 151 ], [ 156, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Redones (or Rhedones), who lived in the eastern part of the Ille-et-Vilaine département. They gave their name to the city of Rennes (Roazhon in Breton language, in the center of the département) and to the town of Redon (in the south of the département, bordering the département of Loire-Atlantique in the administrative région of Pays de la Loire, where its suburb town of Saint-Nicolas-de-Redon is located; however the city of Redon was founded around AD 832 under the initial name of Riedones, long after the Redones people were assimilated to Bretons; the cultural link between Riedones and the former Redones people is highly probable but difficult to recover and the name of Riedones may have been written from a local usage preserving the name of the former people in the vernacular oral language from a reading of an ancient Greek orthography).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 17411049, 90575, 38523, 46132, 1083609, 90579, 198748, 15810315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 12 ], [ 65, 80 ], [ 81, 92 ], [ 130, 136 ], [ 219, 224 ], [ 288, 304 ], [ 337, 353 ], [ 380, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Veneti, who lived in the present Morbihan département and gave their name to the city of Vannes. Despite confusion by the classical scholar Strabo, they were unrelated to the Adriatic Veneti.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1873914, 90586, 38523, 716980, 52121, 261616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 11 ], [ 38, 46 ], [ 47, 58 ], [ 94, 100 ], [ 145, 151 ], [ 180, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Those people had strong economic ties to the Insular Celts, especially for the tin trade . Several tribes also belonged to an \"Armorican confederation\" which, according to Julius Caesar, gathered the Curiosolitae, the Redones, the Osismii, the Unelli, the Caletes, the Lemovices and the Ambibarii. The last four peoples mentioned by Caesar were respectively located in Cotentin (Lower-Normandy), pays de Caux (Upper-Normandy), Limousin (Aquitany) and the location of the Ambibarii is unknown. The Caletes are sometimes also considered as Belgians and ″Lemovices″ is probably a mistake for ″Lexovii″ (Lower-Normandy).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26745938, 30042, 227091, 15924, 17408142, 17411049, 11564826, 17408602, 9740176, 9740503, 343333, 741599, 2079581, 12210174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 58 ], [ 79, 82 ], [ 137, 150 ], [ 172, 185 ], [ 200, 212 ], [ 218, 225 ], [ 231, 238 ], [ 244, 250 ], [ 256, 263 ], [ 269, 278 ], [ 369, 377 ], [ 396, 408 ], [ 427, 435 ], [ 590, 597 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The region became part of the Roman Republic in 51 BC. It was included in the province of Gallia Lugdunensis in 13 BC. Gallic towns and villages were redeveloped according to Roman standards, and several cities were created. These cities are Condate (Rennes), Vorgium (Carhaix), Darioritum (Vannes) and Condevincum or Condevicnum (Nantes). Together with Fanum Martis (Corseul), they were the capitals of the local civitates. They all had a grid plan and a forum, and sometimes a temple, a basilica, thermae or an aqueduct, like Carhaix.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25816, 63159, 46132, 3718413, 716980, 67453, 15170110, 2390998, 129332, 4139122, 54675, 432937, 38540045, 3718413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 44 ], [ 90, 108 ], [ 251, 257 ], [ 269, 276 ], [ 291, 297 ], [ 331, 337 ], [ 368, 375 ], [ 414, 423 ], [ 440, 449 ], [ 456, 461 ], [ 489, 497 ], [ 499, 506 ], [ 513, 521 ], [ 528, 535 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Romans also built three major roads through the region. However, most of the population remained rural. The free peasants lived in small huts, whereas the landowners and their employees lived in proper villae rusticae. The Gallic deities continued to be worshiped, and were often assimilated to the Roman gods. Only a small number of statues depicting Roman gods were found in Brittany, and most of the time they combine Celtic elements.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16926862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 3rd century AD, the region was attacked several times by Franks, Alamanni and pirates. At the same time, the local economy collapsed and many farming estates were abandoned. To face the invasions, many towns and cities were fortified, like Nantes, Rennes and Vannes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2462183, 1486, 67453, 46132, 716980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 74 ], [ 76, 84 ], [ 251, 257 ], [ 259, 265 ], [ 270, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Toward the end of the 4th century, the Britons of what is now Wales and the South-Western peninsula of Great Britain began to emigrate to Armorica.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2208391, 40503470, 154491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 46 ], [ 76, 116 ], [ 138, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The history behind such an establishment is unclear, but medieval Breton, Angevin and Welsh sources connect it to a figure known as Conan Meriadoc. Welsh literary sources assert that Conan came to Armorica on the orders of the Roman usurper Magnus Maximus, who sent some of his British troops to Gaul to enforce his claims and settled them in Armorica. This account was supported by the Counts of Anjou, who claimed descent from a Roman soldier expelled from Lower Brittany by Conan on Magnus's orders.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1231351, 49040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 146 ], [ 241, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Regardless of the truth of this story, Brythonic (British Celtic) settlement probably increased during the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22368461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scholars such as Léon Fleuriot have suggested a two-wave model of migration from Britain which saw the emergence of an independent Breton people and established the dominance of the Brythonic Breton language in Armorica. Their petty kingdoms are now known by the names of the counties that succeeded them—Domnonée (Devon), Cornouaille (Cornwall), Léon (Caerleon); but these names in Breton and Latin are in most cases identical to their British homelands. (In Breton and French, however, Gwened or Vannetais continued the name of the indigenous Veneti.) Although the details remain confused, these colonies consisted of related and intermarried dynasties which repeatedly unified (as by the 7th-century Saint Judicaël) before splintering again according to Celtic inheritance practices.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5751903, 4069, 4647, 1757175, 2175203, 8166, 1164725, 5648, 14351230, 161828, 17730, 10149622, 10149622, 1873914, 8172294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 30 ], [ 182, 191 ], [ 192, 207 ], [ 227, 240 ], [ 305, 313 ], [ 315, 320 ], [ 323, 334 ], [ 336, 344 ], [ 347, 351 ], [ 353, 361 ], [ 394, 399 ], [ 488, 494 ], [ 498, 507 ], [ 545, 551 ], [ 703, 717 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The area was finally consolidated in the 840s under Nominoe in resistance to Frankish control. Among the immigrant Britons, there were some clergymen who helped the evangelisation of the region, which was still pagan, particularly in rural areas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 629206, 2462183, 105796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 59 ], [ 77, 82 ], [ 165, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The army recruited for Flavius Aetius to combat Attila the Hun at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains included Romans, Visigoths, Franks, Alans and Armoricans, amongst others. The Alans were placed front and centre, opposite the Huns. The Armoricans supplied archers who attacked the Huns' front lines during the main battle and thwarted Attila's night assault on the Roman camp with a hail of arrows \"like rain\". After the battle was won, Aetius sent the Alans to Armorica and Galicia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 75831, 841, 146043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 37 ], [ 48, 62 ], [ 70, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The late 5th century Brittonic leader Riothamus received correspondence from the eminent Roman jurist Sidonius Apollinaris and was called \"King of the Britons\" by Jordanes. Some suggest that he was a Breton, though others believe that he was from Britain, pointing to the passage that he arrived in the land of the Biturges \"by way of Ocean\", which would hardly have been efficient or required for a Breton. Both historians describe Riothamus's losing battle against King Euric of the Visigoths at Déols around the year 470.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 258870, 144706, 16239, 80494, 3174253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 47 ], [ 102, 122 ], [ 163, 171 ], [ 474, 479 ], [ 500, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In response to a plea from the Roman Emperor Anthemius, Riothamus had led twelve thousand men to establish a military presence in Bourges in central Gaul, but was betrayed by Arvandus, the Praetorian Prefect of Gaul, and subsequently ambushed by Euric's army. After a long battle, the Armorican survivors escaped to Avallon in Burgundy, after which they are lost to history. According to Breton king-lists, Riotham survived and reigned as Prince of Domnonia until his death sometime between 500 and 520, though this may have been a different person.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 141840, 82132, 12242442, 1045271, 85451, 2175203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 54 ], [ 130, 137 ], [ 175, 183 ], [ 316, 323 ], [ 327, 335 ], [ 450, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the beginning of the medieval era, Brittany was divided among three kingdoms, Domnonea, Cornouaille and Broërec. These realms eventually merged into a single state during the 9th century. The unification of Brittany was carried out by Nominoe, king between 845 and 851 and considered as the Breton Pater Patriae. His son Erispoe secured the independence of the new kingdom of Brittany and won the Battle of Jengland against Charles the Bald. The Bretons won another war in 867, and the kingdom reached then its maximum extent: It received parts of Normandy, Maine and Anjou and the Channel Islands.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2175203, 1164725, 10149622, 629206, 400774, 633116, 18147054, 47372, 21724, 316560, 24213451, 5643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 89 ], [ 91, 102 ], [ 107, 114 ], [ 238, 245 ], [ 301, 314 ], [ 324, 331 ], [ 400, 418 ], [ 427, 443 ], [ 551, 559 ], [ 561, 566 ], [ 571, 576 ], [ 585, 600 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany was heavily attacked by the Vikings at the beginning of the 10th century. The kingdom lost its eastern territories, including Normandy and Anjou, and the county of Nantes was given to Fulk I of Anjou in 909. However, Nantes was seized by the Vikings in 914. At this time Brittany was also called Lydwiccum.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32610, 21724, 24213451, 67453, 1133095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 44 ], [ 135, 143 ], [ 148, 153 ], [ 173, 179 ], [ 193, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nantes was eventually liberated by Alan II of Brittany in 937 with the support of his godbrother King Æthelstan of England.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 633128, 58522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 54 ], [ 102, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alan II totally expelled the Vikings from Brittany and recreated a strong Breton state. For aiding in removing the problem, Alan paid homage to Louis IV of France (who was Æthelstan's nephew and had returned from England in the same year as Alan II) and thus Brittany ceased to be a kingdom and became a duchy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 65527371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several Breton lords helped William the Conqueror to invade England and received large estates there (e.g. William's double-second cousin Alan Rufus and the latter's brother Brian of Brittany). Some of these lords were powerful rivals.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 33917, 8450154, 27071272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 49 ], [ 138, 148 ], [ 174, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medieval Brittany was far from being a united nation. The French king maintained envoys in Brittany, alliances contracted by local lords often overlapped and there was no specific Breton unity. For example, Brittany replaced Latin with French as its official language in the 13th century, 300 years before France did so, and the Breton language didn't have formal status.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 4647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 230 ], [ 329, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The foreign policy of the Duchy changed many times; the Dukes were usually independent, but they often contracted alliances with England or France depending on who was threatening them at that point. Their support for each nation became very important during the 14th century because the English kings had started to claim the French throne.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 233404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Breton War of Succession, a local episode of the Hundred Years' War, saw the House of Blois, backed by the French, fighting with the House of Montfort, backed by the English. The Montforts won in 1364 and enjoyed a period of total independence until the end of the Hundred Years' War, because France was weakened and stopped sending royal envoys to the Court of Brittany.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 640282, 19038039, 93463, 5206768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 28 ], [ 53, 71 ], [ 90, 95 ], [ 146, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "English diplomatic failures led to the Breton cavalry commanders Arthur, Comte de Richemont (later to become Arthur III, Duke of Brittany) and his nephew Peter II, Duke of Brittany playing key roles on the French side during the deciding stages of the war (including the battles of Patay, Formigny and Castillon and the Treaty of Arras).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 640458, 640455, 1830140, 1097055, 1115591, 3278705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 137 ], [ 154, 180 ], [ 282, 287 ], [ 289, 297 ], [ 302, 311 ], [ 320, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany importantly lost the Mad War against France in 1488, mostly because of its internal divisions that were exacerbated by the corruption at the court of Francis II, Duke of Brittany. Indeed, some rebel Breton lords were fighting on the French side.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13502116, 642196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 37 ], [ 159, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a result of the Mad War, the Duke Francis II could not have his daughter Anne married without the king of France's consent. Nonetheless, she married the Holy Roman Emperor in 1490, leading to a crisis with France. Charles VIII of France besieged Rennes and had the marriage cancelled. He eventually married Anne of Brittany. After he died childless, the duchess had to marry his heir and cousin Louis XII. Anne unsuccessfully tried to preserve Breton independence, but she died in 1514, and the union between the two crowns was formally carried out by Francis I in 1532. He granted several privileges to Brittany, such as exemption from the gabelle, a tax on salt that was very unpopular in France. Under the Ancien Régime, Brittany and France were governed as separate countries but under the same crown, so Breton aristocrats in the French royal court were classed as Princes étrangers (foreign princes).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13502116, 642196, 642214, 39070, 77606, 46132, 642214, 77655, 50012, 326010, 6637507, 229718, 5232199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 26 ], [ 37, 47 ], [ 76, 80 ], [ 156, 174 ], [ 218, 240 ], [ 250, 256 ], [ 311, 327 ], [ 399, 408 ], [ 556, 565 ], [ 645, 652 ], [ 713, 726 ], [ 846, 857 ], [ 874, 891 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the 15th to the 18th century, Brittany reached an economic golden age. The region was located on the seaways near Spain, England and the Netherlands and it greatly benefited from the creation of a French colonial empire. Local seaports like Brest and Saint-Brieuc quickly expanded, and Lorient, first spelled \"L'Orient\", was founded in the 17th century. Saint-Malo then was known for its corsairs, Brest was a major base for the French Navy and Nantes flourished with the Atlantic slave trade. On its side, the inland provided hemp ropes and canvas and linen sheets. However, Colbertism, which encouraged the creation of many factories, did not favour the Breton industry because most of the royal factories were opened in other provinces. Moreover, several conflicts between France and England led the latter to restrain its trade, and the Breton economy went into recession during the 18th century.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21148, 216862, 57912, 474848, 328288, 196794, 297505, 67453, 49005, 963313, 56212, 2317810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 153 ], [ 202, 224 ], [ 246, 251 ], [ 256, 268 ], [ 291, 298 ], [ 359, 369 ], [ 393, 401 ], [ 450, 456 ], [ 477, 497 ], [ 532, 536 ], [ 558, 563 ], [ 581, 591 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two significant revolts occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries: the Revolt of the papier timbré (1675) and the Pontcallec conspiracy (1719). Both arose from attempts to resist centralisation and assert Breton constitutional exceptions to tax.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 20743013, 21090406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 96 ], [ 112, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many Bretons crossed the Atlantic to support the American War of Independence. These included many sailors such as Armand de Kersaint and soldiers such as Charles Armand Tuffin, marquis de la Rouërie.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 771, 938325, 2529071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 77 ], [ 115, 133 ], [ 155, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Duchy was legally abolished with the French Revolution that began in 1789 - and in 1790 the province of Brittany was divided into five departments: Côtes-du-Nord (later Côtes-d%27Armor), Finistère, Ille-et-Villaine, Loire-Inférieure (later Loire-Atlantique) and Morbihan. Brittany essentially lost all its special privileges that existed under the Duchy. Three years later, the area became a centre of royalist and Catholic resistance to the Revolution during the Chouannerie. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11188, 38523, 61129, 90575, 90579, 90586, 170655, 3029837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 58 ], [ 139, 150 ], [ 191, 200 ], [ 202, 218 ], [ 244, 260 ], [ 266, 274 ], [ 406, 414 ], [ 468, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 19th century, Brittany remained in economic recession, and many Bretons emigrated to other French regions, particularly to Paris. This trend remained strong until the beginning of the 20th century. Nonetheless, the region was also modernising, with new roads and railways being built, and some places being industrialised. Nantes specialised in shipbuilding and food processing (sugar, exotic fruits and vegetables, fish...), Fougères in glass and shoe production, and metallurgy was practised in small towns such as Châteaubriant and Lochrist, known for its labour movements.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 67453, 187377, 890413, 19722, 675324, 13447587, 46399250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 334, 340 ], [ 356, 368 ], [ 437, 445 ], [ 480, 490 ], [ 528, 541 ], [ 546, 554 ], [ 570, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The region remained deeply Catholic, and during the Second Empire, the conservative values were strongly reasserted. When the Republic was re-established in 1871, there were rumours that Breton troops were mistrusted and mistreated at Camp Conlie during the Franco-Prussian War because of fears that they were a threat to the Republic.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 216066, 17583953, 44035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 65 ], [ 235, 246 ], [ 258, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 19th century, the Breton language started to decline precipitously, mainly because of the Francization policy conducted under the Third Republic. On one hand, children were not allowed to speak Breton at school, and were punished by teachers if they did. Famously, signs in schools read: \"It is forbidden to speak Breton and to spit on the floor\" (\"Il est interdit de parler Breton et de cracher par terre\").", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4647, 1242932, 227177, 11737832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 44 ], [ 101, 113 ], [ 141, 155 ], [ 179, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the same time, the Celtic Revival led to the foundation of the Breton Regionalist Union (URB) and later to independence movements linked to Irish, Welsh, and Scottish and Cornish independence parties in the UK, and to pan-Celticism. However, the audience of these movements remained very low and their ideas did not reach a large public until the 20th century. The Seiz Breur movement, created in 1923, permitted a Breton artistic revival but its ties with Nazism and the collaborationism of the Breton National Party during World War II weakened Breton nationalism in the post-war period.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 553050, 13056528, 1270879, 3175758, 31045316, 4172977, 10888726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 36 ], [ 66, 90 ], [ 221, 234 ], [ 368, 378 ], [ 460, 466 ], [ 475, 491 ], [ 499, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany lost 240,000 men during the First World War. The Second World War was also catastrophic for the region. It was invaded by Nazi Germany in 1940 and freed after Operation Cobra in August 1944. However, the areas around Saint-Nazaire and Lorient only surrendered on 10 and 11 May 1945, several days after the German capitulation. The two port towns had been virtually destroyed by Allied air raids, like Brest and Saint-Malo, and other towns, such as Nantes and Rennes, had also suffered.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 32927, 21212, 483468, 427412, 328288, 57912, 196794, 67453, 46132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 52 ], [ 58, 74 ], [ 131, 143 ], [ 168, 183 ], [ 226, 239 ], [ 244, 251 ], [ 410, 415 ], [ 420, 430 ], [ 457, 463 ], [ 468, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1956, Brittany was legally reconstituted as the Region of Brittany, although the region excluded the ducal capital of Nantes and the surrounding area. Nevertheless, Brittany retained its cultural distinctiveness, and a new cultural revival emerged during the 1960s and 1970s. Bilingual schools were opened, singers started to write songs in Breton, and ecological catastrophes such as the Amoco Cadiz oil spill or the Erika oil spill and water pollution from intensive pig farming favoured new movements to protect the natural heritage.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 61130, 67453, 90579, 33414275, 6753193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 69 ], [ 121, 127 ], [ 136, 152 ], [ 392, 413 ], [ 421, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany as a political entity disappeared in 1790, when it was divided into five départements. The Breton départements more or less correspond to the nine Catholic dioceses that appeared at the beginning of the Middle Ages. They were often called \"pays\" or \"bro\" (\"country\" in French and Breton) and they also served as fiscal and military districts. Brittany is also divided between Lower Brittany (\"Basse Bretagne\" and \"Breizh Izel\"), corresponding to the western half, where Breton is traditionally spoken, and Upper Brittany (\"Haute Bretagne\" and \"Breizh Uhel\"), corresponding to the eastern half, where Gallo is traditionally spoken. The historical Breton dioceses were:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 38523, 50549, 4647, 2571366, 4647, 26809618, 693712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 93 ], [ 165, 172 ], [ 289, 295 ], [ 385, 399 ], [ 479, 485 ], [ 515, 529 ], [ 609, 614 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upper Brittany:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 26809618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Pays nantais, around Nantes, corresponding to the Loire-Atlantique département.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 67453, 90579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 31 ], [ 54, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Pays rennais, around Rennes, forming part of the Ille-et-Vilaine département.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 46132, 90575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 31 ], [ 53, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Pays de Dol, around Dol-de-Bretagne, corresponding to the northern part of the Ille-et-Vilaine département.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 3124772, 90575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 39 ], [ 83, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Pays de Saint-Brieuc, around Saint-Brieuc, forming part of the Côtes-d'Armor département.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 474848, 90670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 45 ], [ 67, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Pays de Saint-Malo, around Saint-Malo, divided between Ille-et-Vilaine, Côtes-d'Armor and Morbihan.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 196794, 90575, 90586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 41 ], [ 59, 74 ], [ 94, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lower Brittany:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 2571366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Pays vannetais, around Vannes, corresponding to the Morbihan département.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 716980, 90586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 33 ], [ 56, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Cornouaille, around Quimper, divided between Finistère and Côtes-d'Armor.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 290281, 61129, 90670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 31 ], [ 49, 58 ], [ 63, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Léon, around Saint-Pol-de-Léon, corresponding to the northern part of the Finistère département.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 3124569, 61129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 34 ], [ 78, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Trégor, around Tréguier, forming part of the Côtes-d'Armor département.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 3124554, 90670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 27 ], [ 49, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the French Revolution, four dioceses were suppressed and the five remaining ones were modified to have the same administrative borders as the départements.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 11188, 38523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 28 ], [ 149, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany has several historical capital cities. When it was an independent duchy, the Estates of Brittany, which can be compared to a parliament, met in various towns: Dinan, Ploërmel, Redon, Rennes, Vitré, Guérande, and, most of all, Vannes, where they met 19 times, and Nantes, 17 times. The Court and the government were also very mobile, and each dynasty favoured its own castles and estates. The dukes mostly lived in Nantes, Vannes, Redon, Rennes, Fougères, Dol-de-Bretagne, Dinan and Guérande. All these towns except Vannes are located in Upper Brittany, thus not in the Breton speaking area.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 21176254, 1748765, 858441, 1083609, 46132, 1481574, 9325693, 716980, 67453, 67453, 716980, 1083609, 46132, 890413, 3124772, 1748765, 9325693, 26809618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 105 ], [ 168, 173 ], [ 175, 183 ], [ 185, 190 ], [ 192, 198 ], [ 200, 205 ], [ 207, 215 ], [ 235, 241 ], [ 272, 278 ], [ 423, 429 ], [ 431, 437 ], [ 439, 444 ], [ 446, 452 ], [ 454, 462 ], [ 464, 479 ], [ 481, 486 ], [ 491, 499 ], [ 546, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among all these towns, only Nantes, Rennes and Vannes, which were the biggest ones, could really pretend to the capital status. The dukes were crowned in Rennes and they had a large castle there; it was however destroyed during the 15th century. Vannes, on its side, was the seat of the Chamber of Accounts and of the Parliament until the union with France. The Parliament was then transferred to Rennes, and the Chamber of Accounts to Nantes. Nantes, nicknamed \"the city of the Dukes of Brittany\", was also the permanent residence of the last dukes. The Château des ducs de Bretagne still stands in the city centre. Nowadays, Rennes is the only official capital of the region of Brittany. It is also the seat of an ecclesiastical province encompassing Brittany and the Pays de la Loire region.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 67453, 46132, 716980, 12481780, 46132, 61130, 451484, 198748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 34 ], [ 36, 42 ], [ 47, 53 ], [ 555, 583 ], [ 627, 633 ], [ 670, 688 ], [ 716, 739 ], [ 770, 786 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the French Revolution, Brittany was divided into five départements, each made up of three or four arrondissements. The arrondissements are further divided in cantons, which are themselves made up of one or several communes. The communes and the départements have a local council elected by their citizens, but arrondissements and cantons are not run by elected officials. The cantons serve as an electoral district for the election of the département councils and arrondissements are run by a subprefect appointed by the French president. The president also appoints a prefect in each département.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 11188, 38523, 321970, 410233, 410219, 9457, 24899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 28 ], [ 61, 72 ], [ 105, 120 ], [ 165, 172 ], [ 221, 229 ], [ 403, 412 ], [ 528, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because the départements are small and numerous, the French government tried to create wider regions during the 20th century. For the Breton nationalists, it was an occasion to recreate Brittany as a political and administrative entity, but the new region had to be economically efficient. Nantes and its département, Loire-Atlantique, raised concerns because they were off-centered, more integrated with the Loire Valley than with the Breton peninsula. The French government and local politicians also feared that Nantes, because of its population and its former Breton capital status, would have maintained a harmful competition with Rennes to get the regional institutions and investments.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 67453, 90579, 81870, 67453, 46132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 290, 296 ], [ 318, 334 ], [ 409, 421 ], [ 515, 521 ], [ 636, 642 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several drafts for French regions had been proposed since the 1920s, and the definitive regions were drawn in 1956. The new Brittany had four départements, and Loire-Atlantique formed the Pays de la Loire region together with parts of Anjou, Maine and Poitou. In 1972, the regions received their present competencies, with an elected regional council. Since then, the region of Brittany has had its own council and administrative bodies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 90579, 198748, 39594, 316560, 60739, 61130, 11766918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 176 ], [ 188, 204 ], [ 235, 240 ], [ 242, 247 ], [ 252, 258 ], [ 368, 386 ], [ 403, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the region of Brittany was created, several local politicians opposed the exclusion of Loire-Atlantique, and the question still remains.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 61130, 90579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 27 ], [ 92, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The obstacles to reunification are the same as in 1956: having Nantes in Brittany could harm the position of Rennes and create an economic imbalance between Lower and Upper Brittany. Moreover, the Pays de la Loire region could not exist without Loire-Atlantique, because it would lose its political and economic capital. Without Loire-Atlantique, the other départements would not form an efficient region any more, and would have to integrate neighbouring regions such as the Centre-Val de Loire and Nouvelle-Aquitaine.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 67453, 46132, 2571366, 26809618, 198748, 90579, 198818, 45092904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 69 ], [ 109, 115 ], [ 157, 162 ], [ 167, 181 ], [ 197, 213 ], [ 245, 261 ], [ 476, 495 ], [ 500, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, several institutions have backed the reunification, such as the regional council of Brittany since 2008 and the Loire-Atlantique council since 2001. Some politicians like Jean-Marc Ayrault, the former French prime minister and former mayor of Nantes, favour instead the creation of a \"Greater West region\", which would encompass Brittany and the Pays de la Loire region. Polls show that 58% of the Bretons and 62% of the inhabitants in Loire-Atlantique favour the reunification.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 5692174, 44341731, 67453, 198748, 90579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 197 ], [ 243, 248 ], [ 252, 258 ], [ 355, 371 ], [ 445, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until the end of the 20th century, Brittany had been characterised by a strong Catholic and conservative influence. However, some areas such as the industrial region around Saint-Nazaire and Lorient and the surroundings of Tréguier are traditional Socialist and Communist strongholds. Left-wing parties, mainly the Socialist party and the Greens, have become more and more powerful after the 1970s and they have formed a majority in the Regional Council of Brittany since 2004. The Loire-Atlantique and Ille-et-Vilaine councils have also been held by the left since 2004.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 427412, 328288, 3124554, 39565408, 52043, 11766918, 90579, 90575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 186 ], [ 191, 198 ], [ 223, 231 ], [ 315, 330 ], [ 335, 345 ], [ 437, 465 ], [ 482, 498 ], [ 503, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Socialist party has held the Côtes-d'Armor council since 1976, and the Finistère council since 1998. On its side, Morbihan remains a right-wing stronghold. The local parties have a very small audience, except the Union Démocratique Bretonne which has seats at the Regional Council and in other local assemblies. It advocates more autonomy for the region and its positions are very close to the Socialist parties. It also has a strong ecological orientation. The audience of far-right parties is lower in Brittany than in the rest of France.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 90670, 61129, 90586, 11664695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 46 ], [ 75, 84 ], [ 118, 126 ], [ 217, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany is the largest French peninsula. It is around and stretches toward the northwest and the Atlantic Ocean. It is bordered to the north by the English Channel, to the south by the Bay of Biscay and the waters located between the western coast and Ushant Island form the Iroise Sea.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and natural history", "target_page_ids": [ 51807646, 9230, 49609, 476723, 13952432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 40 ], [ 150, 165 ], [ 187, 200 ], [ 254, 260 ], [ 277, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Breton coast is very indented, with many cliffs, rias and capes. The Gulf of Morbihan is a vast natural harbour with some forty islands that is almost a closed sea. In total, around 800 islands lie off the mainland; the largest being Belle Île, in the south. Brittany has over of coastline; it represents a third of the total French coastline.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and natural history", "target_page_ids": [ 298454, 1364340, 575225, 13475, 475985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 56 ], [ 62, 66 ], [ 73, 89 ], [ 100, 115 ], [ 238, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The region is generally hilly because it corresponds to the western end of the Armorican Massif, a very old range that also extends in Normandy and the Pays de la Loire region. Because of this continuity, the Breton border with the rest of France is not marked by any strong geographical landmark, apart from the river Couesnon, which separates Brittany from Normandy.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and natural history", "target_page_ids": [ 19168436, 21724, 198748, 5047007, 21724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 95 ], [ 135, 143 ], [ 152, 168 ], [ 319, 327 ], [ 359, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Armorican Massif reaches its maximum elevation outside of Brittany, in neighbouring Mayenne, at 417 m, and slopes towards the west before straightening on its western extremity, with the Montagnes Noires and the Monts d'Arrée. The highest hill in Brittany is the Roc'h Ruz in the Monts d'Arrée, at . It is closely followed by several neighbouring hills culminating at around 384 m above sea level.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and natural history", "target_page_ids": [ 90584, 12369948, 18784305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 95 ], [ 191, 207 ], [ 216, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coastal areas are usually named Armor or Arvor (\"by the sea\" in Breton), and the inland is called Argoat (\"by the forest\"). The best soils were primitively covered by large forests which had been progressively replaced by bocage during the Middle Ages. The Breton bocage, with its small fields enclosed by thick hedgerows, has almost disappeared since the 1960s to fit the modern agricultural needs and methods, particularly mechanisation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and natural history", "target_page_ids": [ 161791, 18836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 222, 228 ], [ 240, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several forests still exist, such as the Paimpont forest, sometimes said to be the Arthurian Brocéliande. The poor and rocky areas are covered by large heathland and moorlands, and Brittany has several marshes, like the Brière, included in a regional natural park. Another regional park encompasses the Monts d'Arrée and the Iroise seacoast. The Iroise Sea is also a UNESCO biosphere reserve.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and natural history", "target_page_ids": [ 3247906, 2577394, 461082, 553383, 169208, 3710153, 6302696, 18784305, 13952432, 113721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 56 ], [ 93, 104 ], [ 152, 161 ], [ 166, 174 ], [ 202, 207 ], [ 220, 226 ], [ 242, 263 ], [ 303, 316 ], [ 325, 331 ], [ 367, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Breton peninsula appeared during the Cadomian Orogeny, which formed its northern coastline, between Guingamp and Fougères. The southern part emerged during the Hercynian orogeny. At the same time, an intense volcanic activity left large quantities of granite. Between the Cadomian and Hercynian periods, the region was submerged several times and the sea left fossils and sedimentary rocks, mostly schist and sandstone. Because of the absence of limestone, soils in Brittany are usually acid.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and natural history", "target_page_ids": [ 9277519, 1830251, 890413, 2411367, 13088, 10958, 44412, 43530, 27772, 17748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 57 ], [ 104, 112 ], [ 117, 125 ], [ 164, 181 ], [ 255, 262 ], [ 364, 370 ], [ 376, 392 ], [ 402, 408 ], [ 413, 422 ], [ 450, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Armorican massif straightened and flattened several times during the formation of the Pyrenees and the Alps. Changes in sea levels and climate led to a strong erosion and to the formation of more sedimentary rocks. Metamorphism is responsible for the distinctive local blue schist and for the rich subsoil of the Groix island, which comprises glaucophane and epidote.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and natural history", "target_page_ids": [ 19168436, 24707, 981, 44412, 202831, 9316669, 1226963, 594050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 90, 98 ], [ 107, 111 ], [ 200, 216 ], [ 219, 231 ], [ 317, 329 ], [ 347, 358 ], [ 363, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Quaternary glaciations, Brittany was covered by loess and rivers started to fill the valleys with alluvial deposits. The valleys themselves were a result of a strong tectonic activity between the African and the Eurasian plate. The present Breton landscape did not acquire its final shape before one million years ago. The Breton subsoil is characterised by a huge amount of fractures that form a large aquifer containing several millions square meters of water.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and natural history", "target_page_ids": [ 25198, 245138, 521081, 340651, 6985160, 47481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 21 ], [ 59, 64 ], [ 207, 214 ], [ 223, 237 ], [ 386, 395 ], [ 414, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany lies within the north temperate zone. It has a changeable, maritime climate, similar to Cornwall. Rainfall occurs regularly but sunny, cloudless days are also common. In the summer months, temperatures in the region can reach , yet the climate remains comfortable, especially when compared to the French regions located south of the Loire. The temperature difference between summer and winter is about 15 degrees, but it varies depending on the proximity of the sea. The weather is generally milder on the seacoast than inland but rainfall occurs with the same intensity on both. The Monts d'Arrée, despite their low elevation, have much more rainfall than the rest of the region. The south coast, between Lorient and Pornic, enjoys more than 2,000 hours of sunshine per year.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and natural history", "target_page_ids": [ 50051, 560047, 5648, 31464821, 18784305, 328288, 15810338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 45 ], [ 68, 84 ], [ 97, 105 ], [ 342, 347 ], [ 593, 606 ], [ 715, 722 ], [ 727, 733 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany's wildlife is typical of France with several distinctions. On one hand, the region, due to its long coastline, has a rich oceanic fauna, and some birds cannot be seen in other French regions. On the other hand, the species found in the inland are usually common for France, and because Brittany is a peninsula, the number of species is lower in its western extremity than in the eastern part.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and natural history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A variety of seabirds can be seen close to the seaside, which is home to colonies of cormorants, gulls, razorbills, northern gannets, common murres and Atlantic puffins. Most of these birds breed on isolated islands and rocks and thus are hard to observe. The inland is home to common European species including pheasants, barn swallows, woodcocks, common swifts, partridges...", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and natural history", "target_page_ids": [ 286406, 282396, 323068, 251885, 323089, 202418, 59919, 66174, 314449, 66173, 317338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 95 ], [ 97, 102 ], [ 104, 113 ], [ 116, 131 ], [ 134, 146 ], [ 152, 167 ], [ 312, 320 ], [ 323, 335 ], [ 338, 347 ], [ 349, 361 ], [ 364, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like Cornwall, Wales and Ireland, the waters of Brittany attract marine animals including basking sharks, grey seals, leatherback turtles, dolphins, porpoises, jellyfish, crabs and lobsters. Bass is common along the coast, small-spotted catsharks live on the continental shelf, rattails and anglerfish populate the deep waters. River fish of note include trout, Atlantic salmon, pikes, shades and lampreys. The Breton rivers are also home to beavers and otters and to some invasive American species, such as the coypu which destroys the ecosystem and accelerated the extinction of the European mink.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and natural history", "target_page_ids": [ 5648, 69894, 898756, 372719, 322578, 46037, 50185, 46310, 47344, 7285299, 416651, 468452, 21392941, 47326, 1202747, 86777, 20975731, 890238, 1618134, 429149, 890259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 13 ], [ 15, 20 ], [ 90, 103 ], [ 106, 115 ], [ 118, 136 ], [ 149, 157 ], [ 160, 169 ], [ 181, 188 ], [ 191, 195 ], [ 223, 245 ], [ 259, 276 ], [ 278, 285 ], [ 291, 301 ], [ 355, 360 ], [ 362, 377 ], [ 379, 384 ], [ 397, 404 ], [ 442, 448 ], [ 454, 459 ], [ 512, 517 ], [ 585, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among the invertebrates, Brittany is notably home to the escargot de Quimper, the freshwater pearl mussel and the white-clawed crayfish. The larger Breton mammals died out during the modern period, including the wolf. Today, mammals of note include roe deer, wild boar, foxes, hares and several species of bat.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and natural history", "target_page_ids": [ 12654187, 8905895, 3945333, 33702, 274788, 52255, 48130, 23538713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 76 ], [ 82, 105 ], [ 114, 135 ], [ 212, 216 ], [ 249, 257 ], [ 259, 268 ], [ 277, 281 ], [ 306, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany is widely known for the Breton horse, a local breed of draft horse, and for the Brittany gun dog. The region also has its own breeds of cattle, some of which are on the brink of extinction: the Bretonne Pie Noir, the Froment du Léon, the Armorican and the Nantaise.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and natural history", "target_page_ids": [ 7213652, 517512, 772703, 42867051, 12688714, 12688449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 45 ], [ 64, 75 ], [ 89, 105 ], [ 203, 220 ], [ 226, 241 ], [ 247, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Breton forests, dunes, moorlands and marshes are home to several iconic plants, such as endemic cistus, aster and linaria varieties, the horseshoe vetch and the lotus maritimus.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Geography and natural history", "target_page_ids": [ 572071, 76102, 512305, 2481679, 26373412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 106 ], [ 108, 113 ], [ 118, 125 ], [ 141, 156 ], [ 165, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany has the same education system as the rest of France. As in other French regions, formal education before the 19th century was the preserve of the elite. Before 1460, Brittany did not have a university, and Breton students had to go to Angers, Poitiers or Caen. The University of Nantes was founded under the duke Francis II, who wanted to affirm the Breton independence from France. All the traditional disciplines were taught here: arts, theology, law and medicine. During the 17th century, it had around 1,500 students. It declined during the 18th century, mostly because Nantes was flourishing with the Atlantic slave trade and paid no attention to its cultural institutions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 82357, 51489, 92443, 2153532, 642196, 67453, 49005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 244, 250 ], [ 252, 260 ], [ 264, 268 ], [ 274, 294 ], [ 322, 332 ], [ 583, 589 ], [ 615, 635 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A mayor eventually asked the university to be relocated to Rennes, more devoted to culture and science, and the faculties progressively moved there after 1735. The transfer was interrupted by the French Revolution, and all the French universities were dissolved in 1793.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 44341731, 46132, 11188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 7 ], [ 59, 65 ], [ 196, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Napoleon reorganised the French education system in 1808. He created new universities and invented two secondary education institutions: the \"collèges\" and the \"lycées\" which were opened in numerous towns to educate boys and form a new elite. A new University of Rennes was progressively recreated during the 19th century. In the meantime, several laws were promoted to open schools, notably for girls. In 1882, Jules Ferry succeeded in passing a law which made primary education in France free, non-clerical (laïque) and mandatory. Thus, free schools were opened in almost every villages of Brittany. Jules Ferry also promoted education policies establishing French language as the language of the Republic, and mandatory education was a mean to eradicate regional languages and dialects. In Brittany, it was forbidden for the pupils to speak Breton or Gallo, and the two were strongly depreciated. Humiliating practices aimed at stamping out the Breton language and culture prevailed in state schools until the late 1960s. In response, the Diwan schools were founded in 1977 to teach Breton by immersion. They have taught a few thousand young people from elementary school to high school, and they have gained more and more fame owing to their high level of results in school exams. A bilingual approach has also been implemented in some state schools after 1979, and some Catholic schools have done the same after 1990. Besides, Brittany, with the neighbouring Pays de la Loire region, remains a stronghold for Catholic private education with around 1,400 schools.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 69880, 378413, 12794397, 183955, 4647, 693712, 4892335, 973370, 198748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 103, 135 ], [ 249, 269 ], [ 412, 423 ], [ 844, 850 ], [ 854, 859 ], [ 1042, 1055 ], [ 1096, 1105 ], [ 1464, 1480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 20th century, tertiary education was developed with the creation of the École centrale de Nantes in 1919, the University of Nantes in 1961, the ESC Bretagne Brest in 1962, the University of Western Brittany in 1971, the École Nationale Supérieure des Télécommunications de Bretagne in 1977 and the University of Southern Brittany in 1995. The Catholic University of the West, based in Angers, also opened classes in several Breton towns. In 1969, the University of Rennes was divided between the University of Rennes 1 and the University of Rennes 2 – Upper Brittany. After the Second World War, the Ecole Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr, the foremost French military academy, settled in Coëtquidan.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 83158, 2153532, 19992014, 13952608, 61221, 13954905, 4554979, 82357, 12794397, 7257133, 13955034, 32927, 441764, 20311, 625384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 107 ], [ 121, 141 ], [ 155, 173 ], [ 187, 217 ], [ 231, 292 ], [ 309, 340 ], [ 354, 385 ], [ 396, 402 ], [ 462, 482 ], [ 507, 529 ], [ 538, 577 ], [ 589, 605 ], [ 611, 648 ], [ 670, 686 ], [ 699, 709 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany, apart from some areas such as Lorient, Nantes and Saint-Nazaire, has never been heavily industrialised. Today, fishing and agriculture remain important activities. Brittany has more than 40,000 farms, mostly oriented towards cattle, pig and poultry breeding, as well as cereal and vegetable production. The number of farms tends to diminish, but as a result, they are merged into very large estates. Brittany is the first producer in France for vegetables (green beans, onions, artichokes, potatoes, tomatoes...). Cereals are mostly grown for cattle feeding. Wine, especially muscadet, is made in a small region south of Nantes. Brittany is the first region in France for fishing. The activity employs around 15,000 people, and more than 2500 firms work in fish and seafood processing.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 328288, 67453, 427412, 1475860, 1120742, 1781658, 67453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 47 ], [ 49, 55 ], [ 60, 73 ], [ 467, 477 ], [ 488, 497 ], [ 586, 594 ], [ 631, 637 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although relatively new, the Breton industry has been constantly growing since 1980. Food processing (meat, vegetables...) represents a third of the industrial jobs, but other activities are also important for the local economy. Shipbuilding, both commercial and military, is implanted in Saint-Nazaire (Chantiers de l'Atlantique), Lorient and Brest; Airbus has plants in Saint-Nazaire and Nantes; and Peugeot has a large factory in Rennes. Brittany is the second French region for telecommunication and the fifth for electronics, two activities mainly developed in Rennes, Lannion and Brest. Tourism is particularly important for the seacoast and Brittany is one of the most visited regions in France. In April 2019, The Guardian's travel section included two Brittany locations in its list of 20 of the most beautiful villages in France. The two were Rochefort-en-Terre with \"its covered market, 12th-century church, medieval castle, 19th-century chateau, and 16th- and 17th-century mansions\" and Locronan, where \"East India Company's offices still stand on the village square, as well as 17th-century merchants' dwellings\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 187377, 427412, 2695261, 328288, 57912, 26220236, 427412, 67453, 54157, 46132, 46132, 1887514, 19344515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 241 ], [ 289, 302 ], [ 304, 329 ], [ 332, 339 ], [ 344, 349 ], [ 351, 357 ], [ 372, 385 ], [ 390, 396 ], [ 402, 409 ], [ 433, 439 ], [ 566, 572 ], [ 574, 581 ], [ 718, 730 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The unemployment rate in Brittany is lower than in other French regions and it is usually around 6 or 7% of the active population. Because of the global financial crisis started in 2007, unemployment rose to 8.7% in the Region Brittany and 8.4% in Loire-Atlantique in late 2012. However, these figures remain under the French national rate (9.9% at the same period). Some industries, such as construction, industry, catering or transport, usually have difficulties finding employees.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 32005855, 61130, 90579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 185 ], [ 220, 235 ], [ 248, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, Region Brittany's gross domestic product reached 99billion euros. It was the ninth richest region in France and it produced 4% of the national GDP. The Breton GDP per capita was around 29,694 euros in 2018. It was lower than the French result, 30,266 euros, below the European one, 30,900 euros. The GDP of the Loire-Atlantique département is around 26billion euros, and the GDP of the five historical Breton départements would be at around 108billion euros.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 61130, 9472, 776565, 9317, 90579, 38523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 68, 72 ], [ 168, 182 ], [ 277, 285 ], [ 320, 336 ], [ 337, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, the population in Region Brittany was estimated to 3,318,904 and Loire-Atlantique had around 1,394,909 inhabitants, thus historical Brittany's population can be estimated at 4,713,813, the highest in its history. The population in Region Brittany had grown by 0.9% between 1999 and 2000, and the growth rate reached more than 1% in Ille-et-Vilaine and Morbihan. The region around Rennes and the south are the more attractive areas, whereas the population is declining in the centre and in the westernmost parts. While most of the metropolitan areas are growing, the cities themselves tend to stagnate or regress, such as for Brest, Lorient, Saint-Brieuc and Saint-Malo. In 2017, Ille-et-Vilaine had 1,060,199 inhabitants, it was followed by Finistère 909,028 inhabitants, Morbihan 750,863 inhabitants, and Côtes-d'Armor, with 598,814 inhabitants.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 61130, 90579, 61130, 90575, 90586, 46132, 75253, 57912, 328288, 474848, 196794, 90575, 61129, 90586, 90670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 42 ], [ 74, 90 ], [ 240, 255 ], [ 341, 356 ], [ 361, 369 ], [ 389, 395 ], [ 539, 556 ], [ 634, 639 ], [ 641, 648 ], [ 650, 662 ], [ 667, 677 ], [ 688, 703 ], [ 750, 759 ], [ 781, 789 ], [ 815, 828 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The largest cities in Region Brittany as of 2017 were Rennes, with 216,815 inhabitants, Brest 140,064, Quimper 62,985, Lorient 57,149, Vannes 53,352, Saint-Malo 46,097 and Saint-Brieuc 44,372. All the other communes had under 25,000 inhabitants. Brittany is also characterised by a great number of small towns, such as Vitré, Concarneau, Morlaix or Auray. Loire-Atlantique has two major cities, Nantes, with 309,346 inhabitants and an urban area encompassing 972,828, and Saint-Nazaire, with 69,993 inhabitants. Loire-Atlantique's population is more rapidly growing than Region Brittany's and it is the 12th most populated French département. Nevertheless, since the 1990s, Rennes has consistently ranked as one of France's fastest growing metropolitan areas.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 61130, 46132, 57912, 290281, 328288, 716980, 196794, 474848, 410219, 1481574, 3174370, 1653967, 767130, 90579, 67453, 427412, 61130, 38523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 37 ], [ 54, 60 ], [ 88, 93 ], [ 103, 110 ], [ 119, 126 ], [ 135, 141 ], [ 150, 160 ], [ 172, 184 ], [ 207, 214 ], [ 319, 324 ], [ 326, 336 ], [ 338, 345 ], [ 349, 354 ], [ 356, 372 ], [ 395, 401 ], [ 472, 485 ], [ 571, 586 ], [ 630, 641 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1851, Brittany had around 2.7million inhabitants and the demographic growth stayed low until the second half of the 20th century, mainly because of an important emigration. Brittany had 3.2million inhabitants in 1962 and the growth was mainly due to Loire-Atlantique and the steady growth of Nantes. Without the Loire-Atlantique's figures, the Breton population only numbered 2.4million in 1962, nearly unchanged from its population of 2.3million in 1851. After the 1960s, the whole region has had a strong demographic growth because of the decline of the traditional emigration to richer French regions. Instead, Brittany has become attractive, particularly for families, young retired persons and active people over 35 years old.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 90579, 67453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 253, 269 ], [ 295, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Breton political parties do not have wide support and their electoral success is small. However, Bretons have a strong cultural identity. According to a poll made in 2008, 50% of the inhabitants of the Region Brittany consider themselves as much Breton as French, 22.5% feel more Breton than French, and 15.4% more French than Breton. A minority, 1.5%, considers themselves Breton but not French, while 9.3% do not consider themselves to be Breton at all.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 61130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "51.9% of the poll respondents agreed that Brittany should have more political power, and 31.1% thought that it should stay the same. Only 4.6% favoured independence, and 9.4% were undecided.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A 2012 poll taken in the five departments of historical Brittany showed that 48% of the respondents considered themselves belonging first to France, 37% to Brittany, and 10% to Europe. It also showed that Breton identity is stronger among people younger than 35. 53% of them considering themselves to belong first to Brittany. 50% of the older respondents considered themselves belonging first to France. Primary Breton identity is at its lowest among the respondents over 65: 58% consider themselves to belong first to France, with European identify secondary. 21% of the respondents over 65 considering themselves to be European first. Breton self-identification is stronger among people who vote left-wing. It is stronger among employees than employers.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 18499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 699, 708 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "French, the only official language of the French Republic, is spoken today by the vast majority in Brittany, and it is the mother tongue of most people. Nonetheless, French was not widely known before the 19th century, and two regional languages exist in Brittany: Breton and Gallo. They are separated by a language border that has constantly moved back since the Middle Ages.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 193178, 263257, 867159, 4647, 693712, 2448205 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 34 ], [ 123, 136 ], [ 227, 244 ], [ 265, 271 ], [ 276, 281 ], [ 307, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The current border runs from Plouha on the English Channel to the Rhuys Peninsula on the Bay of Biscay. Because of their origins and practice, Breton and Gallo can be compared to Scottish Gaelic and Scots language in Scotland. Both have been recognised as \"Langues de Bretagne\" (languages of Brittany) by the Regional Council of Brittany since 2004.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 15200929, 9230, 16689127, 49609, 28397, 63892, 11766918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 35 ], [ 43, 58 ], [ 66, 81 ], [ 89, 102 ], [ 179, 194 ], [ 199, 213 ], [ 309, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Breton is a Celtic language derived from the historical Common Brittonic language, and is most closely related to Cornish and Welsh. It was imported to Western Armorica during the 5th century by Britons fleeing the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain. Breton remained the language of the rural population, but since the Middle Ages the bourgeoisie, the nobility, and the higher clergy have spoken French.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 5920, 29039811, 6130, 33545, 154491, 22368461, 18836, 58031, 28978421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 27 ], [ 56, 72 ], [ 114, 121 ], [ 126, 131 ], [ 160, 168 ], [ 215, 246 ], [ 316, 327 ], [ 332, 343 ], [ 349, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Government policies in the 19th and 20th centuries made education compulsory and, at the same time, forbade the use of Breton in schools to push non-French speakers into adopting the French language. Nevertheless, until the 1960s Breton was spoken or understood by many of the inhabitants of western Brittany. During the 1970s, Breton schools were opened and the local authorities started to promote the language, which was on the brink of extinction because parents had stopped teaching it to their children.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Having declined from more than one million speakers around 1950 to about 200,000 in the first decade of the 21st century, of whom 61% are more than 60 years old, Breton is classified as \"severely endangered\" by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger. However, the number of children attending bilingual classes has risen 33% between 2006 and 2012 to 14,709.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 4589344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 222, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Breton language has several dialects which have no precise limits but rather form a continuum. Most of them are very similar to each other, with only some phonetic and lexical differences. The three main dialects spoken in the western end of Brittany are:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 4647, 370878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 88, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the Cornouillais, around Quimper, ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 290281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the Léonard, around Saint-Pol-de-Léon, and ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 3124569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the Trégorrois, around Tréguier, are grouped into the KLT group (Kerne-Leon-Treger),", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 3124554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "in opposition to the Vannetais, spoken around Vannes, which is the most differentiated Breton dialect.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 716980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to a 1999 INSEE survey, 12% of the adults of Brittany speak Breton.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gallo is spoken on the eastern half of Brittany. It is not itself a Celtic language. Like French, it is also descended from Latin (and is classified in the Langues d'oïl branch), but has some Celtic influences, particularly in its vocabulary, whereas French has influences from both Celtic (Gaulish) and Frankish (the Germanic language which arrived after Latin in much of the rest of France).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 566381, 30875813, 1210359, 11883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 169 ], [ 291, 298 ], [ 304, 312 ], [ 318, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike Breton, Gallo does not have a long promotion history and it is still often perceived as a poor rural dialect. Moreover, because of its linguistic relationship with Gallo, French imposed itself more easily as the main language in Upper Brittany than in Breton speaking areas. Gallo was simply felt to be an incorrect way of speaking French rather than a separate language. Gallo transmission from parents to children is extremely low and efforts to standardise and publish books in Gallo did not reverse the decline of the language and its lack of prestige.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 26809618, 1582959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 236, 250 ], [ 554, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gallo is also threatened by the Breton language revival, because Breton is gaining ground in territories that were not previously part of the main Breton-speaking area, and most of all because Breton appears as the national language of Brittany, thus leaving no place for Gallo.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 577320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gallo had never been written before the 20th century, and several writing systems were created. They are however rarely known by the population and signs in Gallo are often unreadable, even for fluent speakers. In Loire-Atlantique, where Gallo is not promoted at all by the local authorities, many people do not even know the word \"Gallo\" and have no idea that it has writing systems and publications.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 90579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 214, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Gallo community is estimated at between 28,300 and 200,000 speakers. The language is taught on a non-compulsory basis in some schools, high-schools and universities, particularly in Ille-et-Vilaine.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 90575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bretons are mainly Catholic and the Christianisation occurred during the Roman Gaul and Frank era. During the Briton emigration to Brittany, several Christian missionaries, mostly Welsh, came in the region and founded dioceses. They are known as the \"Seven founder saints\":", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 36545, 303481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 27 ], [ 73, 83 ], [ 88, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paol Aoreliann in Saint-Pol-de-Léon,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 1063466, 3124569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 19, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tudwal in Tréguier,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 1192502, 3124554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 11, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brieg in Saint-Brieuc,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 1818179, 474848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Maloù in Saint-Malo,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 5667717, 196794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Samsun of Dol in Dol-de-Bretagne,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 188126, 3124772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 18, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Padarn in Vannes,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 14501565, 716980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 11, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kaourintin in Quimper.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 10761078, 290281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 15, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other notable early missionaries are Gildas and the Irish saint Columbanus. In total, Brittany numbers more than 300 \"saints\" (only a few recognised by the Catholic Church) and, since the 19th century at least, it has been known as one of the most devoutly Catholic regions in France, together with the neighbouring Pays de la Loire region. The proportion of students attending Catholic private schools is the highest in France. The patron saint of Brittany is Saint Anne, the Virgin's mother, but Ivo of Kermartin, a 13th-century priest, called Saint-Yves in French and Sant-Erwan in Breton, can also be considered as a patron saint. His feast, 19 May, is Brittany's national day.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 84067, 6501, 28436, 198748, 68055, 143102, 550688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 43 ], [ 64, 74 ], [ 118, 123 ], [ 316, 332 ], [ 433, 445 ], [ 461, 471 ], [ 498, 514 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many distinctive traditions and customs have also been preserved in Brittany. Among them, the \"Pardons\" are one of the most traditional demonstrations of popular Catholicism. These penitential ceremonies occur in some villages in Lower Brittany on the feast day of the parish's saint. The penitents form a procession and they walk together to a shrine, a church or any sacred place. Some Pardons are reputed for their length, and they all finish by large meals and popular feasts.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 13318133, 5589718, 2571366, 180283, 465979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 101 ], [ 181, 203 ], [ 230, 244 ], [ 252, 261 ], [ 345, 351 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a very old pilgrimage called the Tro Breizh (tour of Brittany), where the pilgrims walk around Brittany from the grave of one of the seven founder saints to another. Historically, the pilgrimage was made in one trip (a total distance of around 600km) for all seven saints. Nowadays, however, pilgrims complete the circuit over the course of several years. In 2002, the Tro Breizh included a special pilgrimage to Wales, symbolically making the reverse journey of the Welshmen Sant Paol, Sant Brieg, and Sant Samzun.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 23763, 3192819, 69894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ], [ 42, 52 ], [ 422, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most powerful folk figure is the Ankou or the \"Reaper of Death\". Sometimes a skeleton wrapped in a shroud with the Breton flat hat, sometimes described as a real human being (the last dead of the year, devoted to bring the dead to Death), he makes his journeys by night carrying an upturned scythe which he throws before him to reap his harvest. Sometimes he is on foot but mostly he travels with a cart, the Karrig an Ankou, drawn by two oxen and a lean horse. Two servants dressed in the same shroud and hat as the Ankou pile the dead into the cart, and to hear it creaking at night means you have little time left to live.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 946731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As official religious statistics are forbidden in France, there are no official figures about religious practices in Brittany. However, successive polls show that the region tends to be more and more nonreligious. Catholic religion has started to decline after the Second World War, during the urbanisation of Brittany. A poll conducted in 2006 showed that Morbihan was the only département to have a strong Catholic population, around 70% of its inhabitants belonging to that religion. Loire-Atlantique and Côtes-d'Armor were among the least Catholic French départements, with only 50% of Catholics, while Ille-et-Vilaine and Finistère were at around 65%. Other religions are almost non-existent, apart from Islam which gathers between 1 and 3% of the inhabitants in Ille-et-Vilaine and Loire-Atlantique.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 323777, 32927, 90586, 38523, 90579, 90670, 90575, 61129, 6037917, 90575, 90579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 212 ], [ 265, 281 ], [ 357, 365 ], [ 379, 390 ], [ 487, 503 ], [ 508, 521 ], [ 607, 622 ], [ 627, 636 ], [ 709, 714 ], [ 768, 783 ], [ 788, 804 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany is home to many megalithic monuments; the words menhir and dolmen come from the Breton language. The largest menhir alignments are the Carnac stones. Other major sites include the Barnenez cairn, the Locmariaquer megaliths, the Menhir de Champ-Dolent, the Mane Braz tumulus and the Gavrinis tomb. Monuments from the Roman period are rare, but include a large temple in Corseul and scarce ruins of villas and city walls in Rennes and Nantes.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 332248, 276909, 8608, 4647, 5073606, 13707411, 7196, 17290175, 26553691, 6401433, 371516, 13598865, 2068003, 15170110, 46132, 67453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 33 ], [ 57, 63 ], [ 68, 74 ], [ 89, 104 ], [ 144, 157 ], [ 189, 197 ], [ 198, 203 ], [ 209, 231 ], [ 237, 259 ], [ 265, 274 ], [ 275, 282 ], [ 291, 299 ], [ 325, 330 ], [ 378, 385 ], [ 431, 437 ], [ 442, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany has a large number of medieval buildings. They include numerous Romanesque and French Gothic churches, usually built in local sandstone and granite, castles and half-timbered houses visible in villages, towns and cities. Several Breton towns still have their medieval walls, such as Guérande, Concarneau, Saint-Malo, Vannes, Fougères and Dinan. Major churches include Saint-Pol-de-Léon Cathedral, Tréguier Cathedral, Dol Cathedral, Nantes Cathedral and the Kreisker chapel. Most of the Breton castles were rebuilt between the 13th and the 15th century, such as the Château de Suscinio, the Château de Dinan, the Château de Combourg, the Château de Largoët, the Château de Tonquédec, the Josselin Castle and the Château de Trécesson. The most impressive castles can be seen along the border with France, where stand the Château de Fougères, the Château de Vitré, the Château de Châteaubriant and the Château de Clisson.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 52686, 11930474, 27772, 13088, 9325693, 3174370, 196794, 716980, 890413, 1748765, 13134528, 12947703, 12899309, 8971585, 31661133, 8807900, 9315932, 9328983, 8690195, 8597727, 27413031, 16132957, 37876392, 8786725, 38590351, 26027501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 83 ], [ 88, 101 ], [ 135, 144 ], [ 149, 156 ], [ 292, 300 ], [ 302, 312 ], [ 314, 324 ], [ 326, 332 ], [ 334, 342 ], [ 347, 352 ], [ 377, 404 ], [ 406, 424 ], [ 426, 439 ], [ 441, 457 ], [ 466, 481 ], [ 574, 593 ], [ 599, 615 ], [ 621, 640 ], [ 646, 664 ], [ 670, 690 ], [ 696, 711 ], [ 720, 740 ], [ 828, 847 ], [ 853, 869 ], [ 875, 899 ], [ 908, 926 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The French Renaissance occurred when Brittany lost its independence. The Renaissance architecture is almost absent in the region, except in Upper Brittany, close to the border with France. Major sites include the Château des ducs de Bretagne, the last permanent residence of the dukes, which displays the transition from late Gothic to Renaissance style. The Château de Châteaubriant, a former fortress, was transformed into a vast palace in the Italian style.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1398990, 26809618, 12481780, 38590351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ], [ 140, 154 ], [ 213, 241 ], [ 359, 383 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Lower Brittany, the medieval style never totally disappeared. However, local innovations permitted some changes and the birth of a particular style. Its most distinctive feature is the parish close, which displays an elaborately decorated church surrounded by an entirely walled churchyard. Many villages still have their closes, they date from the 16th and 17th centuries and sometimes include an elaborately carved calvary sculpture.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2571366, 13525245, 16960277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 17 ], [ 188, 200 ], [ 420, 437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 17th and the 18th centuries, the main seaports and towns obtained a typical French look, with baroque and neoclassical buildings. Nantes, which was at the time the biggest French harbour, received a theatre, large avenues and quays, and Rennes was redesigned after a fire in 1720. At the same period, the wealthy ship-owners from Saint-Malo built many mansions called \"Malouinières\" around their town. Along the coast, Vauban and other French architects designed several citadels, such as in Le Palais and Port-Louis. In rural areas, Breton houses remained simple, with a single floor and a longhouse pattern. They were built with local materials: mostly granite in Lower Brittany and schist in Upper Brittany. Slates and reeds were usually used for roofing. During the 19th century, the Breton architecture was mainly characterised by the Gothic Revival and Eclecticism. Clisson, the southernmost Breton town, was rebuilt in an Italian Romantic style around 1820. The Breton lighthouses were mostly built during the 19th century. The most famous are Ar Men, Phare d'Eckmühl, La Vieille and La Jument. The lighthouse on the Île Vierge is, with 77 meters, the highest in Europe.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 97169, 3957, 2682331, 67453, 46132, 3518226, 196794, 53285, 13501682, 13509726, 755061, 2571366, 43530, 26809618, 44214, 103141, 311821, 243412, 2652376, 26094, 17725, 8010927, 4642491, 26356087, 15755690, 25496193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 56 ], [ 105, 112 ], [ 117, 129 ], [ 141, 147 ], [ 248, 254 ], [ 324, 334 ], [ 341, 351 ], [ 430, 436 ], [ 503, 512 ], [ 517, 527 ], [ 602, 611 ], [ 677, 691 ], [ 696, 702 ], [ 706, 720 ], [ 722, 727 ], [ 733, 738 ], [ 851, 865 ], [ 870, 881 ], [ 883, 890 ], [ 948, 956 ], [ 987, 997 ], [ 1062, 1068 ], [ 1070, 1085 ], [ 1087, 1097 ], [ 1102, 1111 ], [ 1135, 1145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the end of the 19th century, several seaside resorts were created along the coast and villas and hotels were built in historicist, Art Nouveau, and later in the Art Deco styles. These architectures are particularly present in Dinard, La Baule and Bénodet. Architecture from the 20th century can be seen in Saint-Nazaire, Brest and Lorient, three cities destroyed during the Second World War and rebuilt afterwards, and in the works of the Breton nationalist architects like James Bouillé and Olier Mordrel.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 293990, 14317754, 59551, 1881, 929843, 383012, 7874610, 427412, 57912, 328288, 32927, 17297790, 4381871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 54 ], [ 121, 132 ], [ 134, 145 ], [ 164, 172 ], [ 229, 235 ], [ 237, 245 ], [ 250, 257 ], [ 309, 322 ], [ 324, 329 ], [ 334, 341 ], [ 377, 393 ], [ 477, 490 ], [ 495, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until the 19th century, Catholicism had been the main inspiration for Breton artists. The region has a great number of baroque retables, made between the 17th and the 19th century. Breton sculptors were also famous for their ship models that served as ex-votos and for their richly decorated furniture, which features naïve Breton characters and traditional patterns. The box-bed is the most famous Breton piece of furniture. The Breton style had a strong revival between 1900 and the Second World War and it was used by the Seiz Breur movement. The Seiz Breur artists also tried to invent a modern Breton art by rejecting French standards and mixing traditional techniques with new materials. The leading artists of that period were the designer René-Yves Creston, the illustrators Jeanne Malivel and Xavier Haas, and the sculptors Raffig Tullou, Francis Renaud, Georges Robin, Joseph Savina, Jules-Charles Le Bozec and Jean Fréour.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 3957, 2396109, 618280, 29345712, 32927, 3175758, 16944309, 16928443, 17891507, 3172238, 21004842, 18223704, 17439007, 17289514, 4499262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 35 ], [ 119, 126 ], [ 127, 134 ], [ 252, 259 ], [ 372, 379 ], [ 485, 501 ], [ 525, 535 ], [ 747, 764 ], [ 783, 797 ], [ 802, 813 ], [ 833, 846 ], [ 848, 862 ], [ 864, 877 ], [ 879, 892 ], [ 894, 916 ], [ 921, 932 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany is also known for its needlework, which can be seen on its numerous headdress models, and for its faience production, which started at the beginning of the 18th century. Quimper faience is known worldwide for its bowls and plates painted by hand, and other towns, such as Pornic, also maintain a similar tradition. The potteries usually feature naïve Breton characters in traditional clothing and daily scenes. The designs have a strong traditional Breton influence, but Orientalism and Art Deco have also been used.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 49332, 455915, 2034457, 15810338, 39301, 1881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 41 ], [ 107, 114 ], [ 179, 194 ], [ 281, 287 ], [ 480, 491 ], [ 496, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of its distinct culture and natural landscape, Brittany has inspired many French artists since the 19th century. The Pont-Aven School, which started to emerge in the 1850s and lasted until the beginning of the 20th century, had a decisive influence on modern painting. The artists who settled in Pont-Aven wanted to break away from the Academic style of the École des Beaux-Arts and later from Impressionism when it began to decline. Among them were Paul Gauguin, Paul Signac, Marc Chagall, Paul Sérusier and Raymond Wintz. Before them, Brittany had also been visited by Academic and Romantic painters like Jean Antoine Théodore de Gudin and Jules Achille Noël who were looking for dramatic seascapes and storms.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3466730, 2763800, 380097, 18976459, 15169, 64719, 165441, 63135, 7422681, 5963734, 18400374, 9198414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 141 ], [ 304, 313 ], [ 344, 358 ], [ 366, 386 ], [ 402, 415 ], [ 458, 470 ], [ 472, 483 ], [ 485, 497 ], [ 499, 512 ], [ 517, 530 ], [ 615, 645 ], [ 650, 668 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the early 1970s, Brittany has experienced a tremendous revival of its folk music. Numerous festivals were created, along with smaller fest-noz (popular feasts). The bagadoù, bands composed of bagpipes, bombards and drums (including snare), are also a modern creation, inspired by the Scottish pipe bands. The Lann-Bihoué bagad, one of the most well-known, belongs to the French Navy. It is the only one that does not take part to the annual bagadoù competitions. Celtic harp is also common, as are vocals and dances. The Kan ha diskan is the most common type of singing. The performers sing calls and responses while dancing. Breton dances usually imply circles, chains or couples and they are different in every region. The oldest dances seem to be the passepied and the gavotte, and the newest ones derive from the quadrille and French Renaissance dances.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1687254, 550629, 3950, 4606387, 27188, 246328, 8529227, 383256, 4880973, 3478560, 2492067, 460709, 423043, 1398990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 148 ], [ 171, 176 ], [ 198, 205 ], [ 208, 216 ], [ 238, 243 ], [ 299, 308 ], [ 315, 326 ], [ 377, 388 ], [ 469, 480 ], [ 527, 540 ], [ 760, 769 ], [ 778, 785 ], [ 823, 832 ], [ 837, 855 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1960s, several Breton artists started to use contemporary patterns to create a Breton pop music. Among them, Alan Stivell contributed most in popularising the Celtic harp and Breton music in the world. He also used American rock and roll in his works and influenced 1970s Breton bands such as Kornog, and Tri Yann, who revived traditional songs and made them popular across France. Soldat Louis is the main Breton rock band, and Breton singers include Gilles Servat, Glenmor, Dan Ar Braz, Yann-Fañch Kemener, Denez Prigent, Nolwenn Korbell and Nolwenn Leroy. The Manau Hip hop group from Paris has strong Breton and Celtic inspirations.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1260566, 4880973, 944644, 25412, 28097417, 730119, 19012961, 4256806, 29169718, 1528726, 15350818, 468295, 17385901, 2002856, 1405297, 18945847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 128 ], [ 166, 177 ], [ 222, 230 ], [ 231, 244 ], [ 300, 306 ], [ 313, 321 ], [ 390, 402 ], [ 460, 473 ], [ 475, 482 ], [ 484, 495 ], [ 497, 515 ], [ 517, 530 ], [ 532, 547 ], [ 552, 565 ], [ 571, 576 ], [ 577, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Yann Tiersen, who composed the soundtrack for Amélie, the Electro band Yelle and the avant-garde singer Brigitte Fontaine are also from Brittany. The 19th-century composer Louis-Albert Bourgault-Ducoudray was one of the first western European composers to be influenced by what is now known as world music.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 940388, 44302, 446771, 12027990, 76095, 153948, 15638244, 33134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 46, 52 ], [ 58, 65 ], [ 71, 76 ], [ 85, 96 ], [ 104, 121 ], [ 172, 204 ], [ 294, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2022, Alvan and Ahez have been selected to represent France in the Eurovision Song Contest 2022. Their song, Fulenn, is sung entirely in Breton and is about the legend of Katel Kollet, a lady who dances with the devil.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 70238220, 70237942, 65225795, 70238110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 14 ], [ 19, 23 ], [ 70, 98 ], [ 112, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany is closely associated with the Matter of Britain and King Arthur. According to Wace, Brocéliande is located in Brittany and it is nowadays considered to be Paimpont forest. There, ruins of a castle surrounded by a lake are associated with the Lady of the Lake, a dolmen is said to be Merlin's tomb and a path is presented as Morgan le Fay's Val sans Retour. Tristan and Iseult are also said to have lived in Brittany. Another major Breton legend is the story about Ys, a city swallowed by the ocean.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 275301, 16808, 141591, 2577394, 3247906, 181657, 8608, 71537160, 352603, 5084309, 2358061, 288213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 57 ], [ 62, 73 ], [ 88, 92 ], [ 94, 105 ], [ 165, 180 ], [ 252, 268 ], [ 272, 278 ], [ 293, 306 ], [ 334, 347 ], [ 350, 365 ], [ 367, 385 ], [ 474, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Breton literature before the 19th century was mostly oral. The oral tradition entertained by medieval poets died out during the 15th century and books in Breton were very rare before 1850. At that time, local writers started to collect and publish local tales and legends and wrote original works. Published between 1925 and the Second World War, the literary journal Gwalarn favoured a modern Breton literature and helped translating widely known novels into Breton. After the war, the journal Al Liamm pursued that mission. Among the authors writing in Breton are Auguste Brizeux, a Romantic poet, the neo-Druidic bard Erwan Berthou, Théodore Hersart de La Villemarqué, who collected the local legends about King Arthur, Roparz Hemon, founder of Gwalarn, Pêr-Jakez Helias, Glenmor, Pêr Denez and Meavenn.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 4647, 32927, 17449216, 2884662, 33544044, 17414233, 2966088, 16808, 9581652, 17449216, 11769919, 29169718, 32631111, 22704490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 161 ], [ 331, 347 ], [ 370, 377 ], [ 569, 584 ], [ 607, 616 ], [ 624, 637 ], [ 639, 673 ], [ 713, 724 ], [ 726, 738 ], [ 751, 758 ], [ 760, 776 ], [ 778, 785 ], [ 787, 796 ], [ 801, 808 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Breton literature in French includes 19th-century historical novels by Émile Souvestre, travel journals by Anatole Le Braz, poems and novels by Charles Le Goffic, the works of the singer-songwriter Théodore Botrel and of the maritime writer Henri Queffélec. Brittany is also the birthplace of many French writers like François-René de Chateaubriand, Jules Verne, Ernest Renan, Félicité Robert de Lamennais and Pierre Abélard Max Jacob, Alfred Jarry, Victor Segalen, Xavier Grall, Jean Rouaud, Irène Frain, Herve Jaouen, Alain Robbe-Grillet, Pierre-Jakez Hélias, Tristan Corbière, Paul Féval, Jean Guéhenno, Arthur Bernède, André Breton, Patrick Poivre d'Arvor", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1873247, 11826674, 18968504, 21491301, 34266966, 165723, 15770, 191819, 212912, 37464286, 63076, 1869, 2748334, 628578, 2224302, 49576877, 671962, 11769919, 180894, 1646356, 22734312, 2677027, 55167, 915415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 86 ], [ 107, 122 ], [ 144, 161 ], [ 198, 213 ], [ 241, 256 ], [ 318, 348 ], [ 350, 361 ], [ 363, 375 ], [ 377, 405 ], [ 410, 424 ], [ 425, 434 ], [ 436, 448 ], [ 450, 464 ], [ 466, 478 ], [ 480, 491 ], [ 493, 504 ], [ 520, 539 ], [ 541, 560 ], [ 562, 578 ], [ 580, 590 ], [ 592, 605 ], [ 607, 621 ], [ 623, 635 ], [ 637, 659 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Asterix comics, set during the time of Julius Caesar and written in the second half of the twentieth century, are set in Armorica, now Brittany.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2101, 15924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ], [ 43, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Museum of Brittany, located in Rennes, was founded in 1856. Its collections are mainly dedicated to the history of the region. Museums dedicated to Prehistory and local megaliths are located in Carnac and Penmarch, while several towns like Vannes and Nantes have a museum presenting their own history.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 46132, 18994022, 332248, 462956, 2976313, 716980, 67453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 41 ], [ 152, 162 ], [ 173, 181 ], [ 198, 204 ], [ 209, 217 ], [ 244, 250 ], [ 255, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Museum of Fine Arts of Rennes owns a large collection of Egyptian, Greek and Roman antiquities as well as drawings and engravings by Domenico Ghirlandaio, Parmigianino, Albrecht Dürer and Rembrandt. Its French art collection gathers works by Georges de La Tour, François Boucher, Paul Gauguin, Auguste Rodin, Camille Corot and Robert Delaunay. It has also works by Pablo Picasso, Rubens, Peter Lely and Paolo Veronese. The collections of the Museum of Fine Arts of Nantes are more dedicated to modern and contemporary art and contain works by Edward Burne-Jones, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Eugène Delacroix, Gustave Courbet, Paul Signac, Tamara de Lempicka, Wassily Kandinsky, Max Ernst, Pierre Soulages and Piero Manzoni. The Museums of Fine Arts of Brest and Quimper offer similar collections, with large quantities of French painting together with the works of some Italian and Dutch artists. The Museum of Fine Arts Pont-Aven is dedicated to the School of Pont-Aven. Contemporary sculptures can be seen in the park around the Château de Kerguéhennec, in Bignan.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 27787666, 199689, 2213412, 2402, 4254144, 899342, 44517, 64719, 2065, 208687, 333376, 24176, 21463370, 7757263, 236906, 18718426, 178877, 48030, 169832, 209274, 165441, 161835, 33820, 42649, 3529404, 1347302, 57912, 290281, 2763800, 3466730, 13385469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 33 ], [ 137, 157 ], [ 159, 171 ], [ 173, 187 ], [ 192, 201 ], [ 246, 264 ], [ 266, 282 ], [ 284, 296 ], [ 298, 311 ], [ 313, 326 ], [ 331, 346 ], [ 369, 382 ], [ 384, 390 ], [ 392, 402 ], [ 407, 421 ], [ 446, 475 ], [ 547, 565 ], [ 567, 596 ], [ 598, 614 ], [ 616, 631 ], [ 633, 644 ], [ 646, 664 ], [ 666, 683 ], [ 685, 694 ], [ 696, 711 ], [ 716, 729 ], [ 759, 764 ], [ 769, 776 ], [ 928, 937 ], [ 958, 977 ], [ 1066, 1072 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Museums in Saint-Malo, Lorient and Douarnenez are dedicated to ships and maritime traditions and history. The Musée national de la Marine has a large annex in Brest and a submarine is opened to visitors in Lorient. In the same town, it is also possible to visit the Keroman Submarine Museum, and the Cité de la voile Éric Tabarly, a museum dedicated to sailing. In Saint-Nazaire, where many transatlantic ships were built, including and , a museum showing transatlantic interiors was installed in a Second World War base. Nantes has a museum dedicated to Jules Verne, a Natural History Museum and a museum of archaeology and design, the Musée Dobrée.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 196794, 328288, 2920081, 3719872, 328288, 34246870, 3679841, 427412, 319558, 32927, 19268328, 24572151, 30440261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 21 ], [ 23, 30 ], [ 35, 45 ], [ 110, 137 ], [ 206, 213 ], [ 266, 290 ], [ 317, 329 ], [ 365, 378 ], [ 391, 410 ], [ 500, 516 ], [ 536, 567 ], [ 571, 593 ], [ 638, 650 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany has a vibrant calendar of festivals and events. It hosts some of France's biggest contemporary music festivals, such as La Route du Rock in Saint-Malo, the Vieilles Charrues in Carhaix, the Rencontres Trans Musicales in Rennes, the Festival du Bout du Monde in Crozon, the Hellfest in Clisson and the Astropolis in Brest. The Festival Interceltique de Lorient welcomes each year participants all the Celtic nations and their diasporas. La Folle Journée, in Nantes, is the largest classical music festival in France.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 7318082, 196794, 5601992, 3718413, 1187358, 46132, 8665312, 8644558, 2652376, 4275883, 3857577, 11587599, 67453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 145 ], [ 149, 159 ], [ 165, 182 ], [ 186, 193 ], [ 199, 225 ], [ 229, 235 ], [ 270, 276 ], [ 282, 290 ], [ 294, 301 ], [ 335, 368 ], [ 409, 423 ], [ 445, 461 ], [ 466, 472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Breton culture is highlighted during the Fête de la Bretagne, which occurs in many places around Saint-Yves's day (19 May), and during the Festival de Cornouaille in Quimper. Several towns also organise historical re-enactments and events celebrating local traditions, such as the Filets Bleus in Concarneau which celebrates fishing.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 290281, 146646, 3174370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 177 ], [ 207, 230 ], [ 301, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany also has some film festivals like the Three Continents Festival in Nantes. The Utopiales international science fiction festival is held in the same city. Brest and Douarnenez both organise large tall ship meetings (See Brest Maritime Festival).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 11280628, 67453, 9507211, 2920081, 304374, 70443905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 72 ], [ 76, 82 ], [ 88, 97 ], [ 173, 183 ], [ 204, 213 ], [ 228, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Football, cycling and sailing are the three most popular sports in Brittany. Major football teams are the FC Nantes, the Stade Rennais F.C., the FC Lorient, the Stade Brestois 29, the Vannes OC and the En Avant de Guingamp. Professional footballers coming from the region also form the Brittany national football team which sometimes plays with national teams.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 10568, 1135276, 1004187, 4353097, 4353185, 6611149, 1693070, 8461286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 106, 115 ], [ 121, 139 ], [ 145, 155 ], [ 161, 178 ], [ 184, 193 ], [ 202, 222 ], [ 286, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several Bretons have won the Tour de France: Bernard Hinault, Louison Bobet, Jean Robic and Lucien Petit-Breton as riders, and Cyrille Guimard as a directeur sportif.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 30498, 284767, 288607, 3613231, 1112439, 2001740, 4627336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 43 ], [ 45, 60 ], [ 62, 75 ], [ 77, 87 ], [ 92, 111 ], [ 127, 142 ], [ 148, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sailing is particularly important for sea-resorts like La Trinité-sur-Mer, Pornichet, Concarneau, Lorient and the îles de Glénan, where a prestigious school is located. A great number of Bretons have become acclaimed sailors, such as: Éric Tabarly, Loïck Peyron, Jean Le Cam, Michel Desjoyeaux, Olivier de Kersauson, Thomas Coville, Vincent Riou and Marc Pajot. The Route du Rhum, the Transat Québec-Saint-Malo, the Jules Verne Trophy are the main Breton sailing competitions. The Solitaire du Figaro stages often start in Brittany.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 5066427, 15810455, 3174370, 328288, 1869876, 3679841, 26295790, 12794784, 5143446, 9029364, 35274644, 16002584, 31088050, 5143832, 34236788, 763958, 19602192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 73 ], [ 75, 84 ], [ 86, 96 ], [ 98, 105 ], [ 114, 128 ], [ 235, 247 ], [ 249, 261 ], [ 263, 274 ], [ 276, 293 ], [ 295, 315 ], [ 317, 331 ], [ 333, 345 ], [ 350, 360 ], [ 366, 379 ], [ 385, 410 ], [ 416, 434 ], [ 481, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gouren, a style of folk wrestling, is the most popular Breton sport. The Boule bretonne is related to pétanque. The Palets, common in Upper Brittany and in other French regions, is also related to pétanque, but players use iron disks instead of balls and they have to throw them on a wooden board. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1636084, 3601700, 35618512, 65964, 26809618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 19, 33 ], [ 73, 87 ], [ 102, 110 ], [ 134, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gaelic football is also a growing sport in the region, with club teams and a 'county' GAA team representing Brittany against other European 'counties' such as Galicia.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 37688, 243648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 86, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Muscadet and Gros Plant white wines are produced south of the Loire, the traditional drink of Brittany is cider. Brittany is the second-largest cider-producing region in France. Breton cider is traditionally served in a bowl or a cup. Brittany also has a long beer-brewing tradition, tracing its roots back to the 17th century. Young artisanal brewers are keeping a variety of beer types alive, such as Coreff de Morlaix, Tri Martolod and Britt. Stronger alcohols include the chouchen, a sort of mead made with wild honey, and an apple eau de vie called lambig.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1781658, 31464821, 19614253, 993294, 37743, 1521053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 17 ], [ 71, 76 ], [ 115, 120 ], [ 485, 493 ], [ 505, 509 ], [ 545, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crêpes and galettes are the two most well-known Breton dishes. The crêpes, made and served with butter, are eaten for dessert and the galettes are usually salty and made with buckwheat. They traditionally replaced bread as basic food and they can be served with cheese, sausages, bacon, mushrooms or eggs. They can be accompanied by Breton buttermilk called lait ribot. Brittany also has a dish similar to the pot-au-feu known as the kig ha farz, which consists of stewed pork or beef with buckwheat dumplings.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 333355, 1386361, 80169, 235923, 2586650, 26299356, 80169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 11, 18 ], [ 175, 184 ], [ 340, 350 ], [ 410, 420 ], [ 434, 445 ], [ 490, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Surrounded by the sea, Brittany offers a wide range of fresh seafood and fish, especially mussels and oysters. Among the seafood specialities is a fish stew called cotriade. The beurre blanc sauce, invented in Saint-Julien-de-Concelles, close to Nantes, is often served with fish. Brittany is also known for its salt, mainly harvested around Guérande and used in butter and milk caramels. The region is notable for its biscuit factories, many towns having their own: Quimper, Lorient, Pont-Aven, Saint-Brieuc, BN and LU in Nantes, La Trinitaine in La Trinité-sur-Mer, and Galettes Saint-Michel in Saint-Michel-Chef-Chef. They usually make their biscuits with salted butter and sell them in iron boxes. Famous Breton pastries include the kouign amann (\"butter cake\" in Breton) made with bread dough and high quantities of butter and sugar, and the far, a sort of sweet Yorkshire pudding usually made with plums.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 144156, 133824, 1187582, 310848, 15810226, 67453, 9325693, 290281, 328288, 2763800, 474848, 6811448, 67453, 5066427, 15810244, 67062, 1171923, 26618931, 38537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 96 ], [ 102, 108 ], [ 164, 172 ], [ 178, 190 ], [ 210, 235 ], [ 246, 252 ], [ 342, 350 ], [ 467, 474 ], [ 476, 483 ], [ 485, 494 ], [ 496, 508 ], [ 517, 519 ], [ 523, 529 ], [ 548, 566 ], [ 597, 619 ], [ 716, 724 ], [ 737, 749 ], [ 848, 851 ], [ 869, 886 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until the 1970s, the Breton road network was poor because maritime and rail transport prevailed. The French president Charles de Gaulle implemented a major road construction plan in the 1970 and Brittany received over 10billion francs of investments during 25 years. More than 10,000km of motorways were built, permitting Breton road transport to multiply by four. The Breton motorways are not toll roads, contrarily to the usual French highways.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 51255, 444835, 2411002, 79726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 135 ], [ 228, 234 ], [ 289, 298 ], [ 394, 403 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main road artery linking cities and other settlements along the north coast is the Route nationale 12 which connects the cities of Rennes, Saint-Brieuc, Morlaix and Brest. It also provides a link to southern Normandy, terminating in Paris. In south Brittany the Route nationale 165 performs a similar role along the south coast providing connections between Nantes, Vannes, Lorient, Quimper and Brest. The Route nationale 164 crosses the centre of the peninsula and connects Rennes to Loudéac, Carhaix and Châteaulin, and the Route nationale 166 links Rennes to Vannes. The Route nationale 137 provides connections between Saint-Malo, Rennes and Nantes and terminates in Bordeaux.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 8288705, 46132, 474848, 1653967, 57912, 21724, 10158790, 67453, 716980, 328288, 290281, 57912, 46132, 15085473, 3718413, 3100929, 46132, 716980, 196794, 46132, 67453, 4097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 105 ], [ 135, 141 ], [ 143, 155 ], [ 157, 164 ], [ 169, 174 ], [ 212, 220 ], [ 266, 285 ], [ 362, 368 ], [ 370, 376 ], [ 378, 385 ], [ 387, 394 ], [ 399, 404 ], [ 479, 485 ], [ 489, 496 ], [ 498, 505 ], [ 510, 520 ], [ 556, 562 ], [ 566, 572 ], [ 627, 637 ], [ 639, 645 ], [ 650, 656 ], [ 675, 683 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nantes is linked to Paris by the A11 autoroute, and Rennes is both on the A81 autoroute to Paris and the A84 autoroute to Caen. These highways are standard French toll roads.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 67453, 8645886, 46132, 8969005, 8969772, 92443, 79726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 33, 46 ], [ 52, 58 ], [ 74, 87 ], [ 105, 118 ], [ 122, 126 ], [ 163, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The biggest Breton airport is Nantes Atlantique Airport. Destination served include the United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, Ireland and Morocco. The Brest Bretagne Airport is the second airport in Brittany. It is followed by Rennes – Saint-Jacques, Lorient South Brittany and Dinard – Saint-Malo. The Saint-Brieuc – Armor airport serves flights between Brittany and the Channel Islands. Others smaller airport operates domestic flights in Quimper, and Lannion.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 2320394, 5390591, 4736312, 8529227, 5390601, 22936781, 5643, 9284243, 13289861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 55 ], [ 145, 167 ], [ 221, 243 ], [ 245, 267 ], [ 272, 291 ], [ 297, 317 ], [ 366, 381 ], [ 435, 442 ], [ 448, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany is on two major TGV lines, one linking Paris to Nantes and Le Croisic, on the south coast, and another linking Paris to Rennes and Brest. An extension of the LGV Atlantique, which stops at Le Mans, was completed in 2017, bringing the line to Rennes. This extension is known as the LGV Bretagne-Pays de la Loire. TGV services also link the region with major cities in France such as Lyon, Strasbourg, Marseille, and Lille. Regional services are operated by TER Bretagne providing connections between small towns such as Vannes, Carhaix, Roscoff and Paimpol. TER Bretagne also manages coach lines and connections between Rennes and Nantes. TER Pays de la Loire operates trains between Nantes and smaller towns in Loire-Atlantique.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 57212, 67453, 15810339, 46132, 57912, 3642095, 46132, 3642186, 8638634, 37407, 40888948, 50116, 4498296, 716980, 3718413, 1788010, 1058969, 4498308, 90579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 28 ], [ 57, 63 ], [ 68, 78 ], [ 129, 135 ], [ 140, 145 ], [ 167, 181 ], [ 251, 257 ], [ 290, 319 ], [ 391, 395 ], [ 397, 407 ], [ 409, 418 ], [ 424, 429 ], [ 465, 477 ], [ 528, 534 ], [ 536, 543 ], [ 545, 552 ], [ 557, 564 ], [ 647, 667 ], [ 720, 736 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are ferry services that take passengers, vehicles and freight to Ireland, the United Kingdom and the Channel Islands. The main companies are Brittany Ferries which operates lines between Plymouth and Roscoff, Portsmouth and Saint-Malo, and Roscoff and Cork. Irish Ferries operates the route Rosslare-Roscoff and Condor Ferries link Saint-Malo with Jersey.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 30864695, 23508, 1788010, 24207, 196794, 1788010, 8140815, 977707, 584518, 1788010, 4287121, 196794, 15693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 163 ], [ 193, 201 ], [ 206, 213 ], [ 215, 225 ], [ 230, 240 ], [ 246, 253 ], [ 258, 262 ], [ 264, 277 ], [ 297, 305 ], [ 306, 313 ], [ 318, 332 ], [ 338, 348 ], [ 354, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cycling has always been one of the main sports of Brittany, but leisure cycling and the infrastructure to support it have been growing extremely rapidly. An extensive network of cycle paths and recommended cycle routes has opened up all over the region. Some of these are routes using mainly smaller roads and both signposted and maintained by communes individually, but many are based on dedicated cycle paths often formed by converting disused railway tracks. These help form routes such as 'Vélodyssée' from Roscoff to Nantes and several major routes under the 'V' label (following signs V1, V2 etc.). The old tow-path of the Nantes-Brest canal is now open to cyclists along its entire 385km length though in places (unlike rail-based cycle paths) it is very meandering and leaving the path will both shorten the distance and provide variety.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As a general rule cyclists are very well respected in the region and many larger towns have cycle-lanes – however traffic is 'cycle-friendly' even in their absence.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The modern flag of Brittany was designed in 1923. It is called Gwenn ha Du (\"white and black\" in Breton) and it features eleven ermine spots (their number may vary) and nine stripes, the black ones represent the Breton speaking historical dioceses, and the white ones symbolise the gallo speaking dioceses. The flag was created to replace the traditional ermine plain standard, considered too aristocratic and royalist. It was inspired by the American flag and the British Red Ensign. Since the 1920s, the flag has become very popular and it is flown from a large number of institutions. Apart from the ermine flag, Breton historic banners include the Kroaz Du, a white flag with a black cross, the perfect negative of the Cornish flag.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 1119198, 4647, 3716706, 693712, 11447, 201877, 3728952, 347411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ], [ 97, 103 ], [ 128, 134 ], [ 282, 287 ], [ 443, 456 ], [ 473, 483 ], [ 652, 660 ], [ 723, 735 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The coat of arms of Brittany, ermine plain, was adopted by John III in 1316. Ermine had been used in Brittany long before, and there is no clue to its origin. It was probably chosen by the dukes because of its similarity with the French fleur-de-lis. The ermine, or stoat, as an animal became the badge of John IV at the end of the 14th century. It appeared later on numerous locations, including churches and castles. According to popular traditions, Anne of Brittany was hunting with her court when she saw a white ermine who preferred to die than to cross a dirty marsh. This episode would have inspired the duchess' motto : \"Potius mori quam foedari\" (\"rather death than dishonour\"). The motto has later been reused by Breton regiments, local World War II Resistants and cultural movements.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 640279, 96957, 87851, 1587447, 640415, 642214, 2544872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 67 ], [ 237, 249 ], [ 255, 261 ], [ 297, 302 ], [ 306, 313 ], [ 452, 468 ], [ 747, 770 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Breton anthem, although not official, is Bro Gozh ma Zadoù – (\"Old Land of My Fathers\"). It re-employs both the Welsh anthem's music and that of \"Bro Goth agan Tasow\" (the national anthem of Cornwall; its lyrics were written at the end of the 19th century).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 754791, 13561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 62 ], [ 116, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Colloquial Breton emblems include the Celtic triskelion, the menhirs and dolmens, local dishes such as the galettes, the Bigouden headdress and the traditional black round hat, the fisherman and his yellow raincoat, etc. BZH is a common abbreviation for \"Breizh\" (\"Brittany\" in Breton) and people often put BZH stickers on their car-plates, although it is forbidden under French laws. .bzh is an approved Internet top level domain for the Breton culture and languages.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 449938, 276909, 8608, 1386361, 21043136, 8543565, 31115, 3362281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 55 ], [ 61, 67 ], [ 73, 79 ], [ 107, 114 ], [ 121, 129 ], [ 385, 389 ], [ 414, 430 ], [ 439, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brigantes, Breton Celtic tribe associated with Northern England", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 650928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Politics of Brittany", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21435212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Great Britain in French as Grande-Bretagne", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13530298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brittany: in the West, the end of the world – Official French website ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The official website for Brittany Tourism – Brittany Regional Tourist Board", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The official Région Bretagne website", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Brittany", "Celtic_nations", "Members_of_the_Unrepresented_Nations_and_Peoples_Organization", "Peninsulas_of_France" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Juggling is a physical skill, performed by a juggler, involving the manipulation of objects for recreation, entertainment, art or sport. The most recognizable form of juggling is toss juggling. Juggling can be the manipulation of one object or many objects at the same time, most often using one or two hands but also possible with feet. Jugglers often refer to the objects they juggle as props. The most common props are balls, clubs, or rings. Some jugglers use more dramatic objects such as knives, fire torches or chainsaws. The term juggling can also commonly refer to other prop-based manipulation skills, such as diabolo, plate spinning, devil sticks, poi, cigar boxes, contact juggling, hooping, yo-yo, and hat manipulation.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14894500, 1140209, 9805446, 888188, 10049896, 3650840, 2726665, 235083, 252653, 2179894, 357399, 1968196, 1425297, 148593, 14797488, 104524, 4338531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 91 ], [ 179, 192 ], [ 422, 426 ], [ 429, 434 ], [ 439, 444 ], [ 494, 500 ], [ 502, 514 ], [ 518, 526 ], [ 620, 627 ], [ 629, 643 ], [ 645, 657 ], [ 659, 662 ], [ 664, 675 ], [ 677, 693 ], [ 695, 702 ], [ 704, 709 ], [ 715, 731 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The words juggling and juggler derive from the Middle English jogelen (\"to entertain by performing tricks\"), which in turn is from the Old French jangler. There is also the Late Latin form joculare of Latin joculari, meaning \"to jest\". Although the etymology of the terms juggler and juggling in the sense of manipulating objects for entertainment originates as far back as the 11th century, the current sense of to juggle, meaning \"to continually toss objects in the air and catch them\", originates from the late 19th century.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 50711, 329806, 320082, 852563, 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 61 ], [ 88, 105 ], [ 135, 145 ], [ 173, 183 ], [ 201, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the 12th to the 17th century, juggling and juggler were the terms most consistently used to describe acts of magic, though some have called the term juggling a lexicographical nightmare, stating that it is one of the least understood relating to magic. In the 21st century, the term juggling usually refers to toss juggling, where objects are continuously thrown into the air and caught again, repeating in a rhythmical pattern.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 25152964, 18483, 1140209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 119 ], [ 165, 178 ], [ 315, 328 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to James Ernest in his book Contact Juggling, most people will describe juggling as \"throwing and catching things\"; however, a juggler might describe the act as \"a visually complex or physically challenging feat using one or more objects\". David Levinson and Karen Christensen describe juggling as \"the sport of tossing and catching or manipulating objects [...] keeping them in constant motion\". \"Juggling, like music, combines abstract patterns and mind-body coordination in a pleasing way.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 7389142, 3313340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 423, 428 ], [ 461, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest record of juggling is suggested in a panel from the 15th (1994 to 1781 B.C.) Beni Hasan tomb of an unknown Egyptian prince, showing female dancers and acrobats throwing balls. Juggling has been recorded in many early cultures including Egyptian, Nabataean, Chinese, Indian, Greek, Roman, Norse, Aztec (Mexico) and Polynesian civilizations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 2073773, 13588, 18582314, 5760, 13890, 565594, 21967718, 153473, 4885862, 20611385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 100 ], [ 249, 257 ], [ 259, 268 ], [ 270, 277 ], [ 279, 285 ], [ 287, 292 ], [ 294, 299 ], [ 301, 306 ], [ 308, 313 ], [ 327, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Juggling in ancient China was an art performed by some warriors. One such warrior was Xiong Yiliao, whose juggling of nine balls in front of troops on a battlefield reportedly caused the opposing troops to flee without fighting, resulting in a complete victory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 34585251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Europe, juggling was an acceptable diversion until the decline of the Roman Empire, after which the activity fell into disgrace. Throughout the Middle Ages, most histories were written by religious clerics who frowned upon the type of performers who juggled, called gleemen, accusing them of base morals or even practicing witchcraft. Jugglers in this era would only perform in marketplaces, streets, fairs, or drinking houses. They would perform short, humorous and bawdy acts and pass a hat or bag among the audience for tips. Some kings' and noblemen’s bards, fools, or jesters would have been able to juggle or perform acrobatics, though their main skills would have been oral (poetry, music, comedy and storytelling).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 923406, 18836, 23558839, 33959, 9801859, 471845, 37263123, 79504, 78135, 207038, 22926, 18839, 20914042, 81450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 85 ], [ 147, 158 ], [ 269, 276 ], [ 326, 336 ], [ 381, 392 ], [ 492, 495 ], [ 499, 502 ], [ 559, 563 ], [ 566, 583 ], [ 626, 636 ], [ 685, 691 ], [ 693, 698 ], [ 700, 706 ], [ 711, 723 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1768, Philip Astley opened the first modern circus. A few years later, he employed jugglers to perform acts along with the horse and clown acts. Since then, jugglers have been associated with circuses.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 271290, 156999, 5928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ], [ 47, 53 ], [ 136, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 19th century, troupes from Asia, such as the famous \"Indian Jugglers\" referred to by William Hazlitt, arrived to tour Britain, Europe and parts of America.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 161961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 19th century, variety and music hall theatres became more popular, and jugglers were in demand to fill time between music acts, performing in front of the curtain while sets were changed. Performers started specializing in juggling, separating it from other kinds of performance such as sword swallowing and magic. The Gentleman juggling style was established by German jugglers such as Salerno and Kara. Rubber processing developed, and jugglers started using rubber balls. Previously, juggling balls were made from balls of twine, stuffed leather bags, wooden spheres, or various metals. Solid or inflatable rubber balls meant that bounce juggling was possible. Inflated rubber balls made ball spinning easier and more readily accessible. Soon in North America, vaudeville theatres employed jugglers, often hiring European performers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 326433, 232692, 1560690, 25152964, 38393, 1810027, 48235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 28 ], [ 33, 43 ], [ 294, 310 ], [ 315, 320 ], [ 412, 418 ], [ 533, 538 ], [ 771, 781 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early to mid-20th century, variety and vaudeville shows decreased in popularity due to competition from motion picture theatres, radio and television, and juggling suffered as a result. Music and comedy transferred very easily to radio, but juggling could not. In the early years of TV, when variety-style programming was popular, jugglers were often featured; but developing a new act for each new show, week after week, was more difficult for jugglers than other types of entertainers; comedians and musicians can pay others to write their material, but jugglers cannot get other people to learn new skills on their behalf.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 21555729, 15368428, 29831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 125 ], [ 136, 141 ], [ 146, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The International Jugglers' Association, founded in 1947, began as an association for professional vaudeville jugglers, but restrictions for membership were eventually changed, and non-performers were permitted to join and attend the annual conventions. The IJA continues to hold an annual convention each summer and runs a number of other programs dedicated to advance the art of juggling worldwide.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 6048539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "World Juggling Day was created as an annual day of recognition for the hobby, with the intent to teach people how to juggle, to promote juggling and to get jugglers together and celebrate. It is held on the Saturday in June closest to the 17th, the founding date of the International Jugglers' Association.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Most cities and large towns now have juggling clubs. These are often based within, or connected to, universities and colleges. There are also community circus groups that teach young people and put on shows. The Juggling Edge maintains a searchable database of most juggling clubs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since the 1980s, a juggling culture has developed. The scene revolves around local clubs and organizations, special events, shows, magazines, web sites, internet forums and, possibly most importantly, juggling conventions. In recent years, there has also been a growing focus on juggling competitions. Juggling today has evolved and branched out to the point where it is synonymous with all prop manipulation. The wide variety of the juggling scene can be seen at any juggling convention.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 2189319, 3360333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 201, 220 ], [ 279, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Juggling conventions or festivals form the backbone of the juggling scene. The focus of most of these conventions is the main space used for open juggling. There will also be more formal workshops in which expert jugglers will work with small groups on specific skills and techniques. Most juggling conventions also include a main show (open to the general public), competitions, and juggling games.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Juggling can be categorised by various criteria:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Popular forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Professional or amateur", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Popular forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Juggling up until the latter half of the 20th century has been principally practised as a profession. Since the 1960s, and even more so from the 1980s, juggling has also been practiced as a hobby. The popularity of juggling acts performing outside the circus has meant an increase in the number of professional jugglers in the last thirty years. Festivals, fairs, retail promotions and corporate events have all booked juggling acts. The increase in hobby juggling has resulted in juggling stores opening and numerous juggling conventions being run to fulfill the needs of an increasingly popular pastime.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Popular forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Objects juggled", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Popular forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Balls, clubs, rings, diabolos, devil sticks, shaker cups, and cigar boxes are several types of objects that are commonly juggled. Other objects, such as scarves, knives, fruits and vegetables, flaming torches and chainsaws, have also been used.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Popular forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Method of juggling", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Popular forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The best known type of juggling is toss juggling, which is throwing and catching objects in the air without the objects touching the ground. Bounce juggling is bouncing objects (usually balls) off the ground. Contact juggling is manipulating the object in constant contact with the body. One division of juggling by method is into toss, balancing (equilibristics), gyroscopic (spin), and contact juggling.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Popular forms", "target_page_ids": [ 41405384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trick juggling", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Popular forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " This type of juggling involves performing tricks of varying levels of difficulty. The tricks can use the basic patterns of toss juggling but add more difficult levels of object manipulation. Other tricks can be independent of these basic patterns and involve other variations of object manipulation. Many patterns and tricks can be described using Siteswap Notation and is commonly used to share patterns between Jugglers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Popular forms", "target_page_ids": [ 520099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 349, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Number of objects juggled", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Popular forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Numbers juggling is the goal of juggling as many objects as possible. This is often the initial goal of beginner jugglers, as it is commonly seen in the circus and stage juggling acts. Numbers juggling records are noted by a number of organisations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Popular forms", "target_page_ids": [ 1598857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Number of jugglers", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Popular forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Juggling is most commonly performed by an individual. However, multiple-person juggling is also popular and is performed by two or more people. Various methods of passing the objects between the jugglers is used — this can be through the air (as in toss juggling), bounced off the ground, simply handed over, or a number of other ways depending on the objects and the style of juggling. For example, one variation is where two club jugglers stand facing each other, each juggling a three-club pattern themselves, but then simultaneously passing between each other. Another variation is where the jugglers are back-to-back, and (usually) any passes to the other person travel over their heads.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Popular forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sport (competitive) juggling", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Popular forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Juggling has more recently developed as a competitive sport by organizations such as the World Juggling Federation. Sport juggling competitions reward pure technical ability and give no extra credit for showmanship or for juggling with props such as knives or torches. Albert Lucas created the first sport juggling organization in the early nineties − the International Sport Juggling Federation, which promotes joggling and other athletic forms of juggling.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Popular forms", "target_page_ids": [ 25778403, 5597735, 11581710, 3360349, 3248644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 60 ], [ 90, 115 ], [ 204, 215 ], [ 270, 282 ], [ 413, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is no organisation that tracks all juggling world records.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "World records", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Toss juggling and club passing world records used to be tracked by the Juggling Information Service Committee on Numbers Juggling (JISCON) (now defunct). Some records are tracked by Guinness World Records.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "World records", "target_page_ids": [ 100796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most footballs (soccer balls) juggled simultaneously is five and was achieved by Victor Rubilar (Argentina) at the Gallerian Shopping Centre in Stockholm, Sweden, on 4 November 2006. This was equaled by Marko Vermeer (Netherlands) in Amstelveen, Netherlands, on 11 August 2014 and Isidro Silveira (Spain), in Adeje, Tenerife, Spain, on 4 November 2015.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "World records", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Professional jugglers perform in a number of different styles, which are not mutually exclusive. These juggling styles have developed or been introduced over time with some becoming more popular at some times than others.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Performance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Traditional circus-style juggling emphasises high levels of skill and sometimes large-scale props to enable the act to \"fill\" the circus ring. The juggling act may involve some comedy or other circus skills such as acrobatics, but the principal focus is the technical skill of the jugglers. Costumes are usually colourful with sequins. Variations within this style include the traditions from Chinese and Russian circus.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Performance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Comedy juggling acts vary greatly in their skill level, prop use and costuming. However, they all share the fact that the focus of the performance is comedic rather than a demonstration of technical juggling skill. Comedy juggling acts are most commonly seen in street performance, festivals and fairs.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Performance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gentleman juggling was popular in variety theatres and usually involves juggling some of the elements of a gentleman's attire, namely hats, canes, gloves, cigars, and other everyday items such as plates and wine bottles. The style is often sophisticated and visual rather than comedic, though it has been interpreted in many different styles. French juggler Gaston Palmer, for example, gained a kind of notoriety for his comedic execution of gentleman juggling tricks.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Performance", "target_page_ids": [ 372921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jugglers perform themed acts, sometimes with specifically themed props and usually in themed costumes. Examples include jesters, pirates, sports, Victorians and chefs.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Performance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jugglers commonly feature in circuses, with many performers having enjoyed a star billing. Circus jugglers come from many countries and include those from Russia and other Eastern European countries, China, Latin America and other European countries. Some of the greatest jugglers from the past 50 years are from Eastern Europe, including Sergej Ignatov, Andrii Kolesnikov, Evgenij Biljauer, and Gregory Popovich.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Venues", "target_page_ids": [ 25391, 5396367, 40800650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 161 ], [ 339, 353 ], [ 396, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Variety theatres have a long history of including juggling acts on their billing. Vaudeville in the USA and Music halls in the UK regularly featured jugglers during the heyday of variety theatre in the first half of 20th century. Variety theatre has declined in popularity but is still present in many European countries, particularly Germany. Television talent shows have introduced juggling acts to a wider audience with the newest examples being Britain's Got Talent and America's Got Talent.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Venues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In North America jugglers have often performed in casinos, in places like Las Vegas. Germany and the United States have produced some of the greatest jugglers from the past 50 years, most notably Francis Brunn from Germany and Anthony Gatto from the United States.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Venues", "target_page_ids": [ 5215, 11867, 4586339, 2019760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 56 ], [ 85, 92 ], [ 196, 209 ], [ 227, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a wide variety of festivals and fairs where juggling acts are sometimes booked to perform. Music, food and arts festivals have all booked professional performers. The festivals can range from very large scale events such as Glastonbury Festival to small town or village fairs. The acts may differ from year to year or a one-act may become a regular feature at these yearly events.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Venues", "target_page_ids": [ 79026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 233, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Renaissance fairs in North America and medieval fairs in Europe often book professional jugglers. Other historically themed events such as Victorian, maritime, and large-scale festivals of history such as the one organised by English Heritage regularly employ juggling acts as part of the event.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Venues", "target_page_ids": [ 99308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many countries such as the UK, USA, Australia, Spain, France jugglers perform on the street (busking). Street juggling acts usually perform what is known as a circle show and collect money at the end of the performance in a hat or bottle. Most street jugglers perform comedy juggling acts. Well known locations for this kind of street performance include Covent Garden in London, Faneuil Hall in Boston, Outside the Pump Rooms in Bath, Prince's Street in Edinburgh, outside the Pompidou Centre in Paris, Circular Quay in Sydney, and Pearl Street in Boulder.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Venues", "target_page_ids": [ 236424, 228744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 103 ], [ 234, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Juggling has been performed in space despite the fact that the micro-gravity environment of orbit deprives the juggled objects of the essential ability to fall. This was accomplished initially by Don Williams, as part of a Houston scientist's \"Toys In Space\" project, with apples and oranges.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Venues", "target_page_ids": [ 502728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 196, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two person juggling passing multiple objects between them was first accomplished in space by Greg Chamitoff and Richard Garriott while Garriott was visiting the International Space Station as a Spaceflight Participant in October 2008. Their juggling of objects while in orbit was featured in Apogee of Fear, the first science fiction movie made in space by Garriott and 'Zero-G Magic', a magic show also recorded in space by Chamitoff and Garriott at that time.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Venues", "target_page_ids": [ 6918749, 268957, 15043, 12924111, 22759151, 268957, 6918749, 268957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 107 ], [ 112, 128 ], [ 161, 188 ], [ 194, 217 ], [ 292, 306 ], [ 357, 365 ], [ 425, 434 ], [ 439, 447 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to an Oxford University study, juggling improves cerebral connectivity performance.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Health benefits", "target_page_ids": [ 31797, 487841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 33 ], [ 59, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anthony Gatto", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable jugglers", "target_page_ids": [ 2019760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Albert Lucas", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable jugglers", "target_page_ids": [ 3360349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alex Barron", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable jugglers", "target_page_ids": [ 35432870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sergej Ignatov", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable jugglers", "target_page_ids": [ 5396367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Air Jazz", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable jugglers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Francis Brunn & Lotti Brunn", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable jugglers", "target_page_ids": [ 4586339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bobby May", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable jugglers", "target_page_ids": [ 36268740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Enrico Rastelli", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable jugglers", "target_page_ids": [ 6195971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paul Cinquevalli", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable jugglers", "target_page_ids": [ 4108175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michael Moschen", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable jugglers", "target_page_ids": [ 3098423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jason Garfield", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable jugglers", "target_page_ids": [ 4278336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Luke Burrage", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable jugglers", "target_page_ids": [ 2279508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vova Galchenko", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable jugglers", "target_page_ids": [ 1302955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Dietz", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable jugglers", "target_page_ids": [ 976960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rudy Cardenas", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable jugglers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mathematics has been used to understand juggling as juggling has been used to test mathematics. The number of possible patterns n digits long using b or fewer balls is bn and the average of the numbers in a siteswap pattern equal the number of balls required for the pattern. For example, the number of three digit three ball patterns is 33 = 27, and the box, (4,2x)(2x,4), requires (4+2+4+2)/4 = 3 balls.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"The time that a ball spends in flight is proportional to the square root of the height of the throw,\" meaning that the number of balls used greatly increases the amount of speed or height required, which increases the need for accuracy between the direction and synchronization of throws.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Coupled oscillation and synchronization (\"the tendency of two limbs to move at the same frequency\") appear to be easier in all patterns and also required by certain patterns. For example, \"the fountain pattern...can be stably performed in two ways...one can perform the fountain with different frequencies for the two hands, but that coordination is difficult because of the tendency of the limbs to synchronize,\" while \"in the cascade...the crossing of the balls between the hands demands that one hand catches at the same rate that the other hand throws.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 22522, 28738, 10779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 24, 39 ], [ 88, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Claude Shannon, builder of the first juggling robot, developed a juggling theorem, relating the time balls spend in the air and in the hands: (F+D)H=(V+D)N, where F = time a ball spends in the air, D = time a ball spends in a hand/time a hand is full, V = time a hand is vacant, N = number of balls, and H = number of hands. For example, a hand's and a ball's perspectives in the two-hand (H) three-ball (N) cascade pattern:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 5693, 43616041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 37, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " toss: 1st 2nd 3rd", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " hand: D--VD—VD—V", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ball: D--F--D--F--", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " R L R", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " L R L", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(F+D)H=(V+D)N", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(3+3)2=(1+3)3", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "6×2=4×3", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "12=12", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Juggling tricks and patterns can become very complex, and hence can be difficult to communicate to others. Therefore, notation systems have been developed for specifying patterns, as well as for discovering new patterns.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Diagram-based notations are the clearest way to show juggling patterns on paper, but as they are based on images, their use is limited in text-based communication. Ladder diagrams track the path of all the props through time, where the less complicated causal diagrams only track the props that are in the air, and assumes that a juggler has a prop in each hand. Numeric notation systems are more popular and standardized than diagram-based notations. They are used extensively in both a written form and in normal conversations among jugglers.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 6672748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 253, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Siteswap is by far the most common juggling notation. Various heights of throw, considered to take specific \"beats\" of time to complete, are assigned a relative number. From those, a pattern is conveyed as a sequence of numbers, such as \"3\", \"744\", or \"97531\". Those examples are for two hands making alternating or \"asynchronous\" throws, and often called vanilla siteswap. For showing patterns in which both hands throw at the same time, there are other notating conventions for synchronous siteswap. There is also multiplex siteswap for patterns where one hand holds or throws two or more balls on the same beat. Other extensions to siteswap have been developed, including passing siteswap, Multi-Hand Notation (MHN), and General Siteswap (GS).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 520099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jugglers (category)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Flair bartending", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2094013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dancey, Charlie 1995 Compendium of Club Juggling Butterfingers, Bath .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dancey, Charlie 2001 Encyclopedia of Ball Juggling, Butterfingers, Devon .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Finnigan, Dave 1987 The Complete Juggler, Vintage Books, New York .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Summers, Kit 1987 Juggling with Finesse, Finesse Press, San Diego .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ziethen, Karl-Heinz & Serena, Alessandro 2003 Virtuosos of Juggling, Renegade Juggling, Santa Cruz .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ziethen, Karl-Heinz & Allen, Andrew 1985 Juggling: The Art and its Artists, Werner Rausch & Werner Luft Inc, Berlin .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Organizations", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The International Jugglers' Association (IJA) worldwide community of jugglers", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The European Jugglers' Association (EJA) European community of jugglers", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The World Juggling Federation (WJF) private company aimed at promoting competition-style juggling", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Extreme juggling hosts yearly competitions and releases DVDs of the competitors", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Resources", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Juggling Information Service - dated but has a huge amount of information (website)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 43643888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Juggling Edge - up to date events and club listings", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " r/juggling - juggling subreddit; active community", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Library of Juggling - detailed collection of toss juggling patterns", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A glossary of juggling terms", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " JIS Numbers Juggling Records - list of world juggling records", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Juggling", "Ball_games", "Street_performance", "Circus_skills", "Articles_containing_video_clips" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "arXiv (pronounced \"archive\"—the X represents the Greek letter chi ⟨χ⟩) is an open-access repository of electronic preprints and postprints (known as e-prints) approved for posting after moderation, but not peer review. It consists of scientific papers in the fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, electrical engineering, computer science, quantitative biology, statistics, mathematical finance and economics, which can be accessed online. In many fields of mathematics and physics, almost all scientific papers are self-archived on the arXiv repository before publication in a peer-reviewed journal. Some publishers also grant permission for authors to archive the peer-reviewed postprint. Begun on August 14, 1991, arXiv.org passed the half-million-article milestone on October 3, 2008, and had hit a million by the end of 2014. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 316723, 166706, 33545180, 158945, 3578992, 2170113, 33158412, 406618, 18831, 22939, 50650, 9531, 5323, 38710316, 26685, 33589680, 9223, 3205100, 3578992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 26 ], [ 49, 65 ], [ 77, 99 ], [ 114, 122 ], [ 128, 138 ], [ 149, 157 ], [ 206, 217 ], [ 234, 251 ], [ 269, 280 ], [ 282, 289 ], [ 291, 300 ], [ 302, 324 ], [ 326, 342 ], [ 344, 364 ], [ 366, 376 ], [ 378, 398 ], [ 403, 412 ], [ 520, 533 ], [ 684, 693 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of April 2021, the submission rate is about 16,000 articles per month.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "arXiv was made possible by the compact TeX file format, which allowed scientific papers to be easily transmitted over the Internet and rendered client-side. Around 1990, Joanne Cohn began emailing physics preprints to colleagues as TeX files, but the number of papers being sent soon filled mailboxes to capacity. Paul Ginsparg recognized the need for central storage, and in August 1991 he created a central repository mailbox stored at the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) which could be accessed from any computer. Additional modes of access were soon added: FTP in 1991, Gopher in 1992, and the World Wide Web in 1993. The term e-print was quickly adopted to describe the articles.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30065, 14539, 422784, 44934246, 22939, 91952, 29391159, 38145, 53289, 12794, 33139, 2170113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 42 ], [ 122, 130 ], [ 144, 155 ], [ 170, 181 ], [ 197, 204 ], [ 314, 327 ], [ 409, 419 ], [ 442, 472 ], [ 567, 570 ], [ 580, 586 ], [ 604, 618 ], [ 637, 644 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It began as a physics archive, called the LANL preprint archive, but soon expanded to include astronomy, mathematics, computer science, quantitative biology and, most recently, statistics. Its original domain name was xxx.lanl.gov. Due to LANL's lack of interest in the rapidly expanding technology, in 2001 Ginsparg changed institutions to Cornell University and changed the name of the repository to arXiv.org. It is now hosted principally by Cornell, with five mirrors around the world.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 38145, 39878, 7954422, 43594582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 46 ], [ 202, 213 ], [ 341, 359 ], [ 464, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ArXiv was an early adopter and promoter of preprints. Its success in sharing preprints was one of the precipitating factors that led to the later movement in scientific publishing known as open access. Mathematicians and scientists regularly upload their papers to arXiv.org for worldwide access and sometimes for reviews before they are published in peer-reviewed journals. Ginsparg was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship in 2002 for his establishment of arXiv. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 158945, 406618, 381219, 18902, 24116, 324572, 4222171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 52 ], [ 158, 179 ], [ 189, 200 ], [ 202, 215 ], [ 351, 364 ], [ 365, 373 ], [ 398, 418 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The annual budget for arXiv was approximately $826,000 for 2013 to 2017, funded jointly by Cornell University Library, the Simons Foundation (in both gift and challenge grant forms) and annual fee income from member institutions. This model arose in 2010, when Cornell sought to broaden the financial funding of the project by asking institutions to make annual voluntary contributions based on the amount of download usage by each institution. Each member institution pledges a five-year funding commitment to support arXiv. Based on institutional usage ranking, the annual fees are set in four tiers from $1,000 to $4,400. Cornell's goal is to raise at least $504,000 per year through membership fees generated by approximately 220institutions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 52934071, 18555641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 140 ], [ 159, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2011, Cornell University Library took overall administrative and financial responsibility for arXiv's operation and development. Ginsparg was quoted in the Chronicle of Higher Education as saying it \"was supposed to be a three-hour tour, not a life sentence\". However, Ginsparg remains on the arXiv's Scientific Advisory Board and its Physics Advisory Committee.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1473211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although arXiv is not peer reviewed, a collection of moderators for each area review the submissions; they may recategorize any that are deemed off-topic, or reject submissions that are not scientific papers, or sometimes for undisclosed reasons. The lists of moderators for many sections of arXiv are publicly available, but moderators for most of the physics sections remain unlisted.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Moderation process and endorsement", "target_page_ids": [ 24116, 27576302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 33 ], [ 89, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Additionally, an \"endorsement\" system was introduced in 2004 as part of an effort to ensure content is relevant and of interest to current research in the specified disciplines. Under the system, for categories that use it, an author must be endorsed by an established arXiv author before being allowed to submit papers to those categories. Endorsers are not asked to review the paper for errors, but to check whether the paper is appropriate for the intended subject area. New authors from recognized academic institutions generally receive automatic endorsement, which in practice means that they do not need to deal with the endorsement system at all. However, the endorsement system has attracted criticism for allegedly restricting scientific inquiry.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Moderation process and endorsement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A majority of the e-prints are also submitted to journals for publication, but some work, including some very influential papers, remain purely as e-prints and are never published in a peer-reviewed journal. A well-known example of the latter is an outline of a proof of Thurston's geometrization conjecture, including the Poincaré conjecture as a particular case, uploaded by Grigori Perelman in November 2002. Perelman appears content to forgo the traditional peer-reviewed journal process, stating: \"If anybody is interested in my way of solving the problem, it's all there let them go and read about it\". Despite this non-traditional method of publication, other mathematicians recognized this work by offering the Fields Medal and Clay Mathematics Millennium Prizes to Perelman, both of which he refused.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Moderation process and endorsement", "target_page_ids": [ 2170113, 37316, 220642, 23798, 225266, 10859, 27599234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 25 ], [ 49, 57 ], [ 272, 308 ], [ 324, 343 ], [ 378, 394 ], [ 720, 732 ], [ 737, 771 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While arXiv does contain some dubious e-prints, such as those claiming to refute famous theorems or proving famous conjectures such as Fermat's Last Theorem using only high-school mathematics, a 2002 article which appeared in Notices of the American Mathematical Society described those as \"surprisingly rare\". arXiv generally re-classifies these works, e.g. in \"General mathematics\", rather than deleting them; however, some authors have voiced concern over the lack of transparency in the arXiv screening process.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Moderation process and endorsement", "target_page_ids": [ 19021953, 4977512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 156 ], [ 226, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Papers can be submitted in any of several formats, including LaTeX, and PDF printed from a word processor other than TeX or LaTeX. The submission is rejected by the arXiv software if generating the final PDF file fails, if any image file is too large, or if the total size of the submission is too large. arXiv now allows one to store and modify an incomplete submission, and only finalize the submission when ready. The time stamp on the article is set when the submission is finalized.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Submission formats", "target_page_ids": [ 18195, 24077, 57307464, 27576302, 24077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 66 ], [ 72, 75 ], [ 91, 105 ], [ 135, 145 ], [ 204, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The standard access route is through the arXiv.org website or one of several mirrors. Other interfaces and access routes have also been created by other un-associated organisations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Access", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Metadata for arXiv is made available through OAI-PMH, the standard for open access repositories. Content is therefore indexed in all major consumers of such data, such as BASE, CORE and Unpaywall. As of 2020, the Unpaywall dump links over 500,000 arxiv URLs as the open access version of a work found in CrossRef data from the publishers, making arXiv a top 10 global host of green open access.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Access", "target_page_ids": [ 18933632, 905790, 33545180, 11253805, 44990267, 41518696, 381219, 8215683, 3205100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 45, 52 ], [ 71, 95 ], [ 171, 175 ], [ 177, 181 ], [ 186, 195 ], [ 265, 276 ], [ 304, 312 ], [ 376, 393 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finally, researchers can select sub-fields and receive daily e-mailings or RSS feeds of all submissions in them.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Access", "target_page_ids": [ 93489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Files on arXiv can have a number of different copyright statuses:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Copyright status of files", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some are public domain, in which case they will have a statement saying so.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Copyright status of files", "target_page_ids": [ 18935551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some are available under either the Creative Commons 4.0 Attribution-ShareAlike license or the Creative Commons 4.0 Attribution-Noncommercial-ShareAlike license.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Copyright status of files", "target_page_ids": [ 52272, 245719, 245719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 52 ], [ 57, 87 ], [ 116, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some are copyright to the publisher, but the author has the right to distribute them and has given arXiv a non-exclusive irrevocable license to distribute them.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Copyright status of files", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Most are copyright to the author, and arXiv has only a non-exclusive irrevocable license to distribute them.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Copyright status of files", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " List of preprint repositories", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 66113588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of academic databases and search engines", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1005923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of academic journals by preprint policy", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36778352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] } ]

[ "Eprint_archives", "Open-access_archives", "Open_science", "Physics_websites", "American_digital_libraries", "Internet_properties_established_in_1991", "1991_establishments_in_New_Mexico", "Cornell_University" ]

[ "arXiv.org", "archiv.org", "LANL preprint archive" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Retroviral integrase (IN) is an enzyme produced by a retrovirus (such as HIV) that integrates—forms covalent links between—its genetic information into that of the host cell it infects. Retroviral INs are not to be confused with phage integrases (recombinases) used in biotechnology, such as λ phage integrase, as discussed in site-specific recombination.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9257, 25799, 14170, 16832751, 6246, 4230, 10095073, 5545351, 4385154, 18310, 10095073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 38 ], [ 53, 63 ], [ 73, 76 ], [ 83, 93 ], [ 100, 108 ], [ 169, 173 ], [ 229, 245 ], [ 247, 259 ], [ 261, 282 ], [ 292, 299 ], [ 327, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The macromolecular complex of an IN macromolecule bound to the ends of the viral DNA ends has been referred to as the intasome; IN is a key component in this and the retroviral pre-integration complex.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 36128950, 106231, 16832751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 36, 49 ], [ 177, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All retroviral IN proteins contain three canonical domains, connected by flexible linkers:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "● an N-terminal HH-CC zinc-binding domain (a three-helical bundle stabilized by coordination of a Zn(II) cation)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 576704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "● a catalytic core domain (RNaseH fold)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "● a C-terminal DNA-binding domain (SH3 fold).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 576694, 29039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 18 ], [ 39, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crystal and NMR structures of the individual domains and 2-domain constructs of integrases from HIV-1, HIV-2, SIV, and Rous Sarcoma Virus (RSV) have been reported, with the first structures determined in 1994. Biochemical data and structural data suggest that retroviral IN functions as a tetramer (dimer-of-dimers), with all three domains being important for multimerization and viral DNA binding. In addition, several host cellular proteins have been shown to interact with IN to facilitate the integration process: e.g., the host factor, human chromatin-associated protein LEDGF, tightly binds HIV IN and directs the HIV pre-integration complex towards highly expressed genes for integration.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 391980, 4334732, 2424548, 14754783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 113 ], [ 119, 137 ], [ 289, 297 ], [ 576, 581 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Human foamy virus (HFV), an agent harmless to humans, has an integrase similar to HIV IN and is therefore a model of HIV IN function; a 2010 crystal structure of the HFV integrase assembled on viral DNA ends has been determined.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 4387868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Integration occurs following production of the double-stranded linear viral DNA by the viral RNA/DNA-dependent DNA polymerase reverse transcriptase.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Function and mechanism", "target_page_ids": [ 26214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main function of IN is to insert the viral DNA into the host chromosomal DNA, an essential step for HIV replication. Integration is a \"point of no return\" for the cell, which becomes a permanent carrier of the viral genome (provirus). Integration is in part responsible for the persistence of retroviral infections. After integration, the viral gene expression and particle production may take place immediately or at some point in the future, the timing depends on the activity of the chromosomal locus hosting the provirus.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Function and mechanism", "target_page_ids": [ 14170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Retroviral INs catalyzes two reactions:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Function and mechanism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "● 3'-processing, in which two or three nucleotides are removed from one or both 3' ends of the viral DNA to expose an invariant CA dinucleotide at both 3'-ends of the viral DNA.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Function and mechanism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "● the strand transfer reaction, in which the processed 3' ends of the viral DNA are covalently ligated to host chromosomal DNA.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Function and mechanism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Both reactions are catalyzed in the same active site, and involve transesterification without involving a covalent protein-DNA intermediate (in contrast to Ser/Tyr recombinase-catalyzed reactions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Function and mechanism", "target_page_ids": [ 190458, 6246, 10095073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 85 ], [ 106, 114 ], [ 156, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "HIV integrase is a 32kDa viral protein consisting of three domains- N-terminus, catalytic core domain, and C-terminus, which each have distinct properties and functions contributing to the efficacy of HIV integrase.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In HIV", "target_page_ids": [ 14170, 576704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ], [ 68, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The N-terminus is composed of 50 amino acid residues which contain a conserved histidine, histidine, cytosine, cytosine sequence which chelates zinc ions, furthermore enhancing the enzymatic activity of the catalytic core domain. As metal chelation is vital in integrase efficacy, it is a target for the development of retroviral therapies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In HIV", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The catalytic core domain, like the N-terminus, contains highly conserved amino acid residues -Asp64, Asp116, Glu152- as the conserved DDE (Asp-Asp-Glu) motif contributes to the endonuclease and polynucleotide transferase functions of integrase. Mutations in these regions inactivates integrase and prevents genome integration.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In HIV", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The C-terminus domain binds to host DNA non-specifically and stabilizes the integration complex.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In HIV", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Following synthesis of HIV's doubled stranded DNA genome, integrase binds to the long tandem repeats flanking the genome on both ends. Using its endonucleolytic activity, integrase cleaves a di or trinucleotide from both 3' ends of the genome in a processing known as 3'-processing. The specificity of cleavage is improved through the use of cofactors such as Mn2+ and Mg2+ which interact with the DDE motif of the catalytic core domain, acting as cofactors to integrase function.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In HIV", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The newly generated 3'OH groups disrupt the host DNA's phosphodiester linkages through SN2-type nucleophilic attack. The 3' ends are covalently linked to the target DNA. The 5' over hangs of the viral genome are then cleaved using host repair enzymes, those same enzymes are believed to be responsible for the integration of the 5' end into the host genome forming the provirus.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In HIV", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In November 2005, data from a phase 2 study of an investigational HIV integrase inhibitor, MK-0518, demonstrated that the compound has potent antiviral activity. On October 12, 2007, the Food and Drug Administration (U.S.) approved the integrase inhibitor Raltegravir (MK-0518, brand name Isentress). The second integrase inhibitor, elvitegravir, was approved in the U.S. in August 2012.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In HIV", "target_page_ids": [ 241717, 7798584, 6425364, 6425364, 14767972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 43 ], [ 70, 89 ], [ 91, 98 ], [ 256, 267 ], [ 333, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Integrase inhibitor", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7798584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Integron", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 867927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PDB-101 Molecule of the Month: 135 HIV Integrase", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Virology", "Enzymes", "Viral_enzymes" ]

[ "retroviral integrases" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Mercia (, ; ) was one of the three notable Anglic kingdoms founded after as Sub-Roman Britain was settled by Anglo-Saxons in an era called the Heptarchy. It was centred around the River Trent and its tributaries, in a region now known as the Midlands of England.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2136, 1902917, 37780, 19594141, 223529, 184077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 58 ], [ 76, 93 ], [ 109, 121 ], [ 143, 152 ], [ 180, 191 ], [ 242, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Latinisation of an Old English word derived from the Mercian dialect, , meaning \"borderland\" (from which the Modern English word march also comes), the kingdom was rendered as or in the West Saxon dialect. The name is still used as a geographic designation by a wide range of organisations: military units, public, commercial and voluntary bodies.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14763066, 22667, 1436631, 317549, 1430477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 14 ], [ 21, 32 ], [ 55, 70 ], [ 131, 136 ], [ 190, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The royal court moved around the kingdom without a fixed capital city. Early in its existence Repton seems to have been the location of an important royal estate. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, it was from Repton in 873–874 that the Great Heathen Army deposed the King of Mercia. Slightly earlier, King Offa seems to have favoured Tamworth. It was there where he was crowned and spent many a Christmas.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 229718, 307273, 24222749, 3779598, 47037, 157288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 94, 100 ], [ 180, 201 ], [ 242, 260 ], [ 307, 316 ], [ 340, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For 300 years (between 600 and 900), known as Mercian Supremacy or the \"Golden Age of Mercia\", having annexed or gained submissions from five of the other six kingdoms of the Heptarchy (East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex and Wessex), Mercia dominated England south of the River Humber. During King Offa's reign, a dyke was created to have the boundary between Mercia and the Welsh kingdoms. Nicholas Brooks noted that \"the Mercians stand out as by far the most successful of the various early Anglo-Saxon peoples until the later ninth century\", and some historians, such as Sir Frank Stenton, believe the unification of England south of the Humber estuary was achieved during Offa's reign.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26812202, 19594141, 15620904, 9937, 180882, 49702, 143904, 47037, 37588, 42575874, 590589, 9316, 143904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 63 ], [ 175, 184 ], [ 186, 197 ], [ 199, 204 ], [ 206, 210 ], [ 212, 218 ], [ 270, 282 ], [ 291, 300 ], [ 312, 316 ], [ 389, 404 ], [ 572, 589 ], [ 618, 625 ], [ 639, 645 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "King Peada converted to Christianity around 656, the Diocese of Mercia was founded in this year, with the first bishop (Diuma) based at Repton. The religion firmly established in the kingdom by the late 7th century. After 13 years at Repton, 669 AD, Saint Chad (the fifth bishop) moved the bishopric to Lichfield and, in 691 AD, the Diocese of Mercia became the Diocese of Lichfield. There has been a diocese based in the city ever since. For a brief period between 787 and 799 or 803 the diocese was an archbishopric. The current bishop, Michael Ipgrave, is the 99th since the diocese was established.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 191472, 1351375, 12965882, 307273, 488758, 159948, 1351375, 3251945, 35173368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 53, 70 ], [ 120, 125 ], [ 136, 142 ], [ 250, 260 ], [ 303, 312 ], [ 362, 382 ], [ 504, 517 ], [ 539, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the end of the 9th century, following the invasions of the Vikings and their Great Heathen Army, Danelaw absorbed much of the former Mercian territory. Danelaw at its height included London, all of East Anglia and most of the North of England.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32610, 3779598, 64946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 69 ], [ 80, 98 ], [ 100, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The final Mercian king, Ceolwulf II, died in 879 with the kingdom appearing to have lost its political independence. Initially, it was ruled by a lord or ealdorman under the overlordship of Alfred the Great, who styled himself \"King of the Anglo-Saxons\". The kingdom had a brief period of independence in the mid-10th century and in 1016, by which time it was viewed as a province with temporary independence. Wessex conquered and united all the kingdoms into the Kingdom of England. The kingdom became an earldom until 1071.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 692979, 408497, 1640, 33658, 407950, 7828713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 35 ], [ 154, 163 ], [ 190, 206 ], [ 410, 416 ], [ 464, 482 ], [ 506, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mercia's exact evolution at the start of the Anglo-Saxon era remains more obscure than that of Northumbria, Kent, or even Wessex. Mercia developed an effective political structure and adopted Christianity later than the other kingdoms. Archaeological surveys show that Angles settled the lands north of the River Thames by the 6th century. The name \"Mercia\" is Old English for \"boundary folk\" (see Welsh Marches), and the traditional interpretation is that the kingdom originated along the frontier between the native Welsh and the Anglo-Saxon invaders. However, Peter Hunter Blair argued an alternative interpretation: that they emerged along the frontier between Northumbria and the inhabitants of the Trent river valley.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 37780, 36717, 1139260, 33658, 5211, 2136, 49031, 22667, 161081, 69894, 11142275, 36717, 223529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 56 ], [ 95, 106 ], [ 108, 112 ], [ 122, 128 ], [ 192, 204 ], [ 269, 275 ], [ 307, 319 ], [ 361, 372 ], [ 398, 411 ], [ 518, 523 ], [ 563, 581 ], [ 665, 676 ], [ 704, 722 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although its earliest boundaries remain obscure, a general agreement persists that the territory that was called \"the first of the Mercians\" in the Tribal Hidage covered much of south Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, Northamptonshire, Staffordshire and northern Warwickshire.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4140416, 71070, 61153, 68049, 66584, 58733, 383648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 161 ], [ 184, 194 ], [ 196, 210 ], [ 212, 227 ], [ 229, 245 ], [ 247, 260 ], [ 274, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest person named in any records as a king of Mercia is Creoda, said to have been the great-grandson of Icel. Coming to power around 584, he built a fortress at Tamworth which became the seat of Mercia's kings. His son Pybba succeeded him in 593. Cearl, a kinsman of Creoda, followed Pybba in 606; in 615, Cearl gave his daughter Cwenburga in marriage to Edwin, king of Deira, whom he had sheltered while he was an exiled prince.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 852564, 485202, 37222791, 157288, 362141, 692944, 145830, 149242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 60 ], [ 64, 70 ], [ 112, 116 ], [ 169, 177 ], [ 227, 232 ], [ 255, 260 ], [ 363, 368 ], [ 378, 383 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mercian kings were the only Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy ruling house known to claim a direct family link with a pre-migration Continental Germanic monarchy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19594141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next Mercian king, Penda, ruled from about 626 or 633 until 655. Some of what is known about Penda comes from the hostile account of Bede, who disliked him – both as an enemy to Bede's own Northumbria and as a pagan. However, Bede admits that Penda freely allowed Christian missionaries from Lindisfarne into Mercia and did not restrain them from preaching. In 633 Penda and his ally Cadwallon of Gwynedd defeated and killed Edwin, who had become not only ruler of the newly unified Northumbria, but bretwalda, or high king, over the southern kingdoms. When another Northumbrian king, Oswald, arose and again claimed overlordship of the south, he also suffered defeat and death at the hands of Penda and his allies – in 642 at the Battle of Maserfield. In 655, after a period of confusion in Northumbria, Penda brought 30 sub-kings to fight the new Northumbrian king Oswiu at the Battle of Winwaed, in which Penda in turn lost the battle and his life.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 145326, 4041, 36717, 23340, 14117, 53831, 18454, 516704, 4100, 28672, 240565, 84138, 240071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 28 ], [ 137, 141 ], [ 193, 204 ], [ 214, 219 ], [ 268, 277 ], [ 278, 290 ], [ 296, 307 ], [ 388, 408 ], [ 504, 513 ], [ 589, 595 ], [ 735, 755 ], [ 871, 876 ], [ 884, 901 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The battle led to a temporary collapse of Mercian power. Penda's son Peada, who had converted to Christianity at Repton in 653, succeeded his father as king of Mercia; Oswiu set up Peada as an under-king; but in the spring of 656 he was murdered and Oswiu assumed direct control of the whole of Mercia. A Mercian revolt in 658 threw off Northumbrian domination and resulted in the appearance of another son of Penda, Wulfhere, who ruled Mercia as an independent kingdom (though he apparently continued to render tribute to Northumbria for a while) until his death in 675. Wulfhere initially succeeded in restoring the power of Mercia, but the end of his reign saw a serious defeat by Northumbria. The next king, Æthelred, defeated Northumbria in the Battle of the Trent in 679, settling once and for all the long-disputed control of the former kingdom of Lindsey. Æthelred was succeeded by Cœnred, son of Wulfhere; both these kings became better known for their religious activities than anything else, but the king who succeeded them in 709, Ceolred, is said in a letter of Saint Boniface to have been a dissolute youth who died insane. So ended the rule of the direct descendants of Penda.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 191472, 307273, 145321, 145315, 26738520, 155982, 422690, 493935, 28172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 74 ], [ 113, 119 ], [ 417, 425 ], [ 712, 720 ], [ 750, 769 ], [ 844, 862 ], [ 890, 896 ], [ 1043, 1050 ], [ 1075, 1089 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At some point before the accession of Æthelbald in 716 the Mercians conquered the region around Wroxeter, known to the Welsh as Pengwern or as \"The Paradise of Powys\". Elegies written in the persona of its dispossessed rulers record the sorrow at this loss.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 84137, 674543, 2543765, 7783581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 47 ], [ 96, 104 ], [ 128, 136 ], [ 206, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next important king of Mercia, Æthelbald, reigned from 716 to 757. For the first few years of his reign he had to face two strong rival kings, Wihtred of Kent and Ine of Wessex. But when Wihtred died in 725, and Ine abdicated in 726 to become a monk in Rome, Æthelbald was free to establish Mercia's hegemony over the rest of the Anglo-Saxons south of the Humber. Æthelbald suffered a setback in 752, when the West Saxons under Cuthred defeated him, but he seems to have restored his supremacy over Wessex by 757.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 572069, 145855, 143904, 794545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 162 ], [ 167, 180 ], [ 360, 366 ], [ 432, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2009, the Staffordshire Hoard of Anglo-Saxon gold was discovered by Terry Herbert in a field near Lichfield in Staffordshire. Lichfield functioned as the religious centre of Mercia. The artefacts have tentatively been dated by Svante Fischer and Jean Soulat to around AD 600–800. Whether the hoard was deposited by Anglo-Saxon pagans or Christians remains unclear, as does the purpose of the deposit.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 24456350, 37780, 159948, 2624098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 37 ], [ 41, 52 ], [ 106, 115 ], [ 323, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the murder of Æthelbald by one of his bodyguards in 757, a civil war broke out which concluded with the victory of Offa, a descendant of Pybba. Offa (reigned 757 to 796) had to build anew the hegemony which his predecessor had exercised over the southern English, and he did this so successfully that he became the greatest king Mercia had ever known. Not only did he win battles and dominate Southern England, but also he took an active hand in administering the affairs of his kingdom, founding market towns and overseeing the first major issues of gold coins in Britain; he assumed a role in the administration of the Catholic Church in England (sponsoring the short-lived archbishopric of Lichfield, 787 to 799), and even negotiated with Charlemagne as an equal. Offa is credited with the construction of Offa's Dyke, which marked the border between Wales and Mercia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 47037, 714729, 145965, 7558, 3251945, 5314, 37588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 125 ], [ 399, 415 ], [ 503, 514 ], [ 562, 566 ], [ 682, 708 ], [ 748, 759 ], [ 815, 826 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Offa exerted himself to ensure that his son Ecgfrith of Mercia would succeed him, but after Offa's death in July 796 Ecgfrith survived for only five months, and the kingdom passed to a distant relative named Coenwulf in December 796. In 821 Coenwulf's brother Ceolwulf succeeded to the Mercian kingship; he demonstrated his military prowess by his attack on and destruction of the fortress of Deganwy in Gwynedd. The power of the West Saxons under Egbert (King of Wessex from 802 to 839) grew during this period, however, and in 825 Egbert defeated the Mercian king Beornwulf (who had overthrown Ceolwulf in 823) at Ellendun.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 481987, 145817, 692953, 2676954, 52508, 33658, 48570, 485516, 228154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 62 ], [ 208, 216 ], [ 260, 268 ], [ 393, 400 ], [ 404, 411 ], [ 430, 441 ], [ 448, 454 ], [ 566, 575 ], [ 616, 624 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Battle of Ellendun proved decisive. At this point, Mercia lost control of Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and possibly also Essex. Beornwulf was slain while suppressing a revolt amongst the East Angles, and his successor, a former ealdorman named Ludeca (reigned 826–827), met the same fate. Another ealdorman, Wiglaf, subsequently ruled for less than two years before Egbert of Wessex drove him out of Mercia. In 830 Wiglaf regained independence for Mercia, but by this time Wessex had clearly become the dominant power in England. Circa 840 Beorhtwulf succeeded Wiglaf.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 180882, 49702, 48189, 9937, 408497, 692963, 503139, 692976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 82 ], [ 84, 90 ], [ 92, 98 ], [ 118, 123 ], [ 225, 234 ], [ 241, 247 ], [ 305, 311 ], [ 537, 547 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 852, Burgred came to the throne, and with Ethelwulf of Wessex subjugated North Wales. In 868 Danish invaders occupied Nottingham. The Danes drove Burgred from his kingdom in 874 and Ceolwulf II took his place. In 877 the Danes seized the eastern part of Mercia, which became part of the Danelaw. Ceolwulf, the last king of Mercia, left with the western half, reigned until 879. From about 883 until his death in 911 Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians, ruled Mercia under the overlordship of Wessex. Alfred changed his title from 'king of the West Saxons' to 'king of the Anglo-Saxons' to reflect the acceptance of his overlordship of all southern England not under Danish rule. All coins struck in Mercia after the disappearance of Ceolwulf in were in the name of the West Saxon king. Æthelred had married Æthelflæd ( 870 – 12 June 918), daughter of Alfred the Great of Wessex (), and she assumed power when her husband became ill at some time in the last ten years of his life.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 478441, 48571, 686069, 39470, 692979, 64946, 422323, 47397, 1640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 15 ], [ 45, 64 ], [ 76, 87 ], [ 121, 131 ], [ 185, 196 ], [ 290, 297 ], [ 419, 449 ], [ 806, 815 ], [ 850, 866 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Æthelred's death in 911 Æthelflæd ruled as \"Lady of the Mercians\", but Alfred's successor as King of the Anglo-Saxons, Edward the Elder (), took control of London and Oxford, which Alfred had placed under Æthelred's control. Æthelflæd and her brother continued Alfred's policy of building fortified burhs, and by 918 they had conquered the southern Danelaw in East Anglia and Danish Mercia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10209822, 17867, 22308, 3679339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 141 ], [ 162, 168 ], [ 173, 179 ], [ 305, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Æthelflæd died in 918, Ælfwynn, her daughter by Æthelred, succeeded as \"Second Lady of the Mercians\", but within six months Edward had deprived her of all authority in Mercia and taken her to Wessex. Edward was succeeded as king of the Anglo-Saxons by his eldest son Æthelstan (), who had been brought up in Mercia, and he was immediately accepted as king, but not in Wessex until the following year. In 927 he conquered Northumbria and thus became the first king of all England. Mercia briefly regained a political existence separate from Wessex in 955–959, when Edgar became king of Mercia, and again in 1016, when Cnut and Edmund Ironside divided the English kingdom between themselves, with Cnut taking Mercia. Mercia maintained its separate identity as an earldom until the Norman Conquest in 1066.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 58522, 40501, 47092, 68832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 272, 281 ], [ 622, 626 ], [ 631, 646 ], [ 784, 799 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The dialect thrived between the 8th and 13th centuries and was referred to by John Trevisa, writing in 1387:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mercian dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 1271650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "J. R. R. Tolkien is one of many scholars who have studied and promoted the Mercian dialect of Old English, and introduced various Mercian terms into his legendarium – especially in relation to the Kingdom of Rohan, otherwise known as the Mark (a name cognate with Mercia). The Mercian dialect is the basis of Tolkien's language of Rohan, and a number of its kings are given the same names as monarchs who appear in the Mercian royal genealogy, e.g. Fréawine, Fréaláf and Éomer (see List of kings of the Angles).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mercian dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 15872, 22667, 7391183, 63469, 62761, 3548339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 94, 105 ], [ 153, 164 ], [ 197, 213 ], [ 473, 478 ], [ 484, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first kings of Mercia were pagans, and they resisted the encroachment of Christianity longer than other kingdoms in the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mercian religion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mercian rulers remained resolutely pagan until the reign of Peada in 656, although this did not prevent them joining coalitions with Christian Welsh rulers to resist Northumbria. The first appearance of Christianity in Mercia, however, had come at least thirty years earlier, following the Battle of Cirencester of 628, when Penda incorporated the formerly West Saxon territories of Hwicce into his kingdom.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mercian religion", "target_page_ids": [ 26371562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 290, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The conversion of Mercia to Christianity occurred in the latter part of the 7th century, and by the time of Penda's defeat and death, Mercia was largely surrounded by Christian states. Diuma, an Irish monk and one of Oswiu's missionaries, was subsequently ordained a bishop – the first to operate in Mercia. Christianity finally gained a foothold in Mercia when Oswiu supported Peada as sub-king of the Middle Angles, requiring him to marry Oswiu's daughter, Alchflaed, and to accept her religion.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mercian religion", "target_page_ids": [ 12965882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Decisive steps to Christianise Mercia were taken by Chad (Latinised by Bede as Ceadda), the fifth bishop to operate in Mercia. This controversial figure was given land by King Wulfhere to build a monastery at Lichfield. Evidence suggests that the Lichfield Gospels were made in Lichfield around 730. As in other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, the many small monasteries established by the Mercian kings allowed the political/military and ecclesiastical leadership to consolidate their unity through bonds of kinship.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mercian religion", "target_page_ids": [ 488758, 159948, 357506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 56 ], [ 209, 218 ], [ 247, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For knowledge of the internal composition of the Kingdom of Mercia, we must rely on a document of uncertain age (possibly late 7th century), known as the Tribal Hidage – an assessment of the extent (but not the location) of land owned (reckoned in hides), and therefore the military obligations and perhaps taxes due, by each of the Mercian tribes and subject kingdoms by name. This hidage exists in several manuscript versions, some as late as the 14th century. It lists a number of peoples, such as the Hwicce, who have now vanished, except for reminders in various placenames. The major subdivisions of Mercia were as follows:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 4140416, 2220844, 145827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 167 ], [ 248, 253 ], [ 505, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "South Mercians", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Mercians dwelling south of the River Trent. Folk groups within included the Tomsæte around Tamworth and the Pencersæte around Penkridge (roughly corresponding to southern Staffordshire and northern Warwickshire).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 20152028, 157288, 26280789, 871073, 58733, 383648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 87 ], [ 95, 103 ], [ 112, 122 ], [ 130, 139 ], [ 175, 188 ], [ 202, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "North Mercians", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Mercians dwelling north of the River Trent (roughly corresponding to eastern Staffordshire, Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 58733, 71070, 68049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 94 ], [ 96, 106 ], [ 111, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Outer Mercia", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An early phase of Mercian expansion, possibly 6th century (roughly corresponding to southern Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Rutland, Northamptonshire and Oxfordshire).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 53295, 61153, 23571693, 66584, 53518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 105 ], [ 107, 121 ], [ 123, 130 ], [ 132, 148 ], [ 153, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lindsey", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 155982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once a kingdom in its own right, disputed with Northumbria in the 7th century before finally coming under Mercian control (roughly corresponding to the historic riding of Lindsey in Lincolnshire).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 36717, 53295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 58 ], [ 182, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Middle Angles", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 11260933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A collection of many smaller folk groups under Mercian control from the 7th century, including the Spaldingas around Spalding, the Bilmingas and Wideringas near Stamford, the North Gyrwe and South Gyrwe near Peterborough, the West Wixna, East Wixna, West Wille and East Wille near Ely, the Sweordora, Hurstingas and Gifle near Bedford, the Hicce around Hitchin, the Cilternsæte in the Chilterns and the Feppingas near Thame (roughly corresponding to Cambridgeshire, Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire, Buckinghamshire and southern Oxfordshire).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 26296223, 368392, 389771, 17379631, 23906, 23909004, 69772, 306733, 26835231, 293651, 412225, 6288, 69769, 13986, 55688, 53518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 109 ], [ 117, 125 ], [ 161, 169 ], [ 181, 186 ], [ 208, 220 ], [ 281, 284 ], [ 327, 334 ], [ 353, 360 ], [ 366, 377 ], [ 385, 394 ], [ 418, 423 ], [ 450, 464 ], [ 466, 478 ], [ 480, 493 ], [ 495, 510 ], [ 524, 535 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hwicce", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 145827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once a kingdom in its own right, disputed with Wessex in the 7th century before finally coming under Mercian control. Smaller folk groups within included the Stoppingas around Warwick and the Arosæte near Droitwich (roughly corresponding to Gloucestershire, Worcestershire and southern Warwickshire).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 33658, 23197599, 200313, 151934, 47751, 33778, 383648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 53 ], [ 158, 168 ], [ 176, 183 ], [ 205, 214 ], [ 241, 256 ], [ 258, 272 ], [ 286, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magonsæte", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 7146828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A people of the Welsh border, also known as the Westerna, under Mercian control from the 7th century. Smaller folk groups within included the Temersæte near Hereford and the Hahlsæte near Ludlow (roughly corresponding to Herefordshire and southern Shropshire).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 49035, 59003, 399837, 51611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 165 ], [ 188, 194 ], [ 221, 234 ], [ 248, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wreocansæte", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 13715258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A people of the Welsh border under Mercian control from the 7th century. Smaller folk groups within included the Rhiwsæte near Wroxeter and the Meresæte near Chester (roughly corresponding to northern Shropshire, Flintshire and Cheshire).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 674543, 153718, 51611, 359139, 7406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 135 ], [ 158, 165 ], [ 201, 211 ], [ 213, 223 ], [ 228, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pecsæte", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 5852151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An isolated folk group of the Peak District, under Mercian control from the 7th century (roughly corresponding to northern Derbyshire).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 55130, 71070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 43 ], [ 123, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Land Between Ribble & Mersey", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 50435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A disorganised region under Mercian control from the 7th century (roughly corresponding to Merseyside, Greater Manchester, and Lancashire south of the River Ribble). It was the most northern extent of the kingdom, and at certain times was claimed by Northumbria and Danelaw. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 151325, 79819, 50435, 709196, 36717, 266015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 101 ], [ 103, 121 ], [ 127, 137 ], [ 151, 163 ], [ 250, 261 ], [ 266, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Middle Saxons", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 147635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Taken over from Essex in the 8th century, including London (roughly corresponding to Greater London, Hertfordshire, and Surrey).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 9937, 45367389, 13986, 48189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 21 ], [ 85, 99 ], [ 101, 114 ], [ 120, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Mercia was annexed by Wessex in the early 10th century, the West Saxon rulers divided it into shires modelled after their own system, cutting across traditional Mercian divisions. These shires survived mostly intact until 1974, and even today still largely follow their original boundaries.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Subdivisions of Mercia", "target_page_ids": [ 26995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term \"midlands\" is first recorded (as mydlonde-shiris) in 1475. John Bateman, writing in 1876 or 1883, referred to contemporary Cheshire and Staffordshire landholdings as being in Mercia. The most credible source for the idea of a contemporary Mercia is Thomas Hardy's Wessex novels. The first of these appeared in 1874 and Hardy himself considered it the origin of the conceit of a contemporary Wessex. Bram Stoker set his 1911 novel The Lair of the White Worm in a contemporary Mercia that may have been influenced by Hardy, whose secretary was a friend of Stoker's brother. Although 'Edwardian Mercia' never had the success of 'Victorian Wessex', it was an idea that appealed to the higher echelons of society. In 1908 Sir Oliver Lodge, Principal of Birmingham University, wrote to his counterpart at Bristol, welcoming a new university worthy of \"...the great Province of Wessex whose higher educational needs it will supply. It will be no rival, but colleague and co-worker with this university, whose province is Mercia...\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 7406, 58733, 44743, 33658, 3992, 1568491, 209935, 36741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 140 ], [ 145, 158 ], [ 258, 270 ], [ 273, 279 ], [ 408, 419 ], [ 439, 465 ], [ 757, 778 ], [ 808, 815 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The British Army has made use of several regional identities in naming larger, amalgamated formations. After the Second World War, the infantry regiments of Cheshire, Staffordshire and Worcestershire were organised in the Mercian Brigade (1948–1968). Today, \"Mercia\" appears in the titles of two regiments, the Mercian Regiment, founded in 2007, which recruits in Cheshire, Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire, Worcestershire, and parts of Greater Manchester and the West Midlands, and the Royal Mercian and Lancastrian Yeomanry, founded in 1992 as part of the Territorial Army. In 1967, the police forces of Herefordshire, Shropshire and Worcestershire were combined into the West Mercia Constabulary, which changed its name to West Mercia Police in 2009.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 4887, 7406, 33778, 9910917, 1306656, 71070, 1041322, 326849, 399837, 600670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 157, 165 ], [ 185, 199 ], [ 222, 237 ], [ 311, 327 ], [ 374, 384 ], [ 482, 520 ], [ 553, 569 ], [ 601, 614 ], [ 669, 693 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telephone directories across the Midlands include a large number of commercial and voluntary organisations using \"Mercia\" in their names, and in 2012 a new football league was formed called the Mercian Regional Football League.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 35953082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Free Radio Coventry & Warwickshire, a commercial radio station, was originally launched in 1980 as Mercia Sound, later becoming Mercia FM.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 938030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is no authentic indigenous Mercian heraldic device, as heraldry did not develop in any recognizable form until the High Middle Ages.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 13610, 503345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 69 ], [ 121, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The saltire as a symbol of Mercia may have been in use since the time of King Offa. By the 13th century, the saltire had become the attributed arms of the Kingdom of Mercia. The arms are blazoned Azure, a saltire Or, meaning a gold (or yellow) saltire on a blue field. The arms were subsequently used by the Abbey of St Albans, founded by King Offa of Mercia. With the dissolution of the Abbey and the incorporation of the borough of St Albans the device was used on the town's corporate seal and was officially recorded as the arms of the town at an heraldic visitation in 1634.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 205562, 47037, 16363784, 55284, 7954365, 73070, 28523, 5286935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ], [ 73, 82 ], [ 132, 147 ], [ 178, 182 ], [ 187, 193 ], [ 308, 326 ], [ 434, 443 ], [ 551, 570 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The saltire is used as both a flag and a coat of arms. As a flag, it is flown from Tamworth Castle, the ancient seat of the Mercian Kings, to this day. The flag also appears on street signs welcoming people to Tamworth, the \"ancient capital of Mercia\". It was also flown outside Birmingham Council House during 2009 while the Staffordshire Hoard was on display in the city before being taken to the British Museum in London. The cross has been incorporated into a number of coats of arms of Mercian towns, including Tamworth, Leek and Blaby. It was recognised as the Mercian flag by the Flag Institute in 2014.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 256822, 157288, 1032703, 24456350, 4675, 55284, 157288, 153314, 437881, 4705829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 98 ], [ 210, 218 ], [ 279, 303 ], [ 326, 345 ], [ 399, 413 ], [ 474, 487 ], [ 516, 524 ], [ 526, 530 ], [ 535, 540 ], [ 587, 601 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The silver double-headed eagle surmounted by a golden three-pronged Saxon crown has been used by several units of the British Army as a heraldic device for Mercia since 1958, including the Mercian Regiment. It is derived from the attributed arms of Leofric, Earl of Mercia in the 11th century. It is worth noting, however, that Leofric is sometimes attributed a black, single-headed eagle instead.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 4887, 1306656, 16363784, 957758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 130 ], [ 189, 205 ], [ 230, 245 ], [ 249, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The wyvern, a type of dragon, came to have a strong association with Mercia in the 19th century. The Midland Railway, which used a white (silver) wyvern sans legs (legless) as its crest, having inherited it from the Leicester and Swannington Railway, asserted that the \"wyvern was the standard of the Kingdom of Mercia\", and that it was \"a quartering in the town arms of Leicester\". The symbol appeared on numerous stations and other company buildings in the region, and was worn as a silver badge by all uniformed employees. However, in 1897 the Railway Magazine noted that there appeared \"to be no foundation that the wyvern was associated with the Kingdom of Mercia\". It has been associated with Leicester since the time of Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster and Leicester (c. 1278–1322), the most powerful lord in the Midlands, who used it as his personal crest, and was recorded in a heraldic visitation of the town in 1619.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 242246, 89805, 188429, 1012065, 51155, 263471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 22, 28 ], [ 101, 116 ], [ 216, 249 ], [ 699, 708 ], [ 727, 770 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Bram Stoker's 1911 novel The Lair of the White Worm, explicitly set in Mercia (see above), the Mercian white wyvern sans legs of the Midland Railway was transformed into a monstrous beast, the eponymous worm of the title. The word \"worm\" is derived from Old English wyrm and originally referred to a dragon or serpent. \"Wyvern\" derives from Old Saxon wivere, also meaning serpent, and is etymologically related to viper.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 3992, 1568491, 22667, 857148, 657938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 28, 54 ], [ 257, 268 ], [ 344, 353 ], [ 417, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ultimate source for the symbolism of white dragons in England would appear to be Geoffrey of Monmouth's fictional work, The History of the Kings of Britain (c. 1136), which recounts an incident in the life of Merlin where a red dragon is seen fighting a white dragon and prevailing. The red dragon was taken to represent the Welsh and their eventual victory over the Anglo-Saxon invaders, symbolised by the white dragon.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 56355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The philologist and Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey has suggested that the Middle Kingdom in J. R. R. Tolkien's Farmer Giles of Ham, a story dominated by a dragon, is based on Mercia, the part of England where Tolkien grew up. This dragon, Chrysophylax, though mostly hostile, eventually helps Giles found a realm of his own, the Little Kingdom. Shippey states further that \"the Mark\", the land of the Riders of Rohan – all of whom have names in the Mercian dialect of Old English – was once the usual term for central England, and it would have been pronounced and written \"marc\" rather than the West Saxon \"mearc\" or the Latinized \"Mercia\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 403203, 11745, 11745, 63469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 47 ], [ 108, 127 ], [ 236, 248 ], [ 398, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lichfield", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 159948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of monarchs of Mercia", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 852564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of Anglo-Saxon Mercians", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10427980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mercian dialect", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1436631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mercian Trail", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26842608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Old English language", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Repton Abbey", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28636190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Staffordshire Hoard", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24456350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tamworth, Staffordshire", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 157288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wessex", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Also published as ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mercian History: History Project ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recensions of manuscripts of the \"Hidage\" ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Staffordshire Hoard", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Mercia", "States_and_territories_established_in_the_520s", "918_disestablishments", "Peoples_of_Anglo-Saxon_England", "Regions_of_England", "527_establishments", "States_and_territories_disestablished_in_the_910s", "Former_monarchies_of_Europe" ]

[ "Mercia" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Sergio Leone (; 3 January 1929 – 30 April 1989) was an Italian film director, producer and screenwriter credited as the creator of the Spaghetti Western genre and widely regarded as one of the most influential directors in the history of cinema.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 29177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leone's film-making style includes juxtaposing extreme close-up shots with lengthy long shots. His movies include the Dollars Trilogy of Westerns featuring Clint Eastwood: A Fistful of Dollars (1964), For a Few Dollars More (1965), and The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966); and the Once Upon a Time films: Once Upon a Time in the West (1968), Duck, You Sucker! (1971), and Once Upon a Time in America (1984).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 464601, 17859, 2939177, 43373, 441926, 442300, 31557, 284676, 1008396, 442308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 69 ], [ 83, 92 ], [ 118, 133 ], [ 156, 170 ], [ 172, 192 ], [ 201, 223 ], [ 236, 266 ], [ 307, 335 ], [ 344, 361 ], [ 374, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born on 3 January 1929 in Rome, Leone was the son of the cinema pioneer Vincenzo Leone (known as director Roberto Roberti or Leone Roberto Roberti) and silent film actress Edvige Valcarenghi (Bice Valerian). During his schooldays, Leone was a classmate of his later musical collaborator Ennio Morricone for a time. After watching his father work on film sets, Leone began his own career in the film industry at the age of 18 after dropping out of law studies at the university.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 25458, 48576486, 26956, 48576568, 10277, 649481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 30 ], [ 72, 86 ], [ 152, 163 ], [ 172, 190 ], [ 287, 302 ], [ 394, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Working in Italian cinema, he began as an assistant to Vittorio De Sica during the production for the movie Bicycle Thieves in 1948. Leone began writing screenplays during the 1950s, primarily for the 'sword and sandal' (a.k.a. 'peplum') historical epics, popular at the time. He also worked as an assistant director on several large-scale international productions shot at the Cinecittà Studios in Rome, notably Quo Vadis (1951) and Ben-Hur (1959), financially backed by the American studios.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 10787, 32428, 642744, 253655, 1756021, 154790, 1343342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 25 ], [ 55, 71 ], [ 108, 123 ], [ 202, 218 ], [ 378, 395 ], [ 413, 422 ], [ 434, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When director Mario Bonnard fell ill during the production of the 1959 Italian epic The Last Days of Pompeii (Gli Ultimi Giorni di Pompei), starring Steve Reeves, Leone was asked to step in and complete the film. As a result, when the time came to make his solo directorial debut with The Colossus of Rhodes (Il Colosso di Rodi, 1961), Leone was well equipped to produce low-budget films which looked like larger-budget Hollywood movies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 34028030, 25972799, 1038761, 3940425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 27 ], [ 84, 108 ], [ 149, 161 ], [ 285, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the mid-1960s, historical epics fell out of favor with audiences, but Leone had shifted his attention to a subgenre which came to be known as the \"Spaghetti Western\", owing its origin to the American Western. His film A Fistful of Dollars (Per un pugno di dollari, 1964) was based upon Akira Kurosawa's Edo-era samurai adventure Yojimbo (1961). Leone's film elicited a legal challenge from the Japanese director, though Kurosawa's film was in turn probably based on the 1929 Dashiell Hammett novel, Red Harvest. A Fistful of Dollars is also notable for establishing Clint Eastwood as a star. Until that time Eastwood had been an American television actor with few credited film roles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 29177, 65758, 441926, 872, 164945, 10812754, 312498, 144853, 249452, 43373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 167 ], [ 203, 210 ], [ 221, 241 ], [ 289, 303 ], [ 306, 309 ], [ 314, 321 ], [ 332, 339 ], [ 478, 494 ], [ 502, 513 ], [ 569, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The look of A Fistful of Dollars was established by its Spanish locations, which presented a violent and morally complex vision of the American Old West. The film paid tribute to traditional American western films, but significantly departed from them in storyline, plot, characterization and mood. Leone gains credit for one great breakthrough in the western genre still followed today: in traditional western films, many heroes and villains looked alike as if they had just stepped out of a fashion magazine, with clearly drawn moral opposites, even down to the hero wearing a white hat and the villain wearing a black hat (except for the most successful of the 'traditional western cowboys' – Hopalong Cassidy, who wore a black outfit upon a pale horse). Leone's characters were, in contrast, more 'realistic' and complex: usually 'lone wolves' in their behavior; they rarely shaved, looked dirty and sweated profusely, and there was a strong suggestion of criminal behavior. The characters were also morally ambiguous by appearing generously compassionate, or nakedly and brutally self-serving, as the situation demanded. Relationships revolved around power and retributions were emotion-driven rather than conscience-driven. Some critics have noted the irony of an Italian director who could not speak English, and had never even visited the United States, let alone the American Old West, almost single-handedly redefining the typical vision of the American cowboy. According to Christopher Frayling's book Something to do with Death, Leone knew a great deal about the American Old West. It fascinated him as a child, which carried into his adulthood and his films.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 252507, 773936, 167744, 2659719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 152 ], [ 696, 712 ], [ 1464, 1470 ], [ 1485, 1505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leone's next two films, For a Few Dollars More (Per qualche dollaro in più, 1965) and The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (Il buono, il brutto, il cattivo, 1966), completed what has come to be known as the Man with No Name trilogy (or the Dollars Trilogy), with each film being more financially successful and more technically accomplished than its predecessor. The films featured innovative music scores by Ennio Morricone, who worked closely with Leone in devising the themes. Leone had a personal way of shooting scenes with Morricone's music ongoing. In addition, Clint Eastwood stayed with the film series, joined later by Eli Wallach, Lee van Cleef and Klaus Kinski.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 442300, 31557, 756365, 2939177, 10277, 10482, 18706, 211233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 46 ], [ 86, 116 ], [ 201, 217 ], [ 234, 249 ], [ 403, 418 ], [ 623, 634 ], [ 636, 649 ], [ 654, 666 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Based on the success of The Man with No Name trilogy, Leone was invited to the United States in 1967 to direct Once Upon a Time in the West (C'era una volta il West) for Paramount Pictures. The film was shot mostly in Almería, Spain and Cinecittà in Rome. It was also briefly shot in Monument Valley, Utah. The film starred Charles Bronson, Henry Fonda, Jason Robards and Claudia Cardinale. Once Upon a Time in the West emerged as a long, violent, dreamlike meditation upon the mythology of the American Old West, with many stylistic references to iconic western films. Audience tension is maintained throughout this nearly three-hour film by concealing both the hero's identity and his unpredictable motivation until the final predictable shootout scene. Perhaps unsurpassed as a retribution drama, the film's script was written by Leone and his longtime friend and collaborator Sergio Donati, from a story by Bernardo Bertolucci and Dario Argento, both of whom went on to have significant careers as directors. Before its release, however, it was ruthlessly edited by Paramount, which perhaps contributed to its low box-office results in the United States. Nevertheless, it was a huge hit in Europe, grossing nearly three times its $5million budget among French audiences, and highly praised amongst North American film students. It has come to be regarded by many as Leone's best film.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 284676, 22918, 385256, 1756021, 520576, 31716, 208200, 46228, 312482, 235307, 19215201, 50422, 212068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 139 ], [ 170, 188 ], [ 218, 225 ], [ 237, 246 ], [ 284, 299 ], [ 301, 305 ], [ 324, 339 ], [ 341, 352 ], [ 354, 367 ], [ 372, 389 ], [ 880, 893 ], [ 911, 930 ], [ 935, 948 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Once Upon a Time in the West, Leone directed Duck, You Sucker! (Giù la testa, 1971). Leone was intending merely to produce the film, but due to artistic differences with then-director Peter Bogdanovich, Leone was asked to direct the film instead. Duck, You Sucker! is a Mexican Revolution action drama, starring James Coburn as an Irish revolutionary and Rod Steiger as a Mexican bandit who is conned into becoming a revolutionary.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1008396, 43855, 145401, 148905, 2261091, 61258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 68 ], [ 190, 207 ], [ 276, 294 ], [ 318, 330 ], [ 337, 356 ], [ 361, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leone continued to produce, and on occasion, step in to reshoot scenes in other films. One of these films was My Name Is Nobody (1973) by Tonino Valerii, a comedy western film that poked fun at the spaghetti western genre. It starred Henry Fonda as an old gunslinger facing a final confrontation after the death of his brother. Terence Hill also starred in the film as the young stranger who helps Fonda leave the dying West with style.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2112239, 3717320, 30278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 127 ], [ 138, 152 ], [ 328, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leone's other productions included A Genius, Two Partners and a Dupe (1975, another western comedy starring Terence Hill); The Cat (Il Gatto; 1977, starring Ugo Tognazzi), and A Dangerous Toy (Il Giocattolo; 1979, starring Nino Manfredi). Leone also produced three comedies by actor/director Carlo Verdone, which were Fun Is Beautiful (Un Sacco Bello, 1980), Bianco, rosso e Verdone (White, Red and Verdone – Verdone means \"strong green\" – a pun referring to the three colors of the Italian flag, the star and to director Verdone, 1981) and Troppo Forte (Great!, 1986). During this period, Leone also directed various award-winning TV commercials for European television.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 11104130, 34555138, 4734721, 33952641, 736739, 11567587, 41499677, 15395979, 43135748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 68 ], [ 123, 130 ], [ 157, 169 ], [ 176, 191 ], [ 223, 236 ], [ 292, 305 ], [ 318, 334 ], [ 359, 382 ], [ 541, 553 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1978, he was a member of the jury at the 28th Berlin International Film Festival.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 28161953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leone turned down the offer to direct The Godfather, in favor of working on another gangster story he had conceived earlier. He devoted ten years to this project, based on the novel The Hoods by former mobster Harry Grey, which focused on a quartet of New York City Jewish gangsters of the 1920s and 1930s who had been friends since childhood. The finished four-hour film, Once Upon a Time in America (1984), featured Robert De Niro and James Woods. It was a meditation on another aspect of popular American mythology, the role of greed and violence and their uneasy coexistence with the meaning of ethnicity and friendship. It received a raucous, record-breaking ovation of nearly 20 minutes at the 1984 Cannes Film Festival (reportedly heard by diners at restaurants across the street from the Palais), at a time in Cannes's history before marathon applause became a regular occurrence. Despite such a fawning reception, Warner Brothers felt it was too long. The studio drastically recut it down to two hours for the American market, abandoning its flashback structure for a linear narrative. This version suffered heavy criticism and flopped. The original version, released in the rest of the world, achieved somewhat better box office returns and a mixed critical response. When the original version of the film was released on home video in the US, it gained major critical acclaim, with some critics hailing the film as a magnum opus.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2466773, 18464055, 6647560, 442308, 20913302, 168576, 21309295, 11339646, 285554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 51 ], [ 210, 220 ], [ 266, 282 ], [ 373, 400 ], [ 418, 432 ], [ 437, 448 ], [ 700, 725 ], [ 796, 802 ], [ 1428, 1439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to biographer Sir Christopher Frayling, Leone was deeply hurt by the studio-imposed editing and poor commercial reception of Once Upon a Time in America in North America. It was his last film.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2659719, 442308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 48 ], [ 135, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1988, he was head of the jury at the 45th Venice International Film Festival.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 38084833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leone died on 30 April 1989 of a heart attack at the age of 60. He was buried in the cemetery of Pratica di Mare.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 5667346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A treatment for an \"Americanized\" western was written by Leone, Luca Morsella, and Fabio Toncelli. It is speculated to have been Leone's last western and was to have starred Mickey Rourke and Richard Gere as the two main leads. Set during the height of the American Civil War, the story focused on a Union drafter, Mike Kutcher from Georgia, whose job is to enroll men into the Union Army. The other is Richard Burns, a Southern shady businessman transplanted to the North after a successful heist with his ex-lover and partner, Mary. They try searching for the buried treasure left behind in an unmarked grave outside Atlanta in \"A Place Only Mary Knows\". Joined by a freed slave and an Italian immigrant, Francesco, who arrives via the Port of Boston, they try desperately to avoid the battles of the ongoing war between the states.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 530936, 153956, 863, 48830, 360126, 179553, 509638, 3138, 1434483, 125320, 1832940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 187 ], [ 192, 204 ], [ 257, 275 ], [ 333, 340 ], [ 378, 388 ], [ 420, 428 ], [ 467, 472 ], [ 619, 626 ], [ 669, 680 ], [ 688, 705 ], [ 738, 752 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The film was to have been a homage to classic writers from literature such as Edgar Lee Masters (Spoon River Anthology), Ambrose Bierce (An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge), Mark Twain (The Private History of a Campaign that Failed), Stephen Crane (The Red Badge of Courage), and Margaret Mitchell (Gone with the Wind), whose novel he had wanted to film a remake of. Although the written treatment never got turned into a full screenplay, Leone's son Andrea had it published in a June 2004 issue of the Italian cinema magazine Ciak. It is not certain if the treatment's publication will ever lead to a full production in America or Italy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 293616, 1891090, 18951309, 2407928, 154450, 1827470, 57799, 61958, 20864, 12995, 24175940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 95 ], [ 97, 118 ], [ 121, 135 ], [ 137, 170 ], [ 173, 183 ], [ 185, 230 ], [ 233, 246 ], [ 248, 272 ], [ 279, 296 ], [ 298, 316 ], [ 526, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While finishing work on Once Upon a Time in America in 1982, Leone was impressed with Harrison Salisbury's non-fiction book The 900 Days: The Siege of Leningrad, and he planned on adapting the book as a war epic. Although no formal script had been completed or leaked, Leone came up with the opening scene and basic plot. According to the documentary Once Upon a Time, Sergio Leone, the film opened in medias res as the camera goes from focusing on a Soviet hiding from the Nazis' artillery fire to panning hundreds of feet away to show the German Army Panzer divisions approaching the walls of the city. The plot was to focus on an American photographer on assignment (whom Leone wanted to be played by Robert De Niro) becoming trapped in Leningrad as the German Luftwaffe begin to bombard the city. Throughout the course of the film, he becomes romantically involved with a Soviet woman, whom he later impregnates, as they attempt to survive the prolonged siege and the secret police, because relationships with foreigners are forbidden. According to Leone, \"In the end, the cameraman dies on the day of the liberation of the city, when he is currently filming the surrender of the Germans. And the girl is aware of his death by chance seeing a movie news: the camera sees it explode under a shell .... \"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1716860, 674787, 26779, 21212, 11702744, 1443258, 24320051, 17885, 326944, 42976779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 104 ], [ 399, 412 ], [ 451, 457 ], [ 474, 479 ], [ 541, 552 ], [ 553, 569 ], [ 740, 749 ], [ 757, 773 ], [ 948, 963 ], [ 972, 985 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1989, Leone set the film's budget at $100million, and had secured half of that amount in financing from independent backers from the Soviet Union. He had convinced Ennio Morricone to compose the film score, and Tonino Delli Colli was tapped to be the cinematographer. Shooting was scheduled to begin sometime in 1990. The project was canceled when Leone died two days before he was to officially sign on for the film. Alex Cox offered to replace Leone as director, but was unable to secure the remaining $50million required to produce the film.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2484435, 51028, 53743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 214, 232 ], [ 254, 269 ], [ 421, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Frayling's biography of Leone, Something to Do with Death, he envisioned a contemporary adaptation of Cervantes' 17th century novel Don Quixote with Clint Eastwood in the title role and Eli Wallach as Sancho Panza. He had discussed doing the project throughout the 1960s–1970s, and he started seriously considering it towards the end of his life.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 19444, 8237, 10482, 579572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 124 ], [ 145, 156 ], [ 199, 210 ], [ 214, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1987, Sergio Leone contacted his old collaborators Sergio Donati and Fulvio Morsella, pitching an idea for a TV miniseries about a Colt revolver that passed from owner to owner throughout the Old West, similar to Anthony Mann's film Winchester '73 (1950). Donati indicated that Leone was interested in a more revisionist take on the genre than his earlier works, wanting to show the Old West \"like it really was.\" Leone abandoned this project in favor of A Place Only Mary Knows, though Donati wrote a treatment and the project remained in gestation for years after Leone's death.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 350712, 498910, 990711, 1024760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 125 ], [ 134, 147 ], [ 216, 228 ], [ 236, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An adaptation based on Leone's subject is currently in production. Appointed director is Italian film-maker Stefano Sollima.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 50550743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leone was also an avid fan of Margaret Mitchell's novel Gone with the Wind and the 1939 film adaptation. His relatives and close friends stated that he talked about filming a remake that was closer to the original novel, but it never advanced beyond discussions to any serious form of production.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 20864, 12995, 2804704, 71440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 47 ], [ 56, 74 ], [ 83, 103 ], [ 175, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1969, Sergio Leone was contracted to direct 99 and 44/100% Dead with Marcello Mastroianni and Charles Bronson starring. He was replaced as director by John Frankenheimer, while Mastroianni was recast with Richard Harris. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 18502369, 161870, 208200, 16345, 138483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 66 ], [ 72, 92 ], [ 97, 112 ], [ 154, 172 ], [ 208, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leone was a fan of Louis-Ferdinand Céline's novel Journey to the End of the Night and was considering a film adaptation in the late 1960s; he incorporated elements of the story into The Good, the Bad and the Ugly and Duck, You Sucker! but his idea of adapting the novel itself never got past the planning stages.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 84577, 2445495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 41 ], [ 50, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leone was an early choice to direct Flash Gordon (1980). Leone was a fan of the original Alex Raymond comic strip, but turned down the film because the script did not resemble Raymond's work.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 3978441, 956428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 48 ], [ 89, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " David di Donatello", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 6356275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972: Duck, You Sucker! (Won)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 1008396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " British Academy of Film and Television Arts – Award for Best Direction", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 9737842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1984: Once Upon a Time in America (Nomination)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 442308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Golden Globe Award for Best Director", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 186061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1984: Once Upon a Time in America (Nomination)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 442308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He received the America Award from the Italy-USA Foundation posthumously in 2014.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 7795191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Critical reception to Leone's directorial features.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Selected filmography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Frayling, Christopher: Sergio Leone: Something to Do with Death (London: Faber, 2000)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sergio Leone: A Fistful-of-Leone!", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Senses of Cinema film journal : Great Directors : Sergio Leone (2002 review by Dan Edwards PhD)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Fistful of Westerns", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Spaghetti Western Database", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Sergio_Leone", "1929_births", "1989_deaths", "People_of_Campanian_descent", "Italian_people_of_Lombard_descent", "Spaghetti_Western_directors", "Italian_film_directors", "Male_actors_from_Rome", "Italian_male_screenwriters", "Italian_screenwriters", "Italian_film_producers", "Italian_male_film_actors", "Ennio_Morricone", "David_di_Donatello_winners", "Nastro_d'Argento_winners", "20th-century_Italian_male_actors", "20th-century_composers", "20th-century_Italian_screenwriters", "Postmodernist_filmmakers" ]

[ "Bob Robertson" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Otto Ludwig Preminger ( , ; 5 December 1905 – 23 April 1986) was an Austro-Hungarian-born theatre and film director, film producer, and actor.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He directed more than 35 feature films in a five-decade career after leaving the theatre. He first gained attention for film noir mysteries such as Laura (1944) and Fallen Angel (1945), while in the 1950s and 1960s, he directed high-profile adaptations of popular novels and stage works. Several of these later films pushed the boundaries of censorship by dealing with themes which were then taboo in Hollywood, such as drug addiction (The Man with the Golden Arm, 1955), rape (Anatomy of a Murder, 1959) and homosexuality (Advise & Consent, 1962). He was twice nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director. He also had several acting roles.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 232963, 10802, 74871, 2259349, 17253537, 61117, 27158894, 161450, 7980471, 92684, 5488304, 9701325, 62009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 37 ], [ 120, 129 ], [ 148, 153 ], [ 165, 177 ], [ 342, 352 ], [ 392, 397 ], [ 420, 434 ], [ 436, 463 ], [ 472, 476 ], [ 478, 497 ], [ 509, 522 ], [ 524, 540 ], [ 580, 611 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preminger was born in 1905 in Wischnitz, Bukovina, Austro-Hungarian Empire (present-day Vyzhnytsia, Ukraine), into a Jewish family. His parents were Josefa (née Fraenkel) and Markus Preminger. The couple provided a stable home life for Preminger and his younger brother Ingwald, known as \"Ingo\", later the producer of the original film version of M*A*S*H (1970).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 1816368, 2983, 2318701, 31750, 150184, 5530516, 23784006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 49 ], [ 51, 74 ], [ 88, 98 ], [ 100, 107 ], [ 117, 123 ], [ 270, 294 ], [ 347, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the assassination in 1914 of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, which led to the Great War, Russia entered the war on the Serbian side. Bukovina was invaded by the Russian Army and the Preminger family fled. Like other refugees in flight, Markus Preminger saw Austria as a safe haven for his family. He secured a position as public prosecutor in Graz, capital of Styria. When the Preminger family relocated, Otto was nearly nine, and was enrolled in a school where instruction in Catholic dogma was mandatory and Jewish history and religion had no place on the syllabus. Ingo, not yet four, remained at home.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 7955693, 4764461, 48946, 224474, 1977285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 59 ], [ 74, 87 ], [ 343, 347 ], [ 360, 366 ], [ 558, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After a year in Graz, Preminger claims he was summoned to Vienna and offered an eminent position (roughly equivalent to that of the United States Attorney General), but was told that the position would be his only if he converted to Catholicism, which he refused to do. The next year, he relocated his family to Vienna, where Otto later claimed to have been born.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 55866, 44002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 64 ], [ 132, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preminger's first theatrical ambition was to become an actor. In his early teens, he was able to recite from memory many of the great monologues from the international classic repertory, and, never shy, he demanded an audience. Preminger's most successful performance in the National Library rotunda was Mark Antony's funeral oration from Julius Caesar. As he read, watched, and after a fashion began to produce plays, he began to miss more and more classes in school.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 19960, 57328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 305, 316 ], [ 340, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the war came to an end, Markus formed his own law practice. He instilled in both his sons a sense of fair play as well as respect for those with opposing viewpoints. As his father's practice continued to thrive in postwar Vienna, Otto began seriously contemplating a career in the theater. In 1923, when Preminger was 17, his soon-to-be mentor, Max Reinhardt, the renowned Viennese-born director, announced plans to establish a theatrical company in Vienna. Reinhardt's announcement was seen as a call of destiny to Preminger. He began writing to Reinhardt weekly, requesting an audition. After a few months, Preminger, frustrated, gave up, and stopped his daily visit to the post office to check for a response. Unbeknownst to him, a letter was waiting with a date for an audition which Preminger had already missed by two days.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 57604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 350, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He juggled a commitment to university (attendance of which his parents insisted upon) and to his new position as a Reinhardt apprentice. The two developed a mentor-and-protege relationship, becoming both a confidant and teacher. When the theater opened, on 1 April 1924, Preminger appeared as a furniture mover in Reinhardt's comedic staging of Carlo Goldoni's The Servant of Two Masters. His next appearance came the next month with William Dieterle (who would later move to Hollywood) in The Merchant of Venice. Other notable alumni with whom Preminger would work the same year were Mady Christians, who died of a stroke after having been blacklisted during the McCarthy era, and Nora Gregor, who was to star in Jean Renoir's La Règle du jeu (1939).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 5790, 1481623, 37713, 765448, 221697, 7476290, 105329, 202133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 345, 358 ], [ 434, 450 ], [ 490, 512 ], [ 585, 600 ], [ 641, 652 ], [ 682, 693 ], [ 714, 725 ], [ 728, 743 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following summer, a frustrated Preminger was no longer content to occupy the place of a subordinate and he decided to leave the Reinhardt fold. His status as a Reinhardt muse gave him an edge over much of his competition when it came to joining German-speaking theater. His first theater assignments as a director in Aussig were plays ranging from the sexually provocative Wedekind Lulu plays, to the Berlin-tried, melodramatic, Sergei Tretyakov play Roar China!, a pro-Communist Agitprop.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 248718, 617736, 617736, 2226693, 198665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 321, 327 ], [ 377, 385 ], [ 386, 390 ], [ 433, 449 ], [ 484, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1930, a wealthy industrialist from Graz approached Otto with an offer to direct a film called Die große Liebe (The Great Love). Preminger did not have the same passion for the medium as he had for theater. He accepted the assignment nonetheless. The film premiered at the Emperor Theater in Vienna on 21 December 1931, to strong reviews and business. From 1931 to 1935, he directed twenty-six shows.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 23718554, 55866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 112 ], [ 294, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 3 August 1932, he wed a Hungarian woman, Marion Mill. The couple married only thirty minutes after her divorce from her first husband had been finalized.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In April 1935, as Preminger was rehearsing a boulevard farce, The King with an Umbrella, he received a summons from American film producer Joseph Schenck to a five o'clock meeting at the Imperial Hotel. Schenck and partner, Darryl F. Zanuck, co-founders of Twentieth Century-Fox, were on the lookout for new talent. Within a half-hour of meeting Schenck, Preminger accepted an invitation to work for Fox in Los Angeles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1083762, 192275, 170318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 153 ], [ 224, 240 ], [ 257, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preminger's first assignment was to direct a vehicle for Lawrence Tibbett. Preminger worked efficiently, completing the film well within the budget and well before the scheduled shooting deadline. The film opened to tepid notices in November 1936. Zanuck gave Preminger the task of directing another B-picture screwball comedy film Danger – Love at Work. Simone Simon was cast but later fired by Zanuck and replaced with Ann Sothern. The premise was that eight members of an eccentric, wealthy family have inherited their grandfather's land, and the protagonist is a lawyer tasked with persuading the family to hand the land over to a corporation that believes there is oil on the property. One of the female members of the wealthy family provides the romantic interest.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 142847, 27037, 23477628, 1111345, 520895, 68315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 73 ], [ 310, 331 ], [ 332, 353 ], [ 355, 367 ], [ 421, 432 ], [ 550, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 1937, Zanuck's perennial emissary Gregory Ratoff brought Preminger the news that Zanuck had selected him to direct Kidnapped, which was to be the most expensive feature to date for Twentieth Century-Fox. Zanuck himself had adapted the Robert Louis Stevenson novel. After reading Zanuck's script, Preminger knew he was in trouble since he would be a foreign director directing in a foreign setting. During the shooting of Kidnapped, while screening footage of the film with Zanuck, the studio head accused Preminger of making changes in a scene; in particular, one with child actor Freddie Bartholomew and a dog. Preminger, composed at first, explained, claiming he shot the scene exactly as written.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 6298244, 2294598, 26444, 1115025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 60 ], [ 127, 136 ], [ 247, 269 ], [ 593, 612 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zanuck insisted that he knew his own script. The confrontation escalated and ended with Preminger exiting the office and slamming the door. Days later, the lock to Preminger's office was changed, and his name was removed from the door. Later, a representative of Zanuck offered Preminger a buyout deal which he rejected: Preminger wanted to be paid for the remaining eleven months of his two-year contract. He searched for work at other studios, but received no offers – only two years after his arrival in Hollywood, he was unemployed in the film industry. He returned to New York, and began to re-focus on the stage. Success came quickly on Broadway for Preminger, with long-running productions, including Outward Bound with Laurette Taylor and Vincent Price, My Dear Children with John and Elaine Barrymore and Margin for Error, in which Preminger played a shiny-domed villainous Nazi. Preminger was offered a teaching position at the Yale School of Drama and began commuting twice a week to Connecticut to lecture on directing and acting.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2349480, 151949, 68065, 62381210, 34273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 727, 742 ], [ 747, 760 ], [ 784, 809 ], [ 814, 830 ], [ 938, 958 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Goetz, who was running Fox in Zanuck's absence, was soon impressed with Preminger and offered him a new seven-year contract calling on his services as both a director and actor. Preminger took full measure of the temporary studio czar, and accepted. He completed production on schedule, although with a slightly increased budget, by November 1942. Critics were dismissive upon the film's release the following February, noting the bad timing of the release, coinciding with the war. Before his next assignment with Fox, Preminger was asked by movie mogul Samuel Goldwyn to appear as a Nazi once more, this time in a Bob Hope comedy, They Got Me Covered.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1821939, 390766, 161292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 563, 577 ], [ 624, 632 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preminger hoped to find possible properties he could develop before Zanuck's return, one of which was Vera Caspary's suspense novel Laura. Before production would begin on Laura, Preminger was given the green light to produce and direct Army Wives, another B-picture morale booster for a country at war. Its focus was on showing the sacrifices made by women as they send their husbands off to the front.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2807690, 12168277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 114 ], [ 132, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zanuck returned from the armed services with his grudge against Preminger intact. Preminger was not granted permission to direct Laura, only to serve as producer. Rouben Mamoulian was selected to direct. Mamoulian began ignoring Preminger and started to rewrite the script. Although Preminger had no complaints about the casting of the relatively unknown Gene Tierney and Dana Andrews, he balked at their choice for the film's villain, Waldo, actor Laird Cregar. Preminger explained to Zanuck that audiences would immediately identify Cregar as a villain, especially after Cregar's role as Jack the Ripper in The Lodger.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1501937, 181349, 158938, 1608107, 6860726, 15007082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 179 ], [ 355, 367 ], [ 372, 384 ], [ 449, 461 ], [ 590, 605 ], [ 609, 619 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preminger wanted stage actor Clifton Webb to play Waldo and persuaded his boss to give Webb a screen test. Webb was cast and Mamoulian was fired for creative differences, which also included Preminger wanting Dana Andrews to be a more classy detective instead of a gumshoe detective. Laura started filming on 27 April 1944, with a projected budget of $849,000. After Preminger took over, the film continued shooting well into late June. When released, the film was an instant hit with audiences and critics alike, earning Preminger his first Academy Award nomination for direction.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 154682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preminger expected acclaim for Laura would promote him to work on better pictures, but his professional fate was in the hands of Zanuck, who had Preminger take over for the ailing Ernst Lubitsch on A Royal Scandal, a remake of Lubitsch's own silent Forbidden Paradise (1924), starring Pola Negri as Catherine the Great. Before he suffered a heart attack, Lubitsch had spent months in preparation, and had already cast the film. Preminger cast Tallulah Bankhead, whom he had known since 1938 when he was directing on Broadway.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 83143, 11964669, 909387, 44240, 229818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 194 ], [ 249, 267 ], [ 285, 295 ], [ 299, 318 ], [ 443, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bankhead learned that Preminger's family would be barred from emigrating to the U.S. due to immigration quotas, and she asked her father (who was Speaker of the House) to intervene to save them from the Nazis. He did, which earned Bankhead Preminger's loyalty. Thus when Lubitsch wanted to make the film into a vehicle for Greta Garbo, Preminger, although he would have been eager to direct the film that brought Garbo out of retirement, refused to betray Bankhead. They became good friends and got along well during filming. The film received generally lackluster reviews as the Ruritanian romance genre had become outdated, and it failed to earn back its cost of production.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 827359, 265850, 46023, 63436, 4860405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 110 ], [ 130, 136 ], [ 146, 166 ], [ 323, 334 ], [ 580, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fallen Angel (1945) was exactly what Preminger had been anticipating. In Fallen Angel, a con man and womanizer ends up by chance in a small California town, where he romances a sultry waitress and a well-to-do spinster. When the waitress is found killed, the drifter, played by Dana Andrews, becomes the prime suspect. Linda Darnell played the doomed waitress. Centennial Summer (1946), Preminger's next film, would be his first shot entirely in color. The reviews and box office draw were tepid when the film was released in July 1946, but by the end of that year Preminger had one of the most sumptuous contracts on the lot, earning $7,500 a week.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2259349, 158938, 460516, 13539674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 278, 290 ], [ 319, 332 ], [ 361, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Forever Amber, based on Kathleen Winsor's internationally popular novel Forever Amber, published in 1944, was Zanuck's next investment in adaptation. Preminger had read the book and disliked it immensely. Preminger had another bestseller aimed at a female audience in mind, Daisy Kenyon. Zanuck pledged that if Preminger did Forever Amber first, he could make Daisy Kenyon afterwards. Forever Amber had already been shooting for nearly six weeks when Preminger replaced director John Stahl. Zanuck had already spent nearly $2 million on the production.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 18846797, 246551, 246554, 5413813, 1880547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 24, 39 ], [ 72, 85 ], [ 274, 286 ], [ 479, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Only after turning to his revised script did Preminger learn Zanuck had recast Linda Darnell. Zanuck was convinced that whoever played Amber would become a big star, and he wanted that woman to be one of the studio's own. Zanuck had bought the book because he believed its scandalous reputation promised big box-office returns, and he was not surprised when the Catholic Legion of Decency condemned the film for glamorizing a promiscuous heroine who has a child out of wedlock; they successfully lobbied 20th Century Fox to make changes to the film. Forever Amber opened to big business in October 1947 and garnered decent reviews. Preminger called the film \"the most expensive picture I ever made and it was also the worst\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 949098, 19728, 170318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 362, 388 ], [ 469, 476 ], [ 504, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preminger maintained a busy schedule, working with writers on scripts for two planned projects, Daisy Kenyon (1947) and The Dark Wood; the latter was not produced. Joan Crawford starred in Daisy Kenyon alongside Dana Andrews, Ruth Warrick and Henry Fonda. Variety proclaimed the film \"high powered melodrama surefire for the femme market\". After the modest success of Daisy Kenyon, Preminger saw That Lady in Ermine as a further opportunity. Betty Grable was cast opposite Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. The film had previously been another Lubitsch project, but after Lubitsch's sudden death in November 1947, Preminger took over. His next film was a period piece based on Lady Windermere's Fan. Over the spring and early summer of 1948 Preminger turned Oscar Wilde's play into The Fan (1949), which starred Madeleine Carroll; the film opened to poor notices.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 45969, 158938, 1369938, 46228, 22101487, 191127, 229504, 165356, 22614, 15880250, 287485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 177 ], [ 212, 224 ], [ 226, 238 ], [ 243, 254 ], [ 256, 263 ], [ 442, 454 ], [ 473, 495 ], [ 667, 688 ], [ 748, 759 ], [ 772, 779 ], [ 802, 819 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several of his films in this period dealt with controversial and taboo themes, thereby challenging both the Motion Picture Association of America's Production Code of censorship and the Hollywood blacklist. The Catholic Legion of Decency condemned the comedy The Moon Is Blue (1953) on the grounds of moral standards. The film was based on a Broadway play which had inspired mass protests for its use of the words \"virgin\" and \"pregnant\". Refusing to remove the offending words, Preminger had the film released without the Production Code Seal of Approval. Based on the novel by Nelson Algren, The Man with the Golden Arm (1955) was one of the first Hollywood films to deal with heroin addiction.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 18932641, 167816, 21556126, 949098, 187642, 182240, 161450, 14034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 145 ], [ 148, 163 ], [ 186, 205 ], [ 220, 237 ], [ 259, 275 ], [ 579, 592 ], [ 594, 621 ], [ 679, 685 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later, Anatomy of a Murder (1959), with its frank courtroom discussions of rape and sexual intercourse led to the censors objecting to the use of words such as \"rape\", \"sperm\", \"sexual climax\" and \"penetration\". Preminger made but one concession (substituting \"violation\" for \"penetration\") and the picture was released with MPAA approval, marking the beginning of the end of the Production Code. With Exodus (1960) Preminger struck a first major blow against the Hollywood blacklist by acknowledging banned screenwriter Dalton Trumbo. The film is an adaptation of the Leon Uris bestseller about the founding of the state of Israel. Preminger also acted in a few movies including the World War II Luft-Stalag Commandant, Oberst von Scherbach of the German POW camp Stalag 17 (1953), directed by Billy Wilder.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 92684, 1335380, 21556126, 7928, 252727, 9282173, 156641, 45185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 26 ], [ 402, 408 ], [ 464, 483 ], [ 521, 534 ], [ 569, 578 ], [ 625, 631 ], [ 765, 774 ], [ 795, 807 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the mid-1950s, most of Preminger's films used animated titles designed by Saul Bass, and many had jazz scores. At the New York City Opera, in October 1953, Preminger directed the American premiere (in English translation) of Gottfried von Einem's opera Der Prozeß, based on Franz Kafka's novel The Trial. Soprano Phyllis Curtin headed the cast. Preminger also adapted two operas for the screen during the decade. Carmen Jones (1954) is a reworking of the Bizet opera Carmen to a wartime African-American setting while Porgy and Bess (1959) is based on the George Gershwin opera. His two films of the early 1960s were Advise & Consent (1962), a political drama from the Allen Drury bestseller with a homosexual subtheme' and The Cardinal (1963), a drama set in the Vatican hierarchy for which Preminger received his second Best Director Academy Award nomination.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 849349, 671880, 1482940, 22348, 10858, 10861, 1239345, 10554740, 67955, 37914, 219642, 13066, 9701325, 744619, 1350234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 88 ], [ 123, 142 ], [ 230, 249 ], [ 252, 257 ], [ 279, 290 ], [ 299, 308 ], [ 318, 332 ], [ 418, 430 ], [ 460, 465 ], [ 473, 479 ], [ 524, 538 ], [ 562, 577 ], [ 623, 639 ], [ 676, 687 ], [ 731, 743 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beginning in 1965, Preminger made a string of films in which he attempted to make stories that were fresh and distinctive, but the films he made, including In Harm's Way (1965) and Tell Me That You Love Me, Junie Moon (1970), became both critical and financial flops. Preminger's Hurry Sundown (1967) is a lengthy drama set in the U.S. South and was partly intended to break cinematic racial and sexual taboos. However, the film was poorly received and ridiculed for a heavy-handed approach, and for the dubious casting of Michael Caine as an American Southerner.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 935194, 10554416, 2721086, 179553, 61479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 169 ], [ 181, 217 ], [ 281, 294 ], [ 332, 342 ], [ 525, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hurry Sundown signaled a decline in Preminger's reputation, as it was followed by several other films which were critical and commercial failures, including Skidoo (1968), a failed attempt at a hip sixties comedy (and Groucho Marx's last film), and Rosebud (1975), a terrorism thriller which was also widely ridiculed. Several publicized disputes with leading actors did further damage to Preminger's reputation. His last film, an adaptation of the Graham Greene espionage novel The Human Factor (1979), had financial problems and was barely released.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 3511101, 12426, 12594455, 65463, 27646, 22071969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 163 ], [ 218, 230 ], [ 249, 256 ], [ 449, 462 ], [ 463, 478 ], [ 479, 495 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As noted above, both as a director and (later in his career) as the producer of his own films, Preminger repeatedly broke new ground, by challenging long-established norms and taboos in Hollywood films. He was also known for his efficiency as a filmmaker—for most of his career he routinely completed his films on time and on budget. He frequently favoured long takes, often filmed dialogue in two-shots, rather than intercutting, and preferred minimal cuts. John Ford was also known for similar techniques, filming as few takes as possible, and \"cutting in the camera\", and it is likely that Preminger preferred these methods for the same reasons as Ford, who had learned from hard experience that shooting as little footage as possible reduced costs, while also minimising the ability of studio executives to recut their films against their wishes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, despite his liberal social outlook, Preminger became notorious for his domineering and abrasive personality, his explosive temper, and his dictatorial manner on set, which earned him nicknames like \"Otto the Terrible\" and \"Otto the Ogre\"—although it has been speculated that (like his contemporary John Ford) Preminger's tyrannical persona and abusive behaviour were to some extent a calculated pose, intended to garner publicity, keep his cast and crew under his control, and keep interfering studio executives at bay.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 280738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 307, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preminger evidently had relatively few conflicts with the major stars with whom he worked, although there were notable exceptions. Lana Turner (originally cast in the role that subsequently went to Lee Remick) quit Anatomy of a Murder a month before filming was due to start, over a dispute about her wardrobe, with Turner telling the press that she couldn't deal with Preminger's domineering personality, and renowned British actor Paul Schofield reportedly quit Saint Joan after he got into a heated argument with Preminger during the first cast read-through of the script.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 179105, 181998, 67943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 142 ], [ 198, 208 ], [ 433, 447 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Laurence Olivier, who played a police inspector in the psychological thriller Bunny Lake Is Missing (1965), shot in England, recalled in his autobiography Confessions of an Actor that he found Preminger a \"bully\". Adam West, who portrayed the lead in the 1960s Batman television series, echoed Olivier's opinion. He remembered Preminger, who played Mr. Freeze, as being rude and unpleasant, especially when he disregarded the typical thespian etiquette of subtly cooperating when being helped to his feet, in a scene by West and Burt Ward.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 43675, 1338721, 278513, 298705, 18588727, 643207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 78, 99 ], [ 214, 223 ], [ 261, 267 ], [ 349, 359 ], [ 529, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preminger became notorious for his abusive and bullying behaviour towards his crews, and he was especially intolerant of less experienced actors—he reputedly completely memorised every line of each script before shooting began, and would fly into a rage at any actor who struggled to remember their lines. He is said to have grabbed one nervous young actor by the shoulders and screamed in his face \"Relax! Relax!\" Composer Elmer Bernstein, who scored The Man with the Golden Arm recalled, \"He was a scary character. I thought he was going to throw me out of the office when I told him that what I had in mind was to do a jazz-based score. But he said that that was what I had been hired for, and that was what I should go away and do.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 249724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 424, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linda Darnell was another famous target of Preminger's temper—he reportedly screamed at her almost every day for two months during the filming of Forever Amber. She came to loathe him, and the combination of the long hours of filming, heavy dieting and Preminger's constant harangues caused Darnell to collapse twice on set, and she was ordered to take ten days off by a doctor. During rehearsals for the Herman Wouk play \"A Modern Primitive\", Preminger screamed so violently at an actor who struggled to remember his lines that the man allegedly suffered a nervous breakdown, and one witness later commented, \"I had never seen such terrifying rage in anyone,\" describing the director as having \"veins standing out on his forehead\" and \"literally foaming at the mouth\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 460516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the most infamous examples of his mistreatment of inexperienced actors was Jean Seberg, whom he plucked from obscurity and directed in Saint Joan and Bonjour Tristesse. Seberg later commented: \"With him, I became a nervous wreck, crying and jumping when the phone started ringing, incapable of walking calmly across a room.\" Preminger imposed an intense, constant and minute level of control over Seberg throughout their association, and her co-star Richard Widmark later characterised Preminger's behaviour towards her as \"sadistic\". Tom Tryon, the star of Preminger's 1963 feature The Cardinal received similar treatment—Preminger would scream at him, zoom in on his shaking hands, and repeatedly fired and rehired him, with the result that Tryon was hospitalised with a body rash and peeling skin, due to nerves. Interviewed some 30 years later, Tryon admitted that he still hated talking about the experience, and his brother Bill Tryon told the same interviewer: \"I'll never watch that movie again the rest of my life, knowing what Tom went through.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 84781, 616774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 93 ], [ 457, 472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Academy Film Archive has preserved several of Otto Preminger's films, including The Man With the Golden Arm, The Moon is Blue, The Cardinal and Advise & Consent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 3374356, 161450, 187642, 1350234, 9701325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ], [ 84, 111 ], [ 113, 129 ], [ 131, 143 ], [ 149, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preminger and his wife Marion became increasingly estranged. He lived like a bachelor, as was the case when he met the burlesque performer Gypsy Rose Lee and began an open relationship with her.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 30995031, 183505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 128 ], [ 139, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lee had already attempted to break into movie roles, but she was not taken seriously as anything more than a stripper. She appeared in B pictures in less-than-minor roles. Preminger's liaison with Lee produced a child, Erik. Lee rejected the idea of Preminger's helping to support the child and instead elicited a vow of silence from Preminger: he was not to reveal Erik's paternity to anyone, including Erik himself. Lee called the boy Erik Kirkland after her husband, Alexander Kirkland, from whom she was separated at the time. It was not until 1966, when Preminger was 60 years old and Erik was 22, that father and son finally met.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 244207, 105391, 2314771, 5930250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 117 ], [ 135, 145 ], [ 219, 223 ], [ 470, 488 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 1946, Marion asked for a divorce, after meeting a wealthy (and married) Swedish financier, Axel Wenner-Gren. The Premingers' divorce ended smoothly and speedily. Marion did not seek alimony, only personal belongings. Axel's wife, however, was unwilling to grant a divorce. Marion returned to Otto and resumed appearances as his wife, and nothing more. Preminger had begun dating Natalie Draper, a niece of Marion Davies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 1228774, 219357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 114 ], [ 413, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While filming Carmen Jones (1954), Preminger began an affair with the film's star, Dorothy Dandridge, which lasted four years. During that period he advised her on career matters, including an offer made to Dandridge for the featured role of Tuptim in The King and I (1956). Preminger advised her to turn it down, as he believed it unworthy of her. She later regretted taking his advice.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 10554740, 187645, 60862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 26 ], [ 83, 100 ], [ 252, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preminger died in his home on the Upper East Side of Manhattan in 1986, aged 80, from lung cancer while suffering from Alzheimer's disease. He was survived by three children; his son, Erik, and twins Mark William and Victoria Elizabeth, from his marriage to Hope Bryce. Preminger was cremated and his ashes are in a niche in the Azalea Room of the Velma B. Woolworth Memorial Chapel at Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 327270, 45470, 18450, 18914017, 212263, 3338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 49 ], [ 53, 62 ], [ 86, 97 ], [ 119, 138 ], [ 386, 403 ], [ 407, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preminger's Anatomy of a Murder was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture. As the producer of the film, he received the nomination. He was twice nominated for Best Director: for Laura and for The Cardinal. He won the Bronze Berlin Bear award for the film Carmen Jones at the 5th Berlin International Film Festival.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Awards", "target_page_ids": [ 92684, 61702, 62009, 74871, 1350234, 10554740, 25546611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 31 ], [ 54, 84 ], [ 171, 184 ], [ 190, 195 ], [ 204, 216 ], [ 267, 279 ], [ 287, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Journals", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Books", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Interviews", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cinema Retro: Keir Dullea Recalls Starring in Preminger's Bunny Lake is Missing", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Literature on Otto Preminger, virtual-history.com; accessed 1 February 2017", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Otto Preminger interview on BBC Radio 4 Desert Island Discs, 8 February 1980", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 189254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Otto Preminger (in German) from the archive of the Österreichische Mediathek", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 46736934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 77 ] ] } ]

[ "1905_births", "1986_deaths", "20th-century_American_male_actors", "American_male_film_actors", "American_people_of_Ukrainian-Jewish_descent", "Austrian_emigrants_to_the_United_States", "Austrian_film_directors", "Austrian_male_television_actors", "Austro-Hungarian_Jews", "Bukovina_Jews", "Burials_at_Woodlawn_Cemetery_(Bronx,_New_York)", "People_with_Alzheimer's_disease", "Deaths_from_cancer_in_New_York_(state)", "Deaths_from_lung_cancer", "Film_directors_from_New_York_City", "German-language_film_directors", "Golden_Globe_Award-winning_producers", "Jewish_American_male_actors", "Jewish_Austrian_male_actors", "People_from_Vyzhnytsia", "People_from_the_Duchy_of_Bukovina", "People_from_the_Upper_East_Side", "People_with_acquired_American_citizenship", "Ukrainian_Jews", "20th-century_American_Jews" ]

[ "Otto L. Preminger", "Otto Ludwig Preminger" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Donald Siegel ( ; October 26, 1912 – April 20, 1991) was an American film and television director and producer.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Siegel was described by The New York Times as \"a director of tough, cynical and forthright action-adventure films whose taut plots centered on individualistic loners\". He directed the science fiction horror film Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956), as well as five films with Clint Eastwood, including the police thriller Dirty Harry (1971) and the prison drama Escape from Alcatraz (1979). He also directed John Wayne's final film, the Western The Shootist (1976).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30680, 179757, 74394, 43373, 301798, 1707516, 16103, 2400759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 42 ], [ 184, 199 ], [ 212, 242 ], [ 278, 292 ], [ 324, 335 ], [ 364, 384 ], [ 410, 420 ], [ 447, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Siegel was born in 1912 to a Jewish family in Chicago; his father was a mandolin player. Siegel attended schools in New York and later graduated from Jesus College, Cambridge in England. For a short time he studied at Beaux Arts in Paris, but left at age 20 and later went to Los Angeles.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 1131183, 26015915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 35 ], [ 150, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Siegel found work in the Warner Bros. film library after meeting producer Hal Wallis, and later rose to head of the Montage Department, where he directed thousands of montages, including the opening montage for Casablanca. In 1945, two shorts he directed, Star in the Night and Hitler Lives, won Academy Awards, which launched his career as a feature director.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 34052, 1025115, 3739366, 57585, 17487832, 17617594, 324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 37 ], [ 74, 84 ], [ 167, 175 ], [ 211, 221 ], [ 256, 273 ], [ 278, 290 ], [ 296, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He directed whatever material came his way, often transcending the limitations of budget and script to produce interesting and adept works. He made the original Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956), described by The Guardian in 2014 as a \"fatalistic masterpiece\" and \"a touchstone for the sci-fi genre\" which spawned three remakes. For television, he directed two episodes of The Twilight Zone, \"Uncle Simon\" (1963) and \"The Self-Improvement of Salvadore Ross\" (1964), and was the producer of The Legend of Jesse James (1965). He worked with Eli Wallach in The Lineup, Elvis Presley and Dolores del Río in Flaming Star (1960), with Steve McQueen in Hell Is for Heroes and Lee Marvin in the influential The Killers (1964) before directing five of Eastwood's films that were commercially successful in addition to being well received by critics. These included the action films Coogan's Bluff and Dirty Harry, the Albert Maltz-scripted Western Two Mules for Sister Sara, the American Civil War melodrama The Beguiled, and the prison-break picture Escape from Alcatraz. He was a considerable influence on Eastwood's own career as a director, and Eastwood's film Unforgiven is dedicated \"for Don and Sergio\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 74394, 19344515, 1409389, 1323485, 3584614, 21178710, 10482, 3584797, 9288, 564424, 985100, 144829, 4336248, 18433, 1748912, 3151903, 301798, 2079029, 2173342, 863, 1186395, 1707516, 133574, 38772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 191 ], [ 213, 225 ], [ 377, 394 ], [ 397, 408 ], [ 422, 460 ], [ 494, 519 ], [ 543, 554 ], [ 558, 568 ], [ 570, 583 ], [ 588, 603 ], [ 607, 619 ], [ 633, 646 ], [ 650, 668 ], [ 673, 683 ], [ 703, 714 ], [ 877, 891 ], [ 896, 907 ], [ 913, 925 ], [ 943, 968 ], [ 974, 992 ], [ 1003, 1015 ], [ 1046, 1066 ], [ 1160, 1170 ], [ 1197, 1203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He had a long collaboration with composer Lalo Schifrin, who scored five of his films: Coogan's Bluff, The Beguiled, Dirty Harry, Charley Varrick and Telefon.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1404485, 849594, 1252955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 55 ], [ 130, 145 ], [ 150, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schifrin composed and recorded what would have been his sixth score for Siegel on Jinxed! (1982), but it was rejected by the studio despite Siegel's objections. This was one of several fights Siegel had on this, his last film.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 5028541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Siegel was also important to the career of director Sam Peckinpah. In 1954, Peckinpah was hired as a dialogue coach for Riot in Cell Block 11. His job entailed acting as an assistant to the director, Siegel. The film was shot on location at Folsom Prison. Siegel's location work and his use of actual prisoners as extras in the film made a lasting impression on Peckinpah. He worked as a dialogue coach on four additional Siegel films: Private Hell 36 (1954), An Annapolis Story (1955), Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956) and Crime in the Streets (1956). 25 years later, Peckinpah was all but banished from the industry due to his troubled film productions. Siegel gave the director a chance to return to filmmaking. He asked Peckinpah if he would be interested in directing 12 days of second unit work on Jinxed!. Peckinpah immediately accepted, and his earnest collaboration with his longtime friend was noted within the industry. While Peckinpah's work was uncredited, it would lead to his hiring as the director of his final film The Osterman Weekend (1983).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 27641, 6143584, 316860, 3346956, 20318343, 74394, 25757180, 1703020, 5028541, 1464962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 65 ], [ 120, 141 ], [ 241, 254 ], [ 436, 451 ], [ 460, 478 ], [ 487, 517 ], [ 529, 549 ], [ 789, 800 ], [ 809, 816 ], [ 1037, 1057 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He has a cameo role as a bartender in Eastwood's Play Misty for Me, as well as in Dirty Harry. In Philip Kaufman's 1978 Invasion of the Body Snatchers, a remake of Siegel's own 1956 film, he appears as a taxi driver. In Charley Varrick starring Walter Matthau (a film slated for Eastwood but ultimately turned down by the actor), he has a cameo as a ping-pong player. He also appears in the 1985 John Landis film Into the Night.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cameos", "target_page_ids": [ 275882, 384209, 871396, 5735396, 849594, 62811, 2020750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 19 ], [ 49, 66 ], [ 98, 112 ], [ 120, 150 ], [ 220, 235 ], [ 245, 259 ], [ 413, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1948 to 1953, he was married to actress Viveca Lindfors, with whom he had a son, Kristoffer Tabori. He married Doe Avedon in 1957. They adopted four children; they divorced in 1975. He married Carol Rydall, former secretary to Clint Eastwood. They remained together until he died at the age of 78 from cancer in Nipomo, California. He is buried near Highway 1 in the coastal Cayucos-Morro Bay District Cemetery. Siegel was an atheist.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personal life and death", "target_page_ids": [ 2249330, 6020096, 34169876, 108093, 15247542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 60 ], [ 86, 103 ], [ 116, 126 ], [ 317, 323 ], [ 431, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Now Voyager(1942) (montage by)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 3365303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Across the Pacific (1942) (montage director)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 9126014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Casablanca (1942) (montage director)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 57585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Hard Way (1943) (montage director)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 20149505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Star in the Night (1945 short)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 17487832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hitler Lives (1945 documentary short, uncredited)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 17617594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Verdict (1946)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 6300597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Night Unto Night (1949)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 20419759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Big Steal (1949)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 1992837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Duel at Silver Creek (1952)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 25757091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Count the Hours (1953)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 25757145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "China Venture (1953)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 25757168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Riot in Cell Block 11 (1954)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 6143584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Private Hell 36 (1954)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 3346956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Blue and Gold (1955)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 20318343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 74394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crime in the Streets (1956)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 25757180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baby Face Nelson (1957)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 15070503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spanish Affair (1957)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 20318189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Gun Runners (1958)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 15068907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Lineup (1958)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 3584797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hound-Dog Man (1959)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 25757250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edge of Eternity (1959) - Man at Motel Pool (uncredited)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 25757227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flaming Star (1960)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 985100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hell Is for Heroes (1962)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 4336248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Killers (1964)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 1748912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Hanged Man (1964)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 17346041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stranger on the Run (1967)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 33955271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coogan's Bluff (1968)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 3151903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Madigan (1968)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 2388465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Death of a Gunfighter (1969)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 990663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two Mules for Sister Sara (1970)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 2173342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Beguiled (1971)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 1186395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dirty Harry (1971)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 301798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charley Varrick (1973)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 849594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Black Windmill (1974)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 3116779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Shootist (1976)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 2400759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telefon (1977)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 1252955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Escape from Alcatraz (1979)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 1707516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rough Cut (1980)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 5085028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jinxed! (1982)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 5028541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An Academy Salute to Don Siegel, With Curtis Hanson and Clint Eastwood", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1912_births", "1991_deaths", "20th-century_American_businesspeople", "Action_film_directors", "Alumni_of_Jesus_College,_Cambridge", "Jewish_American_atheists", "American_film_directors", "20th-century_American_Jews", "American_television_directors", "Businesspeople_from_Chicago", "Deaths_from_cancer_in_California", "Film_producers_from_Illinois", "Western_(genre)_film_directors" ]

[ "Donald \"Don\" Siegel", "Donald Siegel" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Major League Baseball (MLB) is a professional baseball organization and the oldest major professional sports league in the world. , a total of 30 teams play in Major League Baseball—15 teams in the National League (NL) and 15 in the American League (AL)—with 29 in the United States and 1 in Canada. The NL and AL were formed in 1876 and 1901, respectively. Beginning in 1903, the two leagues signed the National Agreement and cooperated but remained legally separate entities until 2000, when they merged into a single organization led by the Commissioner of Baseball. MLB is headquartered in Midtown Manhattan.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 973037, 64290, 64777, 304101, 302201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 54 ], [ 199, 214 ], [ 234, 249 ], [ 545, 569 ], [ 595, 612 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baseball's first all-professional team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings, was founded in 1869. Before that, some teams had secretly paid certain players. The first few decades of professional baseball were characterized by rivalries between leagues and by players who often jumped from one team or league to another. The period before 1920 was the dead-ball era, when home runs were rarely hit. Professional baseball in the United States survived the Black Sox Scandal, a conspiracy to fix the 1919 World Series. The sport rose in popularity in the 1920s and survived potential downturns during the Great Depression and World War II. Shortly after the war, Jackie Robinson broke baseball's color barrier.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 770805, 1361074, 14148, 304356, 678924, 1332334, 19283335, 32927, 16193, 757798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 68 ], [ 344, 357 ], [ 364, 372 ], [ 447, 464 ], [ 482, 485 ], [ 490, 507 ], [ 595, 611 ], [ 616, 628 ], [ 653, 668 ], [ 675, 699 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1950s and 1960s were a time of club expansion and relocation for the AL and NL. Modern stadiums with artificial turf surfaces began to change the game in the 1970s and 1980s. Home runs dominated the game during the 1990s, and media reports disclosed the use of anabolic steroids among MLB players in the mid-2000s. In 2006, an investigation produced the Mitchell Report, which implicated many players in the use of performance-enhancing substances, including at least one player from each team.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26854068, 1156289, 19218324, 14676332, 7214191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 64 ], [ 105, 120 ], [ 265, 281 ], [ 358, 373 ], [ 419, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Each team plays 162 games per season and six teams in each league advance to a four-round postseason tournament that culminates in the World Series, a best-of-seven championship series between the two league champions that dates to 1903. Baseball games are broadcast on television, radio, and the Internet throughout North America and in several other countries. MLB has the highest total season attendance of any sports league in the world with more than 69.6 million spectators in 2018.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21317664, 23489161, 2847115, 10815352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 111 ], [ 135, 147 ], [ 151, 164 ], [ 375, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MLB also oversees Minor League Baseball, which comprises lower-tier teams affiliated with the major league clubs. MLB and the World Baseball Softball Confederation jointly manage the international World Baseball Classic tournament.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 48704155, 40341316, 1877416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 39 ], [ 126, 163 ], [ 197, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MLB is the second-wealthiest professional sport league by revenue after the National Football League (NFL).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41554660, 21211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 65 ], [ 76, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The New York Yankees have the most titles with 27. The Atlanta Braves are the reigning World Series champions, as they defeated the Houston Astros 4–2 in the 2021 World Series.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4848143, 2140, 23489161, 13894, 65698577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 55, 69 ], [ 87, 99 ], [ 132, 146 ], [ 158, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MLB is governed by the Major League Baseball Constitution. This document has undergone several incarnations since its creation in 1876. Under the direction of the Commissioner of Baseball, MLB hires and maintains the sport's umpiring crews, and negotiates marketing, labor, and television contracts. MLB maintains a unique, controlling relationship over the sport, including most aspects of Minor League Baseball. This is due in large part to the 1922 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Federal Baseball Club v. National League, which held that baseball is not interstate commerce and therefore not subject to federal antitrust law; MLB is the only league that has such a status, and has not faced any competition since this case. This ruling has been weakened only slightly in subsequent years. The weakened ruling granted more stability to the owners of teams and has resulted in values increasing at double-digit rates. There were several challenges to MLB's primacy in the sport, with notable attempts to establish competing leagues occurring during the late 1800s, from 1913 to 1915 with the short-lived Federal League, and in 1960 with the aborted Continental League.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organizational structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3169974, 304101, 482954, 666019, 48704155, 31737, 954585, 277462, 666256, 243623, 239411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 57 ], [ 163, 187 ], [ 225, 233 ], [ 278, 298 ], [ 391, 412 ], [ 452, 470 ], [ 481, 521 ], [ 555, 574 ], [ 612, 621 ], [ 1103, 1117 ], [ 1148, 1166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The chief executive of MLB is the commissioner, currently Rob Manfred. The deputy commissioner of baseball administration and chief legal officer is currently Dan Halem. There are seven other executives: executive vice president and general counsel, chief operations and strategy officer, chief communications officer, chief financial officer and senior advisor, executive vice president and chief marketing officer, chief revenue officer, and chief baseball development officer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organizational structure", "target_page_ids": [ 40671677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The multimedia branch of MLB is MLB Advanced Media, which is based in New York City. This branch oversees MLB.com and each of the 30 teams' websites. Its charter states that MLB Advanced Media holds editorial independence from the league, but it is under the same ownership group and revenue-sharing plan. MLB Productions is a similarly structured wing of the league, focusing on video and traditional broadcast media. MLB also owns 67 percent of MLB Network, with the other 33 percent split between several cable operators and satellite provider DirecTV. It operates out of studios in Secaucus, New Jersey, and also has editorial independence from the league.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organizational structure", "target_page_ids": [ 2215174, 5580094, 6958049, 14830794, 9624289, 125241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 50 ], [ 106, 113 ], [ 199, 221 ], [ 447, 458 ], [ 547, 554 ], [ 586, 606 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1920, the weak National Commission, which had been created to manage relationships between the two leagues, was replaced with the much more powerful Commissioner of Baseball, who had the power to make decisions for all of professional baseball unilaterally. From 1901 to 1960, the American and National Leagues fielded eight teams apiece.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "League organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1960s, MLB expansion added eight teams, including the first non-U.S. team (the Montreal Expos). Two teams (the Seattle Mariners and the Toronto Blue Jays) were also added in the 1970s. From 1969 through 1993, each league consisted of an East and West Division. In 1993, the National League expanded with two teams, the Florida Marlins and the Colorado Rockies, to even up the number of teams in both leagues. A third division, the Central Division, was formed in each league in 1994. Until 1996, the two leagues met on the field only during the World Series and the All-Star Game. Regular-season interleague play was introduced in 1997.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "League organization", "target_page_ids": [ 20153, 27660, 30847, 11278, 6669, 23489161, 270784, 384210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 100 ], [ 118, 134 ], [ 143, 160 ], [ 326, 341 ], [ 350, 366 ], [ 552, 564 ], [ 573, 586 ], [ 603, 619 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 1995, two new franchises, the Arizona Diamondbacks and Tampa Bay Devil Rays (now known as the Tampa Bay Rays), were awarded by MLB, which began play in 1998. This addition brought the total number of franchises to 30. In early 1997, MLB decided to assign one new team to each league: Tampa Bay joined the AL and Arizona joined the NL. The original plan was to have an odd number of teams in each league (15 per league, with five in each division), but in order for every team to be able to play daily, this would have required interleague play to be scheduled throughout the entire season. However, it was unclear at the time if the interleague play would continue after the 1998 season, as it had to be approved by the players' union. For this and other reasons, it was decided that both leagues should continue to have an even number of teams, and therefore, one existing club would have to switch leagues. The Milwaukee Brewers agreed in November 1997 to move from the AL to the NL, thereby making the NL a 16-team league. At the same time, the Detroit Tigers agreed to move from the AL East to the AL Central (to replace Milwaukee), with the expansion Tampa Bay Devil Rays joining the AL East. Later, when the Houston Astros changed ownership prior to the 2013 season, the team moved from the NL Central to the AL West, resulting in both leagues having three divisions of five teams each and allowing all teams to have a more balanced schedule. Interleague play is now held throughout the season.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "League organization", "target_page_ids": [ 2129, 18293060, 20152, 8579, 13894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 59 ], [ 103, 117 ], [ 922, 939 ], [ 1057, 1071 ], [ 1223, 1237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2000, the AL and NL were dissolved as legal entities, and MLB became a single, overall league de jure, similar to the National Football League (NFL), National Basketball Association (NBA) and National Hockey League (NHL)—albeit with two components called \"leagues\" instead of \"conferences\". The same rules and regulations are used in both leagues, with one former exception: the AL operated under the designated hitter (DH) rule, while the NL did not. This difference in rules between leagues was unique to MLB; the other sports leagues of the U.S. and Canada have one set of rules for all teams.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "League organization", "target_page_ids": [ 21211, 22093, 21809, 895961, 398268, 347297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 145 ], [ 153, 184 ], [ 195, 217 ], [ 303, 308 ], [ 313, 324 ], [ 404, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2020, the National League (NL) used the designated hitter (DH) rule for the first time. As part of the settlement of the 2021–22 Major League Baseball lockout, this change was made permanent thus making the rules in the two leagues identical.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "League organization", "target_page_ids": [ 64290, 69413854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ], [ 124, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An asterisk (*) denotes a relocation of a franchise. See respective team articles for more information.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Teams", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1860s, aided by soldiers playing the game in camp during the Civil War, \"New York\"-style baseball expanded into a national game and spawned baseball's first governing body, the National Association of Base Ball Players (NABBP). The NABBP existed as an amateur league for 12 years. By 1867, more than 400 clubs were members. Most of the strongest clubs remained those based in the Northeastern United States. For professional baseball's founding year, MLB uses the year 1869—when the first professional team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings, was established.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 863, 2686639, 973037, 770805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 77 ], [ 184, 225 ], [ 419, 440 ], [ 519, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A schism developed between professional and amateur ballplayers after the founding of the Cincinnati club. The NABBP split into an amateur organization and a professional organization. The National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, often known as the National Association (NA), was formed in 1871. Its amateur counterpart disappeared after only a few years. The modern Chicago Cubs and Atlanta Braves franchises trace their histories back to the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players in the 1870s.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 647039, 6654, 2140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 243 ], [ 382, 394 ], [ 399, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1876, the National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs (later known as the National League or NL) was established after the NA proved ineffective. The league placed its emphasis on clubs rather than on players. Clubs could now enforce player contracts, preventing players from jumping to higher-paying clubs. Clubs were required to play the full schedule of games instead of forfeiting scheduled games when the club was no longer in the running for the league championship, which happened frequently under the NA. A concerted effort was made to curb gambling on games, which was leaving the validity of results in doubt. The first game in the NL—on Saturday, April 22, 1876 (at the Jefferson Street Grounds, Philadelphia)—is often pointed to as the beginning of MLB.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 64290, 1289377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 96 ], [ 688, 712 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The early years of the NL were tumultuous, with threats from rival leagues and a rebellion by players against the hated \"reserve clause\", which restricted the free movement of players between clubs. Teams came and went; 1882 was the first season where the league's membership was the same as the preceding season's, and only four franchises survived to see 1900. Competitor leagues formed regularly and also disbanded regularly. The most successful was the American Association (1882–1891), sometimes called the \"beer and whiskey league\" for its tolerance of the sale of alcoholic beverages to spectators. For several years, the NL and American Association champions met in a postseason championship series—the first attempt at a World Series. The two leagues merged in 1892 as a single 12-team NL, but the NL dropped four teams after the 1899 season. This led to the formation of the American League in 1901 under AL president Ban Johnson, and the resulting bidding war for players led to widespread contract-breaking and legal disputes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 574595, 23489161, 64777, 1477450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 457, 477 ], [ 730, 742 ], [ 885, 900 ], [ 928, 939 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The war between the AL and NL caused shock waves throughout the baseball world. At a meeting at the Leland Hotel in Chicago in 1901, the other baseball leagues negotiated a plan to maintain their independence. A new National Association was formed to oversee these minor leagues.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After 1902, the NL, AL, and NA signed a new National Agreement which tied independent contracts to the reserve-clause contracts. The agreement also set up a formal classification system for minor leagues, the forerunner of today's system that was refined by Branch Rickey.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 426353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 258, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several other early defunct baseball leagues are officially considered major leagues, and their statistics and records are included with those of the two current major leagues. In 1969, the Special Baseball Records Committee of Major League Baseball officially recognized six major leagues: the National League, American League, American Association, Union Association (1884), Players' League (1890), and Federal League (1914–1915). The status of the National Association as a major league has been a point of dispute among baseball researchers; while its statistics are not recognized by Major League Baseball, its statistics are included with those of other major leagues by some baseball reference websites, such as Retrosheet. Some researchers, including Nate Silver, dispute the major-league status of the Union Association by pointing out that franchises came and went and that the St. Louis club was deliberately \"stacked\"; the St. Louis club was owned by the league's president and it was the only club that was close to major-league caliber. In December 2020, Major League Baseball announced its recognition of seven leagues within Negro league baseball as major leagues, and in 2021, baseball reference website Baseball-Reference.com began to include statistics from those seven leagues into their major-league statistics.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 647097, 647121, 243623, 4898462, 6731266, 39945, 13285522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 351, 368 ], [ 377, 392 ], [ 405, 419 ], [ 719, 729 ], [ 759, 770 ], [ 1141, 1162 ], [ 1221, 1243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The period between 1900 and 1919 is commonly referred to as the \"dead-ball era\". Games of this era tended to be low-scoring and were often dominated by pitchers, such as Walter Johnson, Cy Young, Christy Mathewson, Mordecai Brown, and Grover Cleveland Alexander. The term also accurately describes the condition of the baseball itself. The baseball used American rather than the modern Australian wool yarn and was not wound as tightly, affecting the distance that it would travel. More significantly, balls were kept in play until they were mangled, soft and sometimes lopsided. During this era, a baseball cost three dollars, equal to $ today (in inflation-adjusted USD), and owners were reluctant to purchase new balls. Fans were expected to throw back fouls and (rare) home runs. Baseballs also became stained with tobacco juice, grass, and mud, and sometimes the juice of licorice, which some players would chew for the purpose of discoloring the ball.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 220816, 6849, 74130, 522185, 355392, 18717338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 184 ], [ 186, 194 ], [ 196, 213 ], [ 215, 229 ], [ 235, 261 ], [ 668, 671 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also, pitchers could manipulate the ball through the use of the spitball. (In 1921 use of this pitch was restricted to a few pitchers with a grandfather clause). Additionally, many ballparks had large dimensions, such as the West Side Grounds of the Chicago Cubs, which was to the center field fence, and the Huntington Avenue Grounds of the Boston Red Sox, which was to the center field fence, thus home runs were rare, and \"small ball\" tactics such as singles, bunts, stolen bases, and the hit-and-run play dominated the strategies of the time. Hitting methods like the Baltimore Chop were used to increase the number of infield singles. On a successful Baltimore chop, the batter hits the ball forcefully into the ground, causing it to bounce so high that the batter reaches first base before the ball can be fielded and thrown to the first baseman.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 433739, 293951, 1297534, 766923, 4339, 300734, 239919, 3811, 2000149, 11962248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 72 ], [ 141, 159 ], [ 225, 242 ], [ 310, 335 ], [ 343, 357 ], [ 456, 463 ], [ 465, 470 ], [ 472, 483 ], [ 494, 505 ], [ 574, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The adoption of the foul strike rule in the early twentieth century quickly sent baseball from a high-scoring game to one where scoring runs became a struggle. Prior to the institution of this rule, foul balls were not counted as strikes: a batter could foul off any number of pitches with no strikes counted against him; this gave an enormous advantage to the batter. In 1901, the NL adopted the foul strike rule, and the AL followed suit in 1903.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After the 1919 World Series between the Chicago White Sox and Cincinnati Reds, baseball was rocked by allegations of a game fixing scheme known as the Black Sox Scandal. Eight players—\"Shoeless\" Joe Jackson, Eddie Cicotte, Claude \"Lefty\" Williams, George \"Buck\" Weaver, Arnold \"Chick\" Gandil, Fred McMullin, Charles \"Swede\" Risberg, and Oscar \"Happy\" Felsch—intentionally lost the World Series in exchange for a ring worth $100,000 ($1,712,780.35 in 2022 dollars). Despite being acquitted, all were permanently banned from Major League Baseball.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1332334, 5945, 678924, 304356, 149419, 157809, 685298, 685369, 683325, 686204, 713043, 670892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 40, 57 ], [ 119, 130 ], [ 151, 168 ], [ 184, 206 ], [ 208, 221 ], [ 223, 246 ], [ 248, 268 ], [ 270, 291 ], [ 293, 306 ], [ 308, 331 ], [ 337, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baseball's popularity increased in the 1920s and 1930s. The 1920 season was notable for the death of Ray Chapman of the Cleveland Indians. Chapman, who was struck in the head by a pitch and died a few hours later, became the only MLB player to die of an on-field injury, a tragedy which led directly to both leagues requiring the placing into play new, white baseballs whenever a ball became scuffed or dirty, helping bring the \"dead-ball\" era to an end. The following year, the New York Yankees made their first World Series appearance. By the end of the 1930s, the team had appeared in 11 World Series, winning eight of them. Yankees slugger Babe Ruth had set the single-season home run record in 1927, hitting 60 home runs; a few years earlier, Ruth had set the same record with 29 home runs.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 560686, 6652, 4848143, 4173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 112 ], [ 120, 137 ], [ 479, 495 ], [ 644, 653 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Affected by the difficulties of the Great Depression, baseball's popularity had begun a downward turn in the early 1930s. By 1932, only two MLB teams turned a profit. Attendance had fallen, due at least in part to a 10% federal amusement tax added to baseball ticket prices. Baseball owners cut their rosters from 25 men to 23 men, and even the best players took pay cuts. Team executives were innovative in their attempts to survive, creating night games, broadcasting games live by radio, and rolling out promotions such as free admission for women. Throughout the period of the Great Depression, no MLB teams moved or folded.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19283335, 2346654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 52 ], [ 301, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The onset of World War II created a significant shortage of professional baseball players, as more than 500 men left MLB teams to serve in the military. Many of them played on service baseball teams that entertained military personnel in the US or in the Pacific. MLB teams of this time largely consisted of young men, older players, and those with a military classification of 4F, indicating mental, physical, or moral unsuitability for service. Men like Pete Gray, a one-armed outfielder, got the chance to advance to the major leagues. However, MLB rosters did not include any black players through the end of the war. Black players, many of whom served in the war, were still restricted to playing Negro league baseball.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 466454, 2152540, 39945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 378, 380 ], [ 456, 465 ], [ 702, 723 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wartime blackout restrictions, designed to keep outdoor lighting at low levels, caused another problem for baseball. These rules limited traveling and night games to the point that the 1942 season nearly had to be canceled. On January 14, 1942, MLB Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis wrote a letter to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and pleaded for the continuation of baseball during the war in hopes for a start of a new major league season. President Roosevelt responded, \"I honestly feel that it would be best for the country to keep baseball going. There will be fewer people unemployed and everybody will work longer hours and harder than ever before. And that means that they ought to have a chance for recreation and for taking their minds off their work even more than before.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1869769, 16812, 10979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ], [ 262, 285 ], [ 319, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the approval of President Roosevelt, spring training began in 1942 with few repercussions. The war interrupted the careers of stars including Stan Musial, Bob Feller, Ted Williams, and Joe DiMaggio, but baseball clubs continued to field their teams.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 280101, 475452, 31496, 48891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 158 ], [ 160, 170 ], [ 172, 184 ], [ 190, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Branch Rickey, president, and general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers began making efforts to introduce a black baseball player to the previously all-white professional baseball leagues in the mid-1940s. He selected Jackie Robinson from a list of promising Negro league players. After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to \"turn the other cheek\" to any racial antagonism directed at him, Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for $600 a month. In what was later referred to as \"The Noble Experiment\", Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s, joining the Dodgers' farm club, the Montreal Royals, for the 1946 season.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16193, 1031262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 231 ], [ 631, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following year, the Dodgers called up Robinson to the major leagues. On April 15, 1947, Robinson made his major league debut at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26,623 spectators, including more than 14,000 black patrons. Black baseball fans began flocking to see the Dodgers when they came to town, abandoning the Negro league teams that they had followed exclusively. Robinson's promotion met a generally positive, although mixed, reception among newspaper writers and white major league players. Manager Leo Durocher informed his team, \"I don't care if he is yellow or black or has stripes like a fucking zebra. I'm his manager and I say he plays.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 616876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 509, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After a strike threat by some players, NL President Ford Frick and Baseball Commissioner Happy Chandler let it be known that any striking players would be suspended. Robinson received significant encouragement from several major-league players, including Dodgers teammate Pee Wee Reese who said, \"You can hate a man for many reasons. Color is not one of them.\" That year, Robinson won the inaugural Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award (separate NL and AL Rookie of the Year honors were not awarded until 1949).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 303804, 304107, 193338, 3859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 62 ], [ 89, 103 ], [ 272, 285 ], [ 399, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Less than three months later, Larry Doby became the first African-American to break the color barrier in the American League with the Cleveland Indians. The next year, a number of other black players entered the major leagues. Satchel Paige was signed by the Indians and the Dodgers added star catcher Roy Campanella and Don Newcombe, who was later the first winner of the Cy Young Award for his outstanding pitching.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 249329, 28630, 77393, 629570, 6725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 40 ], [ 227, 240 ], [ 302, 316 ], [ 321, 333 ], [ 373, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MLB banned the signing of women to contracts in 1952, but that ban was lifted in 1992. There have been no female MLB players.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From 1903 to 1953, the major leagues consisted of two eight-team leagues whose 16 teams were located in ten cities, all in the northeastern and midwestern United States: New York City had three teams and Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, and St. Louis each had two teams. St. Louis was the southernmost and westernmost city with a major league team. The longest possible road trip, from Boston to St. Louis, took about 24 hours by railroad. After a half-century of stability, starting in the 1950s, teams began to move out of cities with multiple teams into cities that hadn't had them before. In three consecutive years from 1953 to 1955, three teams moved to new cities: the Boston Braves became the Milwaukee Braves, the St. Louis Browns became the Baltimore Orioles, and the Philadelphia Athletics became the Kansas City Athletics.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 24437894, 50585, 27687, 33540743, 2140, 33540632, 4340, 33800008, 22479813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 210 ], [ 221, 233 ], [ 239, 248 ], [ 674, 687 ], [ 699, 715 ], [ 721, 737 ], [ 749, 766 ], [ 776, 798 ], [ 810, 831 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1958 Major League Baseball season was perhaps the pivotal season in making Major League Baseball a nationwide league. Walter O'Malley, owner of the Brooklyn Dodgers, moved his team to Los Angeles, marking the first major league franchise on the West Coast. Called \"perhaps the most influential owner of baseball's early expansion era,\" O'Malley appeared on the cover of Time as a result of his efforts to move baseball to a more nationwide sport O'Malley was also influential in persuading the rival New York Giants to move west to become the San Francisco Giants. The Giants were already suffering from slumping attendance records at their aging ballpark, the Polo Grounds. Had the Dodgers moved out west alone, the St. Louis Cardinals— away—would have been the closest NL team. The joint move made West Coast road trips economical for visiting teams. O'Malley invited San Francisco Mayor George Christopher to New York to meet with Giants owner Horace Stoneham. Stoneham was considering moving the Giants to Minnesota, but he was convinced to join O'Malley on the West Coast at the end of 1957. The meetings between Stoneham, Christopher and O'Malley occurred against the wishes of Ford Frick, the Commissioner of Baseball. The dual moves were successful for both franchises—and for MLB. The Dodgers set a single-game MLB attendance record in their first home appearance with 78,672fans.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16265984, 1333861, 25036634, 31600, 24089250, 534386, 23408844, 3381306, 1518451, 5023077, 19590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 37 ], [ 122, 137 ], [ 152, 168 ], [ 374, 378 ], [ 504, 519 ], [ 665, 677 ], [ 721, 740 ], [ 874, 893 ], [ 894, 912 ], [ 951, 966 ], [ 1014, 1023 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1961, the first Washington Senators franchise moved to Minneapolis–St. Paul to become the Minnesota Twins. Two new teams were added to the American League at the same time: the Los Angeles Angels (who soon moved from downtown L.A. to nearby Anaheim) and a new Washington Senators franchise. The NL added the Houston Astros and the New York Mets in 1962. The Astros (known as the \"Colt .45s\" during their first three seasons) became the first southern major league franchise since the Louisville Colonels folded in 1899 and the first franchise to be located along the Gulf Coast. The Mets established a reputation for futility by going 40–120 during their first season of play in the nation's media capital—and by playing only a little better in subsequent campaigns—but in their eighth season (1969) the Mets became the first of the 1960s expansion teams to play in the postseason, culminating in a World Series title over the heavily favored Baltimore Orioles.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 33540929, 102607, 20050, 1360083, 77520, 30857, 13894, 21728, 639432, 11969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 38 ], [ 58, 78 ], [ 93, 108 ], [ 180, 198 ], [ 244, 251 ], [ 263, 282 ], [ 311, 325 ], [ 334, 347 ], [ 487, 506 ], [ 570, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1966, the major leagues moved to the \"Deep South\" when the Braves moved to Atlanta. In 1968, the Kansas City Athletics moved west to become the Oakland Athletics. In 1969, the American and National Leagues both added two expansion franchises. The American League added the Seattle Pilots (who became the Milwaukee Brewers after one disastrous season in Seattle) and the Kansas City Royals. The NL added the first Canadian franchise, the Montreal Expos, as well as the San Diego Padres.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22523, 38798177, 274330, 20152, 16883, 20153, 28417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 164 ], [ 214, 244 ], [ 276, 290 ], [ 307, 324 ], [ 373, 391 ], [ 440, 454 ], [ 471, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1972, the second Washington Senators moved to the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex to become the Texas Rangers. In 1977, baseball expanded again, adding a second Canadian team, the Toronto Blue Jays, as well as the Seattle Mariners. Subsequently, no new teams were added until the 1990s and no teams moved until 2005.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 328591, 30857, 38662252, 30847, 27660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 80 ], [ 95, 108 ], [ 128, 142 ], [ 179, 196 ], [ 213, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the late 1960s, the balance between pitching and hitting had swung in favor of the pitchers. In 1968—later nicknamed \"the year of the pitcher\"—Boston Red Sox player Carl Yastrzemski won the American League batting title with an average of just .301, the lowest in the history of Major League Baseball. Detroit Tigers pitcher Denny McLain won 31 games, making him the only pitcher to win 30 games in a season since Dizzy Dean in 1934. St. Louis Cardinals starting pitcher Bob Gibson achieved an equally remarkable feat by allowing an ERA of just 1.12.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 88049, 8579, 93551, 295430, 367170, 23277625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 184 ], [ 305, 319 ], [ 328, 340 ], [ 417, 427 ], [ 474, 484 ], [ 536, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following these pitching performances, in December 1968 the MLB Playing Rules Committee voted to reduce the strike zone from knees to shoulders to top of knees to armpits and lower the pitcher's mound from 15 to 10inches, beginning in the 1969 season.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1973, the American League, which had been suffering from much lower attendance than the National League, sought to increase scoring even further by initiating the designated hitter (DH) rule.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 347297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, as baseball expanded, NFL football had been surging in popularity, making it economical for many of these cities to build multi-purpose stadiums instead of single-purpose baseball fields. Because of climate and economic issues, many of these facilities had playing surfaces made from artificial turf, as well as the oval designs characteristic of stadiums designed to house both baseball and football. This often resulted in baseball fields with relatively more foul territory than older stadiums. These characteristics changed the nature of professional baseball, putting a higher premium on speed and defense over home-run hitting power since the fields were often too big for teams to expect to hit many home runs and foul balls hit in the air could more easily be caught for outs.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21211, 8203606, 1156289, 833373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 57 ], [ 154, 175 ], [ 316, 331 ], [ 494, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Teams began to be built around pitching—particularly their bullpens—and speed on the basepaths. Artificial surfaces meant balls traveled quicker and bounced higher, so it became easier to hit ground balls \"in the hole\" between the corner and middle infielders. Starting pitchers were no longer expected to throw complete games; it was enough for a starter to pitch 6–7 innings and turn the game over to the team's closer, a position which grew in importance over these decades. As stolen bases increased, home run totals dropped. After Willie Mays hit 52 home runs in 1965, only one player (George Foster) reached that mark until the 1990s.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1010687, 11962338, 300752, 12453703, 62512, 586172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 203 ], [ 206, 217 ], [ 312, 325 ], [ 414, 420 ], [ 536, 547 ], [ 591, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1980s, baseball experienced a number of significant changes the game had not seen in years. Home runs were on the decline throughout the decade, with players hitting only 40 home runs just 13 times and no one hitting more than 50 home runs in a season for the first time since the Dead-ball era (1900–1919).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 1981 Major League Baseball strike from June 12 until July 31 forced the cancellation of 713 total games and resulted in a split-season format.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2238017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1985, Pete Rose broke Ty Cobb's all-time hits record with his 4,192nd hit, and in 1989 Rose received a lifetime ban from baseball as a result of betting on baseball games while manager of the Cincinnati Reds. Rose was the first person to receive a lifetime ban from baseball since 1943. 1985 also saw the Pittsburgh drug trials which involved players who were called to testify before a grand jury in Pittsburgh related to cocaine trafficking.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 52970, 31586, 6671, 5690422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 18 ], [ 25, 32 ], [ 195, 210 ], [ 308, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1994–95 Major League Baseball strike from August 12, 1994, to April 25, 1995, caused the cancellation of over 900 games and the forfeit of the entire 1994 postseason.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2019, Major League Baseball opened an investigation into allegations that members of the 2017 World Series champion Houston Astros stole signs from opposing teams using technology during the 2017 and 2018 seasons. The Astros were found guilty in January 2020 and while no active players faced any repercussions, Astros general manager Jeff Luhnow and field manager A. J. Hinch were suspended for the entire 2020 season. The Astros were fined the maximum allowable $5million and forfeited their first- and second-round picks in the 2020 and 2021 drafts.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 50635427, 13894, 62385292, 55623166, 525548, 34005832, 501672, 1261061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 109 ], [ 119, 133 ], [ 134, 145 ], [ 203, 214 ], [ 322, 337 ], [ 338, 349 ], [ 354, 367 ], [ 368, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Routinely in the late 1990s and early 2000s, baseball players hit 40 or 50 home runs in a season, a feat that was considered rare even in the 1980s. It has since become apparent that at least some of this power surge was a result of players using steroids and other performance-enhancing drugs.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4923981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 247, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1993, the NL added the Florida Marlins in Miami and the Colorado Rockies in Denver. In 1998, the Brewers switched leagues by joining the National League, and two new teams were added: the NL's Arizona Diamondbacks in Phoenix and the AL's Tampa Bay Devil Rays in Tampa Bay.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11278, 53846, 6669, 8522, 2129, 49121, 18293060, 929796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 41 ], [ 45, 50 ], [ 59, 75 ], [ 79, 85 ], [ 196, 216 ], [ 220, 227 ], [ 241, 261 ], [ 265, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the 2001 season, the team owners voted in favor of contraction. Several MLB teams had been considered for elimination in early talks about contraction, but the Montreal Expos and the Minnesota Twins were the two teams that came closest to folding under the plan. Plans for MLB contraction were halted when the Twins landlord was awarded a court injunction that required the team to play its 2002 home games at their stadium. MLB owners agreed to hold off on reducing the league's size until at least 2006.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 62209688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Montreal Expos became the first franchise in over three decades to move when they became the Washington Nationals in 2005. This move left Canada with just one team, but it also returned baseball to Washington after a 33-year absence. This franchise shift, like many previous ones, involved baseball's return to a city that had been previously abandoned. Not counting the short-lived Federal League, Montreal is the only city granted an MLB franchise since 1901 that does not currently, since 2004, host a team.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 885151, 13447627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 117 ], [ 496, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A baseball uniform is a type of uniform worn by baseball players, and by some non-playing personnel, such as field managers and coaches. It is worn to indicate the person's role in the game and—through the use of logos, colors, and numbers—to identify the teams and their players, managers, and coaches.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uniforms", "target_page_ids": [ 17203884, 1035085, 501672, 13859218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 18 ], [ 48, 64 ], [ 109, 123 ], [ 232, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Traditionally, home uniforms display the team name on the front, while away uniforms display the team's home location. In modern times, however, exceptions to this pattern have become common, with teams using their team name on both uniforms. Most teams also have one or more alternate uniforms, usually consisting of the primary or secondary team color on the vest instead of the usual white or gray. In the past few decades throwback uniforms have become popular.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uniforms", "target_page_ids": [ 382550, 1436515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 276, 294 ], [ 426, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The New York Knickerbockers were the first baseball team to use uniforms, taking the field on April 4, 1849, in pants made of blue wool, white flannel shirts (jerseys) and straw hats. Caps and other types of headgear have been a part of baseball uniforms from the beginning. Baseball teams often wore full-brimmed straw hats or no cap at all since there was no official rule regarding headgear. Under the 1882 uniform rules, players on the same team wore uniforms of different colors and patterns that indicated which position they played. This rule was soon abandoned as impractical.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uniforms", "target_page_ids": [ 922083, 492836, 553696, 433135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 150 ], [ 159, 166 ], [ 172, 181 ], [ 184, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1880s, Detroit and Washington of the National League and Brooklyn of the American Association were the first to wear striped uniforms. By the end of the 19th century, teams began the practice of having two different uniforms, one for when they played at home in their own baseball stadium and a different one for when they played away (on the road) at the other team's ballpark. It became common to wear white pants with a white color vest at home and gray pants with a gray or solid (dark) colored vest when away. By 1900, both home and away uniforms were standard across the major leagues.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uniforms", "target_page_ids": [ 653136, 6581174, 64290, 25036634, 1987995, 12725743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 26 ], [ 31, 41 ], [ 49, 64 ], [ 69, 77 ], [ 284, 300 ], [ 348, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2021, MLB announced a long-term deal with cryptocurrency exchange FTX, which includes the FTX logo appearing on umpire uniforms during all matches. FTX is MLB's first-ever umpire uniform patch partner.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uniforms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Spring training is a series of practices and exhibition games preceding the start of the regular season. Teams hold training camps in the states of Arizona and Florida, where the early warm weather allows teams to practice and play without worrying about the late winter cold. Spring training allows new players to compete for roster and position spots and gives existing team players practice time prior to competitive play. The teams that hold spring training in Arizona are grouped into the Cactus League, while teams that hold camp in Florida are known as the Grapefruit League. Spring training has always attracted fan attention, drawing crowds who travel to the warmer climates to enjoy the weather and watch their favorite teams play, and spring training usually coincides with spring break for many college students. Autograph seekers also find greater access to players during spring training.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [ 18952605, 18952605, 18952605, 474711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 494, 507 ], [ 564, 581 ], [ 785, 797 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spring training typically lasts almost two months, starting in mid-February and running until just before the season-opening day, traditionally the first week of April. As pitchers benefit from a longer training period, pitchers and catchers begin spring training several days before the rest of the team.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Each team plays 162 games per season. A team's schedule is typically organized into three-game series, sets of consecutive games against the same opponent, with occasional two- or four-game series. Postponed games or continuations of suspended games can result in an ad hoc one-game or five-game series. All games of a series are usually hosted by the same team and multiple series are typically grouped together. I.e, a team usually hosts several series in a row, called a homestand, and follows that by going on several road series in a row. Teams generally play games five to seven days per week. Most games are scheduled at night, although teams will often play day games on Opening Day, holidays, and for the last game of a series to allow teams extra time to travel to their next opponent. Sunday games are generally played during the afternoon, allowing teams to travel to their next destination prior to a Monday night game. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [ 14120542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the current three-division structure, each team plays 19 games against each of its four divisional opponents. It plays one home series and one away series, amounting to six or seven games, against the 10 other teams in its league. A team also plays one of the divisions in the other league, rotating each year, with two opponents in a three-game home series, two in a three-game away series, and one with four games split between home and away. Furthermore, each team has an interleague \"natural rival\" (in many cases its counterpart in the same metro area) with which it plays two home games and two away games each year.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With an odd number of teams in each league (15), it is necessary to have two teams participate in interleague play for most days in the season, except when two or more teams have a day off. Each team plays 20 interleague games throughout the season, usually with just one interleague game per day, but for one weekend in late May, all teams will participate in an interleague series. Before 2013, interleague play was structured differently: there would be one weekend in mid-May and another period consisting typically of the last two-thirds of June in which all teams played interleague games (save for two NL teams each day), and no interleague games were scheduled outside those dates. (Before 2013, season-long interleague play was not necessary, because each league had an even number of teams. In 2013, the Houston Astros moved to the American League, so that each league would have League organization.) Prior to the adoption of the universal designated hitter in 2022, whether the DH was in use depended on whether the home team was from the AL, where the DH was used, or the NL, where it was not.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Starting with the 2023 season, the scheduling formula is set to change, with each team playing at least one series against every other team every year. Each team will play 14 games against teams in the same division, with one 3-game and one 4-game series at each park, six games against teams within the same league but in other divisions, with one 3-game series at each park, and one 3-game series against teams in the other league, alternating home teams each year, except for each team's designated interleague rival, which will continue to consist of two 2-game series at each of the teams' home parks.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Beginning with the 2022 season, teams compete for the six playoff berths in their respective leagues. To secure a berth, a team must either win its division or capture a wild card spot by having one of the three best records among the non-winners in its entire league. With the adoption of a third wild card, the former practice of breaking ties with an additional regular-season game, known as game 163, was dropped in favor of a tie-breaker formula.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [ 74678, 38776, 12497995, 27369580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 65 ], [ 148, 156 ], [ 170, 184 ], [ 396, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early-to-mid July, just after the midway point of the season, the Major League Baseball All-Star Game is held during a four-day break from the regular-season schedule. The All-Star Game features a team of players from the American League (AL)—led by the manager of the previous AL World Series team—and a team of players from the National League (NL), similarly managed, in an exhibition game. From 1959 to 1962, two games were held each season, one was held in July and one was held in August. The designated-hitter rule was used in the All-Star Game for the first time in 1989. Following games used a DH when the game was played in an AL ballpark. Since 2010, the DH rule has been in effect regardless of venue.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first official All-Star Game was held as part of the 1933 World's Fair in Chicago, Illinois, and was the idea of Arch Ward, then sports editor for The Chicago Tribune. Initially intended to be a one-time event, its great success resulted in making the game an annual one. Ward's contribution was recognized by Major League Baseball in 1962 with the creation of the \"Arch Ward Trophy\", given to the All-Star Game's Most Valuable Player each year. (In 1970, it was renamed the Commissioner's Trophy, until 1985, when the name change was reversed. In 2002, it was renamed the Ted Williams Most Valuable Player Award.)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [ 42219, 13014077, 60961, 1742861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 74 ], [ 117, 126 ], [ 151, 170 ], [ 577, 616 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beginning in 1947, the eight position players in each team's starting lineup have been voted into the game by fans. The fan voting was discontinued after a 1957 ballot-box-stuffing scandal in Cincinnati: seven of the eight slots originally went to Reds players, two of whom were subsequently removed from the lineup to make room for Willie Mays and Hank Aaron. Fan voting was reinstated in 1970 and has continued ever since, including Internet voting in recent years.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [ 6671, 14321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 252 ], [ 349, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2002 contest in Milwaukee controversially ended in an 11-inning tie when both managers ran out of pitchers. In response, starting in 2003 the league which wins the All-Star game received home-field advantage in the World Series: the league champion hosted the first two games at its own ballpark as well as the last two (if necessary). The National League did not win an All-Star game and thus gain a home-field advantage until 2010; it was able to overcome this disadvantage and win in three of the seven World Series from 2003 to 2009. This was discontinued after the 2016 season.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [ 8570596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MLB All-Stars from both leagues have worn uniforms from their respective teams at the game with one exception. In the 1933 All-Star Game, the National League All-Star Team members wore special gray uniforms with \"National League\" written in navy blue letters across the front of the jersey.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [ 8408123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On July 3, 2020, it was announced that the 2020 Major League Baseball All-Star Game scheduled to be held in Los Angeles would not be played due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As compensation, Los Angeles was awarded the next available All-Star Game in 2022.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [ 63222928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The regular season ends after the first Sunday in October (or the last Sunday in September), after which twelve teams enter the postseason playoffs. These twelve teams consist of the six division champions and six \"wild-card\" teams: the team with the best overall win–loss record in each of the six divisions, and the three teams in each league with the best records other than the division champions. Four rounds of series of games are played to determine the champion:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [ 2514586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wild Card Series, a best of three games playoff between the lowest seeded division champion and three \"wild-card teams\", the higher seeds will host all three games ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [ 35270270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American League Division Series and National League Division Series, each a best-of-five-games series.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3862, 3863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ], [ 37, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American League Championship Series and National League Championship Series, each a best-of-seven-games series played between the winning teams from the Division Series. The league champions are referred to as the pennant winners.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3861, 3860, 14908948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ], [ 41, 76 ], [ 215, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " World Series, a best-of-seven-games series played between the pennant winners of each league.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [ 23489161, 14908948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 63, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Within each league, the division winners are the No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 seeds, based on win–loss records. The team with the best record among non-division winners will be the first wildcard and the No. 4 seed. The team with the second-best record among non-division winners will be the second wildcard and the No. 5 seed. The team with the third-best record will the third wild card and the No 6. seed In the wildcard round, the No. 3 seed will host the No 6 seed and the No. 4 seed with host the No 5 seed with the higher team host all three games in the Wild Card Series . For the division series, the matchup will be the No. 1 seed against the winner of the No 3 and No 6 seed and the No. 2 seed against the winner of No 4 and No 5 seed, unlike the NFL there will be no reseeding Since 2017, home-field advantage in the World Series is determined by regular-season records of the two league champions, replacing a system used for the prior 14 seasons where the champion of the league that won the All-Star Game would receive home-field advantage.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Because each postseason series is split between the home fields of the two teams, the home-field advantage does not usually play a large role in the postseason unless the series goes to its maximum number of games, giving one team an additional game at home. However, the first two games of a postseason series are hosted by the same team. That team may have an increased chance of starting the series with two wins, thereby gaining some momentum for the rest of the series.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Starting in 2022, they will have Universal DH.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Season structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1986 an All-Star team from MLB is sent to a biennial end-of-the-season tour of Japan, dubbed as MLB Japan All-Star Series, playing exhibition games in a best-of format against the All-Stars from Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) or recently as of 2014 their national team Samurai Japan.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "International play", "target_page_ids": [ 270781, 7887360, 2847115, 147794, 3497139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 22 ], [ 102, 127 ], [ 159, 173 ], [ 201, 229 ], [ 279, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2008, MLB played the MLB China Series in the People's Republic of China. It was a series of two spring-training games between the San Diego Padres and Los Angeles Dodgers. The games were an effort to popularize baseball in China.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "International play", "target_page_ids": [ 16311591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MLB played the MLB Taiwan All-Star Series in Taiwan in November 2011. It was a series of five exhibition games played by a team made up of MLB players called the MLB All-Stars and the Chinese Taipei national baseball team. The MLB All-Stars swept the series, five games to zero. At the end of the 2011 season, it was announced that the Seattle Mariners and the Oakland Athletics would play their season openers in Japan. In October 2013, Phil Rogers of the Chicago Tribune wrote that MLB was considering postseason all-star tours in Taiwan and Korea; baseball is increasing in popularity in both countries.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "International play", "target_page_ids": [ 59967055, 10521323, 27660, 22523, 60961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 41 ], [ 184, 221 ], [ 336, 352 ], [ 361, 378 ], [ 457, 472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Arizona Diamondbacks opened the 2014 season against Los Angeles Dodgers on March 22–23 in Australia. The teams played each other at the historic Sydney Cricket Ground, which has a seating capacity of 46,000. The two games represented the first MLB regular-season play held in that country. The games counted as home games for the Diamondbacks, so they played 79 home games at Chase Field.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "International play", "target_page_ids": [ 2129, 18213, 773497, 2129, 243068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ], [ 56, 75 ], [ 149, 170 ], [ 334, 346 ], [ 380, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2019, the Red Sox were the home team in a regular-season two-game series against the Yankees. The games, which were the first regular-season MLB games held in Europe, were played on June 29–30 at London Stadium with the Yankees winning both games.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "International play", "target_page_ids": [ 4339, 4848143, 38776, 2179597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ], [ 88, 95 ], [ 144, 147 ], [ 199, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Together with the World Baseball Softball Confederation, MLB sponsors the World Baseball Classic, an international baseball tournament contested by national teams.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "International play", "target_page_ids": [ 40341316, 1877416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 55 ], [ 74, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1998, both Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa hit more home runs than the record of 61 set by Yankees right fielder Roger Maris in 1961. Barry Bonds topped the record in 2001 with 73 home runs. McGwire, Bonds, and Sosa became the subjects of speculation regarding the use of performance-enhancing substances. McGwire later admitted that he used a steroid hormone that was still legal in baseball during the 1998 season. Baseball's original steroid testing policy, in effect from 2002 to 2005, provided for penalties ranging from a ten-game suspension for a first positive test to a one-year suspension for a fourth positive test. Players were tested at least once per year, with the chance that several players could be tested many times per year.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Performance-enhancing drugs", "target_page_ids": [ 20548, 26920, 14148, 303711, 4375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 26 ], [ 31, 41 ], [ 51, 59 ], [ 112, 123 ], [ 133, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A 2006 book, Game of Shadows by San Francisco Chronicle investigative reporters Lance Williams and Mark Fainaru-Wada, chronicled alleged extensive use of performance enhancers, including several types of steroids and growth hormone by baseball superstars Barry Bonds, Gary Sheffield, and Jason Giambi. Former Senate Majority Leader George Mitchell was appointed by Selig on March 30, 2006 to investigate the use of performance-enhancing drugs in MLB. The appointment was made after several influential members of the U.S. Congress made negative comments about both the effectiveness and honesty of MLB's drug policies and Commissioner Selig.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Performance-enhancing drugs", "target_page_ids": [ 4311911, 319442, 4437475, 173072, 1038021, 820337, 46507, 31756, 2939912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ], [ 32, 55 ], [ 80, 116 ], [ 217, 231 ], [ 268, 282 ], [ 288, 300 ], [ 309, 331 ], [ 517, 530 ], [ 604, 617 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The day before the Mitchell Report was to be released in 2007, Selig said, \"I haven't seen the report yet, but I'm proud I did it.\" The report said that after mandatory random testing began in 2004, HGH treatment for athletic enhancement became popular among players, as HGH is not detectable in tests. It pointed out that HGH is likely a placebo with no performance-enhancing effects. The report included substance use allegations against at least one player from each MLB team.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Performance-enhancing drugs", "target_page_ids": [ 14676332, 22411733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 34 ], [ 199, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to ESPN, some people questioned whether Mitchell's director role with the Boston Red Sox created a conflict of interest, especially because no \"prime [Sox] players were in the report.\" The report named several prominent Yankees who were parts of World Series clubs; there is a long-running and fierce Yankees–Red Sox rivalry. Former U.S. prosecutor John M. Dowd brought up Mitchell's conflict of interest, but he later said that the former senator had done a good job. Mitchell acknowledged that his \"tight relationship with Major League Baseball left him open to criticism\", but he said that readers who examine the report closely \"will not find any evidence of bias, of special treatment of the Red Sox\".", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Performance-enhancing drugs", "target_page_ids": [ 77795, 1141484, 424040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 17 ], [ 311, 334 ], [ 359, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On January 10, 2013, MLB and the players union reached an agreement to add random, in-season HGH testing. They also agreed to implement a new test to reveal the use of testosterone for the 2013 season. The current MLB drug policy provides for an 80-game suspension for a first positive test, a 162-game suspension for a second positive test, and a lifetime suspension for a third positive test. In 2009, allegations surfaced against Alex Rodriguez and David Ortiz, and Manny Ramirez received a 50-game suspension after testing positive for banned substances. In early April 2011, Ramirez retired from baseball rather than face a 100-game suspension for his second positive steroid test. He would later unretire, having the suspension dropped to 50 games, and would serve those in 2012.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Performance-enhancing drugs", "target_page_ids": [ 52251177, 212472, 738625, 2188476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 180 ], [ 433, 447 ], [ 452, 463 ], [ 469, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several networks televise baseball games, including Fox, ESPN, TBS, and MLB Network. Since 2008, Fox Sports has broadcast MLB games on Fox Saturday Baseball throughout the entire season; Fox previously only broadcast games from May to September. Fox also holds rights to the All-Star Game each season. Fox also alternates League Championship Series broadcasts, broadcasting the American League Championship Series (ALCS) in odd-numbered years and the National League Championship Series (NLCS) in even-numbered years. Fox broadcasts all games of the World Series. ESPN continues to broadcast MLB games as well, beginning with national Opening Day coverage. ESPN broadcasts Sunday Night Baseball and Baseball Tonight. ESPN also has rights to the Home Run Derby at the All-Star Game each July.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media coverage", "target_page_ids": [ 1699539, 5876694, 5933839, 14830794, 2726862, 3861, 3860, 4315483, 1721061, 813519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 55 ], [ 57, 61 ], [ 63, 66 ], [ 72, 83 ], [ 135, 156 ], [ 378, 413 ], [ 451, 486 ], [ 673, 694 ], [ 699, 715 ], [ 745, 759 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "TBS has aired Sunday afternoon regular season games (non-exclusive) nationally, but beginning in 2022 this will be replaced by Tuesday night games. In 2007, TBS began its exclusive rights to any tiebreaker games that determine division or wild card champions. It also airs exclusive coverage of the Division Series round of the playoffs. TBS carries the League Championship Series that are not included under Fox's television agreement; TBS shows the NLCS in odd-numbered years and the ALCS in even-numbered years.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media coverage", "target_page_ids": [ 1010956, 1010941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 299, 314 ], [ 354, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2009, MLB launched the MLB Network, featuring news and coverage from around the league, and airing 26 live games in the 2009 season. Each team also has local broadcasts for all games not carried by Fox on Saturdays or ESPN on Sunday nights. These games are typically split between a local broadcast television station and a local or regional sports network (RSN), though some teams only air local games through RSNs or through their own team networks. As Canada only contains one team, Sportsnet broadcasts Toronto Blue Jays games nationally. The channel is owned by Rogers Communications, who is also the parent company of the Blue Jays. Sportsnet also televises Fox's Saturday afternoon games, the All-Star Game, playoff games, and the World Series. In April 2011, TSN2 began carrying ESPN Sunday Night Baseball in Canada. TVA Sports airs Blue Jays games in French.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media coverage", "target_page_ids": [ 14830794, 4880292, 377635, 372874, 9215238, 32563480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 45 ], [ 344, 367 ], [ 497, 506 ], [ 578, 599 ], [ 778, 782 ], [ 836, 846 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several MLB games are broadcast exclusively on Internet television. After a year of exclusive games on Facebook, MLB partnered with YouTube to stream weekly games on the service beginning in the 2019 season, and extending until 2022. In 2022, MLB made a deal with Apple Inc. to launch Friday Night Baseball on its Apple TV+ streaming service, and NBC Sports to broadcast MLB Sunday Leadoff, a package of early Sunday afternoon games on Peacock.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media coverage", "target_page_ids": [ 989858, 70539999, 856, 70263020, 60328532, 1681761, 70535221, 61801244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 66 ], [ 132, 139 ], [ 264, 274 ], [ 285, 306 ], [ 314, 323 ], [ 347, 357 ], [ 371, 389 ], [ 436, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MLB has several blackout rules. A local broadcaster has priority to televise games of the team in their market over national broadcasters if the game is not exclusive to the national broadcaster. A market that has a local team playing in a non-exclusive game will receive an alternative programming feed on the national broadcaster. MLB's streaming internet video service is also subject to the same blackout rules.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media coverage", "target_page_ids": [ 3495354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ESPN Radio holds national broadcast rights and broadcasts Sunday Night Baseball weekly throughout the season in addition to all playoff games. The rights to the World Series are exclusive to ESPN. In 2021, TUDN Radio picked up Spanish-language rights to MLB games, starting with that year's postseason.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media coverage", "target_page_ids": [ 1576992, 52648249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 206, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition, each team employs its own announcers, who broadcast during the regular season. Most teams operate regional networks to cover their fan bases; some of these supposedly regional networks (such as the New York Yankees Radio Network) have a national reach with affiliates located across the United States. Major League Baseball has an exclusive rights deal with XM Satellite Radio, which includes the channel MLB Network Radio and live play-by-play of all games. Many teams also maintain a network of stations that broadcast their games in Spanish; , the Los Angeles Dodgers are the only team that produces radio broadcasts in a third language, with selected games broadcast in Korean. Both Canadian teams (the Montreal Expos before their move to Washington, DC in 2005, and the Toronto Blue Jays) have produced radio broadcasts in French.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media coverage", "target_page_ids": [ 9303043, 165302, 3346002, 18213, 20153, 30847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 241 ], [ 371, 389 ], [ 418, 435 ], [ 564, 583 ], [ 720, 734 ], [ 788, 805 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MLB games are also broadcast live on the internet. All television and radio broadcasts of games are available via subscription to MLB.tv at Major League Baseball's website, MLB.com, and radio-only broadcasts are also available via subscription to MLB.com Gameday Audio. Radio station affiliates are officially forbidden from streaming games through their Internet feeds. Blackout rules are still applied for live television broadcasts, but not radio broadcasts.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media coverage", "target_page_ids": [ 5580094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ESPN Deportes televises many MLB games in Spanish throughout Latin America. Wapa 2 airs games in Puerto Rico, including spring training games and most of the World Baseball Classic games involving the team from Puerto Rico. In Brazil, ESPN Brasil has exclusive rights on TV (ESPN and ESPN2) and Internet (WatchESPN),.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media coverage", "target_page_ids": [ 3544854, 101568, 23041, 11659670, 32939018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 76, 82 ], [ 97, 108 ], [ 235, 246 ], [ 305, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Five in the United Kingdom previously screened MLB games, including the All-Star Game and the postseason games, on Sunday and Wednesday usually starting at 1a.m. BST. Most recently, Johnny Gould and Josh Chetwynd presented MLB on Five on that station. The channel covered baseball beginning on its opening night in 1997, but for financial reasons, the decision was made not to pick up MLB for the 2009 season. BT Sport ESPN show live and recorded games several times a week—it is available with BT Sport and (on a subscriber-basis) Virgin Media in the UK. ESPN America televised many games in the UK and dozens of other countries; in May 2013, ESPN announced that it would shut down the channel on July 31, 2013.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media coverage", "target_page_ids": [ 28952356, 38776, 2439010, 3026320, 6191935, 5480680, 23329907, 38574584, 3329087, 2439744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 94, 104 ], [ 162, 165 ], [ 182, 194 ], [ 199, 212 ], [ 223, 234 ], [ 410, 423 ], [ 495, 503 ], [ 532, 544 ], [ 556, 568 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Australia, MLB games are regularly shown on ESPN Australia (subscription).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media coverage", "target_page_ids": [ 8829356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Middle East, North Africa and France, MLB games are broadcast on beIN Sports channels.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media coverage", "target_page_ids": [ 2301860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Germany MLB games will be broadcast from 2022 exclusively on Sport1 until 2026.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media coverage", "target_page_ids": [ 11047430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Hungary, MLB games are broadcast on Sport1 as of 2020.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media coverage", "target_page_ids": [ 11274661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Australian Baseball League", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23547547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Baseball Assistance Team (B.A.T.)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27679648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Baseball in Canada", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9984543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Baseball in the United States", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19046970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bob Feller Act of Valor Award", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 66304880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of all-time Major League Baseball win–loss records", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52349431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of American and Canadian cities by number of major professional sports franchises", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 434963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Major League Baseball awards", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23963085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Major League Baseball managers", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25915912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Major League Baseball retired numbers", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 667214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Major League Baseball spring training ballparks", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21827179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Major League Baseball stadiums", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 643381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of professional sports leagues", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 379923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of professional sports teams in the United States and Canada", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14519555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Major League Baseball attendance records", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 522823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Major League Baseball draft", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2562522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Major League Baseball Players Association, the labor union representing players for collective bargaining negotiations with franchise owners", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 787165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MLB Industry Growth Fund", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25527060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reviving Baseball in Inner Cities", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39597622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Comparison of Major League Baseball and Nippon Professional Baseball", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 69391238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Banner, Stuart. The Baseball Trust: A History of Baseball's Antitrust Exemption. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bouton, Jim. Ball Four: My Life and Hard Times Throwing the Knuckleball in the Major Leagues. World Publishing Company, 1970.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 324161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Buchanan, Lamont, The World Series and Highlights of Baseball, E. P. Dutton & Company, 1951.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cohen, Richard M., Neft, David, Johnson, Roland T., Deutsch, Jordan A., The World Series, 1976, Dial Press.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Deutsch, Jordan A., Cohen, Richard M., Neft, David, Johnson, Roland T., The Scrapbook History of Baseball, Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1975.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 11339840, 5307304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 38 ], [ 40, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " King, Corretta. Jackie Robinson. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1987.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " James, Bill. The Historical Baseball Abstract. New York: Villard, 1985 (with many subsequent editions).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 63491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lanigan, Ernest, Baseball Cyclopedia, 1922, originally published by Baseball Magazine.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 10335491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lansch, Jerry, Glory Fades Away: The Nineteenth Century World Series Rediscovered, Taylor Publishing, 1991. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Murphy, Cait. Crazy '08: How a Cast of Cranks, Rogues, Boneheads, and Magnates Created the Greatest Year in Baseball History. New York: Smithsonian Books, 2007. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Okkonen, Marc. Baseball Uniforms of the 20th Century: The Official Major League Baseball Guide, 1991.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ritter, Lawrence. The Glory of their Times. New York: MacMillan, 1966. Revised edition, New York: William Morrow, 1984.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ross, Brian. \"Band of Brothers\". Minor League News, April 6, 2005. Available at Minor League News.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Seymour, Harold. Baseball: The Early Years. 2v. New York: Oxford University Press, 1960. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Turkin, Hy, and Thompson, S. C., The Official Encyclopedia of Baseball, 1951, A.S. Barnes and Company", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 5337657, 5337825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 17, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tygiel, Jules. Past Time: Baseball as History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The New York Times, The Complete Book of Baseball: A Scrapbook History, 1980, Bobbs Merrill.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 30680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MLB on YouTube", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Major_League_Baseball", "Baseball_leagues_in_Canada", "Baseball_leagues_in_the_United_States", "1869_establishments_in_the_United_States", "Sports_leagues_established_in_1869", "Baseball_governing_bodies_in_the_United_States", "Professional_sports_leagues_in_Canada", "Professional_sports_leagues_in_the_United_States", "Sports_organizations_established_in_1869", "Multi-national_professional_sports_leagues" ]

[ "MLB", "Major League", "Bsbl" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Andrew Stuart \"Andy\" Fastow (born December 22, 1961) is a convicted felon and former financier who was the chief financial officer of Enron Corporation, an energy trading company based in Houston, Texas, until he was fired shortly before the company declared bankruptcy. Fastow was one of the key figures behind the complex web of off-balance-sheet special purpose entities (limited partnerships which Enron controlled) used to conceal Enron's massive losses in their quarterly balance sheets. By unlawfully maintaining personal stakes in these ostensibly independent ghost-entities, he was able to defraud Enron out of tens of millions of dollars. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 80007, 10166, 13774, 1572316, 1274338, 1548943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 130 ], [ 134, 139 ], [ 188, 202 ], [ 331, 348 ], [ 349, 373 ], [ 375, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission opened an investigation into his and the company's conduct in 2001. Fastow was sentenced to a six-year prison sentence and ultimately served five years for convictions related to these acts. His wife, Lea Weingarten, also worked at Enron, where she was an assistant treasurer; she pleaded guilty to conspiracy to commit wire fraud, money laundering conspiracy and filing fraudulent income tax returns, and served jail time before early release to a halfway house.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 55097, 3554867, 3406102, 905072, 19390, 1185379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 43 ], [ 245, 259 ], [ 343, 353 ], [ 364, 374 ], [ 376, 392 ], [ 493, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fastow was born in Washington, D.C. He grew up in New Providence, New Jersey, the son of middle class Jewish parents, Carl and Joan Fastow, who worked in retail and merchandising. Fastow graduated from New Providence High School, where he took part in student government, played on the tennis team, and played in the school band. He was the sole student representative on the New Jersey State Board of Education.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 108956, 125786, 25955086, 2331186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 35 ], [ 50, 76 ], [ 102, 108 ], [ 202, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fastow graduated from Tufts University in 1983 with a B.A. in Economics and Chinese. While there, he met his future wife, Lea Weingarten, daughter of Miriam Hadar Weingarten (a former Miss Israel 1958), whom he married in 1984. Fastow and Weingarten both earned MBAs at Northwestern University and worked for Continental Illinois bank in Chicago. Both he and his wife attended Congregation Or Ami, a conservative synagogue in Houston where he taught Hebrew School.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 84077, 156992, 9223, 5751, 3554867, 46321274, 47293, 174216, 2290621, 6886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 38 ], [ 54, 58 ], [ 62, 71 ], [ 76, 83 ], [ 122, 136 ], [ 150, 173 ], [ 262, 265 ], [ 270, 293 ], [ 309, 329 ], [ 338, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While at Continental, Fastow worked on the newly emerging \"asset-backed securities\". The practice spread across the industry \"because it provides an obvious advantage for a bank\", noted the Chicago Tribune. \"It moves assets off the bank's balance sheet while creating revenue.\" In 1984, Continental became the largest U.S. bank to fail in American history until the seizure of Washington Mutual in 2008.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early career", "target_page_ids": [ 1362893, 60961, 1335092, 214261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 82 ], [ 190, 205 ], [ 331, 335 ], [ 377, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to his work at Continental, Fastow was hired in 1990 by Jeffrey Skilling at the Enron Finance Corp. Fastow was named the chief financial officer at Enron in 1998.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early career", "target_page_ids": [ 477665, 80007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 76 ], [ 125, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Deregulation in the US energy markets in the late 1990s provided Enron with trade opportunities, including buying energy from cheap producers and selling it at markets with floating prices. Andrew Fastow was familiar with the market and knowledgeable in how to play it in Enron's favor. This quickly drew the attention of then chief executive officer of Enron Finance Corp Jeffrey Skilling. Skilling, together with Enron founder Kenneth Lay, was constantly concerned with various ways in which he could keep company stock price up, in spite of the true financial condition of the company.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Rise in Enron", "target_page_ids": [ 140281, 52234, 477665, 5937384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 327, 350 ], [ 373, 389 ], [ 429, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fastow designed a complex web of companies that solely did business with Enron, with the dual purpose of raising money for the company, and also hiding its massive losses in their quarterly balance sheets. This effectively allowed Enron's audited balance sheet to appear debt free, while in reality it owed more than 30 billion dollars at the height of its debt. While presented to the outside world as being independent entities, the funds Fastow created were to take write-downs off Enron's books and guaranteed not to lose money. Yet, Fastow himself had a personal financial stake in these funds, either directly or through partners amongst them Michael Kopper. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Rise in Enron", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Kopper, Fastow's chief lieutenant, pleaded guilty to taking part in a scam with Fastow that defrauded Enron shareholders of many millions. While defrauding Enron in this way, Fastow was also neglecting basic financial practices such as reporting the \"cash on hand\" and total liabilities. Fastow pressured some of the largest investment banks in the United States, such as Merrill Lynch, Citibank, and others to invest in his funds, threatening to cause them to lose Enron's future business if they did not.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Rise in Enron", "target_page_ids": [ 163118, 33731299, 231026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 325, 340 ], [ 372, 385 ], [ 387, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August, Skilling, who had been promoted to CEO of the entire company in February 2001, abruptly resigned after only six months, citing personal reasons. When reporters for The Wall Street Journal discovered an Enron \"senior officer\" had recently sold his interest in several partnerships that had done business with Enron, they initially thought that officer was Skilling. However, Enron spokesman Mark Palmer revealed that the \"senior officer\" was really Fastow.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Collapse", "target_page_ids": [ 173070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After a former Enron executive leaked a copy of the offering memorandum for one of Fastow's partnerships, LJM–named for Fastow's wife and two sons–to the Journal, reporters bombarded Enron with further questions about the partnerships. The scrutiny died down after the September 11 attacks, but ramped up anew two weeks later with pointed questions about how much Fastow had earned from LJM. This culminated in a series of stories that appeared in the Journal in mid-October detailing the \"vexing conflict-of-interest questions\" about the partnerships, as well as the huge windfall he had reaped from them.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Collapse", "target_page_ids": [ 9299902, 5058690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 109 ], [ 269, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On October 23, during a conference call with two directors delegated by the board, Fastow revealed that he had made a total of $45 million from his work with LJM–a staggering total, since he claimed to spend no more than three hours a week on LJM work. On October 24, several banks told Enron that they would not issue loans to the company as long as Fastow remained CFO. The combined weight of these revelations led the board to accept Lay's recommendation to remove Fastow as CFO on October 25, replacing him with industrial markets chief and former treasurer Jeff McMahon. He was officially placed on leave of absence, though the board subsequently determined that it had grounds to fire him for cause.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Collapse", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It was later revealed that Fastow had been so focused on creating SPEs that he had neglected the most rudimentary aspects of corporate finance. Under his watch, Enron merely operated on a quarterly basis. Fastow never implemented procedures for tracking the company's cash or debt maturities. As a result, McMahon and a \"financial SWAT team\" put together in the wake of Fastow's ouster discovered Enron had almost no liquidity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Collapse", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fastow's approach to hiding losses was so effective that the year before Enron actually declared bankruptcy, the Enron stock was at an all-time high of $90. As it turned out, the company was already well on its way to financial collapse, to the point that it was all but forced to seek a merger with rival Dynegy. By then, Enron's financial picture had declined so rapidly that the prospect of the Dynegy merger was the only thing keeping it alive. Dynegy tore up the merger agreement on November 28 in part due to the liquidity problems revealed after Fastow's ouster, and Enron declared bankruptcy three days later. By then, Enron's stock had dwindled to 40 cents per share, but not before many employees had been told to invest their retirement savings in Enron stock.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Collapse", "target_page_ids": [ 4695, 1189455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 107 ], [ 306, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On October 31, 2002, Fastow was indicted by a federal grand jury in Houston, Texas, on 78 counts, including fraud, money laundering, and conspiracy. On January 14, 2004, he pleaded guilty to two counts of wire and securities fraud, and agreed to serve a ten-year prison sentence. He also agreed to become an informant and cooperate with federal authorities in the prosecutions of other former Enron executives in order to receive a reduced sentence.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legal problems at Enron", "target_page_ids": [ 13774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prosecutors were so impressed with his performance that they ultimately lobbied for an even shorter sentence for Fastow. He was finally sentenced to six years at Oakdale Federal Correctional Complex in Oakdale, Louisiana. On May 18, 2011, Fastow was released to a Houston halfway house for the remainder of his sentence.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legal problems at Enron", "target_page_ids": [ 13774, 1185379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 265, 272 ], [ 273, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On May 6, 2004, his wife, Lea Fastow, a former Enron assistant treasurer, pleaded guilty to a tax charge and was sentenced to one year in a federal prison in Houston, and an additional year of supervised release. She was released to a halfway house on July 8, 2005.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legal problems at Enron", "target_page_ids": [ 1271411, 1185379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 154 ], [ 235, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After entering into a plea agreement with a maximum penalty of 10 years in prison and the forfeiture of $23.8 million in assets, on September 26, 2006, Fastow was sentenced to six years in prison, followed by two years of probation. U.S. District Judge Ken Hoyt believed Fastow deserved leniency for his cooperation with the prosecution in several civil and criminal trials involving former Enron employees. Hoyt recommended that Fastow's sentence be served at the low-security Federal Correctional Institution in Bastrop, Texas. Fastow was incarcerated at the Federal Prison Camp near Pollock, Louisiana.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sentencing and incarceration", "target_page_ids": [ 15041014, 36558696, 115584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 478, 528 ], [ 561, 580 ], [ 586, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soon after his release on December 16, 2011, he began working as a document review clerk for law firm Smyser Kaplan Veselka LLP in Houston. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Life after incarceration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since his release, Fastow has worked the public speaking circuit with presentations on ethics and business. In one such speech, Fastow recounts his crimes at Enron and reflects on his guilt:“I found every way I could to technically comply with the [accounting] rules... But what I did was unethical and unprincipled. And it caused harm to people. For that, I deserved to go to prison.”In March 2012, Fastow spoke on ethics to students at the University of Colorado Boulder Leeds School of Business.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Life after incarceration", "target_page_ids": [ 289672, 4984441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 442, 472 ], [ 473, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2013, Fastow addressed more than 2,000 anti-fraud professionals at the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners' 24th Annual ACFE Global Fraud Conference.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Life after incarceration", "target_page_ids": [ 4815882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 2014, Fastow spoke at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio, regarding business ethics.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Life after incarceration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2015, he spoke at:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Life after incarceration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "the University of St. Thomas,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Life after incarceration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "the University of Minnesota,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Life after incarceration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "the University of Texas (Austin campus),", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Life after incarceration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "the University of Houston Bauer College of Business,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Life after incarceration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "the University of Southern California's Leventhal School of Accounting, and", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Life after incarceration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "the University of Missouri School of Accounting.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Life after incarceration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In April 2016, March 2017, March 2018, and March 2019 Fastow spoke at the Ivey Business School. The University of Tampa's Center for Ethics hosted Fastow in October 2017.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Life after incarceration", "target_page_ids": [ 828841, 947651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 94 ], [ 100, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fastow became principal and investor in KeenCorp in 2016. KeenCorp is a Netherlands-based company that offers analytics and artificial intelligence products that monitor \"day-to-day workflow: E-mails, Microsoft Teams chats, Google Suite, and Slack\" in order to analyze employee sentiment and engagement. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Life after incarceration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Originally, Fastow connected with KeenCorp when the company was beta testing its software using a digital database of Enron emails.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Life after incarceration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A number of books have been written about Enron and Fastow.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In the media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2003, Fastow was a prominent figure in 24 Days: How Two Wall Street Journal Reporters Uncovered the Lies that Destroyed Faith in Corporate America by the reporters who had broken some of the key stories in the saga, Rebecca Smith and John R. Emshwiller. They painted Fastow as in their words \"a screamer, who negotiated by intimidation and tirade\".", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In the media", "target_page_ids": [ 1749811, 1770661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 219, 232 ], [ 237, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also in 2003, Bethany McLean and Peter Elkind wrote the book The Smartest Guys in the Room: The Amazing Rise and Scandalous Fall of Enron . In 2005, the book was made into a documentary film The Smartest Guys in the Room.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In the media", "target_page_ids": [ 2328271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2005, Kurt Eichenwald's Conspiracy of Fools features Fastow as the book's antagonist.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In the media", "target_page_ids": [ 1950545, 1818842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 27, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Plea agreement and statement, U.S. vs. Andrew Fastow (January 14, 2004)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Andrew S. Fastow - Enron Corp., Russ Banham, CFO Magazine, October 1, 1999.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 4505408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fastow indicted on 78 counts, Claire Poole, The Daily Deal, October 31, 2002.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"How Fastow Helped Enron Fail\", Time, February 10, 2002", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 31600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andrew Fastow's political donations", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "January 14 2004 plea agreement", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "News item: \"Lea Fastow enters prison\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dart, Bob (2 February 2002). Former CFO Fastow Was Complex Character In Enron Drama. Cox News Service.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cam Simpson and Flynn McRoberts (20 January 2002). Architects of Enron's rise bred its demise. Chicago Tribune.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 60961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Do As I Do, Not As I Say Fastow plea deal contradicts the feds' policy", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Lea Fastow arrives early for prison\". USA Today. Reuters. July 12, 2004.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 208463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 49 ] ] } ]

[ "1961_births", "American_energy_industry_executives", "20th-century_American_Jews", "American_people_convicted_of_fraud", "Enron_people", "Enron_scandal", "Kellogg_School_of_Management_alumni", "Living_people", "People_from_New_Providence,_New_Jersey", "People_from_Washington,_D.C.", "Tufts_University_alumni", "American_chief_financial_officers", "Prisoners_and_detainees_of_the_United_States_federal_government", "American_prisoners_and_detainees", "21st-century_American_Jews" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Mariner 2 (Mariner-Venus 1962), an American space probe to Venus, was the first robotic space probe to conduct a successful planetary encounter. The first successful spacecraft in the NASA Mariner program, it was a simplified version of the Block I spacecraft of the Ranger program and an exact copy of Mariner 1. The missions of the Mariner 1 and 2 spacecraft are sometimes known as the Mariner R missions. Original plans called for the probes to be launched on the Atlas-Centaur, but serious developmental problems with that vehicle forced a switch to the much smaller Agena B second stage. As such, the design of the Mariner R vehicles was greatly simplified. Far less instrumentation was carried than on the Soviet Venera probes of this period—for example, forgoing a TV camera—as the Atlas-Agena B had only half as much lift capacity as the Soviet 8K78 booster. The Mariner 2 spacecraft was launched from Cape Canaveral on August 27, 1962, and passed as close as to Venus on December 14, 1962.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32745, 10204411, 37910, 18426568, 20174, 99050, 38786, 1431069, 273403, 68281, 3084183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 64 ], [ 88, 99 ], [ 167, 177 ], [ 185, 189 ], [ 190, 205 ], [ 268, 282 ], [ 304, 313 ], [ 468, 481 ], [ 572, 579 ], [ 720, 726 ], [ 854, 858 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mariner probe consisted of a 100cm (39.4in) diameter hexagonal bus, to which solar panels, instrument booms, and antennas were attached. The scientific instruments on board the Mariner spacecraft were: two radiometers (one each for the microwave and infrared portions of the spectrum), a micrometeorite sensor, a solar plasma sensor, a charged particle sensor, and a magnetometer. These instruments were designed to measure the temperature distribution on the surface of Venus and to make basic measurements of Venus' atmosphere.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 652531, 187317, 839718, 20097, 15022, 10134, 1176971, 25916521, 352541, 83060, 202899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 92 ], [ 117, 125 ], [ 210, 220 ], [ 240, 249 ], [ 254, 262 ], [ 279, 287 ], [ 292, 306 ], [ 323, 329 ], [ 340, 356 ], [ 371, 383 ], [ 522, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The primary mission was to receive communications from the spacecraft in the vicinity of Venus and to perform radiometric temperature measurements of the planet. A second objective was to measure the interplanetary magnetic field and charged particle environment.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41625, 7085992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 121 ], [ 200, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "En route to Venus, Mariner 2 measured the solar wind, a constant stream of charged particles flowing outwards from the Sun, confirming the measurements by Luna 1 in 1959. It also measured interplanetary dust, which turned out to be scarcer than predicted. In addition, Mariner 2 detected high-energy charged particles coming from the Sun, including several brief solar flares, as well as cosmic rays from outside the Solar System. As it flew by Venus on December 14, 1962, Mariner 2 scanned the planet with its pair of radiometers, revealing that Venus has cool clouds and an extremely hot surface.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28538, 26751, 81992, 2472666, 54648, 47687, 26903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 52 ], [ 119, 122 ], [ 155, 161 ], [ 188, 207 ], [ 363, 374 ], [ 388, 398 ], [ 417, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the advent of the Cold War, the two then-superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, both initiated ambitious space programs with the intent of demonstrating military, technological, and political dominance. The Soviets launched the Sputnik 1, the first Earth orbiting satellite, on 4 October 1957. The Americans followed suit with Explorer 1 on 1 February 1958, by which point the Soviets had already launched the first orbiting animal, Laika in Sputnik 2. Earth's orbit having been reached, focus turned to being the first to the Moon. The Pioneer program of satellites consisted of three unsuccessful lunar attempts in 1958. In early 1959, the Soviet Luna 1 was the first probe to fly by the Moon, followed by Luna 2, the first artificial object to impact the Moon.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 325329, 61398, 26779, 28484, 61536, 18739, 81978, 25040, 81992, 81993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 31 ], [ 46, 56 ], [ 85, 97 ], [ 247, 256 ], [ 346, 356 ], [ 452, 457 ], [ 461, 470 ], [ 556, 571 ], [ 668, 674 ], [ 727, 733 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the Moon achieved, the superpowers turned their eyes to the planets. As the closest planet to Earth, Venus presented an appealing interplanetary spaceflight target. Every 19 months, Venus and the Earth reach relative positions in their orbits around the Sun such that a minimum of fuel is required to travel from one planet to the other via a Hohmann Transfer Orbit. These opportunities mark the best time to launch exploratory spacecraft, requiring the least fuel to make the trip.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 32745, 155760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 111 ], [ 348, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first such opportunity of the Space Race occurred in late 1957, before either superpower had the technology to take advantage of it. The second opportunity, around June 1959, lay just within the edge of technological feasibility, and U.S. Air Force contractor Space Technology Laboratory (STL) intended to take advantage of it. A plan drafted January 1959 involved two spacecraft evolved from the first Pioneer probes, one to be launched via Thor-Able rocket, the other via the yet-untested Atlas-Able. STL was unable to complete the probes before June, and the launch window was missed. The Thor-Able probe was repurposed as the deep space explorer Pioneer 5, which was launched 11 March 1960 and designed to maintain communications with Earth up to a distance of as it traveled toward the orbit of Venus. (The Atlas Able probe concept was repurposed as the unsuccessful Pioneer Atlas Moon probes.) No American missions were sent during the early 1961 opportunity. The Soviet Union launched Venera 1 on 12 February 1961 and on 19–20 May became the first probe to fly by Venus; however, it had stopped transmitting on 26 February.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 32090, 259165, 1202681, 21350021, 155759, 376851, 2888489, 82252, 61164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 252 ], [ 264, 291 ], [ 446, 455 ], [ 495, 505 ], [ 566, 579 ], [ 654, 663 ], [ 877, 890 ], [ 997, 1005 ], [ 1107, 1119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For the summer 1962 launch opportunity, NASA contracted Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in July 1960 to develop \"Mariner A\", a spacecraft to be launched using the yet undeveloped Atlas-Centaur. By August 1961, it had become clear that the Centaur would not be ready in time. JPL proposed to NASA that the mission might be accomplished with a lighter spacecraft using the less powerful but operational Atlas-Agena. A hybrid of Mariner A and JPL's Block 1 Ranger lunar explorer, already under development, was suggested. NASA accepted the proposal, and JPL began an 11-month crash program to develop \"Mariner R\" (so named because it was a Ranger derivative). Mariner 1 would be the first Mariner R to be launched followed by Mariner 2.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 16459, 1431069, 79533, 6647658, 99050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 81 ], [ 181, 194 ], [ 241, 248 ], [ 403, 414 ], [ 456, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three Mariner R spacecraft were built: two for launching and one to run tests, which was also to be used as a spare. Aside from its scientific capabilities, Mariner also had to transmit data back to Earth from a distance of more than , and to survive solar radiation twice as intense as that encountered in Earth orbit.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All three of the Mariner R spacecraft, including Mariner 2, weighed within of the design weight of , of which was devoted to non-experimental systems: maneuvering systems, fuel, and communications equipment for receiving commands and transmitting data. Once fully deployed in space, with its two solar panel \"wings\" extended, Mariner R was in height and across. The main body of the craft was hexagonal with six separate cases of electronic and electromechanical equipment:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Two of the cases comprised the power system: switchgear that regulated and transmitted power from the 9800 solar cells to the rechargeable 1000 watt silver-zinc storage battery. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 1561900, 2352910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 55 ], [ 107, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two more included the radio receiver, the three-watt transmitter, and control systems for Mariner's experiments. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 491851, 21347693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 36 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fifth case held electronics for digitizing the analog data received by the experiments for transmission. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 30889569, 993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 46 ], [ 51, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sixth case carried the three gyroscopes that determined Mariner's orientation in space. It also held the central computer and sequencer, the \"brain\" of the spacecraft that coordinated all of its activities pursuant to code in its memory banks and on a schedule maintained by an electronic clock tuned into equipment on Earth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 44125, 12232712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 42 ], [ 234, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the rear of the spacecraft, a monopropellant (anhydrous hydrazine) 225 N rocket motor was mounted for course corrections. A nitrogen gas fueled stabilizing system of ten jet nozzles controlled by the onboard gyroscopes, Sun sensors, and Earth sensors, kept Mariner properly oriented to receive and transmit data to Earth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 175603, 69955, 72540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 47 ], [ 59, 68 ], [ 74, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The primary high gain parabolic antenna was also mounted on the underside of Mariner and kept pointed toward the Earth. An omnidirectional antenna atop the spacecraft would broadcast at times that the spacecraft was rolling or tumbling out of its proper orientation, to maintain contact with Earth; as an unfocused antenna, its signal would be much weaker than the primary. Mariner also mounted small antennas on each of the wings to receive commands from ground stations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 342371, 342372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 21 ], [ 123, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Temperature control was both passive, involving insulated, and highly reflective components; and active, incorporating louvers to protect the case carrying the onboard computer. At the time the first Mariners were built, no test chamber existed to simulate the near-Venus solar environment, so the efficacy of these cooling techniques could not be tested until the live mission.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 1804871, 25644116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 125 ], [ 224, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the time of the Mariner project's inception, few of Venus' characteristics were definitely known. Its opaque atmosphere precluded telescopic study of the ground. It was unknown whether there was water beneath the clouds, though a small amount of water vapor above them had been detected. The planet's rotation rate was uncertain, though JPL scientists had concluded through radar observation that Venus rotated very slowly compared to the Earth, advancing the long-standing (but later disproven) hypothesis that the planet was tidally locked with respect to the Sun (as the Moon is with respect to the Earth). No oxygen had been detected in Venus' atmosphere, suggesting that life as existed on Earth was not present. It had been determined that Venus' atmosphere contained at least 500 times as much carbon dioxide as the Earth's. These comparatively high levels suggested that the planet might be subject to a runaway greenhouse effect with surface temperatures as high as , but this had not yet been conclusively determined.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 6410946, 7070301, 89547, 813086, 25676, 60162, 5906, 12395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 122 ], [ 133, 143 ], [ 249, 260 ], [ 304, 317 ], [ 377, 382 ], [ 530, 544 ], [ 804, 818 ], [ 923, 940 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mariner spacecraft would be able to verify this hypothesis by measuring the temperature of Venus close-up; at the same time, the spacecraft could determine if there was a significant disparity between night and daytime temperatures. An on-board magnetometer and suite of charged particle detectors could determine if Venus possessed an appreciable magnetic field and an analog to Earth's Van Allen Belts.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 83060, 59953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 261 ], [ 392, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the Mariner spacecraft would spend most of its journey to Venus in interplanetary space, the mission also offered an opportunity for long-term measurement of the solar wind of charged particles and to map the variations in the Sun's magnetosphere. The concentration of cosmic dust beyond the vicinity of Earth could be explored as well.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 28538, 20479, 2178570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 175 ], [ 236, 249 ], [ 272, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the limited capacity of the Atlas Agena, only of the spacecraft could be allocated to scientific experiments.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A two-channel microwave radiometer of the crystal video type operating in the standard Dicke mode of chopping between the main antenna, pointed at the target, and a reference horn pointed at cold space. It was used to determine the absolute temperature of Venus' surface and details concerning its atmosphere through its microwave-radiation characteristics, including the daylight and dark hemispheres, and in the region of the terminator. Measurements were performed simultaneously in two frequency bands of 13.5mm and 19mm. The total weight of the radiometer was . Its average power consumption was 4watts and its peak power consumption 9watts.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 224328, 737819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 35 ], [ 88, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A two-channel infrared radiometer to measure the effective temperatures of small areas of Venus. The radiation that was received could originate from the planetary surface, clouds in the atmosphere, the atmosphere itself or a combination of these. The radiation was received in two spectral ranges: 8 to 9μm (focused on 8.4μm) and 10 to 10.8μm (focused on 10.4μm). The latter corresponding to the carbon dioxide band. The total weight of the infrared radiometer, which was housed in a magnesium casting, was , and it required 2.4watts of power. It was designed to measure radiation temperatures between approximately .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 15022, 839718, 5906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 23 ], [ 24, 34 ], [ 398, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A three-axis fluxgate magnetometer to measure planetary and interplanetary magnetic fields. Three probes were incorporated in its sensors, so it could obtain three mutually orthogonal components of the field vector. Readings of these components were separated by 1.9seconds. It had three analog outputs that had each two sensitivity scales: ±64γ and ±320γ (1γ = 1nanotesla). These scales were automatically switched by the instrument. The field that the magnetometer observed was the super-position of a nearly constant spacecraft field and the interplanetary field. Thus, it effectively measured only the changes in the interplanetary field.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 83060, 935979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 35 ], [ 364, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " An ionization chamber with matched Geiger-Müller tubes (also known as a cosmic ray detector) to measure high-energy cosmic radiation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 1464117, 82245, 47687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ], [ 36, 54 ], [ 73, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A particle detector (implemented through use of an Anton type 213 Geiger-Müller tube) to measure lower radiation (especially near Venus), also known as the Iowa detector, as it was provided by the University of Iowa. It was a miniature tube having a 1.2mg/cm2 mica window about in diameter and weighing about . It detected soft x-rays efficiently and ultraviolet inefficiently, and was previously used in Injun 1, Explorer 12 and Explorer 14. It was able to detect protons above 500keV in energy and electrons above 35keV. The length of the basic telemetry frame was 887.04seconds. During each frame, the counting rate of the detector was sampled twice at intervals separated by 37seconds. The first sampling was the number of counts during an interval of 9.60seconds (known as the 'long gate'); the second was the number of counts during an interval of 0.827seconds (known as the 'short gate'). The long gate accumulator overflowed on the 256th count and the short gate accumulator overflowed on the 65,536th count. The maximum counting rate of the tube was 50,000 per second.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 241119, 34197, 31990, 17113304, 55312961, 30698146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 216 ], [ 330, 335 ], [ 353, 364 ], [ 407, 414 ], [ 416, 427 ], [ 432, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A cosmic dust detector to measure the flux of cosmic dust particles in space.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 2178570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A solar plasma spectrometer to measure the spectrum of low-energy positively charged particles from the Sun, i.e. the solar wind.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 45311025, 28538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 28 ], [ 119, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The magnetometer was attached to the top of the mast below the omnidirectional antenna. Particle detectors were mounted halfway up the mast, along with the cosmic ray detector. The cosmic dust detector and solar plasma spectrometer were attached to the top edges of the spacecraft base. The microwave radiometer, the infrared radiometer and the radiometer reference horns were rigidly mounted to a diameter parabolic radiometer antenna mounted near the bottom of the mast. All instruments were operated throughout the cruise and encounter modes except the radiometers, which were only used in the immediate vicinity of Venus.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 342372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to these scientific instruments, Mariner 2 had a data conditioning system (DCS) and a scientific power switching (SPS) unit. The DCS was a solid-state electronic system designed to gather information from the scientific instruments on board the spacecraft. It had four basic functions: analog-to-digital conversion, digital-to-digital conversion, sampling and instrument-calibration timing, and planetary acquisition. The SPS unit was designed to perform the following three functions: control of the application of AC power to appropriate portions of the science subsystem, application of power to the radiometers and removal of power from the cruise experiments during radiometer calibration periods, and control of the speed and direction of the radiometer scans. The DCS sent signals to the SPS unit to perform the latter two functions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 42986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 528, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Not included on any of the Mariner R spacecraft was a camera for visual photos. With payload space at a premium, project scientists considered a camera an unneeded luxury, unable to return useful scientific results. Carl Sagan, one of the Mariner R scientists, unsuccessfully fought for their inclusion, noting that not only might there be breaks in Venus' cloud layer, but \"that cameras could also answer questions that we were way too dumb to even pose\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 6824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The launch window for Mariner, constrained both by the orbital relationship of Earth and Venus and the limitations of the Atlas Agena, was determined to fall in the 51 day period between from July 22 through September 10. The Mariner flight plan was such that the two operational spacecraft would be launched toward Venus in a 30-day period within this window, taking slightly differing paths such that they both arrived at the target planet within nine days of each other, between the 8th and 16 December. Only Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 12 was available for the launching of Atlas-Agena rockets, and it took 24 days to ready an Atlas-Agena for launch. This meant that there was only a 27 day margin for error for a two-launch schedule.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission profile", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Each Mariner would be launched into a parking orbit, whereupon the restartable Agena would fire a second time, sending Mariner on its way to Venus (errors in trajectory would be corrected by a mid-course burn of Mariner's onboard engines). Real-time radar tracking of the Mariner spacecraft while it was in parking orbit and upon its departure the Atlantic Missile Range would provide real-time radar tracking with stations at Ascension and Pretoria, while Palomar Observatory provided optical tracking. Deep space support was provided by three tracking and communications stations at Goldstone, California, Woomera, Australia, and Johannesburg, South Africa, each separated on the globe by around 120° for continuous coverage.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission profile", "target_page_ids": [ 11962478, 200115, 11962478, 6555059, 18962604, 25002, 392143, 520739, 40468250, 4079196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 51 ], [ 158, 168 ], [ 307, 320 ], [ 348, 370 ], [ 427, 436 ], [ 441, 449 ], [ 457, 476 ], [ 585, 606 ], [ 608, 626 ], [ 632, 658 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On July 22, 1962, the two-stage Atlas-Agena rocket carrying Mariner 1 veered off-course during its launch due to a defective signal from the Atlas and a bug in the program equations of the ground-based guidance computer; the spacecraft was destroyed by the Range Safety Officer.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission profile", "target_page_ids": [ 6647658, 38786, 16537446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 43 ], [ 151, 156 ], [ 257, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two days after that launch, Mariner 2 and its booster (Atlas vehicle 179D) were rolled out to LC-12. The Atlas proved troublesome to prepare for launch, and multiple serious problems with the autopilot occurred, including a complete replacement of the servoamplifier after it had suffered component damage due to shorted transistors.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission profile", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At 1:53 AM EST on August 27, Mariner 2 was launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 12 at 06:53:14 UTC. The bug in the rocket’s software that resulted in the loss of Mariner 1 had not been identified at the time of the launch. In the event the bug caused no issues with the launch since it was in a section of code that was only used when the data-feed from the ground was interrupted and there were no such interruptions during the launch of Mariner 2.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission profile", "target_page_ids": [ 306778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The flight proceeded normally up to the point of the Agena booster engine cutoff, at which point the V-2 vernier engine lost pitch and yaw control. The vernier started oscillating and banging against its stops, resulting in a rapid roll of the launch vehicle that came close to threatening the integrity of the stack. At T+189 seconds, the rolling stopped and the launch continued without incident. The rolling motion of the Atlas resulted in ground guidance losing its lock on the booster and preventing any backup commands from being sent to counteract the roll. The incident was traced to a loose electrical connection in the vernier feedback transducer, which was pushed back into place by the centrifugal force of the roll, which also by fortunate coincidence left the Atlas only a few degrees off from where it started and within the range of the Agena's horizontal sensor. As a consequence of this episode, GD/A implemented improved fabrication of wiring harnesses and checkout procedures.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission profile", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Five minutes after liftoff, the Atlas and Agena-Mariner separated, followed by the first Agena burn and second Agena burn. The Agena-Mariner separation injected the Mariner 2 spacecraft into a geocentric escape hyperbola at 26 minutes 3 seconds after liftoff. The NASA NDIF tracking station at Johannesburg, South Africa, acquired the spacecraft about 31 minutes after launch. Solar panel extension was completed approximately 44 minutes after launch. The Sun lock acquired the Sun about 18 minutes later. The high-gain antenna was extended to its acquisition angle of 72°. The output of the solar panels was slightly above the predicted value.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission profile", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As all subsystems were performing normally, with the battery fully charged and the solar panels providing adequate power, the decision was made on August 29 to turn on cruise science experiments. On September 3, the Earth acquisition sequence was initiated, and Earth lock was established 29 minutes later.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission profile", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the Atlas-Agena putting Mariner slightly off course, the spacecraft required a mid-course correction, consisting of a roll-turn sequence, followed by a pitch-turn sequence and finally a motor-burn sequence. Preparation commands were sent to the spacecraft at 21:30 UTC on September 4. Initiation of the mid-course maneuver sequence was sent at 22:49:42 UTC and the roll-turn sequence started one hour later. The entire maneuver took approximately 34 minutes. As a result of the mid-course maneuver, the sensors lost their lock with the Sun and Earth. At 00:27:00 UTC the Sun re-acquisition began and at 00:34 UTC the Sun was reacquired. Earth re-acquisition started at 02:07:29 UTC and Earth was reacquired at 02:34 UTC.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission profile", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On September 8 at 12:50 UTC, the spacecraft experienced a problem with attitude control. It automatically turned on the gyros, and the cruise science experiments were automatically turned off. The exact cause is unknown as attitude sensors went back to normal before telemetry measurements could be sampled, but it may have been an Earth-sensor malfunction or a collision with a small unidentified object which temporarily caused the spacecraft to lose Sun lock. A similar experience happened on September 29 at 14:34 UTC. Again, all sensors went back to normal before it could be determined which axis had lost lock. By this date, the Earth sensor brightness indication had essentially gone to zero. This time, however, telemetry data indicated that the Earth-brightness measurement had increased to the nominal value for that point in the trajectory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission profile", "target_page_ids": [ 30575830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On October 31, the output from one solar panel (with solar sail attached) deteriorated abruptly. It was diagnosed as a partial short circuit in the panel. As a precaution, the cruise science instruments were turned off. A week later, the panel resumed normal function, and cruise science instruments were turned back on. The panel permanently failed on November 15, but Mariner 2 was close enough to the Sun that one panel could supply adequate power; thus, the cruise science experiments were left active.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission profile", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner 2 was the first spacecraft to successfully encounter another planet, passing as close as to Venus after 110 days of flight on December 14, 1962.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission profile", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After encounter, cruise mode resumed. Spacecraft perihelion occurred on December 27 at a distance of . The last transmission from Mariner 2 was received on January 3, 1963 at 07:00 UTC, making the total time from launch to termination of the Mariner 2 mission 129 days.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission profile", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner 2 remains in heliocentric orbit.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission profile", "target_page_ids": [ 2145009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The data produced during the flight consisted of two categories--viz., tracking data and telemetry data. One particularly noteworthy piece of data gathered during the pioneering fly-by was the high temperature of the atmosphere, measured to be . Various properties of the solar wind were also measured for the first time.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 28538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The microwave radiometer made three scans of Venus in 35 minutes on December 14, 1962 starting at 18:59 UTC. The first scan was made on the dark side, the second was near the terminator, and the third was located on the light side. The scans with the 19mm band revealed peak temperatures of on the dark side, 595±12K near the terminator, and 511±14K on the light side. It was concluded that there is no significant difference in temperature across Venus. However, the results suggest a limb darkening, an effect which presents cooler temperatures near the edge of the planetary disk and higher temperatures near the center. This was evidence for the theory that the Venusian surface was extremely hot and the atmosphere optically thick.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 1225755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 487, 501 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The infrared radiometer showed that the 8.4μm and 10.4μm radiation temperatures were in agreement with radiation temperatures obtained from Earth-based measurements. There was no systematic difference between the temperatures measured on the light side and dark side of the planet, which was also in agreement with Earth-based measurements. The limb darkening effect that the microwave radiometer detected was also present in the measurements by both channels of the infrared radiometer. The effect was only slightly present in the 10.4μm channel but was more pronounced in the 8.4μm channel. The 8.4μm channel also showed a slight phase effect. The phase effect indicated that if a greenhouse effect existed, heat was transported in an efficient manner from the light side to the dark side of the planet. The 8.4μm and 10.4μm showed equal radiation temperatures, indicating that the limb darkening effect would appear to come from a cloud structure rather than the atmosphere. Thus, if the measured temperatures were actually cloud temperatures instead of surface temperatures, then these clouds would have to be quite thick.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The magnetometer detected a persistent interplanetary magnetic field varying between 2γ and 10γ (nanotesla), which agrees with prior Pioneer 5 observations from 1960. This also means that interplanetary space is rarely empty or field-free. The magnetometer could detect changes of about 4γ on any of the axes, but no trends above 10γ were detected near Venus, nor were fluctuations seen like those that appear at Earth's magnetospheric termination. This means that Mariner 2 found no detectable magnetic field near Venus, although that didn't necessarily mean that Venus had none. However, if Venus had a magnetic field, then it would have to be at least smaller than 1/10 the magnetic field of the Earth. In 1980, the Pioneer Venus Orbiter indeed showed that Venus has a small weak magnetic field.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 935979, 376851, 20479, 73357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 106 ], [ 133, 142 ], [ 421, 435 ], [ 719, 740 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Anton type 213 Geiger-Müller tube performed as expected. The average rate was 0.6 counts per second. Increases in its counting rate were larger and more frequent than for the two larger tubes, since it was more sensitive to particles of lower energy. It detected 7 small solar bursts of radiation during September and October and 2 during November and December. The absence of a detectable magnetosphere was also confirmed by the tube; it detected no radiation belt at Venus similar to that of Earth. The count rate would have increased by 104, but no change was measured.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It was also shown that in interplanetary space, the solar wind streams continuously,", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 28538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "confirming a prediction by Eugene Parker, and the cosmic dust density is much lower than the near-Earth region.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 1385366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Improved estimates of Venus' mass and the value of the Astronomical Unit were made. Also, research, which was later confirmed by Earth-based radar and other explorations, suggested that Venus rotates very slowly and in a direction opposite that of the Earth.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " List of missions to Venus", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38117880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Microwave Radiometer (Juno), another microwave radiometer used in the 2010s on Jupiter", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52656078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mariner 2 Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Full-scale engineering prototype of Mariner 2 in the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum, Washington, D.C.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mariner 2", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Derelict_satellites_in_heliocentric_orbit", "Mariner_program", "Missions_to_Venus", "Spacecraft_launched_in_1962", "Derelict_space_probes", "Spacecraft_launched_by_Atlas-Agena_rockets", "Articles_containing_video_clips" ]

[ "Mariner II" ]

[ { "plaintext": "A particle in the physical sciences is a small localized object to which can be ascribed physical properties.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30778041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Particle may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Particle (ecology), in marine and freshwater ecology, a small object", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 1109435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Colloidal particle, part of a one-phase system of two or more components where the particles aren't individually visible", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 14020842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Particle, the solid or liquid particles in an aerosol", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 57763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Granular material", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 696449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Particulates, in the areas of atmospheric physics and air pollution", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 30876688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nanoparticle, an object between 1 and 100 nanometers that behaves as a whole unit", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 1234517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Point particle, or point mass, an idealization of an object with finite mass but of zero size", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 1266589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A particle of a medium in continuum mechanics, meaning an infinitesimal portion of it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 5918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Self-propelled particles, a concept used in statistical physics to model swarms", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 31424241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Subatomic particle:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 212490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elementary particle, or fundamental particle, a particle of which other particles are composed", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 11274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Particle physics, the study of subatomic particles", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 23259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " See list of particles for more uses", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 385334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Suspended solids, in a liquid", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 7206827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Particle (band), a 2000 jam band from Los Angeles, California", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 1066699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Particle (film), a 2012 Turkish film", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 39522639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Particles (film), a 2019 French film", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 60744718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Particles\" (song), a 2021 single by Jessica Simpson", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 4540726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Particle, a US HTML5 web app company acquired by Apple in 2012", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computing", "target_page_ids": [ 15357987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Particle system, in computer graphics, a technique to simulate certain fuzzy phenomena", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computing", "target_page_ids": [ 389876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Grammatical particle, a function word", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 95478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Particulate (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36496913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Particle size (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31367279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] } ]

[]

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[ { "plaintext": "Mariner 6 and Mariner 7 (Mariner Mars 69A and Mariner Mars 69B) were two unmanned NASA robotic spacecraft that completed the first dual mission to Mars in 1969 as part of NASA's wider Mariner program. Mariner 6 was launched from Launch Complex 36B at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station and Mariner 7 from Launch Complex 36A at Cape Kennedy. The two craft flew over the equator and south polar regions, analyzing the atmosphere and the surface with remote sensors, and recording and relaying hundreds of pictures. The mission's goals were to study the surface and atmosphere of Mars during close flybys, in order to establish the basis for future investigations, particularly those relevant to the search for extraterrestrial life, and to demonstrate and develop technologies required for future Mars missions. Mariner 6 also had the objective of providing experience and data which would be useful in programming the Mariner 7 encounter five days later.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18426568, 58957, 14640471, 20174, 306778, 20611356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 86 ], [ 87, 105 ], [ 147, 151 ], [ 184, 199 ], [ 251, 283 ], [ 367, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three Mariner probes were constructed for the mission, with two intended to fly and one as a spare in the event of a mission failure. The spacecraft was shipped to Cape Canaveral with their Atlas-Centaur boosters in December 1968 – January 1969 to begin pre-launch checkouts and testing. On February 14, Mariner 6 was undergoing a simulated countdown on LC-36A, electrical power running, but no propellant loaded in the booster. During the test run, an electrical relay in the Atlas malfunctioned and opened two valves in the pneumatic system which allowed helium pressure gas to escape from the booster's balloon skin. The Atlas began to crumple over, however two pad technicians quickly activated a manual override switch to close the valves and pump helium back in. Although Mariner 6 and its Centaur stage had been saved, the Atlas had sustained structural damage and could not be reused, so they were removed from the booster and placed atop Mariner 7's launch vehicle on the adjacent LC-36B, while a different Atlas was used for Mariner 7. NASA awarded the quick-thinking technicians, Bill McClure and Charles (Jack) Beverlin, an Exceptional Medal of Bravery for their courage in risking being crushed underneath the 124-foot rocket. In 2014, an escarpment on Mars which NASA'S Opportunity rover had recently visited was named the McClure-Beverlin Ridge in honor of the pair, who had since died.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Launch", "target_page_ids": [ 18426568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1046, 1050 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner 6 lifted off from LC-36B at Cape Canaveral on February 25, 1969, using the Atlas-Centaur AC-20 rocket, while Mariner 7 lifted off from LC-36A on March 27, using the Atlas-Centaur AC-19 rocket. The boost phase for both spacecraft went according to plan and no serious anomalies occurred with either launch vehicle. A minor LOX leak froze some telemetry probes in AC-20 which registered as a drop in sustainer engine fuel pressure; however, the engine performed normally through powered flight. In addition, occurred a few seconds early due to a faulty cutoff switch, resulting in longer than intended burn time of the sustainer engine and Centaur, but this had no serious effect on vehicle performance or the flight path. AC-20 was launched at a 108-degree azimuth.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Launch", "target_page_ids": [ 314402, 55573845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 330, 333 ], [ 406, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Centaur stage on both flights was set up to perform a retrorocket maneuver after capsule separation. This served two purposes, firstly to prevent venting propellant from the spent Centaur from contacting the probe, secondly to put the vehicle on a trajectory that would send it into solar orbit and not impact the Martian surface, potentially contaminating the planet with Earth microbes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Launch", "target_page_ids": [ 9228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 377, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On July 29, 1969, less than a week before closest approach, Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) lost contact with Mariner 7. The center regained the signal via the backup low-gain antenna and regained use of the high gain antenna again shortly after Mariner 6's close encounter. Leaking gases from a battery (which later failed) were thought to have caused the anomaly. Based on the observations that Mariner 6 made, Mariner 7 was reprogrammed in flight to take further observations of areas of interest and actually returned more pictures than Mariner 6, despite the battery's failure.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spaceflight", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Closest approach for Mariner 6 occurred July 31, 1969, at 05:19:07 UT at a distance of above the martian surface. Closest approach for Mariner 7 occurred August 5, 1969 at 05:00:49 UT at a distance of above the martian surface. This was less than half of the distance used by Mariner 4 on the previous US Mars flyby mission.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spaceflight", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Both spacecraft are now defunct and in heliocentric orbits.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spaceflight", "target_page_ids": [ 2145009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By chance, both spacecraft flew over cratered regions and missed both the giant northern volcanoes and the equatorial grand canyon discovered later. Their approach pictures did, however, photograph about 20 percent of the planet's surface, showing the dark features long seen from Earth – in the past, these features had been mistaken for canals by some ground-based astronomers. When Mariner 7 flew over the martian south pole on August 4, 1969, it sent back pictures of ice-filled craters and outlines of the south polar cap. Despite the communication defect suffered by Mariner 7 earlier, these pictures were of better quality than what had been sent by its twin, Mariner 6, a few days earlier when it flew past the martian equator. In total, 201 photos were taken and transmitted back to Earth, adding more detail than the earlier mission, Mariner 4. Both crafts also studied the atmosphere of Mars.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spaceflight", "target_page_ids": [ 329184, 91176, 504035, 28203358, 4548379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 98 ], [ 107, 130 ], [ 339, 345 ], [ 511, 526 ], [ 884, 902 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coming a week after Apollo 11, Mariner 6 and 7's flyby of Mars received less than the normal amount of media coverage for a mission of this significance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spaceflight", "target_page_ids": [ 662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ultraviolet spectrometer onboard Mariners 6 and 7 was constructed by University of Colorado's Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics (LASP).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spaceflight", "target_page_ids": [ 31990, 45311025, 39048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 16, 28 ], [ 98, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The engineering model of Mariners 6 and 7 still exists, and is owned by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). It is on loan to LASP, and is on display in the lab's lobby.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spaceflight", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner 6 and 7 infrared radiometer observations helped to trigger a scientific revolution in Mars knowledge. The Mariner 6 & 7 infrared radiometer results showed that the atmosphere of Mars is composed mostly of carbon dioxide (CO2), and they were also able to detect trace amounts of water on the surface of Mars.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spaceflight", "target_page_ids": [ 4548379, 21857752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 190 ], [ 286, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mariner 6 and 7 spacecraft were identical, consisting of an octagonal magnesium frame base, diagonally and deep. A conical superstructure mounted on top of the frame held the high-gain 1 meter diameter parabolic antenna and four solar panels, each measuring x , were affixed to the top corners of the frame. The tip-to-tip span of the deployed solar panels was . A low-gain omnidirectional antenna was mounted on a m high mast next to the high-gain antenna. Underneath the octagonal frame was a two-axis scan platform which held scientific instruments. Overall science instrument mass was . The total height of the spacecraft was .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spacecraft and subsystems", "target_page_ids": [ 18909, 15677755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 83 ], [ 235, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The spacecraft was attitude stabilized in three axes, referenced to the sun and the star Canopus. It utilized 3 gyros, 2 sets of 6 nitrogen jets, which were mounted on the ends of the solar panels, a Canopus tracker, and two primary and four secondary sun sensors. Propulsion was provided by a 223-newton rocket motor, mounted within the frame, which used the mono-propellant hydrazine. The nozzle, with 4-jet vane vector control, protruded from one wall of the octagonal structure. Power was supplied by 17,472 photovoltaic cells, covering an area of on the four solar panels. These could provide 800 watts of power near Earth, and 449 watts while at Mars. The maximum power requirement was 380 watts, once Mars was reached. A 1200 watt-hour, rechargeable, silver-zinc battery was used to provide backup power. Thermal control was achieved through the use of adjustable louvers on the sides of the main compartment.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spacecraft and subsystems", "target_page_ids": [ 1283638, 21175, 72540, 69955, 2352910, 13936369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 96 ], [ 131, 139 ], [ 298, 304 ], [ 376, 385 ], [ 512, 529 ], [ 759, 778 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three telemetry channels were available for telecommunications. Channel A carried engineering data at 8⅓ or 33⅓ bit/s, channel B carried scientific data at 66⅔ or 270 bit/s and channel C carried science data at 16,200 bit/s. Communications were accomplished through the high- and low-gain antennas, via dual S-band traveling wave tube amplifiers, operating at 10 or 20 watts, for transmission. The design also included a single receiver. An analog tape recorder, with a capacity of 195 million bits, could store television images for subsequent transmission. Other science data was stored on a digital recorder. The command system, consisting of a central computer and sequencer (CC&S), was designed to actuate specific events at precise times. The CC&S was programmed with both a standard mission and a conservative backup mission before launch, but could be commanded and reprogrammed in flight. It could perform 53 direct commands, 5 control commands, and 4 quantitative commands.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spacecraft and subsystems", "target_page_ids": [ 473167, 70912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 315, 334 ], [ 448, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Instrumentation:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spacecraft and subsystems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IR Spectrometer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spacecraft and subsystems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two-Channel IR Radiometer Mars Surface Temperature", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spacecraft and subsystems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " UV Spectrometer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spacecraft and subsystems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " S-Band Occultation", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spacecraft and subsystems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thermal Control Flux Monitor (Conical Radiometer)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spacecraft and subsystems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mars TV Camera", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spacecraft and subsystems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Celestial Mechanics", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spacecraft and subsystems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " General Relativity", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spacecraft and subsystems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " List of missions to Mars", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34749440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Space exploration", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Unmanned space missions", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 58957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package (Included an infrared radiometer for the martian surface)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 57917817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mariner Mars 1969 Launches - Press Kit", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tracking and data system support for the Mariner Mars 1969 mission. Volume 1 - Planning phase through midcourse maneuver", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tracking and data system support for the Mariner Mars 1969 mission. Volume 2: Midcourse maneuver through end of nominal mission", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tracking and data system support for the Mariner Mars 1969 mission. Volume 3: Extended operations mission", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Mariner 6 and 7 flight paths and their determination from tracking data", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two over Mars - Mariner 6 and Mariner 7, February - August 1969", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mariner 6 Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mariner 7 Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mariner 6 and 7 Data Set Information (highly technical)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mariner 6 and 7 Data Viewer Page (includes many images)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Page with reprocessed Mariner 7 images", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mariner 6 and 7 images", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Mariner_program", "Missions_to_Mars", "Spacecraft_launched_in_1969", "Derelict_satellites_in_heliocentric_orbit", "Derelict_space_probes", "Spacecraft_launched_by_Atlas-Centaur_rockets" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "David Boies (; born March 11, 1941) is an American lawyer and chairman of the law firm Boies Schiller Flexner LLP. Boies rose to national prominence for three major cases: leading the U.S. federal government's successful prosecution of Microsoft in United States v. Microsoft Corp., his unsuccessful representation of Democratic presidential candidate Al Gore in Bush v. Gore, and for successful representation of the plaintiff in Hollingsworth v. Perry, which invalidated California Proposition 8 banning same-sex marriage. Boies has also represented various clients in suits involving in the United States, including Theranos, tobacco companies, Harvey Weinstein, and Jeffrey Epstein's victims including Virginia Roberts Giuffre.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19690285, 20770, 5043544, 5042706, 105823, 23541913, 17450998, 3434750, 41779862, 1624086, 6253522, 62493394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 113 ], [ 249, 281 ], [ 318, 328 ], [ 352, 359 ], [ 363, 375 ], [ 431, 453 ], [ 484, 497 ], [ 594, 607 ], [ 619, 627 ], [ 648, 664 ], [ 670, 685 ], [ 706, 730 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Boies was born in Sycamore, Illinois, to two teachers, and raised in a farming community. He has four siblings. His first job was when he was 10 years old—a paper route with 120 customers. Boies has dyslexia and he did not learn to read until the third grade.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 111103, 8305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ], [ 199, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Journalist Malcolm Gladwell has described the unique processes of reading and learning Boies experienced due to his dyslexia. Boies's mother, for instance, would read stories to him when he was a child and Boies would memorize them because he could not follow the words on the page.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 828135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1954, the family moved to California. Boies graduated from Fullerton Union High School in Fullerton, California. Boies attended the University of Redlands from 1960 to 1962, received a B.S. degree from Northwestern University in 1964, a J.D. degree magna cum laude from Yale Law School in 1966 and an LL.M. degree from New York University School of Law 1967; he was awarded an honorary LL.D. from the University of Redlands in 2000.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 5407, 4662767, 107812, 299977, 174216, 153041, 493992, 456406, 464522, 1413600, 30872408, 299977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 39 ], [ 62, 89 ], [ 93, 114 ], [ 135, 157 ], [ 205, 228 ], [ 240, 244 ], [ 252, 267 ], [ 273, 288 ], [ 304, 309 ], [ 322, 355 ], [ 389, 394 ], [ 404, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He currently serves on the board of trustees of the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia, which is a museum dedicated to the U.S. Constitution.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 418093, 50585, 31644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 80 ], [ 84, 96 ], [ 133, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Boies was an attorney at Cravath, Swaine & Moore, where he started upon law school graduation in 1966 and became a partner in 1973. He left Cravath in 1997 when a major client objected to his representation of the New York Yankees even though the firm itself had found no conflict. He left the firm within 48 hours of being informed of the client's objection and created his own firm with his friend Jonathan Schiller, now known as Boies, Schiller & Flexner LLP. It is currently rated 23rd in \"overall prestige\" and 15th among New York law firms by Vault.com, a website on legal career information.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 1206928, 68743803, 19690285, 12692796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 48 ], [ 400, 417 ], [ 432, 462 ], [ 549, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Boies lost the first important file-sharing case which ultimately put Napster into bankruptcy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 21113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " He represented the Justice Department in the United States v. Microsoft Corp. case. Boies won a victory at trial, and the verdict was upheld on appeal. The appellate court overturned the relief ordered (breakup of the company) back to the trial court for further proceedings. Thereafter, the George W. Bush administration settled the case. Bill Gates said Boies was \"out to destroy Microsoft\". In 2001, the Washington Monthly called Boies \"a brilliant trial lawyer\", \"a latter-day Clarence Darrow\", and \"a mad genius\" for his work on the Microsoft case.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 20770, 3747, 325569, 159917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 78 ], [ 341, 351 ], [ 408, 426 ], [ 482, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Also at Cravath, Boies defended CBS in the libel suit Westmoreland v. CBS from 1984 to 1985, but after dragging on for two years, the case was dropped.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 37653, 14232755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 36 ], [ 55, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the 2000 U.S. presidential election, he represented Vice President Al Gore in Bush v. Gore. In Jay Roach's Recount, which focuses on the case, Boies is played by Ed Begley Jr.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 32009, 5042706, 105823, 352367, 17326580, 900746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 45 ], [ 77, 84 ], [ 88, 100 ], [ 105, 114 ], [ 117, 124 ], [ 172, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2006, Boies, Schiller & Flexner LLP negotiated a major settlement with The American International Group on behalf of its client, C. V. Starr, a firm controlled by Maurice R. Greenberg, the former chairman and chief executive of A.I.G. In 2015 Boies won at trial a claim that the government's $85 billion bailout of AIG had been unfair to the company's owners. Boies has appealed, asking for greater money damages.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 521884, 906323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 106 ], [ 166, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Boies negotiated on behalf of American Express two of the highest civil antitrust settlements ever for an individual company: $2.25billion from Visa, and $1.8billion from MasterCard.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Boies is representing filmmaker Michael Moore regarding a Treasury Department investigation into Moore's trip to Cuba while filming for Sicko.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 74461, 1178011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 45 ], [ 136, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On June 24, 2009, following the California Supreme Court ruling on Strauss v. Horton, Boies joined former Solicitor General Theodore Olson, the opposing attorney in Bush v. Gore, in the lawsuit Perry v. Brown seeking to overturn the state of California's Proposition 8 ban on same-sex marriage. In August 2010, the District Court judge ruled in their clients' favor, finding Proposition 8 to be unconstitutional. On June 26, 2013, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the proponents of Proposition 8 did not have standing to challenge the ruling, allowing the District Court judgment to stand. Same-sex marriages resumed in California on June 28, 2013.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 532376, 20832986, 105897, 23541913, 5407, 17450998, 92656, 17450998, 31737, 17450998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 56 ], [ 67, 84 ], [ 124, 138 ], [ 194, 208 ], [ 242, 252 ], [ 255, 268 ], [ 276, 293 ], [ 375, 388 ], [ 435, 469 ], [ 499, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Boies, Schiller & Flexner LLP assisted the government in obtaining a $155million settlement from Medco Health Solutions related to a qui tam complaint which alleged that Medco helped some pharmaceutical companies make more money by driving prescriptions to them; along with making the payment Medco also signed a corporate integrity agreement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 1441332, 57129698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 140 ], [ 313, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On August 20, 2009 the Golden Gate Yacht Club announced that he had been retained in their ongoing dispute with Société Nautique de Genève regarding the 33rd America's Cup.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 507680, 12066213, 15096834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 45 ], [ 112, 138 ], [ 153, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2010, Boies joined the team of attorneys representing Jamie McCourt in her divorce from Los Angeles Dodgers owner Frank McCourt.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 23535066, 18213, 1777275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 76 ], [ 97, 116 ], [ 123, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Boies was part of the legal team representing the National Football League in their antitrust litigation, Brady v. NFL.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 21211, 339841, 31160425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 74 ], [ 106, 111 ], [ 112, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Boies represented the National Basketball Players Association during the 2011 NBA lockout. He joined sides with Jeffrey Kessler, who opposed Boies as a representative for the players in the 2011 NFL lockout.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 15392541, 32269679, 28337284, 31160425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 61 ], [ 73, 89 ], [ 112, 127 ], [ 190, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Boies was the lead counsel for Oracle Corporation in its lawsuit against Google on the use of Java programming language technology in the Android operating system. The case decided that Google did not infringe on Oracle's patents.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 22591, 1092923, 15881, 12610483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 49 ], [ 73, 79 ], [ 94, 119 ], [ 138, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2012, Boies represented three tobacco companies, Philip Morris USA Inc., R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Co. and Liggett Group LLC, in their appeal of a $2.5million Tampa jury verdict in the death of smoker Charlotte Douglas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In late 2012, Boies defended Gary Jackson, former president of Academi (previously known as BlackWater), in a federal prosecution which alleged he and his co-defendants illegally hid firearm purchases from the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 567988, 345261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 71 ], [ 211, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2015, Boies represented Bob Weinstein and Harvey Weinstein in renegotiating the Weinsteins’ employment contract.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 2147495, 1624086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 41 ], [ 46, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In February 2016, Boies agreed to both sit on the board of directors and act as the attorney for troubled Silicon Valley startup Theranos. The controversial dual role was deemed difficult as he would have to represent both the company (as lawyer) and investors (as a director). In the 2022 Hulu miniseries The Dropout, Boies was portrayed by Kurtwood Smith.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 41779862, 1350109, 60489638, 301344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 138 ], [ 291, 295 ], [ 307, 318 ], [ 343, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2017, Boies agreed to join the legal team for Lawrence Lessig's legal fight against winner-take-all Electoral College vote allocations in the states.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 54496, 10880, 85533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 65 ], [ 88, 103 ], [ 104, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dallas Cowboys owner Jerry Jones hired Boies in 2017 to advise on Jones's legal strategy against NFL commissioner Roger Goodell and the NFL compensation committee in the wake of the suspension of running back Ezekiel Elliott.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 8121, 167154, 21211, 6299440, 44350169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 22, 33 ], [ 98, 101 ], [ 115, 128 ], [ 210, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Presently, Boies represents several of Jeffrey Epstein's victims including Virginia Roberts Giuffre.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professional history", "target_page_ids": [ 6253522, 62493394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 55 ], [ 76, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his 2001 book, prosecutor and author Vincent Bugliosi criticized Boies' abilities as a trial lawyer, arguing that Boies \"wasn't forceful or eloquent at all in making his points\" in Bush v. Gore. \"[A]lthough he seemed to have a very good grasp of the facts, he seemed completely incapable of drawing powerful, irresistible inferences from those facts that painted his opposition into a corner\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 370936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, Boies' firm reportedly directed the Israeli private intelligence company Black Cube to spy on alleged victims of Harvey Weinstein's sexual abuse and on reporters who were investigating Weinstein's actions. Over the course of a year, Weinstein had Black Cube and other agencies \"target\", or collect information on, dozens of individuals, and compile psychological profiles that sometimes focused on their personal or sexual histories. “Boies personally signed the contract directing Black Cube to attempt to uncover information that would stop the publication of a Times story about Weinstein’s abuses, while his firm was also representing the Times, including in a libel case.”", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 46625069, 1624086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 92 ], [ 122, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Months after Cyrus Vance Jr. dropped an investigation into a sexual assault allegation against Harvey Weinstein he received a $10,000 donation from Boies who was representing Weinstein at the time. Andrew Cuomo opened an investigation into Vance's handling of the Weinstein probe. However, after receiving a $25,000 campaign donation from Boies' firm Cuomo ended the investigation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 22779050, 555489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ], [ 198, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Boies' firm was representing The New York Times at the same time. A few days after The New Yorker broke the story \"Harvey Weinstein's Army of Spies\", The New York Times announced it had \"terminated its relationship\" with Boies' firm. According to its contract with Weinstein, Black Cube's assignment had been to kill the paper's negative reporting on Weinstein.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 31365, 30680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 97 ], [ 150, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Boies helped Weinstein fend off journalist Ken Auletta's inquiry into Weinstein's alleged rape of Rowena Chiu at the Venice Film Festival in 1998.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to The Wall Street Journal, Boies negotiated Harvey Weinstein's contract without informing Weinstein Co. directors that he had investment in the company's movies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 173070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rose McGowan claimed that Jennifer Siebel Newsom attempted to arrange a deal between her and Boies in an attempt to make her stay quiet about her allegations against Harvey Weinstein whom Boies was representing at the time.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 18589083, 15179998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 26, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Boies features prominently in Secrets and Lies in a Silicon Valley Startup, a nonfiction book by The Wall Street Journal investigative reporter John Carreyrou about fraud at the blood testing company Theranos. In Carreyrou's reporting, Boies, along with lawyers Heather King and Michael Brille, and his firm are described as protecting the startup using surveillance of witnesses and journalists, weaponized use of non-disclosure agreements and affidavits, intimidation tactics, and other heavy-handed practices. Boies Schiller Flexner LLP is portrayed by Carreyrou as acting as an extension of Theranos, including the use of the law firm's New York offices for hosting promotional meetings such as a faked blood test administered to Fortune writer Roger Parloff. According to Carreyrou, Boies agreed to be paid for his firm's work in Theranos stock, which he expected to grow dramatically in value. He also served on the Theranos board of directors, raising questions about conflicts of interest. Boies’ participation in and support for Theranos directly contributed to the misleading treatment of Walgreen patients, potentially resulting, cited within the report on Theranos by the federal agency CMS (Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services), in “serious injury or harm, or death”.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 49276512, 41779862, 19690285, 172717, 60369606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 159 ], [ 201, 209 ], [ 514, 540 ], [ 735, 742 ], [ 750, 763 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Boies owns a home in Westchester County, New York, Hawk and Horse Vineyards in Northern California, an oceangoing yacht, and a large wine collection.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 48367, 8210131, 147675, 34291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 39 ], [ 41, 49 ], [ 79, 98 ], [ 114, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Boies is dyslexic. He is frequently described as having a photographic memory that enables him to recite exact text, page numbers, and legal exhibits. Colleagues attribute his courtroom success in part to this ability.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 8305, 21402573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 17 ], [ 58, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Professorial chairs:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 1306551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Daryl Levinson is the \"David Boies Professor of Law\" at New York University School of Law.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 1413600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "$1.5million to the Tulane University Law School to establish the \"David Boies Distinguished Chair in Law\". Two of Boies' children earned their law degrees at Tulane.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 11985648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A \"David Boies Professor\" was established at the University of Pennsylvania and is currently held by professor of history Kathleen M. Brown. The professorship is named after David Boies' father, a high school teacher of government and economics.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 31793, 57115439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 75 ], [ 122, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A \"David Boies Chair\" at the Yale Law School was formerly held by Professor Robert Post before he became dean of the law school.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 23681849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "David and Mary Boies endowed a chair in government at the University of Redlands, the college that David Boies attended. Arthur Svenson currently holds this chair.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mary and David Boies also endowed a \"Maurice Greenberg Chair\" at the Yale Law School.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "David Boies and his wife, Mary, donated $5million to Northern Westchester Hospital, in Mount Kisco, New York. Part of an ongoing capital campaign, the Boies' money was used to build the hospital's new emergency room.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 47317811, 258010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 82 ], [ 87, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "David and Mary Boies also fund the \"Mary and David Boies Fellowships\" for foreign students at the Harvard Kennedy School. The Boies give an annual picnic at their home for the incoming Teach for America corps for New York City (300–500 people). They support the Central European and Eurasian Law Institute (CEELI), a Prague-based institute that trains judges from newly democratized countries in Eastern Europe and the Middle East. There is a \"Mary and David Boies Reading Room\" at the CEELI Institute in Prague.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 360816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Time magazine named Boies \"Lawyer of the Year\" in 2000.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 31600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Boies received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 2014.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 5041317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Breaking Legal News Featured Author", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cover story, Forbes: \"David Boies Takes on Eliot Spitzer in the Fight over AIG\", by Daniel Fisher, Carrie Coolidge and Neil Weinberg, May 9, 2005", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cover story, New York: \"The Trials of David Boies Why one Superlawyer has a Hand in Virtually All the High-profile cases of the Day. And How Bush v. Gore became the One that Got Away\" by Chris Smith, February 26, 2001", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 714699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cover story, New York Times Sunday Magazine: \"David Boies: The Wall Street Lawyer Everyone Wants\" by Cary Reich, June 1, 1986", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1965416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Newsweek: \"Microsoft's Tormentor: How an affable trial lawyer with an understated canniness is driving Gates & Co. to the wall\", March 1, 1999", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 214169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vanity Fair: \"1999 Hall of Fame\", December 1999", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 286542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Financial Observer: \"The Golden Boies\", by Renee Kaplan, September 18, 2000", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Vanity Fair: \"The Man who ate Microsoft\" by David Margolick, March 2000", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The National Law Journal: \"Lawyer of the Year\", January 3, 2000", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 30863049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Esquire: \"What Does $750 an Hour Get You? A week in the datebook of David Boies\" by Andrew Chaikivsky, May 2003", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 244002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vanity Fair: excerpt from David Boies book Courting Justice, September 2004", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 11275361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Courting Justice: From New York Yankees vs. Major League Baseball to Bush vs. Gore, 1997–2000 (Miramax Books, 2004) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "v. Goliath: The Trials of David Boies, by Karen Donovan (Pantheon, 2005) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Biography from Boies, Schiller & Flexner LLP.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Contract signed on July 11, 2017 by law firm Boies, Schiller & Flexner L.L.P. with Black Cube to stop the publication of sexual-misconduct allegations against Harvey Weinstein, The New Yorker, November 2017.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1941_births", "American_law_firm_executives", "Cardozo_School_of_Law_faculty", "Harvard_Kennedy_School_people", "LGBT_rights_activists_from_the_United_States", "Living_people", "New_York_(state)_Democrats", "New_York_(state)_lawyers", "New_York_University_School_of_Law_alumni", "New_York_University_School_of_Law_faculty", "Northwestern_University_alumni", "People_from_Armonk,_New_York", "People_from_Sycamore,_Illinois", "Trial_lawyers", "Yale_Law_School_alumni", "Theranos_people", "University_of_Redlands_alumni", "Cravath,_Swaine_&_Moore_partners", "Boies_Schiller_Flexner_people" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Mariner 10 was an American robotic space probe launched by NASA on 3 November 1973, to fly by the planets Mercury and Venus. It was the first spacecraft to perform flybys of multiple planets.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 58957, 10204411, 18426568, 19694, 32745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 34 ], [ 35, 46 ], [ 59, 63 ], [ 106, 113 ], [ 118, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner 10 was launched approximately two years after Mariner 9 and was the last spacecraft in the Mariner program. (Mariner 11 and Mariner 12 were allocated to the Voyager program and redesignated Voyager 1 and Voyager 2.)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37449, 20174, 47795, 32781, 32782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 63 ], [ 99, 114 ], [ 165, 180 ], [ 198, 207 ], [ 212, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mission objectives were to measure Mercury's environment, atmosphere, surface, and body characteristics and to make similar investigations of Venus. Secondary objectives were to perform experiments in the interplanetary medium and to obtain experience with a dual-planet gravity assist mission. Mariner 10s science team was led by Bruce C. Murray at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1352320, 155758, 4136540, 16459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 230 ], [ 275, 289 ], [ 335, 350 ], [ 358, 383 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft to make use of an interplanetary gravitational slingshot maneuver, using Venus to bend its flight path and bring its perihelion down to the level of Mercury's orbit. This maneuver, inspired by the orbital mechanics calculations of the Italian scientist Giuseppe Colombo, put the spacecraft into an orbit that repeatedly brought it back to Mercury. Mariner 10 used the solar radiation pressure on its solar panels and its high-gain antenna as a means of attitude control during flight, the first spacecraft to use active solar pressure control.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and trajectory", "target_page_ids": [ 155758, 88213, 182146, 1485231, 43709, 652531, 30575830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 92 ], [ 153, 163 ], [ 233, 250 ], [ 289, 305 ], [ 410, 428 ], [ 436, 447 ], [ 489, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The components on Mariner 10 can be categorized into four groups based on their common function. The solar panels, power subsystem, attitude control subsystem, and the computer kept the spacecraft operating properly during the flight. The navigational system, including the hydrazine rocket, would keep Mariner 10 on track to Venus and Mercury. Several scientific instruments would collect data at the two planets. Finally, the antennas would transmit this data to the Deep Space Network back on Earth, as well as receive commands from Mission Control. Mariner 10s various components and scientific instruments were attached to a central hub, which was roughly the shape of an octagonal prism. The hub stored the spacecraft's internal electronics. The Mariner 10 spacecraft was manufactured by Boeing. NASA set a strict limit of US$98 million for Mariner 10's total cost, which marked the first time the agency subjected a mission to an inflexible budget constraint. No overruns would be tolerated, so mission planners carefully considered cost efficiency when designing the spacecraft's instruments. Cost control was primarily accomplished by executing contract work closer to the launch date than was recommended by normal mission schedules, as reducing the length of available work time increased cost efficiency. Despite the rushed schedule, very few deadlines were missed. The mission ended up about US$1 million under budget.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and trajectory", "target_page_ids": [ 231522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 469, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Attitude control is needed to keep a spacecraft's instruments and antennas aimed in the correct direction. During course correction maneuvers, the spacecraft may need to rotate so that its rocket engine faces the proper direction before being fired. Mariner 10 determined its attitude using two optical sensors, one pointed at the Sun, and the other at a bright star, usually Canopus; additionally, the probe's three gyroscopes provided a second option for calculating the attitude. Nitrogen gas thrusters were used to adjust Mariner 10s orientation along three axes. The spacecraft's electronics were intricate and complex: it contained over 32,000 pieces of circuitry, of which resistors, capacitors, diodes, microcircuits, and transistors were the most common devices. Commands for the instruments could be stored on Mariner 10s computer, but were limited to 512 words. The rest had to be broadcast by the Mission Sequence Working Group from Earth. Supplying the spacecraft components with power required modifying the electrical output of the solar panels. The power subsystem used two redundant sets of circuitry, each containing a booster regulator and an inverter, to convert the panels' DC output to AC and alter the voltage to the necessary level. The subsystem could store up to 20 ampere hours of electricity on a 39-volt nickel–cadmium battery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and trajectory", "target_page_ids": [ 30575830, 1283638, 44125, 223356, 47713, 42986, 4253054, 186614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 376, 383 ], [ 417, 427 ], [ 1162, 1170 ], [ 1195, 1197 ], [ 1208, 1210 ], [ 1292, 1303 ], [ 1333, 1355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The flyby past Mercury posed major technical challenges for scientists to overcome. Due to Mercury's proximity to the Sun, Mariner 10 would have to endure 4.5 times more solar radiation than when it departed Earth; compared to previous Mariner missions, spacecraft parts needed extra shielding against the heat. Thermal blankets and a sunshade were installed on the main body. After evaluating different choices for the sunshade cloth material, mission planners chose beta cloth, a combination of aluminized Kapton and glass-fiber sheets treated with Teflon. However, solar shielding was unfeasible for some of Mariner 10s other components. Mariner 10s two solar panels needed to be kept under . Covering the panels would defeat their purpose of producing electricity. The solution was to add an adjustable tilt to the panels, so the angle at which they faced the sun could be changed. Engineers considered folding the panels toward each other, making a V-shape with the main body, but tests found this approach had the potential to overheat the rest of the spacecraft. The alternative chosen was to mount the solar panels in a line and tilt them along that axis, which had the added benefit of increasing the efficiency of the spacecraft's nitrogen jet thrusters, which could now be placed on the panel tips. The panels could be rotated a maximum of 76°. Additionally, Mariner 10s hydrazine rocket nozzle had to face the Sun to function properly, but scientists rejected covering the nozzle with a thermal door as an undependable solution. Instead, a special paint was applied to exposed parts on the rocket so as to reduce heat flow from the nozzle to the delicate instruments on the spacecraft.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and trajectory", "target_page_ids": [ 1748563, 6939459, 884879, 30791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 185 ], [ 468, 478 ], [ 508, 514 ], [ 551, 557 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Accurately performing the gravity assist at Venus posed another hurdle. If Mariner 10 was to maintain a course to Mercury, its trajectory could deviate no more than from a critical point in the vicinity of Venus. To ensure that the necessary course corrections could be made, mission planners tripled the amount of hydrazine fuel Mariner 10 would carry, and also equipped the spacecraft with more nitrogen gas for the thrusters than the previous Mariner mission had held. These upgrades proved crucial in enabling the second and third Mercury flybys.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and trajectory", "target_page_ids": [ 69955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 316, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mission still lacked the ultimate safeguard: a sister spacecraft. It was common for probes to be launched in pairs, with complete redundancy to guard against the failure of one or the other. The budget constraint ruled this option out. Even though mission planners stayed sufficiently under budget to divert some funding for constructing a backup spacecraft, the budget did not permit both to be launched at the same time. In the event that Mariner 10 failed, NASA would only allow the backup to be launched if the fatal error was diagnosed and fixed; this would have to be completed in the two-and-a-half weeks between the scheduled launch on 3 November 1973 and the last possible launch date of 21 November 1973. (The unused backup was sent to the Smithsonian museum)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and trajectory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner 10 conducted seven experiments at Venus and Mercury. Six of these experiments had a dedicated scientific instrument to collect data. The experiments and instruments were designed by research laboratories and educational institutions from across the United States. Out of forty-six submissions, JPL selected seven experiments on the basis of maximizing science return without exceeding cost guidelines: together, the seven scientific experiments cost US12.6 million dollars, about one-eighth of the total mission budget.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The imaging system, the Television Photography Experiment, consisted of two Cassegrain telescopes feeding vidicon tubes. The main telescope could be bypassed to a smaller wide angle optic, but using the same tube. It had an 8-position filter wheel, with one position occupied by a mirror for the wide-angle bypass.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [ 2151693, 516757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 87 ], [ 107, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The entire imaging system was imperiled when electric heaters attached to the cameras failed to turn on immediately after launch. To avoid the Sun's damaging heat, the cameras were deliberately placed on the spacecraft side facing away from the Sun. Consequently, the heaters were needed to prevent the cameras from losing heat and become so cold that they would become damaged. JPL engineers found that the vidicons could generate enough heat through normal operation to stay just above the critical temperature of ; therefore they advised against turning off the cameras during the flight. Test photos of the Earth and Moon showed that image quality had not been significantly affected. The mission team was pleasantly surprised when the camera heaters started working on 17 January 1974, two months after launch. Later investigation concluded that a short circuit in a different location on the probe had prevented the heater from turning on. This allowed the vidicons to be turned off as needed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Of the six main scientific instruments, the cameras were by far the most massive device. Requiring 67 watts of electricity, the cameras consumed more power than the other five instruments combined. The system returned about 7,000 photographs of Mercury and Venus during Mariner 10's flybys.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The infrared radiometer detected infrared radiation given off by the surface of Mercury and the atmosphere of Venus, from which the temperature could be calculated. How quickly the surface lost heat as it rotated into the planet's dark side revealed aspects about the composition of the surface, such as whether it was made out of rocks, or out of finer particles. The infrared radiometer contained a pair of Cassegrain telescopes fixed at an angle of 120° to each other and a pair of detectors made from antimony-bismuth thermopiles. The instrument was designed to measure temperatures as cold as and as hot as . Stillman C. Chase, Jr. of the Santa Barbara Research Center headed the infrared radiometer experiment.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [ 839718, 15022, 788567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 23 ], [ 33, 51 ], [ 522, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two ultraviolet spectrometers were involved in this experiment, one to measure UV absorption, the other to sense UV emissions. The occultation spectrometer scanned Mercury's edge as it passed in front of the Sun, and detected whether solar ultraviolet radiation was absorbed in certain wavelengths, which would indicate the presence of gas particles, and therefore an atmosphere. The airglow spectrometer detected extreme ultraviolet radiation emanating from atoms of gaseous hydrogen, helium, carbon, oxygen, neon, and argon. Unlike the occultation spectrometer, it did not require backlighting from the Sun and could move along with the rotatable scan platform on the spacecraft. The experiment's most important goal was to ascertain whether Mercury had an atmosphere, but would also gather data at Earth and Venus and study the interstellar background radiation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [ 29293, 1231733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 29 ], [ 384, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The plasma experiment's goal was to study the ionized gases (plasma) of the solar wind, the temperature and density of its electrons, and how the planets affected the velocity of the plasma stream. The experiment contained two components, facing in opposite directions. The Scanning Electrostatic Analyzer was aimed toward the Sun and could detect positive ions and electrons, which were separated by a set of three concentric hemispherical plates. The Scanning Electron Spectrometer has aimed away from the Sun, and detected only electrons, using just one hemispherical plate. The instruments could be rotated about 60° to either side. By gathering data on the solar wind's movement around Mercury, the plasma experiment could be used to verify the magnetometer's observations of Mercury's magnetic field. Using the plasma detectors, Mariner 10 gathered the first in situ solar wind data from inside Venus' orbit.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [ 25916521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shortly after launch, scientists found that the Scanning Electrostatic Analyzer had failed because a door shielding the analyzer did not open. An unsuccessful attempt was made to forcibly unfasten the door with the first course correction maneuver. The experiment operators had planned to observe the directions taken by positive ions prior to the ions' collision with the Analyzer, but this data was lost. The experiment was still able to collect some data using the properly functioning Scanning Electron Spectrometer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The goal of the charged particles experiment was to observe how the heliosphere interacted with cosmic radiation. In connection with the plasma detectors and magnetometers, this experiment had the potential to provide additional evidence of a magnetic field around Mercury, by showing whether such a field had captured charged particles. Two telescopes were used to collect highly energetic electrons and atomic nuclei, specifically oxygen nuclei or less massive. These particles then passed through a set of detectors and were counted.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [ 1131151, 47687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 79 ], [ 96, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two fluxgate magnetometers were entrusted with discerning whether Mercury produced a magnetic field, and studying the interplanetary magnetic field between flybys. In designing this experiment, scientists had to account for interference from the magnetic field generated by Mariner 10's many electronic parts. For this reason, the magnetometers had to be situated on a long boom, one closer to the octagonal hub, the other one further away. Data from the two magnetometers would be cross-referenced to filter out the spacecraft's own magnetic field. Drastically weakening the probe's magnetic field would have increased costs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [ 20479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This experiment investigated the mass and gravitational characteristics of Mercury. It was of particular interest because of the planet's closeness to the Sun, large orbital eccentricity, and unusual spin-orbit resonance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As the spacecraft passed behind Mercury on the first encounter there was an opportunity to probe the atmosphere and to measure the radius of the planet. By observing phase changes in the S-band radio signal, measurements of the atmosphere could be made. The atmosphere was assessed as having a density of about .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Boeing finished building the spacecraft at the end of June 1973, and Mariner 10 was delivered from Seattle to JPL's headquarters in California, where JPL comprehensively tested the integrity of the spacecraft and its instruments. After the tests were finished, the probe was transported to the Eastern Test Range in Florida, the launch site. Technicians filled a tank on the spacecraft with of hydrazine fuel so that the probe could make course corrections, and attached squibs, whose detonation would signal Mariner 10 to exit the launch rocket and deploy its instruments. The planned gravity assist at Venus made it feasible to use an Atlas-Centaur rocket instead of a more powerful but more expensive Titan IIIC. The probe and the Atlas-Centaur were attached together ten days prior to liftoff. Launch posed one of the largest risks of failure for the Mariner 10 mission; Mariner 1, Mariner 3, and Mariner 8 all failed minutes after lift-off due to either engineering failures or Atlas rocket malfunctions. The mission had a launch period of about a month in length, from 16 October 1973, to 21 November 1973. NASA chose 3 November as the launch date because it would optimize imaging conditions when the spacecraft arrived at Mercury.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Departing Earth", "target_page_ids": [ 6555059, 853610, 1431069, 843195, 38786, 38787, 38790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 294, 312 ], [ 472, 478 ], [ 638, 651 ], [ 705, 715 ], [ 876, 885 ], [ 887, 896 ], [ 902, 911 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 3 November at 17:45 UTC, the Atlas-Centaur carrying Mariner 10 lifted off from pad SLC-36B. The Atlas stage burned for around four minutes, after which it was jettisoned, and the Centaur stage took over for an additional five minutes, propelling Mariner 10 to a parking orbit. The temporary orbit took the spacecraft one-third of the distance around Earth: this maneuver was needed to reach the correct spot for a second burn by the Centaur engines, which set Mariner 10 on a path towards Venus. The probe then separated from the rocket; subsequently, the Centaur stage diverted away to avoid the possibility of a future collision. Never before had a planetary mission depended upon two separate rocket burns during the launch, and even with Mariner 10, scientists initially viewed the maneuver as too risky.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Departing Earth", "target_page_ids": [ 5882010, 11962478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 93 ], [ 265, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During its first week of flight, the Mariner 10 camera system was tested by taking five photographic mosaics of the Earth and six of the Moon. It also obtained photographs of the north polar region of the Moon where prior coverage was poor. These photographs provided a basis for cartographers to update lunar maps and improve the lunar control net.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Departing Earth", "target_page_ids": [ 379518, 9228, 19331, 875367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 108 ], [ 116, 121 ], [ 137, 141 ], [ 331, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Far from being an uneventful cruise, Mariner 10s three-month journey to Venus was fraught with technical malfunctions, which kept mission control on edge. Donna Shirley recounted her team's frustration: \"It seemed as if we were always just patching Mariner 10 together long enough to get it on to the next phase and next crisis\". A trajectory correction maneuver was made on 13 November 1973. Immediately afterward, the star-tracker locked onto a bright flake of paint which had come off the spacecraft and lost tracking on the guide star Canopus. An automated safety protocol recovered Canopus, but the problem of flaking paint recurred throughout the mission. The on-board computer also experienced unscheduled resets occasionally, which necessitated reconfiguring the clock sequence and subsystems. Periodic problems with the high-gain antenna also occurred during the cruise. On 8 January 1974, a malfunction thought to be caused by a short-circuited diode occurred in the power subsystem. As a result, the main booster regulator and inverter failed, leaving the spacecraft dependent on the redundant regulator. Mission planners feared that the same problem could recur in the redundant system and cripple the spacecraft.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cruise to Venus", "target_page_ids": [ 14572042, 1283638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 168 ], [ 539, 546 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 1974, Mariner 10 made ultraviolet observations of Comet Kohoutek. Another mid-course correction was made on 21 January 1974.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cruise to Venus", "target_page_ids": [ 71240988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The spacecraft passed Venus on 5 February 1974, the closest approach being at 17:01 UTC. It was the twelfth spacecraft to reach Venus and the eighth to return data from the planet, as well as the first mission to succeed in broadcasting images of Venus back to Earth. Mariner 10 built upon observations made by Mariner 5 six years earlier; importantly, Mariner 10 had a camera whereas the prior mission lacked one. As Mariner 10 veered around Venus, from the planet's night side to daylight, the cameras snapped the probe's first image of Venus, showing an illuminated arc of clouds over the north pole emerging from darkness. Engineers initially feared that the star-tracker could mistake the much brighter Venus for Canopus, repeating the mishaps with flaking paint. However, the star-tracker did not malfunction. Earth occultation occurred between 17:07 and 17:11 UTC, during which the spacecraft transmitted X-band radio waves through Venus' atmosphere, gathering data on cloud structure and temperature. Although Venus's cloud cover is nearly featureless in visible light, it was discovered that extensive cloud detail could be seen through Mariner's ultraviolet camera filters. Earth-based ultra-violet observation had shown some indistinct blotching even before Mariner 10, but the detail seen by Mariner was a surprise to most researchers. The probe continued photographing Venus until 13 February 1974. Among the encounter's 4165 acquired photographs, one resulting series of images captured a thick and distinctly patterned atmosphere making a full revolution every four days, just as terrestrial observations had suggested.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Venus flyby", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The mission revealed the composition and meteorological nature of the atmosphere of Venus. Data from the radio science experiment measured the extent to which radio waves passing through the atmosphere were refracted, which was used to calculate the density, pressure, and temperature of the atmosphere at any given altitude. Overall, atmospheric temperature is higher closer to the planet's surface, but Mariner 10 found four altitudes where the pattern was reversed, which could signify the presence of a layer of clouds. The inversions occurred at the levels, confirming previous observations made by the Mariner 5 encounter. The ultraviolet spectrometers identified the chemical substances that comprise Venus' atmosphere. The elevated concentration of atomic oxygen in the upper atmosphere showed that the atmosphere is stratified into upper and lower layers that do not mix with each other; photographs of the upper and lower cloud layers corroborated this hypothesis. Mariner 10s ultraviolet photographs were an invaluable information source for studying the churning clouds of Venus' atmosphere. The mission researchers believed the cloud features they photographed were located in the stratosphere and upper troposphere, created by condensation; they also concluded that the contrast between darker and lighter features was due to differences in the cloud's absorptivity of UV light. The subsolar region was of particular interest: as the sun is straight overhead, it imparts more solar energy to this area than other part of the planet. Compared to the rest of the planet's atmosphere, the subsolar region was highly active and irregular. \"Cells\" of air lifted by convection, each up to wide, were observed forming and dissipating within the span of a few hours; some had polygonal outlines.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Venus flyby", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The gravity assist was also a success, coming well within the acceptable margin for error. In the four hours between 16:00 and 20:00 UTC on 5 February 1974, Mariner 10s heliocentric velocity dropped from to . This changed the shape of the spacecraft's elliptical orbit around the Sun, so that the perihelion now coincided with the orbit of Mercury.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Venus flyby", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The spacecraft flew past Mercury three times. The first Mercury encounter took place at 20:47 UTC on 29 March 1974,at a range of , passing on the shadow side.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "First Mercury flyby", "target_page_ids": [ 41835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After looping once around the Sun while Mercury completed two orbits, Mariner 10 flew by Mercury again on 21 September 1974, at a more distant range of below the southern hemisphere.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Second Mercury flyby", "target_page_ids": [ 26751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After losing roll control in October 1974, a third and final encounter, the closest to Mercury, took place on 16 March 1975, at a range of , passing almost over the north pole.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Third Mercury flyby", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With its maneuvering gas just about exhausted, Mariner 10 started another orbit of the Sun. Engineering tests were continued until 24 March 1975, when final depletion of the nitrogen supply was signaled by the onset of an un-programmed pitch turn. Commands were sent immediately to the spacecraft to turn off its transmitter, and radio signals to Earth ceased.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "End of mission", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner 10 is presumably still orbiting the Sun, although its electronics have probably been damaged by the Sun's radiation. Mariner 10 has not been spotted or tracked from Earth since it stopped transmitting. The only ways it would not be orbiting would be if it had been hit by an asteroid or gravitationally perturbed by a close encounter with a large body.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "End of mission", "target_page_ids": [ 2145009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During its flyby of Venus, Mariner 10 discovered evidence of rotating clouds and a very weak magnetic field. Using a near-ultraviolet filter, it photographed Venus's chevron clouds and performed other atmospheric studies.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Discoveries", "target_page_ids": [ 31990, 2167852, 202899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 133 ], [ 166, 180 ], [ 201, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The spacecraft flew past Mercury three times. Owing to the geometry of its orbit – its orbital period was almost exactly twice Mercury's – the same side of Mercury was sunlit each time, so it was only able to map 40–45% of Mercury's surface, taking over 2,800 photos. It revealed a more or less Moon-like surface. It thus contributed enormously to our understanding of Mercury, whose surface had not been successfully resolved through telescopic observation. The regions mapped included most or all of the Shakespeare, Beethoven, Kuiper, Michelangelo, Tolstoj, and Discovery quadrangles, half of Bach and Victoria quadrangles, and small portions of Solitudo Persephones (later Neruda), Liguria (later Raditladi), and Borealis quadrangles.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Discoveries", "target_page_ids": [ 19877, 14225237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 212 ], [ 575, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner 10 also discovered that Mercury has a tenuous atmosphere consisting primarily of helium, as well as a magnetic field and a large iron-rich core. Its radiometer readings suggested that Mercury has a nighttime temperature of and maximum daytime temperatures of .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Discoveries", "target_page_ids": [ 13069246, 13256, 36563, 864017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 64 ], [ 89, 95 ], [ 110, 124 ], [ 147, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Planning for MESSENGER, a spacecraft that surveyed Mercury until 2015, relied extensively on data and information collected by Mariner 10.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Discoveries", "target_page_ids": [ 451839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1975, the US Post Office issued a commemorative stamp featuring the Mariner 10 space probe. The 10-cent Mariner 10 commemorative stamp was issued on 4 April 1975, at Pasadena, California.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Mariner 10 Commemoration", "target_page_ids": [ 27358495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the backup spacecraft was never launched, it was put on exhibition at the National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Mariner 10 Commemoration", "target_page_ids": [ 221550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1973 in spaceflight", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9186300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Exploration of Mercury", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9125179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of missions to Venus", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38117880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 58955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Voyage of Mariner 10: Mission to Venus and Mercury (NASA SP-424) 1978 Entire book about Mariner 10, with all pictures and diagrams, on-line. Scroll down to click on the \"Table of Contents\" link. PDF version", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mariner 10, NASA's 1973–75 Venus/Mercury Mission", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mariner 10 image archive", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mariner 10 mission bulletins", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mariner 10 Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Calibrated images from the Mariner 10 mission to Mercury and Venus", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Master Catalog entry for Mariner 10 at the National Space Science Data Center", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 5296529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Boeing: History – Products – Boeing Mariner 10 Spacecraft", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Mariner_program", "Missions_to_Mercury", "Missions_to_Venus", "Derelict_space_probes", "Derelict_satellites_in_heliocentric_orbit", "1973_in_spaceflight", "Spacecraft_launched_by_Atlas-Centaur_rockets", "Spacecraft_launched_in_1973" ]

[ "Mariner 73-2", "Mariner 73J", "Mariner Venus Mercury 1973" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Mariner 1, built to conduct the first American planetary flyby of Venus, was the first spacecraft of NASA's interplanetary Mariner program. Developed by Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and originally planned to be a purpose-built probe launched summer 1962, Mariner 1's design was changed when the Centaur proved unavailable at that early date. Mariner 1 (and its sibling spacecraft, Mariner 2), were then adapted from the lighter Ranger lunar spacecraft. Mariner 1 carried a suite of experiments to determine the temperature of Venus as well to measure magnetic fields and charged particles near the planet and in interplanetary space.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12903521, 32745, 18426568, 20174, 16459, 79533, 38780, 99050, 36563, 352541, 1352320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 62 ], [ 66, 71 ], [ 101, 105 ], [ 123, 138 ], [ 153, 178 ], [ 293, 300 ], [ 379, 388 ], [ 426, 432 ], [ 549, 564 ], [ 569, 585 ], [ 610, 630 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner 1 was launched by an Atlas-Agena rocket from Cape Canaveral's Pad 12 on 22 July 1962. Shortly after liftoff, errors in communication between the rocket and its ground-based guidance systems caused the rocket to veer off course, and it had to be destroyed by range safety. The errors were soon traced to the omission of a hyphen-shaped symbol from one of the guidance program characters. Science-fiction author Arthur C. Clarke described the error as \"the most expensive hyphen in history\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6647658, 21874014, 165096, 319341, 16537446, 18598148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 40 ], [ 53, 76 ], [ 108, 115 ], [ 181, 197 ], [ 266, 278 ], [ 418, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the advent of the Cold War, the two then-superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, both initiated ambitious space programs with the intent of demonstrating military, technological, and political dominance. The Soviets launched the Sputnik 1, the first Earth orbiting satellite, on 4 October 1957. The Americans followed suit with Explorer 1 on 1 February 1958, by which point the Soviets had already launched the first orbiting animal, Laika in Sputnik 2. Earth's orbit having been reached, focus turned to being the first to the Moon. The Pioneer program of satellites consisted of three unsuccessful lunar attempts in 1958. In early 1959, the Soviet Luna 1 was the first probe to fly by the Moon, followed by Luna 2, the first artificial object to impact the Moon.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 325329, 61398, 26779, 28484, 61536, 18739, 81978, 25040, 81992, 81993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 31 ], [ 46, 56 ], [ 85, 97 ], [ 247, 256 ], [ 346, 356 ], [ 452, 457 ], [ 461, 470 ], [ 556, 571 ], [ 668, 674 ], [ 727, 733 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the Moon achieved, the superpowers turned their eyes to the planets. As the closest planet to Earth, Venus presented an appealing interplanetary spaceflight target. Every 19 months, Venus and the Earth reach relative positions in their orbits around the Sun such that a minimum of fuel is required to travel from one planet to the other via a Hohmann Transfer Orbit. These opportunities mark the best time to launch exploratory spacecraft, requiring the least fuel to make the trip.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 32745, 155760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 111 ], [ 348, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first such opportunity of the Space Race occurred in late 1957, before either superpower had the technology to take advantage of it. The second opportunity, around June 1959, lay just within the edge of technological feasibility, and U.S. Air Force contractor Space Technology Laboratory (STL) intended to take advantage of it. A plan drafted January 1959 involved two spacecraft evolved from the first Pioneer probes, one to be launched via Thor-Able rocket, the other via the yet-untested Atlas-Able. STL was unable to complete the probes before June, and the launch window was missed. The Thor-Able probe was repurposed as the deep space explorer Pioneer 5, which was launched 11 March 1960 and designed to maintain communications with Earth up to a distance of as it traveled toward the orbit of Venus. (The Atlas Able probe concept was repurposed as the unsuccessful Pioneer Atlas Moon probes.) No American missions were sent during the early 1961 opportunity. The Soviet Union launched Venera 1 on 12 February 1961 and on 19–20 May became the first probe to fly by Venus; however, it had stopped transmitting on 26 February.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 32090, 259165, 1202681, 21350021, 155759, 376851, 2888489, 82252, 61164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 252 ], [ 264, 291 ], [ 446, 455 ], [ 495, 505 ], [ 566, 579 ], [ 654, 663 ], [ 877, 890 ], [ 997, 1005 ], [ 1107, 1119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For the summer 1962 launch opportunity, NASA contracted Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in July 1960 to develop \"Mariner A\", a spacecraft to be launched using the yet undeveloped Atlas-Centaur. By August 1961, it had become clear that the Centaur would not be ready in time. JPL proposed to NASA that the mission might be accomplished with a lighter spacecraft using the less powerful but operational Atlas-Agena. A hybrid of Mariner A and JPL's Block 1 Ranger lunar explorer, already under development, was suggested. NASA accepted the proposal, and JPL began an 11-month crash program to develop \"Mariner R\" (so named because it was a Ranger derivative). Mariner 1 was the first Mariner R to be launched.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 16459, 1431069, 79533, 6647658, 99050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 81 ], [ 181, 194 ], [ 241, 248 ], [ 403, 414 ], [ 456, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three Mariner R spacecraft were built: two for launching and one to run tests, which was also to be used as a spare. Aside from its scientific capabilities, Mariner also had to transmit data back to Earth from a distance of more than , and to survive solar radiation twice as intense as that encountered in Earth orbit.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All three of the Mariner R spacecraft, including Mariner 1, weighed within of the design weight of , of which was devoted to non-experimental systems: maneuvering systems, fuel, and communications equipment for receiving commands and transmitting data. Once fully deployed in space, with its two solar panel \"wings\" extended, Mariner R was in height and across. The main body of the craft was hexagonal with six separate cases of electronic and electromechanical equipment:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Two of the cases comprised the power system: switchgear that regulated and transmitted power from the 9800 solar cells to the rechargeable 1000 watt silver-zinc storage battery. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 1561900, 2352910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 55 ], [ 107, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two more included the radio receiver, the three-watt transmitter, and control systems for Mariner's experiments. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 491851, 21347693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 36 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fifth case held electronics for digitizing the analog data received by the experiments for transmission. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 30889569, 993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 46 ], [ 51, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sixth case carried the three gyroscopes that determined Mariner's orientation in space. It also held the central computer and sequencer, the \"brain\" of the spacecraft that coordinated all of its activities pursuant to code in its memory banks and on a schedule maintained by an electronic clock tuned into equipment on Earth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 44125, 12232712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 42 ], [ 234, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the rear of the spacecraft, a monopropellant (anhydrous hydrazine) 225 N rocket motor was mounted for course corrections. A nitrogen gas fueled stabilizing system of ten jet nozzles controlled by the onboard gyroscopes, Sun sensors, and Earth sensors, kept Mariner properly oriented to receive and transmit data to Earth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 175603, 69955, 72540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 47 ], [ 59, 68 ], [ 74, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The primary high gain parabolic antenna was also mounted on the underside of Mariner and kept pointed toward the Earth. An omnidirectional antenna atop the spacecraft would broadcast at times that the spacecraft was rolling or tumbling out of its proper orientation, to maintain contact with Earth; as an unfocused antenna, its signal would be much weaker than the primary. Mariner also mounted small antennas on each of the wings to receive commands from ground stations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 342371, 342372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 21 ], [ 123, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Temperature control was both passive, involving insulated, and highly reflective components; and active, incorporating louvers to protect the case carrying the onboard computer. At the time the first Mariners were built, no test chamber existed to simulate the near-Venus solar environment, so the efficacy of these cooling techniques could not be tested until the live mission.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 1804871, 25644116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 125 ], [ 224, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the time of the Mariner project's inception, few of Venus' characteristics were definitely known. Its opaque atmosphere precluded telescopic study of the ground. It was unknown whether there was water beneath the clouds, though a small amount of water vapor above them had been detected. The planet's rotation rate was uncertain, though JPL scientists had concluded through radar observation that Venus rotated very slowly compared to the Earth, advancing the long-standing (but later disproven) hypothesis that the planet was tidally locked with respect to the Sun (as the Moon is with respect to the Earth). No oxygen had been detected in Venus' atmosphere, suggesting that life as existed on Earth was not present. It had been determined that Venus' atmosphere contained at least 500 times as much carbon dioxide as the Earth's. These comparatively high levels suggested that the planet might be subject to a runaway greenhouse effect with surface temperatures as high as , but this had not yet been conclusively determined.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 6410946, 7070301, 89547, 813086, 25676, 60162, 5906, 12395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 122 ], [ 133, 143 ], [ 249, 260 ], [ 304, 317 ], [ 377, 382 ], [ 530, 544 ], [ 804, 818 ], [ 923, 940 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mariner spacecraft would be able to verify this hypothesis by measuring the temperature of Venus close-up; at the same time, the spacecraft could determine if there was a significant disparity between night and daytime temperatures. An on-board magnetometer and suite of charged particle detectors could determine if Venus possessed an appreciable magnetic field and an analog to Earth's Van Allen Belts.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 83060, 59953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 261 ], [ 392, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the Mariner spacecraft would spend most of its journey to Venus in interplanetary space, the mission also offered an opportunity for long-term measurement of the solar wind of charged particles and to map the variations in the Sun's magnetosphere. The concentration of cosmic dust beyond the vicinity of Earth could be explored as well.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 28538, 20479, 2178570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 175 ], [ 236, 249 ], [ 272, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Experiments for the measurement of Venus and interplanetary space included:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A crystal microphone for measurement of the density of cosmic dust, mounted on the central frame.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 65886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A proton detector for counting low-energy protons in the solar wind, also mounted on the central frame.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 23317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two Geiger-Müller (GM) tubes and an ion chamber, for measuring high-energy charged particles in interplanetary space and in the Venusian equivalent of Earth's Van Allen Belts (which were later shown not to exist). These were mounted on Mariner's long axis to avoid the magnetic fields of the control equipment as well as secondary radiation caused by cosmic rays hitting the metal structure of the spacecraft. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 82245, 1464117, 47687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 28 ], [ 36, 47 ], [ 351, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An Anton special-purpose GM tube, for measuring lower energy radiation, particularly near Venus, also mounted away from the central frame.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A three-axis fluxgate magnetometer for measuring the Sun's and Venus' magnetic fields, also mounted away from the central frame.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 18402950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A microwave radiometer, a diameter, deep, parabolic antenna designed to scan Venus up and down at two microwave wavelengths (19mm and 13.5mm), slowing down and reversing when it found a hot spot. The 19mm wavelength was for measuring the temperature of the planet's surface while the 13.5mm wavelength measured the temperature of Venus' cloudtops. The instrument was mounted just above the central frame.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 839718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two infrared optical sensors for parallel measurement of the temperature of Venus, one at 8 to 9 microns, the other at 10-10.8 microns, also mounted above the central frame.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 15022, 20627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 97, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Not included on any of the Mariner R spacecraft was a camera for visual photos. With payload space at a premium, project scientists considered a camera an unneeded luxury, unable to return useful scientific results. Carl Sagan, one of the Mariner R scientists, unsuccessfully fought for their inclusion, noting that not only might there be breaks in Venus' cloud layer, but \"that cameras could also answer questions that we were way too dumb to even pose\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 6824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The launch window for Mariner, constrained both by the orbital relationship of Earth and Venus and the limitations of the Atlas Agena, was determined to fall in the 51 day period between from July 22 through September 10. The Mariner flight plan was such that the two operational spacecraft would be launched toward Venus in a 30-day period within this window, taking slightly differing paths such that they both arrived at the target planet within nine days of each other, between the 8th and 16 December. Only Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 12 was available for the launching of Atlas-Agena rockets, and it took 24 days to ready an Atlas-Agena for launch. This meant that there was only a 27 day margin for error for a two-launch schedule.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Each Mariner would be launched into a parking orbit, whereupon the restartable Agena would fire a second time, sending Mariner on its way to Venus (errors in trajectory would be corrected by a mid-course burn of Mariner's onboard engines). Real-time radar tracking of the Mariner spacecraft while it was in parking orbit and upon its departure the Atlantic Missile Range would provide real-time radar tracking with stations at Ascension and Pretoria, while Palomar Observatory provided optical tracking. Deep space support was provided by three tracking and communications stations at Goldstone, California, Woomera, Australia, and Johannesburg, South Africa, each separated on the globe by around 120° for continuous coverage.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Spacecraft", "target_page_ids": [ 11962478, 200115, 11962478, 6555059, 18962604, 25002, 392143, 520739, 40468250, 4079196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 51 ], [ 158, 168 ], [ 307, 320 ], [ 348, 370 ], [ 427, 436 ], [ 441, 449 ], [ 457, 476 ], [ 585, 606 ], [ 608, 626 ], [ 632, 658 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The launch of Mariner 1 was scheduled for the early morning of 21 July 1962. Several delays caused by trouble in the range safety command system delayed the beginning of the countdown until 11:33p.m. EST the night before. At 2:20a.m., just 79 minutes before launch, a blown fuse in the range safety circuits caused the launch to be canceled. Countdown was reset that night and proceeded, with several holds, planned and unplanned, from 11:08p.m., through the early morning of the next day.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Launch failure", "target_page_ids": [ 16537446, 462524, 496028, 683342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 129 ], [ 174, 183 ], [ 200, 203 ], [ 274, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At 9:21:23a.m. on 22 July 1962, Mariner 1's Atlas-Agena lifted off from Pad 12. Soon after launch, the booster began drifting northeast of its planned trajectory. Corrective steering commands were sent to the rocket, but the Atlas-Agena instead proceeded further off course, imperiling North Atlantic Ocean shipping and/or inhabited areas in the event of a rocket crash. At 9:26:16a.m., just six seconds before the Agena second stage was scheduled to separate from the Atlas, at which point destruction of the rocket would be impossible, a range safety officer ordered the rocket to self-destruct, which it did.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Launch failure", "target_page_ids": [ 698, 16537446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 286, 306 ], [ 540, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of the gradual rather than sharp deviation from its course, JPL engineers suspected the fault lay in the flight equations loaded into the computer that guided Atlas-Agena from the ground during its ascent. After five days of post-flight analysis, JPL engineers determined what had caused the malfunction on Mariner 1: an error in the guidance computer logic combined with a hardware failure.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Launch failure", "target_page_ids": [ 101396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The hand-written guidance equations contained the symbol \"R\" (for \"radius\"). This \"R\" should have had a line over it (\"R-bar\" or R̄), denoting smoothing or averaging of the track data coming from an earlier calculation. But the bar was missing, and so the computer program based on those equations was incorrect. This was not an error in programming, but an error in the specification.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Launch failure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During its ascent, Mariner 1's booster briefly lost guidance-lock with the ground. Because this was a fairly common occurrence, the Atlas-Agena was designed to continue on a preprogrammed course until guidance-lock with the ground resumed. When lock was reestablished, however, the faulty guidance logic caused the program to erroneously report that the \"velocity was fluctuating in an erratic and unpredictable manner\", which the program tried to correct for, causing actual erratic behavior, which prompted the range safety officer to destroy the rocket.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Launch failure", "target_page_ids": [ 419667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The incorrect logic had previously been used successfully for Ranger launches; it was the combination of a programming error and a hardware fault which led to Mariner's destruction.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Launch failure", "target_page_ids": [ 99050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The catastrophic effects of a small error \"summed up the whole problem of software reliability\" and contributed to the development of the discipline of software engineering.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Launch failure", "target_page_ids": [ 27010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subsequent popular accounts of the accident often referred to the erroneous character as a \"hyphen\" (describing the missing component of the symbol) rather than an \"R-bar\"; this incorrect mischaracterization was fueled by Arthur C. Clarke's description of the malfunction as \"the most expensive hyphen in history\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Launch failure", "target_page_ids": [ 18598148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 222, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The loss of America's first interplanetary spacecraft constituted an $18.5 million ($ in today's dollars) setback for NASA. The incident underscored the importance of a thorough pre-launch debugging of software as well as a need to engineer programs such that minor errors could not cause catastrophic failures. The procedures implemented as a result served NASA well, ultimately salvaging the Project Apollo Moon landings; though there were program errors in the Lunar Excursion Module software during descent, they did not cause mission failure.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1461, 151932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 394, 408 ], [ 464, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the logic error quickly discovered, no undue delay was necessary. The identical Mariner 2 was already on hand, and a second launch from the same pad was manageable before the end of August. On 27 August 1962, Mariner 1's sister spacecraft was successfully launched, becoming on 14 December 1962 the first spacecraft to return data from the vicinity of Venus.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 38780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of missions to Venus", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38117880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of software bugs", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15098354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NASA's article about the Mariner I", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mariner 1 Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " RISKS Digest detail about the Mariner I failure", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 1533197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Missions_to_Venus", "Mariner_program", "Spacecraft_launched_in_1962", "Satellite_launch_failures", "Spacecraft_launched_by_Atlas-Agena_rockets", "Software_bugs" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Mariner 3 (together with Mariner 4 known as Mariner-Mars 1964) was one of two identical deep-space probes designed and built by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) for NASA's Mariner-Mars 1964 project that were intended to conduct close-up (flyby) scientific observations of the planet Mars and transmit information on interplanetary space and the space surrounding Mars, televised images of the Martian surface and radio occultation data of spacecraft signals as affected by the Martian atmosphere back to Earth.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20175, 16459, 18426568, 13108226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 34 ], [ 132, 157 ], [ 168, 174 ], [ 416, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the launch was initially successful, there was a separation issue and Mariner 3 stopped responding when its batteries ran out of power. It was the third of ten spacecraft within the Mariner program.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 191, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner 2 had been a modified Ranger lunar probe, however Mariner 3 used a new, larger bus with four solar panels, a TV camera, and additional instrumentation. Because of the greater mass, the new Agena D stage would be used instead of the Agena B. Mariner 3 also utilized a new, larger fiberglass payload fairing. Of the two Atlas-Agena pads at Cape Canaveral, LC-13 became available first following the launch of an Air Force Vela satellite in July 1964. Atlas vehicle 289D was erected on the pad on August 17, with the backup Mariner probe and booster (Atlas 288D) erected on LC-12 on September 28.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 38780, 99050, 273403, 273403, 21875860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 30, 48 ], [ 197, 204 ], [ 240, 247 ], [ 362, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner 3 was launched at 2:22 PM EST on November 5, 1964, from Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 13. After an uneventful boost phase, the Agena completed its burn to place the probe on a trajectory towards Mars. One hour after launch, the first telemetry transmissions from Mariner 3 were received, indicating that the scientific instruments were functioning correctly but there was no indication of any solar panel operation. Unsure of the exact problem, ground controllers issued a command to turn off the rate gyros to conserve power while they worked to figure out what had happened. Telemetry data suggested a separation failure of either the Agena or the payload fairing, but a below-normal velocity appeared to indicate that the fairing had not separated properly. A command was sent to manually jettison the payload shroud, but nothing happened. The ground controllers next considered firing Mariner 3's midcourse correction engine to blow off the shroud, but they ran out of time. Eight hours after launch, the batteries in the probe died and the mission was officially terminated. Even if the shroud could be removed, the mission probably would have failed anyway since the low velocity meant that Mariner 3 would miss Mars by several million miles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Launch failure", "target_page_ids": [ 306778, 46256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 94 ], [ 258, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three weeks later, on November 28, 1964, Mariner 4 was launched successfully on a 7½-month voyage to Mars.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Launch failure", "target_page_ids": [ 20175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The instruments on Mariner 3 included:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Television camera", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [ 464103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnetometer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [ 83060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Plasma probe", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [ 25916521, 62389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 8, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cosmic ray telescope", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [ 47687, 7070301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 12, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trapped radiation detector", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [ 59953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cosmic ray ionization chamber", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [ 47687, 59611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 12, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cosmic dust detector", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [ 2178570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Exploration of Mars", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 426143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of missions to Mars", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34749440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robotic spacecraft", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 58957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Space exploration", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner 3 Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Space Flight Operations Plan Mariner Mars '64 (PDF)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Missions_to_Mars", "Mariner_program", "Spacecraft_launched_in_1964", "Derelict_satellites_in_heliocentric_orbit", "Derelict_space_probes", "Spacecraft_launched_by_Atlas-Agena_rockets" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Mariner 5 (Mariner Venus 1967) was a spacecraft of the Mariner program that carried a complement of experiments to probe Venus' atmosphere by radio occultation, measure the hydrogen Lyman-alpha (hard ultraviolet) spectrum, and sample the solar particles and magnetic field fluctuations above the planet. Its goals were to measure interplanetary and Venusian magnetic fields, charged particles, plasma, radio refractivity and UV emissions of the Venusian atmosphere.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20174, 32745, 36563, 22915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 70 ], [ 121, 126 ], [ 258, 272 ], [ 296, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner 5 was actually built as a backup to Mariner 4, but after the success of the Mariner 4 mission, it was modified to be used for a Venus flyby mission to take place during the 1967 Venus launch window. Mariner 5 omitted several experiments from Mariner 4, including the TV camera, the ionization chamber/geiger counter, the cosmic ray detector, and the cosmic dust detector. It retained the helium-vector magnetometer, solar plasma probe, and trapped radiation detector from Mariner 4. Unlike Mariner 4, Mariner 5 needed to face away from the Sun to keep its high-gain antenna pointed at Earth because of its trajectory. As a result, the solar panels were reversed to be aft facing so they could remain pointed at the Sun. Additionally, since its mission to Venus brought it in closer proximity to the Sun, less solar cells were needed to achieve the necessary power generation and as a result the solar panels were reduced in size to save mass as well as to make room for two 50 MHz dual-frequency receiver (DFR) antennas that were mounted on the frame of two of the solar panels. Since the aft side of the spacecraft faced the Sun, the solar plasma probe was relocated to the aft-facing side of Mariner 5.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 20175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mounting for the high-gain antenna also needed modification. Unlike Mariner 4, where the geometry of the transfer orbit allowed for the high-gain antenna to be inclined at a relatively simple 38 degrees from the bottom plane, Mariner 5's trajectory required the high-gain antenna to be skewed at a more awkward angle. The high-gain antenna also included a single-use mechanism that allowed the high-gain antenna to make a shift in its angle as part of the radio occultation experiment. Mariner 5 also included some additional equipment that was not flown on Mariner 4, such as its Ultraviolet Photometer, two 50 MHz DFR antennas, a 423 MHz DFR antenna mounted on the end of one of the solar panels, and a deployable Sun-shade on the aft of the spacecraft for thermal control. The UV Photometer was originally supposed to fly on Mariner 4 and would have been mounted to its TV Camera scan platform. However, it was removed (allowing it to be flown on Mariner 5) and swapped out for a thermal/inertial mass simulator late in the assembly of Mariner 4 as it was discovered to create electrical arcing problems that would have jeopardized the TV Camera.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to the choice of Venus as the target proposals had been made to send it to either the comet 7P/Pons–Winnecke or 10P/Tempel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5462368, 3853170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 114 ], [ 118, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Liftoff took place on June 14, 1967, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 12 on Atlas vehicle 5401. Booster performance was normal through the Atlas portion of the launch and the first Agena burn, with all systems operating at the proper level. During the second Agena burn, abnormal fluctuations in the engine chamber pressure occurred, however they did not preclude successful interplanetary injection. There had been several occurrences of this behavior on previous NASA and Air Force launches and a program was initiated to correct it which led to a redesign of the Agena turbopump gearbox. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Launch", "target_page_ids": [ 306778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner 5 flew by Venus on October 19 1967 at an altitude of . With more sensitive instruments than its predecessor Mariner 2, Mariner 5 was able to shed new light on the hot, cloud-covered planet and on conditions in interplanetary space.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Venus Flyby", "target_page_ids": [ 38780, 47515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 127 ], [ 178, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Radio occultation data from Mariner 5 helped to understand the temperature and pressure data returned by the Venera 4 lander, which arrived at Venus shortly before it. The Venera 4 and Mariner 5 data was subsequently analysed together under a combined Soviet–American working group of COSPAR in 1969, an organization of early space cooperation. With the data of these missions, it was clear that Venus had a very hot surface and an atmosphere even denser than expected.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Venus Flyby", "target_page_ids": [ 1324835, 1612994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 117 ], [ 285, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The operations of Mariner 5 ended in November 1967 and it is now defunct in a heliocentric orbit.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Venus Flyby", "target_page_ids": [ 2145009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Further communication attempts were tried, in a joint spacecraft solar wind / solar magnetic fields investigation with Mariner 4, back in communication with Earth after being out of telemetry for about a year or more around superior conjunction. During the experiment, both spacecraft were going to be on the same idealized magnetic field spiral carried out from the sun by the solar wind.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further communication attempts", "target_page_ids": [ 20175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between April and November 1968 NASA tried to reacquire Mariner 5 to continue probing interplanetary conditions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further communication attempts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Attempts to reacquire Mariner 5 during June, July, and early August 1968 yielded no spacecraft signal.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further communication attempts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On October 14, the receiver operator at DSS 14 obtained a lock on the Mariner 5 signal. A carrier wave was detected, but outside expected frequency limits and varying in wavelength. Signal strength changes indicated the spacecraft was in a slow roll. Nevertheless, it was possible to lock the spacecraft to an uplink signal, but no response was observed to any commands sent to it. Without telemetry and without any signal change in response to commands, there was no possibility to repair or continue to use the spacecraft. Operations were terminated at the end of the track from DSS 61 at 07:46 GMT on November 5, 1968.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further communication attempts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two-Frequency Beacon Receiver", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " S-Band Occultation", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Helium Magnetometer", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ultraviolet Photometer ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Interplanetary Ion Plasma Probe for E/Q of 40 to 9400 Volts", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Celestial Mechanics", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Trapped Radiation Detector", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Instruments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " List of missions to Venus", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38117880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner 5 Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mariner Venus 1967 Final Project Report", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Mariner 5 flight path and its determination from tracking data", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Derelict_satellites_in_heliocentric_orbit", "Mariner_program", "Missions_to_Venus", "Spacecraft_launched_in_1967", "Derelict_space_probes" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Mariner-H (Mariner Mars '71), also commonly known as Mariner 8, was (along with Mariner 9) part of the Mariner Mars '71 project. It was intended to go into Mars orbit and return images and data, but a launch vehicle failure prevented Mariner 8 from achieving Earth orbit and the spacecraft reentered into the Atlantic Ocean shortly after launch.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37449, 47568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 89 ], [ 259, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner 8 was launched on an Atlas-Centaur SLV-3C booster (AC-24). The main Centaur engine was ignited 265 seconds after launch, but the upper stage began to oscillate in pitch and tumbled out of control. The Centaur stage shut down 365 seconds after launch due to starvation caused by the tumbling. The Centaur and spacecraft payload separated and re-entered the Earth's atmosphere approximately 1500km downrange and fell into the Atlantic Ocean about 560km north of Puerto Rico.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mission", "target_page_ids": [ 1431069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A guidance system failure was suspected as the culprit, but JPL navigation chief Bill O'Neil dismissed the idea that the entire guidance system had failed. He argued that an autopilot malfunction had occurred since the event had occurred at the exact moment when the system was supposed to activate. Investigation proceeded quickly and the problem was soon discovered to be the result of a malfunction in the pitch rate gyro amplifier. A diode intended to protect the system from transient voltages was thought to have been damaged during repairs/installation of the pitch amplifier's printed circuit board, something that would not have been detected through bench tests.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mission", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", Mariner 8 is the most recent US planetary probe to be lost in a launch vehicle malfunction.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mission", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Mariner Mars 71 project consisted of two spacecraft (Mariners H and I), each of which would be inserted into a Martian orbit, and each of which would perform a separate but complementary mission. Either spacecraft could perform either of the two missions. The two spacecraft would have orbited the planet Mars a minimum of 90 days, during which time data would be gathered on the composition, density, pressure, and temperature of the atmosphere, and the composition, temperature, and topography of the surface. Approximately 70 percent of the planetary surface was to be covered, and temporal as well as spatial variations would be observed. Some of the objectives of the Mariner-H mission were successfully added to the Mariner-I (Mariner 9) mission profile.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mariner Mars 71 Project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Total research, development, launch, and support costs for the Mariner series of spacecraft (Mariners 1 through 10) was approximately $554 million.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mariner Mars 71 Project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Mariner 8 spacecraft was built on an octagonal magnesium frame, 45.7cm deep and 138.4cm across a diagonal. Four solar panels, each 215 x 90cm, extended out from the top of the frame. Each set of two solar panels spanned 6.89 meters from tip to tip. Also mounted on the top of the frame were two propulsion tanks, the maneuver engine, a 1.44 m long low gain antenna mast and a parabolic high gain antenna. A scan platform was mounted on the bottom of the frame, on which were attached the mutually bore-sighted science instruments (wide- and narrow-angle TV cameras, infrared radiometer, ultraviolet spectrometer, and infrared interferometer spectrometer). The overall height of the spacecraft was 2.28 m. The launch mass was 997.9kg, of which 439.1kg were expendables. The science instrumentation had a total mass of 63.1kg. The electronics for communications and command and control were housed within the frame.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spacecraft and subsystems", "target_page_ids": [ 18909, 15677755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 60 ], [ 116, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spacecraft power was provided by a total of 14,742 solar cells which made up the 4 solar panels with a total area of 7.7 square meters area. The solar panels could produce 800 W at Earth and 500 W at Mars. Power was stored in a 20 ampere hour nickel-cadmium battery. Propulsion was provided by a gimbaled engine capable of 1340 N thrust and up to 5 restarts. The propellant was monomethyl hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide. Two sets of 6 attitude control nitrogen jets were mounted on the ends of the solar panels. Attitude knowledge was provided by a Sun sensor, a Canopus star tracker, gyroscopes, an inertial reference unit, and an accelerometer. Passive thermal control was achieved through the use of louvres on the eight sides of the frame and thermal blankets.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spacecraft and subsystems", "target_page_ids": [ 2352910, 4253054, 186614, 21175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 61 ], [ 231, 242 ], [ 243, 265 ], [ 454, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spacecraft control was through the central computer and sequencer which had an onboard memory of 512 words. The command system was programmed with 86 direct commands, 4 quantitative commands, and 5 control commands. Data was stored on a digital reel-to-reel tape recorder. The 168 meter 8-track tape could store 180 million bits recorded at 132 kbit/s. Playback could be done at 16, 8, 4, 2, and 1 kbit/s using two tracks at a time. Telecommunications were via dual S-band 10 W/20 W transmitters and a single receiver through the high gain parabolic antenna, the medium gain horn antenna, or the low gain omnidirectional antenna.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spacecraft and subsystems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Exploration of Mars", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 426143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of missions to Mars", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34749440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Space exploration", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 58955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Unmanned space missions", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 58957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mariner 8 Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mariner", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Programme Mariner", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Mariner_program", "Missions_to_Mars", "Satellite_launch_failures", "Spacecraft_launched_by_Atlas-Centaur_rockets", "Spacecraft_which_reentered_in_1971", "Spacecraft_launched_in_1971" ]

[ "Mariner Mars '71" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Hunting is the human practice of seeking, pursuing and capturing or killing wildlife or feral animals. The most common reasons for humans to hunt are to harvest food (i.e. meat) and useful animal products (fur/hide, bone/tusks, horn/antler, etc.), for recreation/taxidermy (see trophy hunting), to remove predators dangerous to humans or domestic animals (e.g. wolf hunting), to eliminate pests and nuisance animals that damage crops/livestock/poultry or spread diseases (see varminting), for trade/tourism (see safari), or for ecological conservation against overpopulation and invasive species.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 563299, 144219, 304917, 10646, 18940, 4730949, 19009006, 575495, 4099, 272999, 1243767, 57500, 25381, 179240, 1913249, 57559, 209203, 2246190, 855297, 209236, 10536491, 7500259, 25160767, 23197, 34439, 2900955, 185166, 216216, 20041526, 67554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 29 ], [ 76, 84 ], [ 88, 100 ], [ 161, 165 ], [ 172, 176 ], [ 189, 203 ], [ 206, 209 ], [ 210, 214 ], [ 216, 220 ], [ 221, 225 ], [ 228, 232 ], [ 233, 239 ], [ 252, 262 ], [ 263, 272 ], [ 278, 292 ], [ 305, 313 ], [ 338, 353 ], [ 361, 373 ], [ 379, 388 ], [ 389, 393 ], [ 399, 414 ], [ 428, 432 ], [ 434, 443 ], [ 444, 451 ], [ 455, 470 ], [ 476, 486 ], [ 512, 518 ], [ 528, 551 ], [ 560, 574 ], [ 579, 595 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Recreationally hunted species are generally referred to as the game, and are usually mammals and birds. A person participating in a hunt is a hunter or (less commonly) huntsman; a natural area used for hunting is called a game reserve; and an experienced hunter who helps organize a hunt and/or managing the game reserve is known as a gamekeeper.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 771717, 18838, 3410, 113261, 508017, 30008126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 67 ], [ 85, 91 ], [ 97, 101 ], [ 181, 193 ], [ 223, 235 ], [ 336, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many non-human animals also hunt (see predation) as part of their feeding and parental behaviors, sometimes in quantities exceeding immediate dietary needs. The one that does the hunting is the predator, and the one being hunted is the prey.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 57559, 245407, 12214093, 6854253, 57559, 57559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 47 ], [ 66, 73 ], [ 78, 86 ], [ 108, 155 ], [ 195, 203 ], [ 237, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hunting activities by humans arose in Homo erectus or earlier, in the order of millions of years ago. Hunting has become deeply embedded in various human cultures and was once an important part of the rural economies—classified by economists as part of primary production alongside forestry, agriculture and fishery. Modern regulations (see game law) distinguish lawful hunting activities from illegal poaching, which involves the unauthorized and unregulated killing, trapping or capture of animals.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19554533, 19159508, 212614, 14552, 53912, 627, 307491, 2953112, 52989, 3012923, 6520040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 50 ], [ 149, 162 ], [ 202, 207 ], [ 254, 272 ], [ 283, 291 ], [ 293, 304 ], [ 309, 316 ], [ 343, 351 ], [ 404, 412 ], [ 462, 469 ], [ 471, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apart from food provision, hunting can be a means of population control. Hunting advocates state that regulated hunting can be a necessary component of modern wildlife management, for example to help maintain a healthy proportion of animal populations within an environment's ecological carrying capacity when natural checks such as natural predators are absent or insufficient, or to provide funding for breeding programs and maintenance of natural reserves and conservation parks. However, excessive hunting has also heavily contributed to the endangerment, extirpation and extinction of many animals. Some animal rights and anti-hunting activists regard hunting as a cruel, perverse and unnecessary blood sport. Certain hunting practices, such as canned hunts and ludicrously paid/bribed trophy tours (especially to poor countries), are considered unethical and exploitative even by some hunters.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10646, 26487774, 2603115, 47544, 57559, 1464802, 113261, 100406, 25111839, 20110668, 1231673, 49417, 7116046, 8484097, 683092, 1350606, 3554936, 1602860, 1904366, 260979, 185166, 47981125, 479209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 15 ], [ 53, 71 ], [ 160, 179 ], [ 288, 305 ], [ 334, 350 ], [ 406, 422 ], [ 443, 458 ], [ 464, 481 ], [ 493, 510 ], [ 547, 559 ], [ 561, 572 ], [ 577, 587 ], [ 611, 624 ], [ 629, 641 ], [ 672, 677 ], [ 679, 687 ], [ 704, 715 ], [ 752, 763 ], [ 769, 785 ], [ 786, 792 ], [ 793, 804 ], [ 853, 862 ], [ 867, 879 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marine mammals such as whales and pinnipeds are also targets of hunting, both recreationally and commercially, often with heated controversies regarding the morality, ethics and legality of such practices. The pursuit, harvesting or catch and release of fish and aquatic cephalopods and crustaceans is called fishing, which however is widely accepted and not commonly categorised as a form of hunting, even though it essentially is. It is also not considered hunting to pursue animals without intent to kill them, as in wildlife photography, birdwatching, or scientific-research activities which involve tranquilizing or tagging of animals, although green hunting is still called so. The practices of netting or trapping insects and other arthropods for trophy collection, or the foraging or gathering of plants and mushrooms, are also not regarded as hunting.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 60257, 33777, 60261, 490901, 4699587, 314928, 42726, 40119056, 36581, 3957571, 173575, 6729140, 87233, 50178403, 1890639, 2765297, 23366462, 19827221, 889726, 447986, 210098, 19828134, 20264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 23, 28 ], [ 34, 42 ], [ 233, 250 ], [ 254, 258 ], [ 263, 270 ], [ 271, 281 ], [ 287, 297 ], [ 309, 316 ], [ 521, 541 ], [ 543, 555 ], [ 605, 618 ], [ 622, 629 ], [ 651, 664 ], [ 703, 710 ], [ 714, 722 ], [ 723, 729 ], [ 741, 750 ], [ 756, 773 ], [ 782, 790 ], [ 794, 803 ], [ 807, 812 ], [ 818, 826 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Skillful tracking and acquisition of an elusive target has caused the word hunt to be used in the vernacular as a metaphor for searching and obtaining something, as in \"treasure hunting\", \"bargain hunting\", \"hunting for votes\" and even \"hunting down\" corruption and waste.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3681383, 413746, 20518, 5143861, 256411, 519775, 146764, 3608404, 20646971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 17 ], [ 98, 108 ], [ 114, 122 ], [ 169, 185 ], [ 189, 196 ], [ 208, 225 ], [ 237, 249 ], [ 251, 261 ], [ 266, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The word hunt serves as both a noun (\"the act of chasing game\") and a verb. The noun has been dated to the early 12th century, from the verb hunt. Old English had huntung, huntoþ. The meaning of \"a body of persons associated for the purpose of hunting with a pack of hounds\" is first recorded in the 1570s. \"The act of searching for someone or something\" is from about 1600.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 37495, 37354, 22667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 35 ], [ 70, 74 ], [ 147, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The verb, Old English huntian \"to chase game\" (transitive and intransitive), perhaps developed from hunta \"hunter,\" is related to hentan \"to seize,\" from Proto-Germanic huntojan (the source also of Gothic hinþan \"to seize, capture,\" Old High German hunda \"booty\"), which is of uncertain origin. The general sense of \"search diligently\" (for anything) is first recorded c. 1200.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 43931, 43933, 202353, 18789453, 429487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 57 ], [ 62, 74 ], [ 154, 168 ], [ 198, 204 ], [ 233, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Recreational hunting, also known as trophy hunting, sport hunting or \"sporting\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 1913249, 1913249, 43935749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 51 ], [ 53, 66 ], [ 71, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Big game hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 6065207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Big Five game (lion, elephant, buffalo/bison, African leopard, rhinoceros)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 90016, 14927138, 31694032, 564971, 25651214, 3741743, 60766762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 16, 20 ], [ 22, 30 ], [ 32, 39 ], [ 40, 45 ], [ 47, 62 ], [ 64, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bear hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 14823194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tiger hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 10947320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Caribou hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 10926596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medium/small game hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fox hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 68502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Deer hunting/stalking", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 7810682, 10019167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 14, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Boar hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 14771976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mink hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 39596990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Coon hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 52076724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fowling", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 2530688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Waterfowl hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 4100225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shorebird hunting (snipe, woodcock, curlew, sandpiper, plover)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 204559, 199865, 243831, 243840, 205140, 160710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 20, 25 ], [ 27, 35 ], [ 37, 43 ], [ 45, 54 ], [ 56, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Upland hunting (quail, pheasant, grouse, turkey)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 4350082, 11071948, 45005204, 24253791, 16746696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 17, 22 ], [ 24, 32 ], [ 34, 40 ], [ 42, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pest control/nuisance management", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 855297, 10536491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 14, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Predator culling", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 57559, 2980973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 10, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wolf hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 2246190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jackal coursing", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 26335355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Coyote hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 6710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bobcat hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 171808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Varmint hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 2900955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rabbiting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 1518654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Squirrel hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 2888531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rook shooting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 56917347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Commercial hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Seal hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 1844757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Whaling, dolphin drive, dugong hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 33557, 4205756, 35907398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 23 ], [ 25, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alligator hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 45387558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kangaroo hunting", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 4554427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hunting has a long history. It pre-dates the emergence of Homo sapiens (anatomically modern humans) and may even predate the genus Homo.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 682482, 99645, 38493, 488341 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 71 ], [ 73, 99 ], [ 126, 131 ], [ 132, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The oldest undisputed evidence for hunting dates to the Early Pleistocene, consistent with the emergence and early dispersal of Homo erectus, about 1.7 million years ago (Acheulean).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 24669837, 19554533, 445261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 73 ], [ 128, 140 ], [ 171, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While it is undisputed that Homo erectus were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of Homo erectus from its australopithecine ancestors, including the production of stone tools and eventually the control of fire, is emphasised in the so-called \"hunting hypothesis\" and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 142839, 14205251, 2341373, 1967785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 189 ], [ 210, 225 ], [ 259, 277 ], [ 335, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is no direct evidence for hunting predating Homo erectus, in either Homo habilis or in Australopithecus.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14348, 61534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 86 ], [ 93, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The early hominid ancestors of humans were probably frugivores or omnivores, with a partially carnivore diet from scavenging rather than hunting.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19773811, 605107, 23974535, 482629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ], [ 52, 61 ], [ 66, 74 ], [ 114, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Evidence for australopithecine meat consumption was presented in the 1990s.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It has nevertheless often been assumed that at least occasional hunting behavior may have been present well before the emergence of Homo.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This can be argued on the basis of comparison with chimpanzees, the closest extant relatives of humans, who also engage in hunting, indicating that the behavioral trait may have been present in the Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor as early as 5 million years ago. The common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) regularly engages in troop predation behaviour where bands of beta males are led by an alpha male. Bonobos (Pan paniscus) have also been observed to occasionally engage in group hunting, although more rarely than Pan troglodytes, mainly subsisting on a frugivorous diet.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7844, 24755810, 7844, 1096688, 45286, 45286, 605107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 61 ], [ 198, 235 ], [ 292, 307 ], [ 396, 406 ], [ 408, 414 ], [ 417, 429 ], [ 562, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Indirect evidence for Oldowan era hunting, by early Homo or late Australopithecus, has been presented in a 2009 study based on", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 445567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "an Oldowan site in southwestern Kenya.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Louis Binford (1986) criticised the idea that early hominids and early humans were hunters. On the basis of the analysis of the skeletal remains of the consumed animals, he concluded that hominids and early humans were mostly scavengers, not hunters,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 181541, 482629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 226, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Blumenschine (1986) proposed the idea of confrontational scavenging, which involves challenging and scaring off other predators they have made a kill, which he suggests could have been the leading method of obtaining protein-rich meat by early humans.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 57559, 23634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 126 ], [ 218, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stone spearheads dated as early as 500,000 years ago were found in South Africa. Wood does not preserve well, however, and Craig Stanford, a primatologist and professor of anthropology at the University of Southern California, has suggested that the discovery of spear use by chimpanzees probably means that early humans used wooden spears as well, perhaps, five million years ago.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest dated find of surviving wooden hunting spears dates to the very end of the Lower Paleolithic, just before 300,000 years ago. The Schöningen spears, found in 1976 in Germany, are associated with Homo heidelbergensis.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 29234, 1158798, 18593576, 11867, 442638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 57 ], [ 88, 105 ], [ 142, 159 ], [ 178, 185 ], [ 207, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The hunting hypothesis sees the emergence of behavioral modernity in the Middle Paleolithic as directly related to hunting, including mating behaviour, the establishment of language, culture, and religion, mythology and animal sacrifice. Sociologist David Nibert of Wittenberg University argues that the emergence of the organized hunting of animals undermined the communal, egalitarian nature of early human societies, with the status of women and less powerful males declining as the status of men quickly became associated with their success at hunting, which also increased human violence within these societies. However, 9000-year-old remains of a female hunter along with a toolkit of projectile points and animal processing implements were discovered at the Andean site of Wilamaya Patjxa, Puno District in Peru.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2341373, 569092, 1158720, 357632, 17524, 19011806, 24698694, 183144, 23408764, 102123, 143830, 1354, 11059589, 170691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ], [ 45, 65 ], [ 73, 91 ], [ 134, 150 ], [ 173, 181 ], [ 196, 204 ], [ 206, 215 ], [ 220, 236 ], [ 250, 262 ], [ 266, 287 ], [ 691, 708 ], [ 765, 771 ], [ 797, 810 ], [ 814, 818 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Evidence exists that hunting may have been one of the multiple environmental factors leading to the Holocene extinction of megafauna and their replacement by smaller herbivores.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1342819, 14208, 162780, 44568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 83 ], [ 100, 119 ], [ 123, 132 ], [ 166, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event, possibly making hunting a less critical factor in prehistoric species loss than had been previously thought.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21139, 11338425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 62, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, in other locations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1100954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hunting was a crucial component of hunter-gatherer societies before the domestication of livestock and the dawn of agriculture, beginning about 11,000 years ago in some parts of the world. In addition to the spear, hunting weapons developed during the Upper Paleolithic include the atlatl (a spear-thrower; before 30,000 years ago) and the bow (18,000 years ago). By the Mesolithic, hunting strategies had diversified with the development of these more far-reaching weapons and the domestication of the dog about 15,000 years ago. Evidence puts the earliest known mammoth hunting in Asia with spears to approximately 16,200 years ago.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 142586, 25160767, 639115, 29234, 7911588, 202388, 219810, 20568, 3541975, 5141410, 20162, 29234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 85 ], [ 89, 98 ], [ 107, 126 ], [ 208, 213 ], [ 215, 229 ], [ 282, 288 ], [ 340, 343 ], [ 371, 381 ], [ 383, 401 ], [ 482, 506 ], [ 564, 571 ], [ 593, 599 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many species of animals have been hunted throughout history. One theory is that in North America and Eurasia, caribou and wild reindeer \"may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting\" (see also Reindeer Age), although the varying importance of different species depended on the geographic location.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 20611107, 143912, 1158651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 108 ], [ 110, 135 ], [ 254, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mesolithic hunter-gathering lifestyles remained prevalent in some parts of the Americas, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Siberia, as well as all of Australia, until the European Age of Discovery. They still persist in some tribal societies, albeit in rapid decline. Peoples that preserved Paleolithic hunting-gathering until the recent past include some indigenous peoples of the Amazonas (Aché), some Central and Southern African (San people), some peoples of New Guinea (Fayu), the Mlabri of Thailand and Laos, the Vedda people of Sri Lanka, and a handful of uncontacted peoples. In Africa, one of the last remaining hunter-gatherer tribes are the Hadza of Tanzania.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 20568, 29833, 27067, 29639, 690842, 45413, 8720243, 2032808, 317886, 20611456, 16115435, 3221099, 30128, 17752, 34046, 26750, 1858764, 6618605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 79, 87 ], [ 89, 107 ], [ 113, 120 ], [ 170, 186 ], [ 215, 231 ], [ 346, 380 ], [ 382, 386 ], [ 424, 434 ], [ 453, 463 ], [ 465, 469 ], [ 476, 482 ], [ 486, 494 ], [ 499, 503 ], [ 509, 521 ], [ 525, 534 ], [ 553, 572 ], [ 642, 647 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even as animal domestication became relatively widespread and after the development of agriculture, hunting was usually a significant contributor to the human food supply.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 142586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The supplementary meat and materials from hunting included protein, bone for implements, sinew for cordage, fur, feathers, rawhide and leather used in clothing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23634, 4099, 144865, 334990, 19009006, 50873, 761227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 66 ], [ 68, 72 ], [ 89, 94 ], [ 99, 106 ], [ 108, 111 ], [ 113, 121 ], [ 123, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hunting is still vital in marginal climates, especially those unsuited for pastoral uses or agriculture. For example, Inuit in the Arctic trap and hunt animals for clothing and use the skins of sea mammals to make kayaks, clothing, and footwear.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 204406, 15704166, 36971, 60257, 17383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 83 ], [ 118, 123 ], [ 131, 137 ], [ 194, 205 ], [ 214, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On ancient reliefs, especially from Mesopotamia, kings are often depicted as hunters of big game such as lions and are often portrayed hunting from a war chariot. The cultural and psychological importance of hunting in ancient societies is represented by deities such as the horned god Cernunnos and lunar goddesses of classical antiquity, the Greek Artemis or Roman Diana. Taboos are often related to hunting, and mythological association of prey species with a divinity could be reflected in hunting restrictions such as a reserve surrounding a temple. Euripides' tale of Artemis and Actaeon, for example, may be seen as a caution against disrespect of prey or impudent boasting.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 545811, 20189, 6065207, 45748, 22921, 14318, 7811, 91097, 252905, 2905, 8391, 61117, 8363, 113261, 9808, 1213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 36, 47 ], [ 88, 96 ], [ 150, 161 ], [ 180, 193 ], [ 271, 285 ], [ 286, 295 ], [ 300, 315 ], [ 319, 338 ], [ 350, 357 ], [ 367, 372 ], [ 374, 379 ], [ 463, 471 ], [ 525, 532 ], [ 555, 564 ], [ 586, 593 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the domestication of the dog, birds of prey, and the ferret, various forms of animal-aided hunting developed, including venery (scent hound hunting, such as fox hunting), coursing (sight hound hunting), falconry, and ferreting. While these are all associated with medieval hunting, over time, various dog breeds were selected for very precise tasks during the hunt, reflected in such names as pointer and setter.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 54445, 142867, 1858609, 176732, 68502, 845038, 29163, 169696, 142867, 1858609, 79676, 571970, 765888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 48 ], [ 58, 64 ], [ 125, 131 ], [ 133, 144 ], [ 162, 173 ], [ 176, 184 ], [ 186, 197 ], [ 208, 216 ], [ 222, 231 ], [ 269, 285 ], [ 306, 315 ], [ 398, 405 ], [ 410, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even as agriculture and animal husbandry became more prevalent, hunting often remained as a part of human culture where the environment and social conditions allowed. Hunter-gatherer societies persisted, even when increasingly confined to marginal areas. And within agricultural systems, hunting served to kill animals that prey upon domestic and wild animals or to attempt to extirpate animals seen by humans as competition for resources such as water or forage.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 219640, 209203, 1231673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 40 ], [ 334, 359 ], [ 377, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When hunting moved from a subsistence activity to a selective one, two trends emerged:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the development of the role of the specialist hunter, with special training and equipment", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the option of hunting as a \"sport\" for members of an upper social class", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The meaning of the word game in Middle English evolved to include an animal which is hunted. As the domestication of animals for meat grew, subsistence hunting remained among the lowest classes; however, the stylised pursuit of game in European societies became a luxury. Dangerous hunting, such as for lions or wild boars, often done on horseback or from a chariot, had a function similar to tournaments and manly sports. Hunting ranked as an honourable, somewhat competitive pastime to help the aristocracy practice skills of war in times of peace.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 50711, 52255, 74700, 45748, 435800, 37671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 46 ], [ 312, 321 ], [ 338, 347 ], [ 358, 365 ], [ 393, 404 ], [ 497, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In most parts of medieval Europe, the upper class obtained the sole rights to hunt in certain areas of a feudal territory. Game in these areas was used as a source of food and furs, often provided via professional huntsmen, but it was also expected to provide a form of recreation for the aristocracy. The importance of this proprietary view of game can be seen in the Robin Hood legends, in which one of the primary charges against the outlaws is that they \"hunt the King's deer\". In contrast, settlers in Anglophone colonies gloried democratically in hunting for all.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18836, 26171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 25 ], [ 369, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In medieval Europe, hunting was considered by Johannes Scotus Eriugena to be part of the set of seven mechanical arts.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1082384, 863862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 70 ], [ 96, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although various other animals have been used to aid the hunter, such as ferrets, the dog has assumed many very important uses to the hunter.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 142867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The domestication of the dog has led to a symbiotic relationship in which the dog's independence from humans is deferred. Though dogs can survive independently of humans, and in many cases do ferrally, when raised or adopted by humans the species tends to defer to its control in exchange for habitation, food and support.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dogs today are used to find, chase, retrieve, and sometimes kill game. Dogs allow humans to pursue and kill prey that would otherwise be very difficult or dangerous to hunt. Different breeds of specifically bred hunting dog are used for different types of hunting. Waterfowl are commonly hunted using retrieving dogs such as the Labrador Retriever, the Golden Retriever, the Chesapeake Bay Retriever, the Brittany Spaniel, and other similar breeds. Game birds are flushed out using flushing spaniels such as the English Springer Spaniel, the various Cocker Spaniels and similar breeds.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 491841, 79280, 21022536, 203745, 772703, 5093042, 519903, 375409, 435295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 212, 223 ], [ 329, 347 ], [ 353, 369 ], [ 375, 399 ], [ 405, 421 ], [ 449, 459 ], [ 491, 498 ], [ 512, 536 ], [ 550, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The hunting of wild mammals in England and Wales with dogs was banned under the Hunting Act 2004. The wild mammals include fox, hare, deer and mink. There are, however, exceptions in the Act.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1184986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many prehistoric deities are depicted as predators or prey of humans, often in a zoomorphic form, perhaps alluding to the importance of hunting for most Palaeolithic cultures.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 1049434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many pagan religions, specific rituals are conducted before or after a hunt; the rituals done may vary according to the species hunted or the season the hunt is taking place. Often a hunting ground, or the hunt for one or more species, was reserved or prohibited in the context of a temple cult. In Roman religion, Diana is the goddess of the hunt.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 8391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 318, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hindu scriptures describe hunting as an occupation, as well as a sport of the kingly. Even figures considered divine are described to have engaged in hunting. One of the names of the god Shiva is Mrigavyadha, which translates as \"the deer hunter\" (mriga means deer; vyadha means hunter). The word Mriga, in many Indian languages including Malayalam, not only stands for deer, but for all animals and animal instincts (Mriga Thrishna). Shiva, as Mrigavyadha, is the one who destroys the animal instincts in human beings. In the epic Ramayana, Dasharatha, the father of Rama, is said to have the ability to hunt in the dark. During one of his hunting expeditions, he accidentally killed Shravana, mistaking him for game. During Rama's exile in the forest, Ravana kidnapped his wife, Sita, from their hut, while Rama was asked by Sita to capture a golden deer, and his brother Lakshman went after him. According to the Mahabharat, Pandu, the father of the Pandavas, accidentally killed the sage Kindama and his wife with an arrow, mistaking them for a deer. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 593146, 28849, 44245, 372331, 19377014, 1572553, 100234, 2083870, 236187, 19643, 1109757, 239649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 187, 192 ], [ 532, 540 ], [ 542, 552 ], [ 568, 572 ], [ 685, 693 ], [ 754, 760 ], [ 781, 785 ], [ 874, 882 ], [ 916, 926 ], [ 928, 933 ], [ 953, 961 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jainism teaches followers to have tremendous respect for all of life. Prohibitions for hunting and meat eating are the fundamental conditions for being a Jain.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 16016, 16016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 154, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Buddhism's first precept is the respect for all sentient life. The general approach by all Buddhists is to avoid killing any living animals. Buddha explained the issue by saying \"all fear death; comparing others with oneself, one should neither kill nor cause to kill.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 3267529, 594458, 3395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 17, 24 ], [ 141, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Sikhism, only meat obtained from hunting, or slaughtered with the Jhatka is permitted. The Sikh gurus, especially Guru Hargobind and Guru Gobind Singh were ardent hunters. Many old Sikh Rehatnamas like Prem Sumarag, recommend hunting wild boar and deer. However, among modern Sikhs, the practise of hunting has died down; some even saying that all meat is forbidden.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 27964, 9027421, 2224412, 545789, 518562, 6658030, 52255, 38428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ], [ 69, 75 ], [ 94, 104 ], [ 117, 131 ], [ 136, 153 ], [ 189, 199 ], [ 237, 246 ], [ 251, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From early Christian times, hunting has been forbidden to Roman Catholic Church clerics. Thus the Corpus Juris Canonici (C. ii, X, De cleric. venat.) says, \"We forbid to all servants of God hunting and expeditions through the woods with hounds; and we also forbid them to keep hawks or falcons.\" The Fourth Council of the Lateran, held under Pope Innocent III, decreed (canon xv): \"We interdict hunting or hawking to all clerics.\" The decree of the Council of Trent is worded more mildly: \"Let clerics abstain from illicit hunting and hawking\" (Sess. XXIV, De reform., c. xii), which seems to imply that not all hunting is illicit, and canonists generally make a distinction declaring noisy (clamorosa) hunting unlawful, but not quiet (quieta) hunting.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 14117, 50405, 6518257, 11399, 24455, 6354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 20 ], [ 80, 86 ], [ 98, 119 ], [ 300, 329 ], [ 342, 359 ], [ 449, 465 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ferraris gives it as the general sense of canonists that hunting is allowed to clerics if it be indulged in rarely and for sufficient cause, as necessity, utility or \"honest\" recreation, and with that moderation which is becoming to the ecclesiastical state. Ziegler, however, thinks that the interpretation of the canonists is not in accordance with the letter or spirit of the laws of the church.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nevertheless, although a distinction between lawful and unlawful hunting is undoubtedly permissible, it is certain that a bishop can absolutely prohibit all hunting to the clerics of his diocese, as was done by synods at Milan, Avignon, Liège, Cologne, and elsewhere. Benedict XIV declared that such synodal decrees are not too severe, as an absolute prohibition of hunting is more conformable to the ecclesiastical law. In practice, therefore, the synodal statutes of various localities must be consulted to discover whether they allow quiet hunting or prohibit it altogether.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 75792, 36511, 38166, 28341707, 6187, 24020, 6469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 216 ], [ 221, 226 ], [ 228, 235 ], [ 237, 242 ], [ 244, 251 ], [ 268, 280 ], [ 401, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Jewish law hunting is not forbidden although there is an aversion to it. The great 18th-century authority Rabbi Yechezkel Landau after a study concluded although \"hunting would not be considered cruelty to animals insofar as the animal is generally killed quickly and not tortured... There is an unseemly element in it, namely cruelty.\" The other issue is that hunting can be dangerous and Judaism places an extreme emphasis on the value of human life.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 1276210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Islamic Sharia Law permits hunting of lawful animals and birds if they cannot be easily caught and slaughtered. However, this is only for the purpose of food and not for trophy hunting.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 28840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A safari, from a Swahili word meaning \"a long journey\", especially in Africa, is defined as an overland journey. Safari as a distinctive way of hunting was popularized by the US author Ernest Hemingway and President Theodore Roosevelt. A safari may consist of a several-days—or even weeks-long journey, with camping in the bush or jungle, while pursuing big game. Nowadays, it is often used to describe tours through African national parks to watch or hunt wildlife.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 28450, 9428, 30535, 228012, 3231426, 341265, 771717, 364840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 24 ], [ 185, 201 ], [ 216, 234 ], [ 308, 315 ], [ 319, 327 ], [ 331, 337 ], [ 354, 362 ], [ 425, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hunters are usually tourists, accompanied by licensed and highly regulated professional hunters, local guides, skinners, and porters in more difficult terrains. A special safari type is the solo-safari, where all the license acquiring, stalking, preparation, and outfitting is done by the hunter himself.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 10429922, 153149, 875391, 140936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 53 ], [ 65, 74 ], [ 111, 119 ], [ 125, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the feudal and colonial times in British India, hunting or shikar was regarded as a regal sport in the numerous princely states, as many maharajas and nawabs, as well as British officers, maintained a whole corps of shikaris (big-game hunters), who were native professional hunters. They would be headed by a master of the hunt, who might be styled mir-shikar. Often, they recruited the normally low-ranking local tribes because of their traditional knowledge of the environment and hunting techniques. Big game, such as Bengal tigers, might be hunted from the back of an Indian elephant.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 2614846, 848489, 4208015, 682496, 150061, 517323, 6065207, 3373310, 221151, 5323507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 22, 30 ], [ 40, 53 ], [ 119, 134 ], [ 144, 152 ], [ 158, 163 ], [ 233, 249 ], [ 445, 466 ], [ 528, 541 ], [ 579, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Regional social norms are generally antagonistic to hunting, while a few sects, such as the Bishnoi, lay special emphasis on the conservation of particular species, such as the antelope. India's Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 bans the killing of all wild animals. However, the Chief Wildlife Warden may, if satisfied that any wild animal from a specified list has become dangerous to human life, or is so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery, permit any person to hunt such an animal. In this case, the body of any wild animal killed or wounded becomes government property.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 43851, 26898, 2092716, 48517, 8102335, 2172357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 21 ], [ 73, 77 ], [ 92, 99 ], [ 177, 185 ], [ 195, 226 ], [ 278, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The practice among the soldiers in British India during the 1770s of going out to hunt snipes, a shorebird considered extremely challenging for hunters due to its alertness, camouflaging color and erratic flight behavior, is believed to be the origin of the modern word for sniper, as snipe-hunters needed to be stealthy in addition to having tracking skills and marksmanship. The term was first attested militarily in 1824, and became common usage in the First World War.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 199865, 204559, 28123, 3681383, 646264, 4764461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 92 ], [ 97, 106 ], [ 274, 280 ], [ 343, 351 ], [ 363, 375 ], [ 456, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unarmed fox hunting on horseback with hounds is the type of hunting most closely associated with the United Kingdom; in fact, \"hunting\" without qualification implies fox hunting. What in other countries is called \"hunting\" is called \"shooting\" (birds) or \"stalking\" (deer) in Britain. Originally a form of vermin control to protect livestock, fox hunting became a popular social activity for newly wealthy upper classes in Victorian times and a traditional rural activity for riders and foot followers alike. Similar to fox hunting in many ways is the chasing of hares with hounds. Pairs of sighthounds (or long-dogs), such as greyhounds, may be used to pursue a hare in coursing, where the greyhounds are marked as to their skill in coursing the hare (but are not intended to actually catch it), or the hare may be pursued with scent hounds such as beagles or harriers. Other sorts of foxhounds may also be used for hunting stags (deer) or mink. Deer stalking with rifles is carried out on foot without hounds, using stealth.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 68502, 26555908, 32798, 63031, 29163, 12938, 176732, 4368, 318563, 38428, 1306907, 10019167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 19 ], [ 306, 312 ], [ 423, 438 ], [ 574, 579 ], [ 591, 601 ], [ 627, 636 ], [ 829, 840 ], [ 850, 856 ], [ 886, 894 ], [ 925, 937 ], [ 941, 945 ], [ 947, 960 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These forms of hunting have been controversial in the UK. Animal welfare supporters believe that hunting causes unnecessary suffering to foxes, horses, and hounds. Proponents argue that it is culturally and perhaps economically important. Using dogs to chase wild mammals was made illegal in February 2005 by the Hunting Act 2004; there were a number of exemptions (under which the activity may not be illegal) in the act for hunting with hounds, but no exemptions at all for hare-coursing.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 174438, 3639374, 1184986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 72 ], [ 276, 288 ], [ 313, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Game birds, especially pheasants, are shot with shotguns for sport in the UK; the British Association for Shooting and Conservation says that over a million people per year participate in shooting, including game shooting, clay pigeon shooting, and target shooting.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 59919, 13036399, 2164076, 28498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 31 ], [ 82, 131 ], [ 223, 243 ], [ 249, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shooting as practised in Britain, as opposed to traditional hunting, requires little questing for game—around thirty-five million birds are released onto shooting estates every year, some having been factory farmed. Shoots can be elaborate affairs with guns placed in assigned positions and assistants to help load shotguns. When in position, \"beaters\" move through the areas of cover, swinging sticks or flags to drive the game out. Such events are often called \"drives\". The open season for grouse in the UK begins on 12 August, the so-called Glorious Twelfth. The definition of game in the United Kingdom is governed by the Game Act 1831.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 11469677, 63570, 3581572, 12510800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 214 ], [ 493, 499 ], [ 545, 561 ], [ 627, 640 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A similar tradition, , exists in Spain.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "North American hunting pre-dates the United States by thousands of years and was an important part of many pre-Columbian Native American cultures. Native Americans retain some hunting rights and are exempt from some laws as part of Indian treaties and otherwise under federal law—examples include eagle feather laws and exemptions in the Marine Mammal Protection Act. This is considered particularly important in Alaskan native communities.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 90001, 232687, 5737821, 3550910, 525001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 120 ], [ 268, 279 ], [ 297, 314 ], [ 338, 366 ], [ 413, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hunting is primarily regulated by state law; additional regulations are imposed through United States environmental law in the case of migratory birds and endangered species. Regulations vary widely from state to state and govern the areas, time periods, techniques and methods by which specific game animals may be hunted. Some states make a distinction between protected species and unprotected species (often vermin or varmints for which there are no hunting regulations). Hunters of protected species require a hunting license in all states, for which completion of a hunting safety course is sometimes a prerequisite.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 620724, 1994756, 201943, 20110668, 20110668, 26555908, 26555908, 10429922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 43 ], [ 88, 119 ], [ 135, 150 ], [ 155, 173 ], [ 363, 380 ], [ 412, 418 ], [ 422, 429 ], [ 515, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Typically, game animals are divided into several categories for regulatory purposes. Typical categories, along with example species, are as follows:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Big game: white-tailed deer, mule deer, moose, elk, caribou, bear, bighorn sheep, pronghorn, boar, javelina, bison", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 569459, 651521, 20501, 7549995, 143912, 4400, 525073, 18952649, 52255, 53662, 4583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 28 ], [ 30, 39 ], [ 41, 46 ], [ 48, 51 ], [ 53, 60 ], [ 62, 66 ], [ 68, 81 ], [ 83, 92 ], [ 94, 98 ], [ 100, 108 ], [ 110, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Small game: rabbit, hare, squirrel, opossum, raccoon, porcupine, skunk, ring-tailed cat, armadillo, ruffed grouse", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 26573, 28492, 70674, 18600991, 44668, 79308, 154237, 2186, 327559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 19 ], [ 27, 35 ], [ 37, 44 ], [ 46, 53 ], [ 55, 64 ], [ 66, 71 ], [ 73, 88 ], [ 90, 99 ], [ 101, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Furbearers: beaver, red fox, mink, pine marten, musk rat, otter, bobcat, coyote", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 4399, 20647108, 154920, 572427, 571662, 46916, 171808, 6710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 19 ], [ 21, 28 ], [ 30, 34 ], [ 36, 47 ], [ 49, 57 ], [ 59, 64 ], [ 66, 72 ], [ 74, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Predators: cougar, wolf, coyote", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 78160, 33702, 6710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 18 ], [ 20, 24 ], [ 26, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Upland game bird: grouse, woodcock, chukar, pheasant, quail, dove", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 5093042, 63570, 243831, 444154, 59919, 25302, 63355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 19, 25 ], [ 27, 35 ], [ 37, 43 ], [ 45, 53 ], [ 55, 60 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Waterfowl: duck, teal, merganser, geese, swan", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 204182, 37674, 230935, 260844, 50484, 50952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 16 ], [ 18, 22 ], [ 24, 33 ], [ 35, 40 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hunting big game typically requires a \"tag\" for each animal harvested. Tags must be purchased in addition to the hunting license, and the number of tags issued to an individual is typically limited. In cases where there are more prospective hunters than the quota for that species, tags are usually assigned by lottery. Tags may be further restricted to a specific area, or wildlife management unit. Hunting migratory waterfowl requires a duck stamp from the Fish and Wildlife Service in addition to the appropriate state hunting license.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 4100225, 75289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 400, 427 ], [ 459, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harvest of animals other than big game is typically restricted by a bag limit and a possession limit. A bag limit is the maximum number of a specific animal species that an individual can harvest in a single day. A possession limit is the maximum number of a specific animal species that can be in an individual's possession at any time.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gun usage in hunting is typically regulated by game category, area within the state, and time period. Regulations for big-game hunting often specify a minimum caliber or muzzle energy for firearms. The use of rifles is often banned for safety reasons in areas with high population densities or limited topographic relief. Regulations may also limit or ban the use of lead in ammunition because of environmental concerns. Specific seasons for bow hunting or muzzle-loading black-powder guns are often established to limit competition with hunters using more effective weapons.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 6065207, 175965, 1131674, 11966, 25456, 128608, 586839, 17747, 18940621, 219810, 94124, 12737, 33496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 134 ], [ 159, 166 ], [ 170, 183 ], [ 188, 195 ], [ 209, 214 ], [ 270, 290 ], [ 302, 320 ], [ 367, 371 ], [ 375, 385 ], [ 442, 445 ], [ 457, 471 ], [ 472, 484 ], [ 567, 574 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hunting in the United States is not associated with any particular class or culture; a 2006 poll showed seventy-eight percent of Americans supported legal hunting, although relatively few Americans actually hunt. At the beginning of the 21st century, just six percent of Americans hunted. Southerners in states along the eastern seaboard hunted at a rate of five percent, slightly below the national average, and while hunting was more common in other parts of the South at nine percent, these rates did not surpass those of the Plains states, where twelve percent of Midwesterners hunted. Hunting in other areas of the country fell below the national average. Overall, in the 1996–2006 period, the number of hunters over the age of sixteen declined by ten percent, a drop attributable to a number of factors including habitat loss and changes in recreation habits.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 179553, 104697, 1707053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 289, 300 ], [ 568, 581 ], [ 819, 831 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Regulation of hunting within the United States dates from the 19th century. Some modern hunters see themselves as conservationists and sportsmen in the mode of Theodore Roosevelt and the Boone and Crockett Club. Local hunting clubs and national organizations provide hunter education and help protect the future of the sport by buying land for future hunting use. Some groups represent a specific hunting interest, such as Ducks Unlimited, Pheasants Forever, or the Delta Waterfowl Foundation. Many hunting groups also participate in lobbying the federal government and state government.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 45441, 30535, 3714413, 3375053, 16206100, 5994990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 130 ], [ 160, 178 ], [ 187, 210 ], [ 423, 438 ], [ 440, 457 ], [ 466, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Each year, nearly $200million in hunters' federal excise taxes are distributed to state agencies to support wildlife management programs, the purchase of lands open to hunters, and hunter education and safety classes. Since 1934, the sale of Federal Duck Stamps, a required purchase for migratory waterfowl hunters over sixteen years old, has raised over $700million to help purchase more than of habitat for the National Wildlife Refuge System lands that support waterfowl and many other wildlife species and are often open to hunting. States also collect money from hunting licenses to assist with management of game animals, as designated by law. A key task of federal and state park rangers and game wardens is to enforce laws and regulations related to hunting, including species protection, hunting seasons, and hunting bans.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 507836, 204182, 341948, 499846, 13527766, 16886629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 242, 260 ], [ 297, 306 ], [ 414, 445 ], [ 683, 694 ], [ 700, 711 ], [ 798, 812 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Varmint hunting is an American phrase for the selective killing of non-game animals seen as pests. While not always an efficient form of pest control, varmint hunting achieves selective control of pests while providing recreation and is much less regulated. Varmint species are often responsible for detrimental effects on crops, livestock, landscaping, infrastructure, and pets. Some animals, such as wild rabbits or squirrels, may be utilised for fur or meat, but often no use is made of the carcass. Which species are varmints depends on the circumstance and area. Common varmints may include various rodents, coyotes, crows, foxes, feral cats, and feral hogs. Some animals once considered varmints are now protected, such as wolves. In the US state of Louisiana, a non-native rodent, the coypu, has become so destructive to the local ecosystem that the state has initiated a bounty program to help control the population. Beavers from North America constitute an invasive species in Tierra del Fuego, where eradication attempts are ongoing.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 855297, 374240, 174521, 19337310, 6710, 4917604, 11299, 895672, 2391490, 18130, 67554, 429149, 690592, 32340497, 30482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 149 ], [ 341, 352 ], [ 354, 368 ], [ 604, 610 ], [ 613, 620 ], [ 622, 627 ], [ 629, 632 ], [ 636, 646 ], [ 658, 662 ], [ 756, 765 ], [ 769, 779 ], [ 792, 797 ], [ 879, 885 ], [ 926, 983 ], [ 987, 1003 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The principles of the fair chase have been a part of the American hunting tradition for over one hundred years. The role of the hunter-conservationist, popularised by Theodore Roosevelt, and perpetuated by Roosevelt's formation of the Boone and Crockett Club, has been central to the development of the modern fair chase tradition. Beyond Fair Chase: The Ethic and Tradition of Hunting, a book by Jim Posewitz, describes fair chase:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 47981125, 3714413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 32 ], [ 235, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Fundamental to ethical hunting is the idea of fair chase. This concept addresses the balance between the hunter and the hunted. It is a balance that allows hunters to occasionally succeed while animals generally avoid being taken.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When Internet hunting was introduced in 2005, allowing people to hunt over the Internet using remotely controlled guns, the practice was widely criticised by hunters as violating the principles of fair chase. As a representative of the National Rifle Association of America (NRA) explained, \"The NRA has always maintained that fair chase, being in the field with your firearm or bow, is an important element of hunting tradition. Sitting at your desk in front of your computer, clicking at a mouse, has nothing to do with hunting.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 21613021, 70101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 21 ], [ 236, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One hunting club declares that a fair chase shall not involve the taking of animals under the following conditions:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Helpless in a trap, deep snow or water, or on ice.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " From any power vehicle or power boat.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " By \"jacklighting\" or shining at night.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 651665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " By the use of any tranquilizers or poisons.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " While inside escape-proof fenced enclosures.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " By the use of any power vehicle or power boat for herding or driving animals, including use of aircraft to land alongside or to communicate with or direct a hunter on the ground.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " By the use of electronic devices for attracting, locating or pursuing game or guiding the hunter to such game, or by the use of a bow or arrow to which any electronic device is attached.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Animals such as blackbuck, nilgai, axis deer, fallow deer, zebras, barasingha, gazelle and many other exotic game species can now be found on game farm and ranches in Texas, where they were introduced for sport hunting. These hunters can be found paying in excess of $10,000 dollars to take trophy animals on these controlled ranches.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 1370818, 922569, 1436148, 30903649, 34460, 4992749, 19232035, 4143670, 30865437, 29810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 25 ], [ 27, 33 ], [ 35, 44 ], [ 46, 57 ], [ 59, 64 ], [ 67, 77 ], [ 79, 86 ], [ 142, 151 ], [ 156, 161 ], [ 167, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Russian imperial hunts evolved from hunting traditions of early Russian rulers—Grand Princes and Tsars—under the influence of hunting customs of European royal courts. The imperial hunts were organised mainly in Peterhof, Tsarskoye Selo, and Gatchina.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 25391, 750917, 39879893, 818827, 752879, 797420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 83, 95 ], [ 101, 106 ], [ 216, 224 ], [ 226, 240 ], [ 246, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hunting in Australia has evolved around the hunting and eradication of various animals considered to be pests or invasive species . All native animals are protected by law, and certain species such as kangaroos and ducks can be hunted by licensed shooters but only under a special permit on public lands during open seasons. The introduced species that are targeted include European rabbits, red foxes, deers (sambar, hog, red, fallow, chital and rusa), feral cats, pigs, goats, brumbies, donkeys and occasionally camels, as well as introduced upland birds such as quails, pheasants and partridges.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 4689264, 67554, 17064, 37674, 10429922, 375331, 16886629, 394815, 24556191, 20647108, 38428, 1378649, 32046566, 779725, 30903649, 1436148, 2184637, 38519147, 1145700, 27776542, 2730449, 11958441, 3152386, 5093042, 25302, 59919, 63640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 113, 129 ], [ 202, 210 ], [ 216, 220 ], [ 239, 246 ], [ 292, 303 ], [ 312, 323 ], [ 331, 349 ], [ 376, 391 ], [ 394, 401 ], [ 405, 409 ], [ 412, 418 ], [ 420, 423 ], [ 425, 428 ], [ 430, 436 ], [ 438, 444 ], [ 449, 453 ], [ 456, 465 ], [ 468, 471 ], [ 474, 478 ], [ 481, 489 ], [ 491, 497 ], [ 516, 521 ], [ 546, 557 ], [ 567, 572 ], [ 575, 583 ], [ 589, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New Zealand has a strong hunting culture. When humans arrived, the only mammals present on the islands making up New Zealand were bats, although seals and other marine mammals were present along the coasts. However, when humans arrived they brought other species with them. Polynesian voyagers introduced kuri (dogs), kiore (Polynesian rats), as well as a range of plant species. European explorers further added to New Zealand's biota, particularly pigs which were introduced by either Captain Cook or the French explorer De Surville in the 1700s. During the nineteenth century, as European colonisation took place, acclimatisation societies were established. The societies introduced a large number of species with no use other than as prey for hunting. Species that adapted well to the New Zealand terrain include deer, pigs, goats, hare, tahr and chamois. With wilderness areas, suitable forage, and no natural predators, their populations exploded. Government agencies view the animals as pests due to their effects on the natural environment and on agricultural production, but hunters view them as a resource.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 12686219, 38428, 2391490, 19167553, 48130, 79487, 316157, 558685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 618, 643 ], [ 819, 823 ], [ 825, 829 ], [ 831, 836 ], [ 838, 842 ], [ 844, 848 ], [ 853, 860 ], [ 1030, 1049 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Iranian tradition regarded hunting as an essential part of a prince's education, and hunting was well recorded for the education of the upper-class youths during pre-Islamic Persia. As of October 2020, a hunting licence costs $20,000. The Department of Environment although do not report the number of permits issued.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 64213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The numbers of licensed hunters in Japan, including those using snares and guns, is generally decreasing, while their average age is increasing. , there were approximately 190,000 registered hunters, approximately 65% of whom were sixty years old or older.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 15573, 6520040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 40 ], [ 64, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a very active tradition of hunting small to medium-sized wild game in Trinidad and Tobago. Hunting is carried out with firearms, slingshots and cage traps, and sometimes aided by the use of hounds. The illegal use of trap guns and snare nets also occurs. With approximately 12,000 to 13,000 hunters applying for and being granted hunting permits in recent years, there is some concern that the practice might not be sustainable. In addition there are at present no bag limits and the open season is comparatively very long (5 months – October to February inclusive). As such hunting pressure from legal hunters is very high. Added to that, there is a thriving and very lucrative black market for poached wild game (sold and enthusiastically purchased as expensive luxury delicacies) and the numbers of commercial poachers in operation is unknown but presumed to be fairly high. As a result, the populations of the five major mammalian game species (red-rumped agouti, lowland paca, nine-banded armadillo, collared peccary and red brocket deer) are thought to be relatively low when compared to less-hunted regions in nearby mainland South America (although scientifically conducted population studies are only just recently being conducted ). It appears that the red brocket deer population has been extirpated in Tobago as a result of over-hunting. By some time in the mid 20th century another extirpation due to over-hunting occurred in Trinidad with its population of horned screamer (a large game bird). Various herons, ducks, doves, the green iguana, the cryptic golden tegu, the spectacled caiman, the common opossum and the capybara are also commonly hunted and poached. There is also some poaching of 'fully protected species', including red howler monkey and capuchin monkeys, southern tamandua, Brazilian porcupine, yellow-footed tortoise, the critically endangered island endemic Trinidad piping guan and even one of the national birds, the scarlet ibis. Legal hunters pay relatively small fees to obtain hunting licences and undergo no official basic conservation biology or hunting-ethics/fair chase training, and are not assessed regarding their knowledge and comprehension of the local wildlife conservation laws. There is presumed to be relatively little subsistence hunting in the country (with most hunting for either sport or commercial profit). The local wildlife management authorities are under-staffed and under-funded, and as such little in the way of enforcement is done to uphold existing wildlife management laws, with hunting/poaching occurring both in and out of season and even in wildlife sanctuaries. There is some indication that the government is beginning to take the issue of wildlife management more seriously, with well drafted legislation being brought before Parliament in 2015. It remains to be seen if the drafted legislation will be fully adopted and financially supported by the current and future governments, and if the general populace will move towards a greater awareness of the importance of wildlife conservation and change the culture of wanton consumption to one of sustainable management.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "National traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 3565457, 3392118, 578936, 3243750, 3260875, 2945123, 26769, 2945123, 162070, 452912, 872593, 42814957, 61211865, 15494078, 4433938, 6776, 15144726, 1238652, 3243565, 1402990, 12507419, 1234896, 237135, 216216, 47981125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 98 ], [ 958, 975 ], [ 977, 989 ], [ 991, 1012 ], [ 1014, 1030 ], [ 1035, 1051 ], [ 1142, 1155 ], [ 1272, 1288 ], [ 1323, 1329 ], [ 1448, 1456 ], [ 1480, 1495 ], [ 1551, 1563 ], [ 1569, 1588 ], [ 1594, 1611 ], [ 1617, 1631 ], [ 1640, 1648 ], [ 1755, 1765 ], [ 1777, 1792 ], [ 1795, 1812 ], [ 1814, 1833 ], [ 1835, 1857 ], [ 1900, 1920 ], [ 1961, 1973 ], [ 2072, 2092 ], [ 2111, 2121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hunting is claimed to give resource managers an important tool in managing populations that might exceed the carrying capacity of their habitat and threaten the well-being of other species, or, in some instances, damage human health or safety.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Wildlife management", "target_page_ids": [ 2603115, 47544, 1596317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 44 ], [ 109, 126 ], [ 136, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some cases, hunting actually can increase the population of predators such as coyotes by removing territorial bounds that would otherwise be established, resulting in excess neighbouring migrations into an area, thus artificially increasing the population. Hunting advocates assert that hunting reduces intraspecific competition for food and shelter, reducing mortality among the remaining animals. Some environmentalists assert that (re)introducing predators would achieve the same end with greater efficiency and less negative effect, such as introducing significant amounts of free lead into the environment and food chain.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Wildlife management", "target_page_ids": [ 2717816, 10184, 57559, 17747, 32077676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 306, 331 ], [ 407, 423 ], [ 453, 461 ], [ 588, 592 ], [ 618, 628 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, wildlife managers are frequently part of hunting regulatory and licensing bodies, where they help to set rules on the number, manner and conditions in which game may be hunted.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Wildlife management", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Management agencies sometimes rely on hunting to control specific animal populations, as has been the case with deer in North America. These hunts may sometimes be carried out by professional shooters, although others may include amateur hunters. Many US city and local governments hire professional and amateur hunters each year to reduce populations of animals such as deer that are becoming hazardous in a restricted area, such as neighbourhood parks and metropolitan open spaces.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Wildlife management", "target_page_ids": [ 75253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 458, 470 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A large part of managing populations involves managing the number and, sometimes, the size or age of animals harvested so as to ensure the sustainability of the population. Tools that are frequently used to control harvest are bag limits and season closures, although gear restrictions such as archery-only seasons are becoming increasingly popular in an effort to reduce hunter success rates in countries that rely on bag limits per hunter instead of per area.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Wildlife management", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Illegal hunting and harvesting of wild species contrary to local and international conservation and wildlife management laws is called poaching. Game preservation is one of the tactics used to prevent poaching. Violations of hunting laws and regulations involving poaching are normally punishable by law. Punishment can include confiscation of equipment, fines or a prison sentence.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Laws", "target_page_ids": [ 100089, 23120242, 884309, 146699, 19008450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 95 ], [ 145, 162 ], [ 328, 353 ], [ 355, 360 ], [ 366, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The right to hunt—sometimes in combination with the right to fish—is protected implicitly, as a consequence of the right of ownership, or explicitly, as a right on its own, in a number of jurisdictions. For instance, as of 2019, a total of 22 U.S. states explicitly recognize a subjective right to hunt in their constitutions.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Laws", "target_page_ids": [ 9170030, 51490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 133 ], [ 155, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bag limits are provisions under the law that control how many animals of a given species or group of species can be killed, although there are often species for which bag limits do not apply. There are also jurisdictions where bag limits are not applied at all or are not applied under certain circumstances. The phrase bag limits comes from the custom among hunters of small game to carry successful kills in a small basket, similar to a fishing creel.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Laws", "target_page_ids": [ 16392, 1090015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 219 ], [ 439, 452 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Where bag limits are used, there can be daily or seasonal bag limits; for example, ducks can often be harvested at a rate of six per hunter per day. Big game, like moose, most often have a seasonal bag limit of one animal per hunter. Bag limits may also regulate the size, sex, or age of animal that a hunter can kill. In many cases, bag limits are designed to allocate harvest among the hunting population more equitably rather than to protect animal populations, as protecting the population would necessitate regional density-dependent maximum bags.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Laws", "target_page_ids": [ 20501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A closed season is a time during which hunting an animal of a given species is contrary to law. Typically, closed seasons are designed to protect a species when they are most vulnerable or to protect them during their breeding season. By extension, the period that is not the closed season is known as the open season.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Laws", "target_page_ids": [ 16886629, 23792299, 16886629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 15 ], [ 218, 233 ], [ 306, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historical, subsistence, and sport hunting techniques can differ radically, with modern hunting regulations often addressing issues of where, when, and how hunts are conducted. Techniques may vary depending on government regulations, a hunter's personal ethics, local custom, hunting equipment, and the animal being hunted. Often a hunter will use a combination of more than one technique. Laws may forbid sport hunters from using some methods used primarily in poaching and wildlife management.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Baiting is the use of decoys, lures, scent, or food.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 566692, 403758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 23, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Battue involves scaring animals (by beating sticks) into a killing zone or ambush.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Beagling is the use of beagles in hunting rabbits, and sometimes in hunting foxes.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 746782, 4368, 26573, 11299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 24, 30 ], [ 43, 49 ], [ 77, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beating uses human beaters to flush out game from an area or drive it into position.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stand hunting or blind hunting is waiting for animals from a concealed or elevated position, for example from tree stands, hunting blinds or other types of shooting stands.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 15906196, 2603098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 121 ], [ 124, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Calling is the use of animal noises to attract or drive animals.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Camouflage is the use of visual or odour concealment to blend with the environment.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 6446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dogs may be used to course or to help flush, herd, drive, track, point at, pursue, or retrieve prey.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 491841, 845038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 21, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Driving is the herding of animals in a particular direction, usually toward another hunter in the group.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 446843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flushing is the practice of scaring animals from concealed areas.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ghillie suit is a type of gear a person can wear to blend with environment.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 431206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Glassing is the use of optics, such as binoculars, to locate animals more easily.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Glue is an indiscriminate passive form to kill birds.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Internet hunting is a method of hunting over the Internet using webcams and remotely controlled guns.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 21613021, 92171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 65, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " involves using nets, including active netting with the use of cannon nets and rocket nets.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 10461876, 3097679, 3097679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 21 ], [ 64, 75 ], [ 80, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Persistence hunting is the use of running and tracking to pursue the prey to exhaustion.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 4956783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Posting is done by sitting or standing in a particular place with the intentions of intercepting your game of choice along their travel corridor.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Scouting for game is typically done prior to a hunt and will ensure the desired species are in a chosen area. Looking for animal sign such as tracks, scat, etc.... and utilizing \"trail cameras\" are commonly used tactics while scouting.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shooting is the use of a ranged weapon such as a gun, bow, crossbow, or slingshot.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 28495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Solunar theory says that animals move according to the location of the moon in comparison to their bodies and is said to have been used long before this by hunters to know the best times to hunt their desired game.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 31074444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Spotlighting or shining is the use of artificial light to find or blind animals before killing.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 651665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stalking or still hunting is the practice of walking quietly in search of animals or in pursuit of an individual animal.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 2092535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tracking is the practice of reading physical evidence in pursuing animals.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 3681383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trapping is the use of devices such as snares, pits, and deadfalls to capture or kill an animal.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Methods", "target_page_ids": [ 6520040, 6520040, 8956041, 6520040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 40, 46 ], [ 48, 52 ], [ 58, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trophy hunting is the selective seeking and killing of wild game animals to take trophies for personal collection, bragging rights or as a status symbol. It may also include the controversial hunting of captive or semi-captive animals expressly bred and raised under controlled or semi-controlled conditions so as to attain trophy characteristics; this is sometimes known as canned hunts.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Trophy hunting", "target_page_ids": [ 619119, 7223413, 13309070, 565501, 1602860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 89 ], [ 94, 113 ], [ 115, 130 ], [ 139, 152 ], [ 376, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 19th century, southern and central European sport hunters often pursued game only for a trophy, usually the head or pelt of an animal, which was then displayed as a sign of prowess. The rest of the animal was typically discarded. Some cultures, however, disapprove of such waste. In Nordic countries, hunting for trophies was—and still is—frowned upon. Hunting in North America in the 19th century was done primarily as a way to supplement food supplies, although it is now undertaken mainly for sport. The safari method of hunting was a development of sport hunting that saw elaborate travel in Africa, India and other places in pursuit of trophies. In modern times, trophy hunting persists and is a significant industry in some areas.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Trophy hunting", "target_page_ids": [ 619119, 19009006, 23711165, 38791, 1913249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 101 ], [ 123, 127 ], [ 290, 306 ], [ 514, 520 ], [ 675, 689 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, hunting \"provides an economic incentive\" for ranchers to continue to breed those species, and that hunting \"reduces the threat of the species' extinction.\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Trophy hunting", "target_page_ids": [ 75289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A scientific study in the journal, Biological Conservation, states that trophy hunting is of \"major importance to conservation in Africa by creating economic incentives for conservation over vast areas, including areas which may be unsuitable for alternative wildlife-based land uses such as photographic ecotourism.\" However, another study states that less than 3% of a trophy hunters' expenditures reach the local level, meaning that the economic incentive and benefit is \"minimal, particularly when we consider the vast areas of land that hunting concessions occupy.\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Trophy hunting", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Financial incentives from trophy hunting effectively more than double the land area that is used for wildlife conservation, relative to what would be conserved relying on national parks alone according to Biological Conservation, although local communities usually derive no more than 18 cents per hectare from trophy hunting.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Trophy hunting", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Trophy hunting has been considered essential for providing economic incentives to conserve large carnivores according to research studies in Conservation Biology, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Wildlife Conservation by Sustainable Use, and Animal Conservation. Studies by the Centre for Responsible Tourism and the IUCN state that ecotourism, which includes more than hunting, is a superior economic incentive, generating twice the revenue per acre and 39 times more permanent employment. At the crosssection of trophy hunting, ecotourism and conservation is green hunting, a trophy hunting alternative where hunters pay to dart animals that need to be tranquilized for conservation projects.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Trophy hunting", "target_page_ids": [ 1913249, 50178403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 560, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The U.S. House Committee on Natural Resources in 2016 concluded that trophy hunting may be contributing to the extinction of certain animals. Animal welfare organizations, including the International Fund for Animal Welfare, claim that trophy hunting is a key factor in the \"silent extinction\" of giraffes.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Trophy hunting", "target_page_ids": [ 3284507, 3854443, 12717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 45 ], [ 186, 223 ], [ 297, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to a national survey that the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service conducts every five years, fewer people are hunting, even as population rises. National Public Radio reported, a graph shows 2016 statistics, that only about 5 percent of Americans, 16 years old and older, actually hunt, which is half of what it was 50 years ago. The decline in popularity of hunting is expected to accelerate over the next decade, which threatens how US will pay for conservation.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Trophy hunting", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Trophy hunting is most often criticised when it involves rare or endangered animals. Opponents may also see trophy hunting as an issue of morality or animal cruelty, criticising the killing of living creatures for recreation. Victorian era dramatist W. S. Gilbert remarked, \"Deer-stalking would be a very fine sport if only the deer had guns.\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Trophy hunting", "target_page_ids": [ 20110668, 43254, 683092, 25381, 32798, 7993134, 10019167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 75 ], [ 138, 146 ], [ 150, 164 ], [ 214, 224 ], [ 226, 239 ], [ 250, 263 ], [ 275, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is also debate about the extent to which trophy hunting benefits the local economy. Hunters pay substantial fees to the game outfitters and hunting guides which contributes to the local economy and provides value to animals that would otherwise be seen as competition for grazing, livestock, and crops. However, the argument is disputed by animal welfare organizations and other opponents of trophy hunting. It is argued that the animals are worth more to the community for ecotourism than hunting.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Trophy hunting", "target_page_ids": [ 324008, 79675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 88 ], [ 480, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A variety of industries benefit from hunting and support hunting on economic grounds. In Tanzania, it is estimated that a safari hunter spends fifty to one hundred times that of the average ecotourist. While the average photo tourist may seek luxury accommodation, the average safari hunter generally stays in tented camps. Safari hunters are also more likely to use remote areas, uninviting to the typical ecotourist. Advocates argue that these hunters allow for anti-poaching activities and revenue for local communities.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Economics", "target_page_ids": [ 30118, 79675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 97 ], [ 190, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United Kingdom, the game hunting of birds as an industry is said to be extremely important to the rural economy. The Cobham Report of 1997 suggested it to be worth around £700million, and hunting and shooting lobby groups claimed it to be worth over a billion pounds less than ten years later.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Economics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hunting also has a significant financial impact in the United States, with many companies specialising in hunting equipment or speciality tourism. Many different technologies have been created to assist hunters. Today's hunters come from a broad range of economic, social, and cultural backgrounds. In 2001, over thirteen million hunters averaged eighteen days hunting, and spent over $20.5billion on their sport. In the US, proceeds from hunting licences contribute to state game management programs, including preservation of wildlife habitat.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Economics", "target_page_ids": [ 1802372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hunting contributes to a portion of caloric intake of people and may have positive impacts on greenhouse gas emissions by avoidance of utilization of meat raised under industrial methods.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Economics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lead bullets that miss their target or remain in an unretrieved carcass could become a toxicant in the environment but lead in ammunition because of its metallic form has a lower solubility and higher resistance to corrosion than other forms of lead making it hardly available to biological systems. Waterfowl or other birds may ingest the lead and poison themselves with the neurotoxicant, but studies have demonstrated that effects of lead in ammunition are negligible on animal population size and growth. Since 1991, US federal law forbids lead shot in waterfowl hunts, and 30 states have some type of restriction.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Environmental problems", "target_page_ids": [ 5637517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2014, a federal appeals court denied a lawsuit by environmental groups that the EPA must use the Toxic Substances Control Act to regulate lead in shells and cartridges. The groups sought EPA to regulate \"spent lead\", yet the court found EPA could not regulate spent lead without also regulating cartridges and shells.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Environmental problems", "target_page_ids": [ 58666, 1301686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 95 ], [ 109, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hunters have been driving forces throughout history in the movement to ensure the preservation of wildlife habitats and wildlife for further hunting. However, excessive hunting and poachers have also contributed heavily to the endangerment, extirpation and extinction of many animals, such as the quagga, the great auk, Steller's sea cow, the thylacine, the bluebuck, the Arabian oryx, the Caspian and Javan tigers, the markhor, the Sumatran rhinoceros, the bison, the North American cougar, the Altai argali sheep, the Asian elephant and many more, primarily for commercial sale or sport. All these animals have been hunted to endangerment or extinction. Poaching currently threatens bird and mammalian populations around the world. The 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services lists the direct exploitation of organisms, including hunting, as the second leading cause of biodiversity loss, after land use for agriculture. In 2022, IPBES released another report which stated that unsustainable hunting, along with unsustainable logging and fishing, are primary drivers of the global extinction crisis.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [ 1596317, 144219, 25229, 12552, 60411, 30388, 1620499, 937029, 1457625, 2170601, 1164226, 510323, 4696085, 11175877, 379035, 20110668, 60682031, 52968860, 627, 37851000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 115 ], [ 120, 128 ], [ 297, 303 ], [ 309, 318 ], [ 320, 337 ], [ 343, 352 ], [ 358, 366 ], [ 372, 384 ], [ 390, 397 ], [ 402, 413 ], [ 420, 427 ], [ 433, 452 ], [ 469, 490 ], [ 496, 508 ], [ 520, 534 ], [ 628, 640 ], [ 743, 806 ], [ 901, 918 ], [ 939, 950 ], [ 961, 966 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1937, American hunters successfully lobbied the US Congress to pass the Pittman-Robertson Wildlife Restoration Act, which placed an eleven percent tax on all hunting equipment. This self-imposed tax now generates over $700million each year and is used exclusively to establish, restore and protect wildlife habitats. The act is named for Nevada Senator Key Pittman and Virginia Congressman Absalom Willis Robertson.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [ 21404571, 1121626, 1020252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 117 ], [ 356, 367 ], [ 393, 417 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 16 March 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Migratory Bird Hunting Stamp Act, which requires an annual stamp purchase by all hunters over the age of sixteen. The stamps are created on behalf of the program by the US Postal Service and depict wildlife artwork chosen through an annual contest. They play an important role in habitat conservation because ninety-eight percent of all funds generated by their sale go directly toward the purchase or lease of wetland habitat for protection in the National Wildlife Refuge System. In addition to waterfowl, it is estimated that one third of the nation's endangered species seek food and shelter in areas protected using Duck Stamp funds.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [ 10979, 50591, 320033, 102024, 341948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 49 ], [ 230, 247 ], [ 341, 361 ], [ 472, 479 ], [ 510, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1934, the sale of Federal Duck Stamps has generated $670million, and helped to purchase or lease of habitat. The stamps serve as a license to hunt migratory birds, an entrance pass for all National Wildlife Refuge areas, and are also considered collectors items often purchased for aesthetic reasons outside of the hunting and birding communities. Although non-hunters buy a significant number of Duck Stamps, eighty-seven percent of their sales are contributed by hunters. Distribution of funds is managed by the Migratory Bird Conservation Commission (MBCC).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [ 2130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 289, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Arabian oryx, a species of large antelope, once inhabited much of the desert areas of the Middle East. However, the species' striking appearance made it (along with the closely related scimitar-horned oryx and addax) a popular quarry for sport hunters, especially foreign executives of oil companies working in the region. The use of automobiles and high-powered rifles destroyed their only advantage: speed, and they became extinct in the wild exclusively due to sport hunting in 1972. The scimitar-horned oryx followed suit, while the addax became critically endangered. However, the Arabian oryx has now made a comeback and been upgraded from \"extinct in the wild\" to \"vulnerable\" due to conservation efforts like captive breeding.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [ 937029, 48517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 37, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The markhor is an endangered species of wild goat which inhabits the mountains of Central Asia and Pakistan. The colonization of these regions by Britain gave British sport hunters access to the species, and they were hunted heavily, almost to the point of extinction. Only their willingness to breed in captivity and the inhospitability of their mountainous habitat prevented this. Despite these factors, the markhor is still endangered.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [ 1164226, 6742, 23235, 45775, 4721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ], [ 82, 94 ], [ 99, 107 ], [ 113, 125 ], [ 146, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American bison is a large bovid which inhabited much of western North America prior to the 1800s, living on the prairies in large herds. However, the vast herds of bison attracted market hunters, who killed dozens of bison for their hides only, leaving the rest to rot. Thousands of these hunters quickly eliminated the bison herds, bringing the population from several million in the early 1800s to a few hundred by the 1880s. Conservation efforts have allowed the population to increase, but the bison remains near-threatened due to lack of habitat.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [ 49725, 241281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 30, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy cites that the legalization of white rhinoceros hunting in South Africa motivated private landowners to reintroduce the species onto their lands. As a result, the country saw an increase in white rhinos from fewer than one hundred individuals to more than 11,000, even while a limited number were killed as trophies.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, the illegal hunting of rhinoceros for their horns is highly damaging to the population and is currently growing globally, with 1004 being killed in South Africa alone according to the most recent estimate. The White Rhino (along with the other 4 rhino species) are poached due to beliefs that the Rhinos horns can be used to cure Cancer, Arthritis and other diseases and illnesses, even though they are scientifically proven wrong.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Richard Conniff, Namibia is home to 1,750 of the roughly 5,000 black rhinos surviving in the wild because it allows trophy hunting of various species. Namibia's mountain zebra population has increased to 27,000 from 1,000 in 1982. Elephants, which \"are gunned down elsewhere for their ivory\", have gone to 20,000 from 15,000 in 1995. Lions, which were on the brink of extinction \"from Senegal to Kenya\", are increasing in Namibia.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [ 20562886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In contrast, Botswana in 2012 banned trophy hunting following a precipitous wildlife decline. The numbers of antelope plummeted across Botswana, with a resultant decline in predator numbers, while elephant numbers remained stable and hippopotamus numbers rose. According to the government of Botswana, trophy hunting is at least partly to blame for this, but many other factors, such as poaching, drought and habitat loss are also to blame. Uganda recently did the same, arguing that \"the share of benefits of sport hunting were lopsided and unlikely to deter poaching or improve [Uganda's] capacity to manage the wildlife reserves.\" In 2020, Botswana reopened trophy hunting on public lands.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A study published by the Wildlife Society concluded that hunting and trapping are cost effective tools that reduce wildlife damage by reducing a population below the capacity of the environment to carry it and changing the behaviors of animals to stop them from causing damage. The study furthermore states that the cessation of hunting could cause wildlife to be severely harmed, rural property values to fall, and the incentive of landowners to maintain natural habitats to diminish.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [ 11590063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although deforestation and forest degradation have long been considered the most significant threats to tropical biodiversity, across Southeast Asia (Northeast India, Indochina, Sundaland, Philippines) substantial areas of natural habitat have few wild animals (>1kg), bar a few hunting‐tolerant species.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It has been argued by animal rights activists that killing animals for sport is unethical, cruel, and unnecessary. They note the suffering and cruelty inflicted on animals hunted for sport: \"Many animals endure prolonged, painful deaths when they are injured but not killed by hunters ... Hunting disrupts migration and hibernation patterns and destroys families.\" Animal rights activists also comment that hunting is not needed to maintain an ecological balance, and that \"nature takes care of its own\". They say that hunting can be combated on public lands by \"spread[ing] deer repellent or human hair (from barber shops) near hunting areas\". Animal rights activists also argue that hunting is speciesist:", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Opposition to hunting", "target_page_ids": [ 19468941, 29045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 444, 462 ], [ 696, 706 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whether hunters try to justify their killing by citing human deaths caused by wild animals, by making conservationist claims, by claiming that it's acceptable to hunt as long as the animals' bodies are eaten, or simply because of the pleasure it brings them, the fact remains that hunting is morally unacceptable if we consider the interests of nonhuman animals. Hunted animals endure fear and pain, and then are deprived of their lives. Understanding the injustices of speciesism and the interests of nonhuman animals makes it clear that human pleasure cannot justify nonhuman animals' pain.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Opposition to hunting", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Air travel with firearms and ammunition", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34008776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anti-hunting", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8484097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bambi effect", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 571478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Blood sport", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3554936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bowhunting", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2368441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bushfood", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3204439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bushmeat", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 332240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chase", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17357517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Defaunation", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21424701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Federation of Associations for Hunting and Conservation of the EU", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9124117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hiking equipment", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7676521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Human hunting", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5809131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hunt Saboteurs Association (HSA)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 797738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hunting horn", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 46734063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nimrod", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 243471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Esau", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 171110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sir Gawain and the Green Knight", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tapetum lucidum eyeshine", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 203610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Sound of His Horn", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6993238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wilderness backpacking", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 854046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " International Journal of Environmental Studies (2013) Special Edition: Conservation and Hunting in North America. IJES v 70.", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " International Journal of Environmental Studies (2015) Special Edition: Conservation and Hunting in North America II. IJES v72.", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IUCN (2016) Briefing Paper: Informing Decisions on Trophy Hunting.", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IUCN Species Survival Commission (2012) Guiding Principles on Trophy Hunting as a Tool for Creating Conservation Incentives. ", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dickson D. Bruce Jr., Mississippi Quarterly (Spring 1977).", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kenneth S. Greenberg, Honor and Slavery: Lies, Duels, Noses, Masks, Dressing as a Woman, Gifts, Strangers, Humanitarianism, Death, Slave Rebellions, the Pro-Slavery Argument, Baseball, Hunting, and Gambling in the Old South (1996).", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Steven Hahn, Radical History Review (1982).", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Charles H. Hudson Jr., in Indians, Animals, and the Fur Trade, ed., Shephard Krech III (1981).", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stuart A. Marks, Southern Hunting in Black and White: Nature, History, and Ritual in a Carolina Community (1991).", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ted Ownby, Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865–1920 (1990).", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wiley C. Prewitt, \"The Best of All Breathing: Hunting and Environmental Change in Mississippi, 1900–1980\" M.A. thesis, (1991).", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nicolas W. Proctor, Bathed in Blood: Hunting and Mastery in the Old South (2002).", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jacob F. Rivers III, Cultural Values in the Southern Sporting Narrative (2002).", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Salem, D.J., and A.N. Rowan, eds. 2003. The State of the Animals II: 2003. Washington, D.C.: Humane Society Press. ()", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Timothy Silver, A New Face on the Countryside: Indians, Colonists, and Slaves in South Atlantic Forests, 1500–1800 (1990).", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Richard C. Stedman and Thomas A. Heberlein, Rural Sociology (2001).", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nancy L. Struna, People of Prowess: Sport, Leisure, and Labor in Early Anglo-America (1996).", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Marek Zukow-Karczewski, Polowania w dawnej Polsce (Hunting in the old Poland), \"AURA\" (A Monthly for the protection and shaping of human environment) 12 (1990).", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 46765161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Theodore Roosevelt Hunting Library at the Library of Congress has 254 items on this topic.", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 18944081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 66 ] ] } ]

[ "Hunting", "Cruelty_to_animals", "Survival_skills", "Lifestyles" ]

[ "hunt", "stalking" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Sausthorpe is a small village and civil parish in the East Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England, east of Horncastle and north-west of Spilsby. It lies on the southern edge of the Lincolnshire Wolds – a designated Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty – in the valley of the River Lymn. Farming remains the dominant economic activity in the area. The population was 305 in the 2011 census and estimated at 306 in 2019.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 644233, 426474, 2146081, 53295, 374501, 838840, 1067778, 1306662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 46 ], [ 54, 66 ], [ 67, 75 ], [ 79, 91 ], [ 111, 121 ], [ 141, 148 ], [ 186, 204 ], [ 278, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name is believed to derive from \"Sauthr's thorpe\", a farming settlement here in Viking times.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Heritage", "target_page_ids": [ 32610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The parish church, dedicated to St Andrew, is a Grade II listed building, designed by Charles Kirk and built in 1842 on the site of an earlier medieval church. Its construction was sponsored by Rev. Francis A. Swan, Lord of the Manor and parish rector from 1819 until his death in 1878. The spire is a prominent landmark resembling on a smaller scale that of St. James Church, Louth, to the north.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Heritage", "target_page_ids": [ 149937, 31663669, 202009, 47788787, 602369, 19146789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 32, 41 ], [ 57, 72 ], [ 86, 98 ], [ 216, 233 ], [ 359, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pelham Dale SSC – prosecuted and imprisoned for ritualist practices in 1876 and 1880, and so regarded as a martyr by Anglo-Catholics – was the parish priest from 1881 to 1892. His grave lies under the trees on the eastern side of the churchyard. Inside the church, several Dymoke family gravestones date from the 18th century, having been transferred from the earlier church.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Heritage", "target_page_ids": [ 4891939, 1346861, 1172310, 59949, 3239334, 3150183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 12, 15 ], [ 48, 57 ], [ 117, 132 ], [ 234, 244 ], [ 273, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1885 Kelly's Directory recorded Rev. Charles Trollope Swan LLB as living at Sausthorpe Hall, a \"modern mansion in a park of 30 acres\". He had inherited the roles of Lord of the Manor and Rector from his father, Francis Swan, in 1878. He granted the rectorate, including the rectory living, residence (the Old Hall, see below) and of glebe land, to T. Pelham Dale in 1882.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Heritage", "target_page_ids": [ 3119155, 299903, 430884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 25 ], [ 62, 65 ], [ 337, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rev. Francis A. Swan built a National School for 50 children in 1860. It survived until 1983.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Heritage", "target_page_ids": [ 22283581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The parish of Sausthorpe had a population of 206 in 30 inhabited houses in 1831.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Heritage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Kelly's Directory recorded that in 1885 the area of the parish was , in which were grown wheat, barley and turnips, that Sausthorpe's population at the time of the 1881 census was 141, and that within the parish were a grocer, wheelwright, carrier, two farmers, a farmer-cum-beer retailer, and a farmer-surveyor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Heritage", "target_page_ids": [ 6889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sausthorpe Hall is a late 18th-century Grade II listed country house, extended and remodelled in 1822.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Heritage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Old Hall is a Grade II* listed 15th-century house, with 16th and 18th-century alterations. It has rendering over red brick and the remains of a timber frame.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Heritage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Historically there were three principal farms in the village: East Farm (the farmhouse is set back from the main road about one mile east of the village); Grange Farm (the farmhouse is on the main road at the eastern entry to the village); and Church Farm (the farmhouse, now known as Linden House, is on the corner of the crossroads at the centre of the village).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Heritage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pelham Dale (1821–1892), an Anglo-Catholic priest prosecuted for ritualistic practices, was parish priest of Sausthorpe-cum-Aswardby from 1881 until his death. He was buried in the churchyard.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Heritage", "target_page_ids": [ 4891939, 1675289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 124, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Standish Vereker, 7th Viscount Gort (1888–1975), connoisseur and art collector, was born in Sausthorpe.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Heritage", "target_page_ids": [ 17848008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sausthorpe lies on the main A158 road between Horncastle and Skegness. It is served by the Spilsby CallConnect weekday bus service, which must be ordered by phone in advance. The nearest railway station is Skegness (13 miles, 21 km).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 374501, 351114, 4320166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 56 ], [ 61, 69 ], [ 206, 214 ] ] } ]

[ "Villages_in_Lincolnshire", "Civil_parishes_in_Lincolnshire", "East_Lindsey_District" ]

[ "Sausthorpe, Lincolnshire" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Arthur Andersen was an American accounting firm based in Chicago that provided auditing, tax advising, consulting and other professional services to large corporations. By 2001, it had become one of the world's largest multinational corporations and was one of the \"Big Five\" accounting firms (along with Deloitte & Touche, Ernst & Young, KPMG and PricewaterhouseCoopers). The firm collapsed by mid-2002, as details of its questionable accounting practices for energy company Enron and telecommunications company Worldcom were revealed amid the two high-profile bankruptcies. The scandals were a factor in the enactment of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6886, 224700, 3126176, 542306, 1184222, 7485, 38798, 586015, 59906, 75960, 148172, 10166, 59695, 67031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 64 ], [ 79, 87 ], [ 89, 101 ], [ 103, 113 ], [ 124, 145 ], [ 155, 166 ], [ 265, 292 ], [ 305, 322 ], [ 324, 337 ], [ 339, 343 ], [ 348, 370 ], [ 476, 481 ], [ 513, 521 ], [ 627, 645 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2002, just nine months after the scandal broke, the firm was found guilty of crimes in the auditing of Enron. By that time, Arthur Andersen had lost most of its business and two-thirds of its 28,000 employees, and was facing multi-million dollar lawsuits. On August 31, 2002, the company surrendered its licenses to practice as certified public accountants in the United States, effectively putting the company out of business. In 2005, the Supreme Court of the United States unanimously reversed Arthur Andersen's conviction due to serious errors in the trial judge's instructions to the jury that convicted the firm. Despite this, the damage to Andersen's reputation was so great that it has never returned as a viable auditor even on a limited scale.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11954274, 224700, 187472, 1942596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 86 ], [ 94, 99 ], [ 331, 358 ], [ 479, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", some parts of the company continue to exist: the company's consulting services had been split out in 2000 and continue today as Accenture, while some of the former partners formed a new firm in 2002 focused on tax services, now called Andersen Tax.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 299134, 47062515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 139 ], [ 237, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born May 30, 1885, in Plano, Illinois, and orphaned at the age of 16, Arthur E. Andersen began working as a mail boy by day and attended school at night, eventually being hired as the assistant to the comptroller of Allis-Chalmers in Chicago. In 1908, after attending courses at night while working full-time, he graduated from the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University with a bachelor's degree in business. That same year, at age 23, he became the youngest Certified Public Accountant (CPA) in Illinois.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 111407, 15011736, 965040, 1904554, 547821, 174216, 187472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 37 ], [ 70, 88 ], [ 201, 212 ], [ 216, 230 ], [ 332, 360 ], [ 364, 387 ], [ 476, 503 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1913, Andersen and Clarence DeLany founded an accounting firm as Andersen, DeLany & Co. The firm changed its name to Arthur Andersen & Co. in 1918. Arthur Andersen's first client was the Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company of Milwaukee. In 1915, due to his many contacts there, the Milwaukee office was opened as the firm's second office.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 530877, 53117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 220 ], [ 224, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andersen believed education was the basis upon which the new profession of accounting should be developed. He created the profession's first centralized training program and believed in training during normal working hours. He was generous in his commitment to aiding educational, civic and charitable organizations. In 1927, he was elected to the board of trustees of Northwestern University and served as its president from 1930 to 1932. He was also chairman of the board of CPA examiners of Illinois.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andersen, who headed the firm until his death in 1947, was a zealous supporter of high standards in the accounting industry. A stickler for honesty, he argued that accountants' responsibility was to investors, not their clients' management. This gave rise to the uniform look of all the so-called \"Arthur Androids\", as employees referred to themselves, the intent being to provide the same service the same way to all customers in all locations. For many years, Andersen's motto was \"Think straight, talk straight\"—an axiom passed on from his mother. During the early years, it is reputed that Andersen was approached by an executive from a local rail utility to sign off on accounts containing flawed accounting, or else face the loss of a major client. Andersen refused in no uncertain terms, replying that there was \"not enough money in the city of Chicago\" to make him do it. The railroad fired Andersen, only to go bankrupt a few months later.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arthur Andersen also led the way in a number of areas of accounting standards. Being among the first to identify a possible sub-prime bust, Arthur Andersen dissociated itself from a number of clients in the 1970s. Later, with the emergence of stock options as a form of compensation, Arthur Andersen was the first of the major accountancy firms to propose to the Financial Accounting Standards Board that employee stock options should be included on expense reports, thus impacting on net profit just as cash compensation would.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9272073, 182311, 265319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 243, 256 ], [ 363, 399 ], [ 450, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the 1980s, standards throughout the industry fell as accountancy firms struggled to balance their commitment to audit independence against the desire to grow their burgeoning consultancy practices. Having established a reputation for IT consultancy in the 1980s, Arthur Andersen was no exception. The firm rapidly expanded its consultancy practice to the point where the bulk of its revenues was derived from such engagements, while audit partners were continually encouraged to seek out opportunities for consulting fees from existing audit clients. By the late-1990s, Arthur Andersen had succeeded in tripling the per-share revenues of its partners.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arthur Andersen struggled to balance the need to maintain its faithfulness to accounting standards with its clients' desire to maximize profits, particularly in the era of quarterly earnings reports. The firm has been alleged to have been involved in the fraudulent accounting and auditing of Sunbeam Products, Waste Management, Asia Pulp & Paper, the Baptist Foundation of Arizona, WorldCom, as well as the infamous Enron case, among others.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1939968, 4155870, 9514949, 12339822, 59695, 10166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 293, 309 ], [ 311, 327 ], [ 329, 346 ], [ 352, 381 ], [ 383, 391 ], [ 417, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The consulting wing of the firm became increasingly important during the 1970s and 1980s, growing at a much faster rate than the more established accounting, auditing, and tax practice. This disproportionate growth, and the consulting division partners' belief that they were not garnering their fair share of firm profits, created increasing friction between the two divisions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1989, Arthur Andersen and Andersen Consulting became separate units of Andersen Worldwide Société Coopérative. Arthur Andersen increased its use of accounting services as a springboard to sign up clients for Andersen Consulting's more lucrative business.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 299134, 1653793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 48 ], [ 74, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The two businesses spent most of the 1990s in a bitter dispute. Andersen Consulting saw a huge surge in profits during the decade. The consultants, however, continued to resent transfer payments they were required to make to Arthur Andersen. In August 2000, at the conclusion of International Chamber of Commerce arbitration of the dispute, the arbitrators granted Andersen Consulting its independence from Arthur Andersen, but awarded US$1.2 billion in past payments (held in escrow pending the ruling) to Arthur Andersen, and declared that Andersen Consulting could no longer use the Andersen name. As a result, Andersen Consulting changed its name to Accenture on New Year's Day 2001 and Arthur Andersen meanwhile now having the right to the Andersen Consulting name rebranded itself as \"Andersen\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 241185, 18717338, 263906, 299134, 161971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 279, 312 ], [ 436, 439 ], [ 477, 483 ], [ 654, 663 ], [ 667, 681 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four hours after the arbitrator made his ruling, Arthur Andersen CEO Jim Wadia suddenly resigned. Industry analysts and business school professors alike viewed the event as a complete victory for Andersen Consulting. Jim Wadia would provide insight on his resignation years later at a Harvard Business school case activity about the split. It turned out that the Arthur Andersen board passed a resolution saying he had to resign if he didn't get at least an incremental US$4 billion (either through negotiation or via the arbitrator decision) for the consulting practice to split off, hence his quick resignation once the decision was announced.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14873267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Accounts vary on why the split occurred—executives on both sides of the split cite greed and arrogance on the part of the other side. The executives on the Andersen Consulting side maintained breach of contract when Arthur Andersen created a second consulting group, AABC (Arthur Andersen Business Consulting) which competed directly with Andersen Consulting in the marketplace. AABC grew quickly, most notably its healthcare and technology practices. Many of the AABC firms were bought out by other consulting companies in 2002, most notably, Deloitte (especially in Europe), Hitachi Consulting, PwC Consulting, which was later acquired by IBM, and KPMG Consulting, which later changed its name to BearingPoint. In addition, several former Andersen partners formed new companies, notably Huron Consulting Group, West Monroe Partners, and Protiviti.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 586015, 17545324, 201806, 29311972, 39160969, 502510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 544, 552 ], [ 577, 595 ], [ 699, 711 ], [ 790, 812 ], [ 814, 834 ], [ 840, 849 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the 2001 scandal in which energy giant Enron was found to have reported US$100 billion in revenue through institutional and systematic accounting fraud, Andersen's performance and alleged complicity as an auditor came under intense scrutiny. The Powers Committee (appointed by Enron's board to look into the firm's accounting in October 2001) came to the following assessment: \"The evidence available to us suggests that Andersen did not fulfill its professional responsibilities in connection with its audits of Enron's financial statements, or its obligation to bring to the attention of Enron's Board (or the Audit and Compliance Committee) concerns about Enron's internal contracts over the related-party transactions\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11954274, 2935251, 10166, 23550312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 26 ], [ 36, 48 ], [ 49, 54 ], [ 145, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On June 15, 2002, Andersen was convicted of obstruction of justice for shredding documents related to its audit of Enron, resulting in the Enron scandal. Although the Supreme Court reversed the firm's conviction, the impact of the scandal combined with the findings of criminal complicity ultimately destroyed the firm. Nancy Temple (in the firm's legal department) and David Duncan (lead partner for the Enron account) were cited as the responsible managers in this scandal because they ordered subordinates to shred relevant documents.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 240718, 10166, 11954274, 31737, 1942596, 1974328, 461542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 66 ], [ 115, 120 ], [ 139, 152 ], [ 167, 180 ], [ 181, 189 ], [ 320, 332 ], [ 370, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission will not accept audits from convicted felons, the firm agreed to surrender its CPA licenses and its right to practice before the SEC on August 31, 2002—effectively putting the firm out of business. It had already started winding down its American operations after the indictment, and many of its accountants joined other firms. The firm sold most of its American operations to KPMG, Deloitte & Touche, Ernst & Young and Grant Thornton LLP. The damage to Andersen's reputation also destroyed the firm's international practices. Most of them were taken over by the local firms of the other major international accounting firms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 55097, 75960, 586015, 59906, 1533035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 51 ], [ 429, 433 ], [ 435, 452 ], [ 454, 467 ], [ 472, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The indictment also put a spotlight on the firm's faulty audits of other companies, most notably Waste Management, Sunbeam Products, the Baptist Foundation of Arizona and WorldCom. The subsequent bankruptcy of WorldCom, which quickly surpassed Enron as the biggest bankruptcy in history (and has since been passed by the bankruptcies of Lehman Brothers and Washington Mutual in the financial crisis of 2007–2008) led to a domino effect of accounting and corporate scandals.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4155870, 1939968, 12339822, 59695, 4695, 40858934, 19381958, 214261, 32005855, 8286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 113 ], [ 115, 131 ], [ 137, 166 ], [ 171, 179 ], [ 196, 206 ], [ 257, 286 ], [ 337, 352 ], [ 357, 374 ], [ 382, 411 ], [ 422, 435 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On May 31, 2005, in Arthur Andersen LLP v. United States, the Supreme Court of the United States unanimously reversed Andersen's conviction because of serious errors in the trial judge's jury instructions. The Supreme Court held that the instructions were too vague to allow a jury to find that obstruction of justice had occurred. The court found that the instructions were worded in such a way that Andersen could have been convicted without any proof that the firm knew it had broken the law or that there had been a link to any official proceeding that prohibited the destruction of documents. The opinion, written by Chief Justice William Rehnquist, also expressed skepticism of the government's concept of \"corrupt persuasion\"—persuading someone to engage in an act with an improper purpose without knowing that the act is unlawful.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1942596, 31737, 16365, 18938721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 56 ], [ 62, 96 ], [ 187, 204 ], [ 636, 653 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2005 Supreme Court ruling theoretically left Andersen free to resume operations. However, CNN reported that by then, Andersen was \"nearly defunct,\" with about 200 employees remaining from a high of 28,000 in 2002. Following the ruling, William Mateja, a former counsel to the Attorney General who had supervised the Andersen appeal, told NPR that he did not believe the government would seek a retrial because, \"there's nothing left of Arthur Andersen, and to spend the taxpayers' money on another prosecution would be just—defy common sense.\" Echoing this, United States Chamber of Commerce vice president Stephen Bokat pronounced Andersen \"dead,\" and said that \"there is no putting the company back together.\" In his post-mortem of the Enron scandal, Conspiracy of Fools, journalist Kurt Eichenwald argued that even if Andersen had escaped the Enron scandal, it would have likely been brought down by the massive accounting fraud at WorldCom. The WorldCom fraud came to light just days after Andersen was convicted of wrongdoing at Enron.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 62028, 29697232, 1448498, 1818842, 1950545, 59695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 97 ], [ 342, 345 ], [ 562, 595 ], [ 757, 776 ], [ 789, 804 ], [ 939, 947 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Indeed, Andersen has never returned as a viable business on even a limited scale. Ownership of the partnership has been ceded to four limited liability corporations named Omega Management I through IV.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arthur Andersen LLP operated the Q Center conference center in St. Charles, Illinois, until day-to-day management was turned over to Dolce Hotels and Resorts in 2014, but Andersen retains ownership. In 2018, that relationship ended, and day-to-day management returned to the Q Center. The Q Center is currently used for training, primarily for internal Accenture personnel, and other large-scale companies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 17189912, 51423657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 84 ], [ 133, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, Wealth Tax and Advisory Services (WTAS), a tax and consulting firm started by several former Andersen partners, changed its name to Andersen Tax after acquiring the rights to the Andersen name. It rebranded its year-old international arm, WTAS Global, as Andersen Global. As of 2018, Andersen Global took over the andersen.com domain name from the Andersen accounting firm.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 47062515, 39878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 153 ], [ 336, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many partners formed new companies or were acquired by other consulting firms. Examples include:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 60% of the total Andersen practices globally merged into Ernst & Young, with some going to Deloitte (notably UK, Spain and Portugal)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Accuracy which was founded in 2004 by a team of seven former partners and is headquartered in Paris", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 43448541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andersen Tax which acquired the rights to the company name and changed their name from WTAS in 2014", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 47062515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " BearingPoint, formerly the US consulting unit spun off by KPMG, which purchased Andersen business consulting practices in France and Spain", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 201806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Huron Consulting Group", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 29311972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " West Monroe Partners which was founded in 2002 by four former consultants, based in Chicago", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39160969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " KPMG which absorbed the computer forensics division based in Cypress, CA and the Boise, Kansas City, Philadelphia, Portland, Salt Lake City and Seattle offices, among others", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 75960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Navigant Consulting which absorbed eleven partners in Chicago and Washington D.C.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18524596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Perot Systems which absorbed six partners", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7272554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Protiviti was formed in 2002 by hiring more than 700 professionals who had been affiliated with the internal audit, business and technology risk consulting practice of Arthur Andersen", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 502510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SMART Business Advisory and Consulting which absorbed some of the Philadelphia office", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12549568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " jcba Limited which was founded by a partner from the aviation practice", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Grant Thornton International which absorbed the North Carolina, South Carolina, Albuquerque, and Tulsa offices", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10775372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " True Partners Consulting", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Accounting scandals", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23550312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Conspiracy of Fools", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1818842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Corporate abuse", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 562651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " David J. Lesar", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2003113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timeline of the Enron scandal", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11954274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] } ]

[ "Accounting_scandals", "Consulting_firms_established_in_1913", "Financial_services_companies_established_in_1913", "Financial_services_companies_disestablished_in_2002", "Corporate_crime", "Defunct_financial_services_companies_of_the_United_States", "Enron", "Defunct_companies_based_in_Chicago", "Defunct_accounting_firms_of_the_United_States", "1913_establishments_in_Illinois" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "None of the \"firms\" within the Big Four is actually a single firm; rather, they are professional services networks. Each is a network of firms, owned and managed independently, which have entered into agreements with the other member firms in the network to share a common name, brand, intellectual property, and quality standards. Each network has established a global entity to co-ordinate the activities of the network.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Legal structure", "target_page_ids": [ 32910584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until 2020, KPMG, was the only Big Four firm not registered as a UK private company, but rather the co-ordinating entity was a Swiss association (verein). However, KPMG International changed its legal structure from a verein to a co-operative under Swiss law in 2003, then to a UK limited company in 2020. For Deloitte, PricewaterhouseCoopers and Ernst & Young, the co-ordinating entity is a UK limited company. Those entities do not themselves perform external professional services, nor do they own or control the member firms. Nevertheless, these networks colloquially are referred to as \"firms\" for the sake of simplicity and to reduce confusion with lay-people. These accounting and professional services networks are similar in nature to how law firm networks in the legal profession work.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Legal structure", "target_page_ids": [ 75960, 3470429, 89313, 586015, 148172, 59906, 538325, 32933085, 8165502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 16 ], [ 127, 144 ], [ 230, 242 ], [ 310, 318 ], [ 320, 342 ], [ 347, 360 ], [ 395, 410 ], [ 673, 683 ], [ 748, 764 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many cases, each member firm practices in a single country, and is structured to comply with the regulatory environment in that country.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Legal structure", "target_page_ids": [ 48423549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ernst & Young also includes separate legal entities which manage three of its four geographic areas: the Americas, Asia-Pacific, and EMEIA (Europe, the Middle East, India and Africa) groups, the fourth area being Japan, which has no larger co-ordination branch. These entities coordinate services performed by local firms within their respective areas, but do not perform services or hold ownership in the local entities. There are rare exceptions to this convention; in 2007, KPMG announced a merger of four internationally distinct member firms (in the United Kingdom, Germany, Switzerland and Liechtenstein) to form a single firm, KPMG Europe LLP.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Legal structure", "target_page_ids": [ 75960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 634, 649 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the 1980s, numerous mergers and one major scandal involving Arthur Andersen, have reduced the number of major professional-services firms from eight to four.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [ 20769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The firms were called the Big Eight for most of the 20th century, reflecting the international dominance of the eight largest firms:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Arthur Andersen", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [ 38797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arthur Young", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [ 59906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Coopers & Lybrand", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [ 148172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Deloitte Haskins & Sells", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [ 586015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ernst & Whinney", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [ 59906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peat Marwick Mitchell", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [ 75960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Price Waterhouse", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [ 148172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Touche Ross", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [ 586015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of the Big Eight originated in an alliance formed between British and US audit firms in the 19th or early 20th centuries. The firms' initial international expansion were driven by the needs of British and American based multinationals for worldwide service. They expanded by forming local partnerships, or by forming alliances with local firms. Arthur Andersen was the exception: the firm originated in the United States, and then expanded internationally by establishing its own offices in other markets, including the United Kingdom.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [ 214491, 38797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 239 ], [ 350, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Price Waterhouse was a UK firm which opened a US office in 1890, and later established a separate US partnership. The UK and US Peat Marwick Mitchell firms adopted a common name in 1925. Other firms used separate names for domestic business, and did not adopt common names until much later. For instance, Touche Ross was named such in 1960, Arthur Young, McLelland, Moores & Co in 1968, Coopers & Lybrand in 1973, Deloitte Haskins & Sells in 1978 and Ernst & Whinney in 1979. Even now, Deloitte's technical name is Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited, which reflects its history of mergers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1980s the Big 8, each with global branding, adopted modern marketing and grew rapidly. They merged with many smaller firms. KPMG was the result of one of the largest of these mergers. In 1987, Peat Marwick merged with the Klynveld Main Goerdeler group to become KPMG Peat Marwick, later known simply as KPMG. Note that this was not the result of a merger between any of the Big Eight.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Competition among these firms intensified, and the BigEight became the BigSix in 1989. In that year, Ernst & Whinney merged with Arthur Young to form Ernst & Young in June, and Deloitte, Haskins & Sells merged with Touche Ross to form Deloitte & Touche in August.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Big Six after both mergers occurred were:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arthur Andersen", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Coopers & Lybrand", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Deloitte & Touche", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ernst & Young", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "KPMG", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Price Waterhouse", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There has been some merging of ancestor firms, in some localities, which would aggregate brands belonging to the Big Four today, but in different combinations than the present-day names would otherwise suggest. For example, the United Kingdom local firm of Deloitte, Haskins & Sells merged instead with the United Kingdom firm of Coopers & Lybrand. The resulting firm was called Coopers & Lybrand Deloitte, and the local firm of Touche Ross kept its original name. It wasn't until the mid-1990s that both UK firms changed their names to match those of their respective international organizations. Meanwhile, in Australia, the local firm of Touche Ross merged instead with KPMG. It is for these reasons that the Deloitte & Touche international organization was known as DRT International (later DTT International), to avoid use of names which would have been ambiguous, as well as contested, in certain markets.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1998, the Big Six became the BigFive when Price Waterhouse merged with Coopers & Lybrand to form PricewaterhouseCoopers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Big Five at this point in time were:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arthur Andersen", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Deloitte & Touche", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ernst & Young", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "KPMG", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "PricewaterhouseCoopers", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Finally, the insolvency of Arthur Andersen stemming from their involvement in the 2001 Enron Scandal produced the Big Four:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [ 11954274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Deloitte & Touche (now known as Deloitte)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [ 586015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ernst & Young (now known as EY)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [ 59906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "KPMG", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [ 75960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "PricewaterhouseCoopers (now known as PwC)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [ 148172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Enron collapse and ensuing investigation prompted scrutiny of the company's financial reporting and its long time auditor, Arthur Andersen. The company was indicted for obstruction of justice for shredding documents related to the audit of Enron. The resulting conviction, although later overturned, doomed Arthur Andersen, because most clients dropped the firm, and the company was allowed to take on new clients while they were under investigation. Most of Arthur Andersen’s international practices were sold to members of what is now the Big Four – notably EY globally; Deloitte in the United Kingdom, Canada, Spain, and Brazil; and PwC in China and Hong Kong.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [ 10166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Big Four were all derived from a series of global mergers, the charts show year of formation through merger, or adoption of single brand name.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of mergers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Big Four Accounting Firm Revenues (US$ bn)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Revenue comparison", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Revenue gap to largest firm (%)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Revenue comparison", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Revenue gap to largest firm (US$ bn)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Revenue comparison", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, Deloitte, with its 1.8% growth, was able to outpace PricewaterhouseCoopers' 1.5% growth, gaining \"first place\" in revenue size, and became the largest firm in the professional services industry. In 2011, PwC re-gained first place with 10% revenue growth. In 2013, these two firms claimed the top two spots with only a $200 million revenue difference, that is, within half a percent. However, Deloitte saw faster growth than PwC over the next few years (largely due to acquisitions) and reclaimed the title of largest of the Big Four in Fiscal Year 2016.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Revenue comparison", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It was estimated that the Big Four had about a 67% share of the global accountancy market in 2012, while most of the rest was divided among so called mid-tier players, such as BDO, Crowe Global and Grant Thornton.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Revenue comparison", "target_page_ids": [ 54862835, 9413903, 10775372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 179 ], [ 181, 193 ], [ 198, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A 2019 analysis by Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) in the United States observed that the big four accounting firms bungled almost 31% of their audits since 2009. In another project study on government oversight, it was seen that while the auditors colluded to present audit reports that pleased their clients, the times they didn't resulted in a loss of business. Despite this large-scale collusion in audits, the PCAOB in its 16-year history has only made 18 enforcement cases against the \"big four\". Although these auditors have failed audits in 31% of cases (808 cases in total), they have only faced action by PCAOB in 6.6% of the cases. KPMG at that point had never been fined despite having the worst audit failure rate of 36.6%.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 2802415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As per the Financial Reporting Council (FRC) none of the Big Four – Deloitte, EY, KPMG, and PwC managed to surpass the 90% target of its audits. The inefficiency in audit was resulting in a loss of investors' money, people's pension plans, stakeholders' livelihoods and was putting a question mark on the credibility of audited financial statements. \"At a time when the future of the audit sector is under the microscope, the latest audit quality results are not acceptable,\" said Stephen Haddrill, the FRC's Chief executive. Multiple ethics scandals and questionable practices across the globe led to multi-million dollar fines and subsequent settlements by all the Big Four firms.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite repeated sanctions from regulators, the Big Four have seen continued challenges to audit quality and ethics as the 2020 decade comes to a close.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In May 2018, KPMG was accused of being \"complicit\" in signing off Carillion's \"increasingly fantastical figures\" before Carillion ultimately collapsed.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 3158583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2020, PwC faces allegations of potential conflict of interest in its audit of Sonangol, given its dual roles of both auditor and consultant.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 1973875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2020, Deloitte was fined £15million (US$19.4million) by the FRC for failing to apply sufficient professional skepticism in its audits of Autonomy's 2009 to 2011 financial statements prior to Autonomy's acquisition by Hewlett-Packard.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 670916, 21347024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 158 ], [ 230, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2020, EY was accused of poor auditing for failing to discover that €1.9 billion in cash was missing at Wirecard AG, precipitating Wirecard's collapse and eventual sale to Santander Bank for €100million in November 2020.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 64387791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Australian taxation expert George Rozvany, the Big Four are \"the masterminds of multinational tax avoidance and the architects of tax schemes which cost governments and their taxpayers an estimated a year\". At the same time they are advising governments on tax reforms, they are advising their multinational clients on how to avoid taxes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 447435, 308206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 120 ], [ 271, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the wake of industry concentration and the occasional firm failure, the issue of a credible alternative industry structure has been raised. The limiting factor on the expansion of the Big Four to include additional firms, is that although some of the firms in the next tier have become quite substantially large, or have formed international networks, effectively all large public companies insist on having an audit performed by a Big Four network. This creates the complication that smaller firms have no way to compete well enough to make it into the top end of the market.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 3677538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Documents published in June 2010 show that some UK companies' banking covenants required them to use one of the Big Four. This approach from the lender prevents firms in the next tier from competing for audit work for such companies. The British Bankers' Association said that such clauses are rare. Current discussions in the UK consider outlawing such clauses.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 11486363, 413003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 79 ], [ 238, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2011, the Irish Director of Corporate Enforcement Paul Appleby said that auditors \"report surprisingly few types of company law offences to us\", with the so-called \"big four\" auditing firms reporting the least often to his office, at just 5% of all reports.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 6448741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2011, the House of Lords of United Kingdom completed an inquiry into the financial crisis, and called for an Office of Fair Trading investigation into the dominance of the Big Four. In September 2019, Bloomberg News reported that The Big Four controlled 95% of the FTSE 250 audit market by client numbers and 96% by market capitalization in August 2019, according to Adviser Rankings.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 13658, 2914114, 3057255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 27 ], [ 112, 134 ], [ 204, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, an Australian parliamentary committee was told that the heads of the Big Four firms have met regularly for dinner. The revelation was among issues which led to an inquiry by the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission into possible collusion in the selling of audit and other services. However, Ernst & Young told the inquiry that the dinners, which were held once or twice a year, were to discuss industry trends and issues of corporate culture such as inclusion and diversity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 485929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The January 2018 collapse of the UK construction and services company Carillion raised further questions about the Big Four, all of which had advised the company before its liquidation. On 13 February 2018, the Big Four were described by Member of Parliament (MP) and chair of the Work and Pensions Select Committee Frank Field as \"feasting on what was soon to become a carcass\" after collecting fees of £72m for Carillion work during the years leading up to its collapse. The final report of a Parliamentary inquiry into the collapse of Carillion, published on 16 May 2018, accused the Big Four accounting firms of being a \"cosy club\", with KPMG singled out for its \"complicity\" in signing off on Carillion's \"increasingly fantastical figures\" and internal auditor Deloitte accused of failing to identify, or ignoring, \"terminal failings\". The report recommended the Government refer the statutory audit market to the Competition and Markets Authority (CMA), urging consideration of breaking up the Big Four. In September 2018, Business Secretary Greg Clark announced he had asked the CMA to conduct an inquiry into competition in the audit sector, and on 9 October 2018, the CMA announced it had launched a detailed study. In July 2020, the UK Financial Reporting Council told the Big Four that they must submit plans by October 2020 to separate their audit and consultancy operations by 2024.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 3158583, 3776360, 12241071, 413976, 38980995, 51142104, 46437939, 4176089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 79 ], [ 238, 258 ], [ 281, 315 ], [ 316, 327 ], [ 919, 952 ], [ 1029, 1047 ], [ 1048, 1058 ], [ 1246, 1273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Accounting network", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32933085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Big Three (management consultancies)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27964824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Luxembourg leaks", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 44318921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Panama Papers", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 50034356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Professional services network", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32910584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " — Deloitte", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 586015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " — Ernst & Young (EY)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 59906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " — KPMG", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 75960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " — PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 148172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ] ] } ]

[ "Accounting_firms", "Tax_avoidance", "Anti-corporate_activism" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Galanthus (from Ancient Greek , (, \"milk\") + (, \"flower\")), or snowdrop, is a small genus of approximately 20 species of bulbous perennial herbaceous plants in the family Amaryllidaceae. The plants have two linear leaves and a single small white drooping bell-shaped flower with six petal-like (petaloid) tepals in two circles (whorls). The smaller inner petals have green markings.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 148363, 38493, 21780446, 51260, 733199, 234098, 56276, 31736190, 18973622, 4576465, 169493, 493427, 29005044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 29 ], [ 85, 90 ], [ 111, 118 ], [ 122, 126 ], [ 130, 139 ], [ 140, 156 ], [ 165, 171 ], [ 172, 186 ], [ 215, 221 ], [ 268, 274 ], [ 296, 304 ], [ 306, 312 ], [ 329, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Snowdrops have been known since the earliest times under various names, but were named Galanthus in 1753. As the number of recognised species increased, various attempts were made to divide the species into subgroups, usually on the basis of the pattern of the emerging leaves (vernation). In the era of molecular phylogenetics this characteristic has been shown to be unreliable and now seven molecularly defined clades are recognised that correspond to the biogeographical distribution of species. New species continue to be discovered.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 73391, 149544, 6682, 99358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 287 ], [ 304, 327 ], [ 414, 420 ], [ 459, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most species flower in winter, before the vernal equinox (20 or 21 March in the Northern Hemisphere), but some flower in early spring and late autumn. Sometimes snowdrops are confused with the two related genera within the tribe Galantheae, snowflakes Leucojum and Acis.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1730537, 22126, 316532, 3049, 217858, 43811734, 476064, 22984890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 56 ], [ 80, 99 ], [ 127, 133 ], [ 143, 149 ], [ 223, 228 ], [ 229, 239 ], [ 252, 260 ], [ 265, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All species of Galanthus are perennial petaloid herbaceous bulbous (growing from bulbs) monocot plants. The genus is characterised by the presence of two leaves, pendulous white flowers with six free perianth segments in two whorls. The inner whorl is smaller than the outer whorl and has green markings.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 21780446, 733199, 169493, 234098, 51260, 55625, 38493, 18973622, 4576465, 1770564, 29005044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ], [ 29, 38 ], [ 39, 47 ], [ 48, 58 ], [ 81, 85 ], [ 88, 95 ], [ 108, 113 ], [ 154, 160 ], [ 178, 185 ], [ 200, 208 ], [ 225, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Leaves", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These are basal, emerging from the bulb initially enclosed in a tubular membranous sheath of cataphylls. Generally, these are two (sometimes three) in number and linear, strap-shaped, or oblanceolate. Vernation, the arrangement of the emerging leaves relative to each other, varies among species. These may be applanate (flat), supervolute (conduplicate), or explicative (pleated). In applanate vernation the two leaf blades are pressed flat to each other within the bud and as they emerge; explicative leaves are also pressed flat against each other, but the edges of the leaves are folded back (externally recurved) or sometimes rolled; in supervolute plants, one leaf is tightly clasped around the other within the bud and generally remains at the point where the leaves emerge from the soil (for illustration, see Stearn and Davis). In the past, this feature has been used to distinguish between species and to determine the parentage of hybrids, but now has been shown to be homoplasious, and not useful in this regard.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 32297007, 1079412, 73391, 82804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 103 ], [ 187, 199 ], [ 201, 210 ], [ 980, 992 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The scape (flowering stalk) is erect, leafless, terete, or compressed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 4091815, 43933350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ], [ 48, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inflorescence ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the top of the scape is a pair of bract-like spathes (valves) usually fused down one side and joined by a papery membrane, appearing monophyllous (single). From between the spathes emerges a solitary (rarely two), pendulous, nodding, bell-shaped white flower, held on a slender pedicel. The flower bears six free perianth segments (tepals) rather than true petals, arranged in two whorls of three, the outer whorl being larger and more convex than the inner whorl. The outer tepals are acute to more or less obtuse, spathulate or oblanceolate to narrowly obovate or linear, shortly clawed, and erect spreading. The inner tepals are much shorter (half to two thirds as long), oblong, spathulate or oblanceolate, somewhat unguiculate (claw like); tapering to the base and erect. These tepals also bear green markings at the base, the apex, or both, that when at the apex, are bridge-shaped over the small sinus (notch) at the tip of each tepal, which are emarginate. Occasionally the markings are either green-yellow, yellow, or absent, and the shape and size varies by species.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 4091815, 612098, 612098, 18238240, 11235593, 1770564, 493427, 169493, 1079412, 1079412, 18238240, 1079412, 12765060, 1079412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 23 ], [ 37, 42 ], [ 48, 54 ], [ 136, 148 ], [ 281, 288 ], [ 316, 324 ], [ 335, 340 ], [ 360, 366 ], [ 489, 494 ], [ 511, 517 ], [ 519, 529 ], [ 558, 565 ], [ 906, 911 ], [ 956, 966 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Androecium ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The six stamens are inserted at the base of the perianth, and are very short (shorter than the inner perianth segments), the anthers basifixed (attached at their bases) with filaments much shorter than the anthers; they dehisce (open) by terminal pores or short slits.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 193031, 2321613, 85746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 15 ], [ 220, 227 ], [ 247, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gynoecium, fruit and seeds", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The inferior ovary is three-celled. The style is slender and longer than the anthers; the stigma is minutely capitate. The ovary ripens into a three-celled capsule fruit. This fruit is fleshy, ellipsoid or almost spherical, opening by three flaps, with seeds that are light brown to white and oblong with a small appendage or tail (elaiosome) containing substances attractive to ants, which distribute the seeds.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 3449340, 2637500, 2637500, 2637500, 310441, 3876996, 2594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 40, 45 ], [ 90, 96 ], [ 109, 117 ], [ 156, 163 ], [ 332, 341 ], [ 379, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The chromosome number is 2n=24.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 23219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Floral formula: ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 35262788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The genus Galanthus is native to Europe and the Middle East, from the Spanish and French Pyrenees in the west through to the Caucasus and Iran in the east, and south to Sicily, the Peloponnese, the Aegean, Turkey, Lebanon, and Syria. The northern limit is uncertain because G. nivalis has been widely introduced and cultivated throughout Europe. G. nivalis and some other species valued as ornamentals have become widely naturalised in Europe, North America, and other regions. In the Udmurt republic of Russia, Galanthus are found even above the 56th parallel.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 24707, 39282, 14653, 27619, 45749, 427887, 11125639, 17771, 7515849, 394815, 216260, 216428, 2280670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 97 ], [ 125, 133 ], [ 138, 142 ], [ 169, 175 ], [ 181, 192 ], [ 198, 204 ], [ 206, 212 ], [ 214, 221 ], [ 227, 232 ], [ 301, 311 ], [ 316, 326 ], [ 390, 401 ], [ 421, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galanthus nivalis is the best-known and most widespread representative of the genus Galanthus. It is native to a large area of Europe, stretching from the Pyrenees in the west, through France and Germany to Poland in the north, Italy, northern Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, and European Turkey. It has been introduced and is widely naturalised elsewhere. Although it is often thought of as a British native wild flower, or to have been brought to the British Isles by the Romans, it most likely was introduced around the early sixteenth century, and is currently not a protected species in the UK. It was first recorded as naturalised in the UK in Worcestershire and Gloucestershire in 1770. Most other Galanthus species are from the eastern Mediterranean, while several are found in the Caucasus, in southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. Galanthus fosteri is found in Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, and, perhaps, Palestine.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 7500007, 33778, 47751, 39282, 1114732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 284, 299 ], [ 654, 668 ], [ 673, 688 ], [ 794, 802 ], [ 934, 943 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most Galanthus species grow best in woodland, in acid or alkaline soil, although some are grassland or mountain species.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 66986, 106001, 198842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 44 ], [ 49, 53 ], [ 90, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Snowdrops have been known since early times, being described by the classical Greek author Theophrastus, in the fourth century BCE, in his Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία (Latin: Historia plantarum, Enquiry into plants). He gave it, and similar plants, the name λευκόἲον (λευκος, leukos \"white\" and ἰόν, ion \"violet\") from which the later name Leucojum was derived. He described the plant as \"ἑπεἰ τοῖς γε χρώμασι λευκἂ καἱ οὐ λεπυριώδη\" (in colour white and bulbs without scales) and of their habits \"Ἰῶν δ' ἁνθῶν τὀ μἑν πρῶτον ἑκφαἱνεται τὁ λευκόἲον, ὅπου μἑν ό ἀἠρ μαλακώτερος εὐθὑς τοῦ χειμῶνος, ὅπου δἐ σκληρότερος ὕστερον, ἑνιαχοῡ τοῡ ἣρος\" (Of the flowers, the first to appear is the white violet. Where the climate is mild, it appears with the first sign of winter, but in more severe climates, later in spring)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 42056, 98409, 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 83 ], [ 91, 103 ], [ 159, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rembert Dodoens, a Flemish botanist, described and illustrated this plant in 1583 as did Gerard in England in 1597 (probably using much of Dodoens' material), calling it Leucojum bulbosum praecox (Early bulbous violet). Gerard refers to Theophrastus's description as Viola alba or Viola bulbosa, using Pliny's translation, and comments that the plant had originated in Italy and had \"taken possession\" in England \"many years past\". The genus was formally named Galanthus and described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, with the single species, Galanthus nivalis, which is the type species. Consequently, Linnaeus is granted the botanical authority. In doing so, he distinguished this genus and species from Leucojum (Leucojum bulbosum trifolium minus), a name by which it previously had been known.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 893312, 38582368, 482347, 44920, 38493, 5233, 21780446, 2731208, 533069, 3107984, 476064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 19, 26 ], [ 89, 95 ], [ 302, 307 ], [ 436, 441 ], [ 488, 501 ], [ 527, 534 ], [ 536, 553 ], [ 568, 572 ], [ 620, 639 ], [ 699, 707 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1763 Michel Adanson began a system of arranging genera in families. Using the synonym Acrocorion (also spelt Akrokorion), he placed Galanthus in the family Liliaceae, section Narcissi. Lamarck provided a description of the genus in his encyclopedia (1786), and later, Illustrations des genres (1793). In 1789 de Jussieu, who is credited with the modern concept of genera organised in families, placed Galanthus and related genera within a division of Monocotyledons, using a modified form of Linnaeus' sexual classification, but with the respective topography of stamens to carpels rather than just their numbers. In doing so he restored the name Galanthus and retained their placement under Narcissi, this time as a family (known as Ordo, at that time) and referred to the French vernacular name, Perce-neige (Snow-pierce), based on the plants tendency to push through early spring snow (see Ecology for illustration)]. The modern family of Amaryllidaceae, in which Galanthus is placed, dates to Jaume Saint-Hilaire (1805) who replaced Jussieu's Narcissi with Amaryllidées. In 1810 Brown proposed that a subgroup of Liliaceae be distinguished on the basis of the position of the ovaries and be referred to as Amaryllideae, and in 1813, de Candolle separated them by describing Liliacées and Amaryllidées as two quite separate families. However, in his comprehensive survey of the Flora of France (Flore française, 1805–1815) he divided Liliaceae into a series of Ordres, and placed Galanthus into the Narcissi Ordre. This relationship of Galanthus to either liliaceous or amaryllidaceaous taxa (see Taxonomy of Liliaceae) was to last for another two centuries until the two were formally divided at the end of the twentieth century. Lindley (1830) followed this general pattern, placing Galanthus and related genera such as Amaryllis and Narcissus in his Amaryllideae (which he called The Narcissus Tribe in English). By 1853, the number of known plants was increasing considerably and he revised his schema in his last work, placing Galanthus together, and the other two genera in the modern Galantheae in tribe Amarylleae, order Amaryllidaceae, alliance Narcissales. These three genera have been treated together taxonomically by most authors, on the basis of an inferior ovary. As the number of plant species increased, so did the taxonomic complexity. By the time Bentham and Hooker published their Genera plantarum (1862–1883) ordo Amaryllideae contained five tribes, and tribe Amarylleae 3 subtribes (see Bentham & Hooker system). They placed Galanthus in subtribe Genuinae and included three species.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 458553, 8166296, 167883, 145704, 63439, 56276, 19294750, 55625, 31736190, 14208666, 333483, 3449340, 404399, 4467540, 42056883, 892276, 1680, 142854, 43811734, 373425, 364723, 4345598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 22 ], [ 81, 88 ], [ 159, 168 ], [ 188, 195 ], [ 312, 322 ], [ 387, 395 ], [ 442, 450 ], [ 454, 468 ], [ 945, 959 ], [ 1000, 1019 ], [ 1086, 1091 ], [ 1183, 1190 ], [ 1240, 1251 ], [ 1403, 1418 ], [ 1605, 1626 ], [ 1739, 1746 ], [ 1830, 1839 ], [ 1844, 1853 ], [ 2099, 2109 ], [ 2374, 2381 ], [ 2386, 2392 ], [ 2517, 2540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galanthus is one of three closely related genera making up the tribe Galantheae within subfamily Amaryllidoideae (family Amaryllidaceae). Sometimes snowdrops are confused with the other two genera, Leucojum and Acis (both called snowflakes). Leucojum species are much larger and flower in spring (or early summer, depending on the species), with all six tepals in the flower being the same size, although some \"poculiform\" (goblet- or cup-shaped) Galanthus species may have inner segments similar in shape and length to the outer ones. Galantheae are likely to have arisen in the Caucusus.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 43811734, 40540931, 31736190, 476064, 22984890, 493427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 79 ], [ 97, 112 ], [ 121, 135 ], [ 198, 206 ], [ 211, 215 ], [ 354, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galanthus has approximately 20 species, but new species continue to be described. G. trojanus was identified in Turkey in 2001. G. panjutinii (Panjutin's snowdrop) was discovered in 2012 in five locations in a small area (estimated at ) of the northern Colchis area (western Transcaucasus) of Georgia and Russia. G. samothracicus was identified in Greece in 2014. Since it has not been subjected to genetic sequencing, it remains unplaced. It resembles G. nivalis, but is outside the distribution of that species.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 81958, 353358, 48768, 25391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 253, 260 ], [ 275, 288 ], [ 293, 300 ], [ 305, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many species are difficult to identify, however, and traditional infrageneric classification based on plant morphology alone, such as those of Stern (1956), Traub (1963) and Davis (1999, 2001), has not reflected what is known about its evolutionary history, due to the morphological similarities among the species and relative lack of easily discernible distinguishing characteristics. Stern divided the genus into three series according to leaf vernation (the way the leaves are folded in the bud, when viewed in transverse section, see Description);", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 7556348, 51168923, 17506168, 12305127, 73391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 118 ], [ 143, 148 ], [ 157, 162 ], [ 236, 256 ], [ 446, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " section Nivales (flat leaves)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " section Plicati (plicate leaves)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 18238240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " section Latifolii (convolute leaves)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 36509244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stern further utilised characteristics such as the markings of the inner segments, length of the pedicels in relation to the spathe, and the colour and shape of the leaves in identifying and classifying species", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Traub considered them as subgenera;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 185907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " subgenus Galanthus", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " subgenus Plicatanthus ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " subgenus Platyphyllanthe ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By contrast Davis, with much more information and specimens, included biogeography in addition to vernation, forming two series. He used somewhat different terminology for vernation, namely applanate (flat), explicative (plicate), and supervolute (convolute). He merged Nivalis and Plicati into series Galanthus, and divided Latifolii into two subseries, Glaucaefolii and Viridifolii .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 99358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early molecular phylogenetic studies confirmed the genus was monophyletic and suggested four clades, which were labelled as series, and showed that Davis' subseries were not monophyletic. An expanded study in 2013 demonstrated seven major clades, corresponding to biogeographical distribution. This study used nuclear encoded nrITS (Nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer), and plastid encoded matK (Maturase K), trnL-F, ndhF, and psbK–psbI, and examined all species recognised at the time, as well as two naturally occurring putative hybrids. The morphological characteristic of vernation that earlier authors had mainly relied on was shown to be highly homoplasious. A number of species, such as G. nivalis and G. elwesii demonstrated intraspecific biogeographical clades, indicating problems with speciation and there may be a need for recircumscription. These clades were assigned names, partly according to Davis' previous groupings. In this model clade, the group containing G. platyphyllus is sister to the rest of the genus.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 149544, 20611, 6682, 1207395, 99358, 1226339, 153522, 41206357, 41716790, 41244, 82804, 29000, 19387586, 2438185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 28 ], [ 61, 73 ], [ 93, 99 ], [ 124, 130 ], [ 264, 279 ], [ 328, 331 ], [ 385, 392 ], [ 407, 417 ], [ 428, 432 ], [ 542, 549 ], [ 662, 674 ], [ 807, 817 ], [ 846, 863 ], [ 1007, 1013 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By contrast, another study performed at the same time, using both nuclear and chloroplast DNA, but limited to the 14 species found in Turkey, largely confirmed Davis' series and subseries, and with biogeographical correlation. Series Galanthus in this study corresponded to clade nivalis, subseries Glaucaefolii with clade Elwesii and subseries Viridifolii with clades Woronowii and Alpinus. However, the model did not provide complete resolution.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 1590640, 25777451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 73 ], [ 78, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "sensu Ronsted et al. 2013", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Platyphyllus clade (Caucasus, W. Transcaucasus, NE Turkey)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 39282, 353358, 11125639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 29 ], [ 34, 47 ], [ 52, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus krasnovii 1963", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus platyphyllus 1948", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus panjutinii 2012", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Trojanus clade (NW Turkey)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus trojanus 2001", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ikariae clade (Aegean Islands)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 427887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus ikariae 1893", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Elwesii clade (Turkey, Aegean Islands, SE Europe)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus cilicicus 1897", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus elwesii 1875 (2 variants)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 51891386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus gracilis 1891", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus peshmenii 1994", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nivalis clade (Europe, NW Turkey)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus nivalis 1753", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 2731208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus plicatus 1819 (2 subspecies)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 56153327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus reginae-olgae 1874 (2 subspecies)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 56124428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Woronowii clade (Caucasus, E. and NE Turkey, N. Iran)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 14653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus fosteri 1889", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus lagodechianus 1947", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus rizehensis 1956", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus woronowii 1935", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 42747298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alpinus clade (Caucasus, NE Turkey, N.Iran)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus × allenii 1891", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus angustifolius 1951", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus alpinus (2 variants) 1911", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus koenenianus 1993", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus transcaucasicus 1909", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Unplaced", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus bursanus 2019 (NW Turkey)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 64806907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus samothracicus 2014 (Greece)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Selected species", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Common snowdrop, Galanthus nivalis, grows to around 7–15cm tall, flowering between January and April in the northern temperate zone (January–May in the wild). Applanate vernation Grown as ornamental.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 2731208, 216428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 35 ], [ 189, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crimean snowdrop, Galanthus plicatus, 30cm tall, flowering January/March, white flowers, with broad leaves folded back at the edges (explicative vernation)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Giant snowdrop, Galanthus elwesii, a native of the Levant, 23cm tall, flowering January/February, with large flowers, the three inner segments of which often have a much larger and more conspicuous green blotch (or blotches) than the more common kinds; supervolute vernation. Grown as ornamental.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 18138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus reginae-olgae, from Greece and Sicily, is quite similar in appearance to G. nivalis, but flowers in autumn before the leaves appear. The leaves, which appear in the spring, have a characteristic white stripe on their upper side; applanate vernation", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12108, 27619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 37 ], [ 42, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " G. reginae-olgae subsp. vernalis, from Sicily, northern Greece and the southern part of former Yugoslavia, blooms at the end of the winter with developed young leaves and is thus easily confused with G. nivalis.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Galanthus is derived from the Greek γάλα (gala), meaning \"milk\" and ἄνθος (anthos) meaning \"flower\", alluding to the colour of the flowers. The epithet nivalis is derived from the Latin, meaning \"of the snow\". The word \"Snowdrop\" may be derived from the German Schneetropfen (snow-drop), the tear drop shaped pearl earrings popular in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Other, earlier, common names include Candlemas bells, Fair maids of February, and White ladies (see Symbols).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 11887, 514444, 17730, 11884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 35 ], [ 144, 151 ], [ 180, 185 ], [ 254, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Snowdrops are hardy herbaceous plants that perennate by underground bulbs. They are among the earliest spring bulbs to bloom, although a few forms of G. nivalis are autumn flowering. In colder climates, they will emerge through snow (see illustration). They naturalise relatively easily forming large drifts. These are often sterile, found near human habitation, and also former monastic sites. The leaves die back a few weeks after the flowers have faded. Galanthus plants are relatively vigorous and may spread rapidly by forming bulb offsets. They also spread by dispersal of seed, animals disturbing bulbs, and water if disturbed by floods.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 1135529, 234098, 41710955, 51260, 709064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 19 ], [ 20, 30 ], [ 43, 52 ], [ 68, 73 ], [ 537, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some snowdrop species are threatened in their wild habitats, due to habitat destruction, illegal collecting, and climate change. In most countries collecting bulbs from the wild is now illegal. Under CITES regulations, international trade in any quantity of Galanthus, whether bulbs, live plants, or even dead ones, is illegal without a CITES permit. This applies to hybrids and named cultivars, as well as species. CITES lists all species, but allows a limited trade in wild-collected bulbs of just three species (G. nivalis, G. elwesii, and G. woronowii) from Turkey and Georgia. A number of species are on the IUCN Red List of threatened species, with the conservation status being G. trojanus as critically endangered, four species vulnerable, G. nivalis is near threatened and several species show decreasing populations. G. panjutinii is considered endangered. One of its five known sites, at Sochi, was destroyed by preparations for the 2014 Winter Olympics.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [ 1596317, 1707053, 5042951, 6201, 101884, 153625, 1928089, 7451605, 25986983, 5544616, 20110668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 59 ], [ 68, 87 ], [ 113, 127 ], [ 200, 205 ], [ 613, 617 ], [ 618, 626 ], [ 659, 678 ], [ 700, 721 ], [ 736, 746 ], [ 762, 777 ], [ 855, 865 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galanthus species and cultivars are extremely popular as symbols of spring and are traded more than any other wild-source ornamental bulb genus. Millions of bulbs are exported annually from Turkey and Georgia. For instance export quotas for 2016 for G. elwesii were 7 million for Turkey. Quotas for G. worononowii were 5 million for Turkey and 15 million for Georgia. These figures include both wild-taken and artificially propagated bulbs.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 48768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 201, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Celebrated as a sign of spring, snowdrops may form impressive carpets of white in areas where they are native or have been naturalised. These displays may attract large numbers of sightseers. There are a number of snowdrop gardens in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. Several gardens open specially in February for visitors to admire the flowers. Sixty gardens took part in Scotland's first Snowdrop Festival (1 Feb–11 March 2007). Several gardens in England open during snowdrop season for the National Gardens Scheme (NGS) and in Scotland for Scotland's Gardens. Colesbourne Park in Gloucestershire is one of the best known of the English snowdrop gardens, being the home of Henry John Elwes, a collector of Galanthus specimens, and after whom Galanthus elwesii is named.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 166590, 59791301, 47751, 2671546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 500, 523 ], [ 570, 586 ], [ 590, 605 ], [ 682, 698 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Numerous single- and double-flowered cultivars of Galanthus nivalis are known, and also of several other Galanthus species, particularly G. plicatus and G. elwesii. Also, many hybrids between these and other species exist (more than 500 cultivars are described in Bishop, Davis, and Grimshaw's book, plus lists of many cultivars that have now been lost, and others not seen by the authors). They differ particularly in the size, shape, and markings of the flower, the period of flowering, and other characteristics, mainly of interest to the keen (even fanatical) snowdrop collectors, known as \"galanthophiles\", who hold meetings where the scarcer cultivars change hands. Double-flowered cultivars and forms, such as the extremely common Galanthus nivalis f. pleniflorus 'Flore Pleno', may be less attractive to some people, but they can have greater visual impact in a garden setting. Cultivars with yellow markings and ovaries rather than the usual green are also grown, such as 'Wendy's Gold'. Many hybrids have also occurred in cultivation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 167906, 2330438, 544817, 41244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 46 ], [ 595, 608 ], [ 756, 758 ], [ 1002, 1009 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", the following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 57532, 2246486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 59 ], [ 62, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus 'Ailwyn' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus 'Atkinsii' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus 'Bertram Anderson' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus elwesii", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus elwesii 'Comet' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus elwesii 'Godfrey Owen' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus elwesii 'Mrs Macnamara' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus elwesii var. monostictus", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 267784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus 'John Gray' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus 'Lady Beatrix Stanley' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus 'Magnet' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus 'Merlin' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus nivalis", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 2731208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus nivalis f. pleniflorus 'Flore Pleno' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus nivalis 'Viridapice' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus plicatus", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus plicatus 'Augustus' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus plicatus 'Diggory' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus plicatus 'Three Ships' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus reginae-olgae subsp. reginae-olgae ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus 'S. Arnott' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus 'Spindlestone Surprise' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus 'Straffan' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus 'Trumps' ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galanthus woronowii", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Propagation is by offset bulbs, either by careful division of clumps in full growth (\"in the green\"), or removed when the plants are dormant, immediately after the leaves have withered; or by seeds sown either when ripe, or in spring. Professional growers and keen amateurs also use such methods as \"twin-scaling\" to increase the stock of choice cultivars quickly.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 2487443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 300, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Snowdrops contain an active lectin or agglutinin named GNA for Galanthus nivalis agglutinin.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Toxicity", "target_page_ids": [ 436414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1995, Árpád Pusztai genetically modified potatoes to express the GNA gene, which he discussed on a radio interview in 1998, and published in the Lancet in 1999. These remarks started the so-called Pusztai affair. This early research caused the GNA to be found in the edible part of the plant, i.e. in the potato.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Toxicity", "target_page_ids": [ 1945993, 12383, 29648202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ], [ 23, 43 ], [ 200, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Using improved techniques, 22 years later, in 2017, a research team at the Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China created another transgenic potato plant. These plants produce potatoes that do not contain any GNA. These plants express GNA in their leaves, stems, and roots. They show a reduction in the number of potato aphids and peach-potato aphids per plant of up to 50%.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Toxicity", "target_page_ids": [ 17032729, 250129, 5405, 4099290, 31300606, 21653248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 104 ], [ 106, 113 ], [ 115, 120 ], [ 137, 147 ], [ 320, 332 ], [ 338, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1983, Andreas Plaitakis and Roger Duvoisin suggested that the mysterious magical herb, moly, that appears in Homer's Odyssey is the snowdrop. An active substance in snowdrop is called galantamine, which, as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, could have acted as an antidote to Circe's poisons. Further supporting this notion are notes made during the fourth century BC by the Greek scholar Theophrastus who wrote in Historia plantarum that moly was \"used as an antidote against poisons\" although which specific poisons it was effective against remains unclear. Galantamine (or galanthamine) may be helpful in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, although it is not a cure; the substance also occurs naturally in daffodils and other narcissi.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Medicinal use", "target_page_ids": [ 17659098, 13633, 22349, 1214927, 23275741, 5956, 98409, 18914017, 142854, 142854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 94 ], [ 112, 117 ], [ 120, 127 ], [ 187, 198 ], [ 213, 243 ], [ 280, 285 ], [ 393, 405 ], [ 629, 648 ], [ 716, 724 ], [ 736, 744 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Snowdrops figure prominently in art and literature, often as a symbol in poetry of spring, purity, and religion (see Symbols), such as Walter de la Mare's poem The Snowdrop (1929). In this poem, he likened the triple tepals in each whorl (\"A triplet of green-pencilled snow\") to the Holy Trinity. He used snowdrop imagery several times in his poetry, such as Blow, Northern Wind (1950) – see Box. Another instance is the poem by Letitia Elizabeth Landon in which she asks \"Thou fairy gift from summer, Why art thou blooming now?\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 254469, 30511, 375464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 152 ], [ 283, 295 ], [ 430, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the fairy-tale play The Twelve Months by Russian writer Samuil Marshak, a greedy queen decrees that a basket of gold coins shall be rewarded to anyone who can bring her galanthus flowers in the dead of winter. A young orphan girl is sent out during a snow storm by her cruel stepmother to find the spirits of the 12 months of the year, who take pity on her and not only save her from freezing to death, but also make it possible for her to gather the flowers even in winter. The Soviet traditionally animated film The Twelve Months (1956), Lenfilm film The Twelve Months (1972) and the anime film Twelve Months (1980) (Sekai meisaku dowa mori wa ikiteiru in Japan) are based on this fairy-tale play.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2517475, 8811213, 574389, 15177971, 6790034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 74 ], [ 483, 542 ], [ 544, 551 ], [ 557, 581 ], [ 601, 621 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Snowdrops\" was the nickname that the British people gave during the Second World War to the military police of the United States Army (who were stationed in the UK preparatory to the invasion of the continent) because they wore a white helmet, gloves, gaiters, and Sam Browne belt against their olive drab uniforms.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 275990, 397085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 109 ], [ 267, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the German fairy tale, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, \"Snowdrop\" is used as an alternate name for the Princess Snow White.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 160108, 160108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 58 ], [ 117, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The short story The Snowdrop by Hans Christian Andersen follows the fate of a snowdrop from a bulb striving toward the light to a picked flower placed in a book of poetry.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 13550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Russian composer Tchaikovsky wrote a series of 12 piano pieces, each one named after a month of the year with a second name suggesting something associated with that month. His \"April\" piece is subnamed \"Snow Drop.\" The Russian climate having a later spring, and winter ending a bit later than in other places.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Johann Strauss II named his very successful waltz Schneeglöckchen (Snowdrops) op. 143 after this flower. The inspiration is especially evident in the cello introduction and in the slow unfurling of the opening waltz. Strauss composed this piece for a Russian Embassy dinner given at the Sperl ballroom in Vienna on 2 December 1853, but did not perform it publicly until the year 1854. The Sperl banquet was given in honour of her Excellency Frau Maria von Kalergis, daughter of the Russian diplomat and foreign minister Count Karl Nesselrode, and Strauss also dedicated his waltz to her.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 133392, 32895, 6558, 55866, 21491478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 45, 50 ], [ 151, 156 ], [ 306, 312 ], [ 447, 465 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early names refer to the association with the religious feast of Candlemas (February 2) the optimum flowering time in which white-robed young women proceeded in the procession associated with the Purification of the Virgin, an alternative name for the feast day. The French name of refers to Candlemas, while an Italian name, , refers to purification. The German name of (little snow bells) invokes the symbol of bells.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 180283, 4592625, 926554, 10597, 14708, 11884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 61 ], [ 65, 74 ], [ 196, 222 ], [ 267, 273 ], [ 313, 320 ], [ 357, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the language of flowers, the snowdrop is synonymous with 'hope', as it blooms in early springtime, just before the vernal equinox, and so, is seen as 'heralding' the new spring and new year.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 518268, 67396, 50020, 316532, 1730537, 10100, 3932687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 26 ], [ 44, 54 ], [ 61, 65 ], [ 90, 100 ], [ 118, 124 ], [ 125, 132 ], [ 154, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In more recent times, the snowdrop was adopted as a symbol of sorrow and of hope following the Dunblane massacre in Scotland, and lent its name to the subsequent campaign to restrict the legal ownership of handguns in the UK.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 59629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of snowdrop gardens", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34588428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chapter 2. Alan Meerow. Taxonomy and Phylogeny. pp. 17–55", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (see also, Naturalis Historia)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 74215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (see also, Bucolics)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1633271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " see also Species Plantarum", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 2011017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (see Encyclopédie méthodique)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 840102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " , in ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , in ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Articles", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Websites", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Amaryllidaceae_genera", "Medicinal_plants", "Amaryllidoideae", "Taxa_named_by_Carl_Linnaeus" ]

[ "snowdrops", "Snowdrop", "sněženka", "Galanthus" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Louis the Roman () (7 May 1328 – 17 May 1365) was the eldest son of Holy Roman Emperor, Louis IV the Bavarian, by his second wife, Margaret II, Countess of Hainaut, and a member of the House of Wittelsbach. Louis was Duke of Upper Bavaria as Louis VI (1347–1365) and Margrave of Brandenburg (1351–1365) as Louis II. As of 1356, he also served as Prince-Elector of Brandenburg.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 50853, 38802, 358964, 38848, 190061, 8206970, 14056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 86 ], [ 88, 109 ], [ 131, 163 ], [ 185, 205 ], [ 225, 238 ], [ 279, 290 ], [ 346, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis was born in Rome when his parents travelled there for his father's coronation as Holy Roman Emperor, hence his nickname \"the Roman\". When his father died in 1347, Louis succeeded him as Duke of Bavaria (as Louis VI) and Count of Holland and Hainaut together with his five brothers. Louis released Holland and Hainaut for his brothers William I and Albert I in 1349, since he expected to acquire the Polish crown by his marriage with Cunigunde of Poland, a daughter of Casimir III and Aldona Ona of Lithuania. Later claims against William and Albert were not successful. Hence Louis supported his mother during her war with William.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 25458, 50853, 13288, 690885, 13288, 690885, 3323393, 2598206, 7362, 2810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 22 ], [ 87, 105 ], [ 235, 242 ], [ 247, 254 ], [ 303, 310 ], [ 315, 322 ], [ 340, 349 ], [ 354, 362 ], [ 474, 485 ], [ 490, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 1351 Louis VI received Brandenburg from his older half-brother Louis V of Bavaria in exchange for the sole rule of Upper Bavaria. Less experienced than Louis V, he was also challenged by the \"False Waldemar\", an impostor who claimed Brandenburg and got support from several cities and Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV until the Wittelsbachs came to terms with Charles. Louis also had to abandon claims on fiefdoms in Mecklenburg and Pomerania. With the Golden Bull of 1356, Louis secured the electoral dignity. In 1358 Louis was absolved from the papal excommunication.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 3315388, 27976960, 38895, 20193, 24261, 671259, 14056, 10338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 93 ], [ 204, 218 ], [ 316, 326 ], [ 426, 437 ], [ 442, 451 ], [ 462, 481 ], [ 501, 518 ], [ 562, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Cunigunde's death in 1357, Louis married Ingeborg of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. She was a daughter of Albert II, Duke of Mecklenburg, and Euphemia of Sweden. Louis had no children with her, either, thus his younger brother Otto V succeeded him in Brandenburg. The childless dukes Louis and Otto had already promised Charles IV the succession in Brandenburg in 1364 as revenge for a conflict with their brother Stephen II over the Bavarian succession after the death of their nephew Meinhard, the son of Louis V. Louis the Roman died in Berlin in 1365.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 32957786, 1859294, 1858767, 3322535, 3129714, 1376601, 3354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 79 ], [ 103, 133 ], [ 139, 157 ], [ 224, 230 ], [ 411, 421 ], [ 483, 491 ], [ 538, 544 ] ] } ]

[ "1328_births", "1365_deaths", "14th-century_dukes_of_Bavaria", "Prince-electors_of_Brandenburg", "House_of_Wittelsbach", "Sons_of_emperors" ]

[ "Louis of Wittelsbach", "Louis the Roman" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Algebraic topology is a branch of mathematics that uses tools from abstract algebra to study topological spaces. The basic goal is to find algebraic invariants that classify topological spaces up to homeomorphism, though usually most classify up to homotopy equivalence.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18831, 19616384, 30450, 1126638, 4576710, 44787, 13660, 212250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 45 ], [ 67, 83 ], [ 93, 110 ], [ 149, 159 ], [ 165, 173 ], [ 193, 198 ], [ 199, 212 ], [ 249, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although algebraic topology primarily uses algebra to study topological problems, using topology to solve algebraic problems is sometimes also possible. Algebraic topology, for example, allows for a convenient proof that any subgroup of a free group is again a free group.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28011, 59735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 233 ], [ 239, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Below are some of the main areas studied in algebraic topology:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Main branches of algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In mathematics, homotopy groups are used in algebraic topology to classify topological spaces. The first and simplest homotopy group is the fundamental group, which records information about loops in a space. Intuitively, homotopy groups record information about the basic shape, or holes, of a topological space.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Main branches of algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 30450, 11004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 92 ], [ 140, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In algebraic topology and abstract algebra, homology (in part from Greek ὁμός homos \"identical\") is a certain general procedure to associate a sequence of abelian groups or modules with a given mathematical object such as a topological space or a group.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Main branches of algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 19616384, 11887, 27838, 2974, 276410, 30450, 19447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 42 ], [ 67, 72 ], [ 143, 151 ], [ 155, 168 ], [ 173, 180 ], [ 224, 241 ], [ 247, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In homology theory and algebraic topology, cohomology is a general term for a sequence of abelian groups defined from a cochain complex. That is, cohomology is defined as the abstract study of cochains, cocycles, and coboundaries. Cohomology can be viewed as a method of assigning algebraic invariants to a topological space that has a more refined algebraic structure than does homology. Cohomology arises from the algebraic dualization of the construction of homology. In less abstract language, cochains in the fundamental sense should assign 'quantities' to the chains of homology theory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Main branches of algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 142432, 27838, 2974, 138404, 138404, 138404, 363762, 106364, 142432, 224765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 78, 86 ], [ 90, 103 ], [ 120, 135 ], [ 203, 210 ], [ 217, 229 ], [ 281, 300 ], [ 349, 368 ], [ 379, 387 ], [ 566, 572 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A manifold is a topological space that near each point resembles Euclidean space. Examples include the plane, the sphere, and the torus, which can all be realized in three dimensions, but also the Klein bottle and real projective plane which cannot be embedded in three dimensions, but can be embedded in four dimensions. Typically, results in algebraic topology focus on global, non-differentiable aspects of manifolds; for example Poincaré duality.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Main branches of algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 30450, 9697, 84029, 27859, 74800, 17412, 411325, 540732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 33 ], [ 65, 80 ], [ 103, 108 ], [ 114, 120 ], [ 130, 135 ], [ 197, 209 ], [ 214, 235 ], [ 433, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Knot theory is the study of mathematical knots. While inspired by knots that appear in daily life in shoelaces and rope, a mathematician's knot differs in that the ends are joined so that it cannot be undone. In precise mathematical language, a knot is an embedding of a circle in 3-dimensional Euclidean space, . Two mathematical knots are equivalent if one can be transformed into the other via a deformation of upon itself (known as an ambient isotopy); these transformations correspond to manipulations of a knotted string that do not involve cutting the string or passing the string through itself.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Main branches of algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 366808, 52119, 6220, 9697, 7404467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 45 ], [ 256, 265 ], [ 271, 277 ], [ 295, 310 ], [ 440, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A simplicial complex is a topological space of a certain kind, constructed by \"gluing together\" points, line segments, triangles, and their n-dimensional counterparts (see illustration). Simplicial complexes should not be confused with the more abstract notion of a simplicial set appearing in modern simplicial homotopy theory. The purely combinatorial counterpart to a simplicial complex is an abstract simplicial complex.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Main branches of algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 30450, 593693, 22634860, 30654, 39781, 1027784, 723105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 43 ], [ 96, 101 ], [ 104, 116 ], [ 119, 127 ], [ 140, 166 ], [ 266, 280 ], [ 396, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A CW complex is a type of topological space introduced by J. H. C. Whitehead to meet the needs of homotopy theory. This class of spaces is broader and has some better categorical properties than simplicial complexes, but still retains a combinatorial nature that allows for computation (often with a much smaller complex).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Main branches of algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 385179, 61994831, 5869, 252686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 76 ], [ 98, 113 ], [ 167, 178 ], [ 195, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An older name for the subject was combinatorial topology, implying an emphasis on how a space X was constructed from simpler ones (the modern standard tool for such construction is the CW complex). In the 1920s and 1930s, there was growing emphasis on investigating topological spaces by finding correspondences from them to algebraic groups, which led to the change of name to algebraic topology. The combinatorial topology name is still sometimes used to emphasize an algorithmic approach based on decomposition of spaces.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Method of algebraic invariants", "target_page_ids": [ 363400, 353022, 19447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 56 ], [ 185, 195 ], [ 335, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the algebraic approach, one finds a correspondence between spaces and groups that respects the relation of homeomorphism (or more general homotopy) of spaces. This allows one to recast statements about topological spaces into statements about groups, which have a great deal of manageable structure, often making these statement easier to prove.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Method of algebraic invariants", "target_page_ids": [ 19447, 13660, 212250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 79 ], [ 110, 123 ], [ 141, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two major ways in which this can be done are through fundamental groups, or more generally homotopy theory, and through homology and cohomology groups. The fundamental groups give us basic information about the structure of a topological space, but they are often nonabelian and can be difficult to work with. The fundamental group of a (finite) simplicial complex does have a finite presentation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Method of algebraic invariants", "target_page_ids": [ 11004, 61994831, 142432, 194060, 2974, 252686, 99494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 70 ], [ 91, 106 ], [ 120, 128 ], [ 133, 143 ], [ 264, 274 ], [ 346, 364 ], [ 384, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Homology and cohomology groups, on the other hand, are abelian and in many important cases finitely generated. Finitely generated abelian groups are completely classified and are particularly easy to work with.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Method of algebraic invariants", "target_page_ids": [ 58527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In general, all constructions of algebraic topology are functorial; the notions of category, functor and natural transformation originated here. Fundamental groups and homology and cohomology groups are not only invariants of the underlying topological space, in the sense that two topological spaces which are homeomorphic have the same associated groups, but their associated morphisms also correspond—a continuous mapping of spaces induces a group homomorphism on the associated groups, and these homomorphisms can be used to show non-existence (or, much more deeply, existence) of mappings.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Setting in category theory", "target_page_ids": [ 5869, 53759, 10987, 45022, 13660, 12396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 66 ], [ 83, 91 ], [ 93, 100 ], [ 105, 127 ], [ 311, 323 ], [ 445, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the first mathematicians to work with different types of cohomology was Georges de Rham. One can use the differential structure of smooth manifolds via de Rham cohomology, or Čech or sheaf cohomology to investigate the solvability of differential equations defined on the manifold in question. De Rham showed that all of these approaches were interrelated and that, for a closed, oriented manifold, the Betti numbers derived through simplicial homology were the same Betti numbers as those derived through de Rham cohomology. This was extended in the 1950s, when Samuel Eilenberg and Norman Steenrod generalized this approach. They defined homology and cohomology as functors equipped with natural transformations subject to certain axioms (e.g., a weak equivalence of spaces passes to an isomorphism of homology groups), verified that all existing (co)homology theories satisfied these axioms, and then proved that such an axiomatization uniquely characterized the theory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Setting in category theory", "target_page_ids": [ 398699, 2119219, 221530, 856614, 1055357, 1424309, 362501, 589279, 10987, 45022, 34615176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 94 ], [ 138, 154 ], [ 159, 177 ], [ 182, 186 ], [ 190, 206 ], [ 241, 262 ], [ 570, 586 ], [ 591, 606 ], [ 674, 681 ], [ 697, 719 ], [ 756, 772 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Classic applications of algebraic topology include:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications of algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Brouwer fixed point theorem: every continuous map from the unit n-disk to itself has a fixed point.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications of algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 4101, 6122, 329542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 32 ], [ 40, 50 ], [ 69, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The free rank of the nth homology group of a simplicial complex is the nth Betti number, which allows one to calculate the Euler–Poincaré characteristic.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications of algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 252686, 346262, 148420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 64 ], [ 76, 88 ], [ 124, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " One can use the differential structure of smooth manifolds via de Rham cohomology, or Čech or sheaf cohomology to investigate the solvability of differential equations defined on the manifold in question.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications of algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 2119219, 221530, 856614, 1055357, 1424309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 59 ], [ 64, 82 ], [ 87, 91 ], [ 95, 111 ], [ 146, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A manifold is orientable when the top-dimensional integral homology group is the integers, and is non-orientable when it is 0.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications of algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 187446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The n-sphere admits a nowhere-vanishing continuous unit vector field if and only if n is odd. (For n=2, this is sometimes called the \"hairy ball theorem\".)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications of algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 39782, 3100908, 485168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 13 ], [ 57, 69 ], [ 135, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Borsuk–Ulam theorem: any continuous map from the n-sphere to Euclidean n-space identifies at least one pair of antipodal points.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications of algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 4064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Any subgroup of a free group is free. This result is quite interesting, because the statement is purely algebraic yet the simplest known proof is topological. Namely, any free group G may be realized as the fundamental group of a graph X. The main theorem on covering spaces tells us that every subgroup H of G is the fundamental group of some covering space Y of X; but every such Y is again a graph. Therefore, its fundamental group H is free. On the other hand, this type of application is also handled more simply by the use of covering morphisms of groupoids, and that technique has yielded subgroup theorems not yet proved by methods of algebraic topology; see .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications of algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 59735, 325806, 250323, 12543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ], [ 231, 236 ], [ 260, 274 ], [ 555, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Topological combinatorics.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications of algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 17633579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (Discusses generalized versions of van Kampen's theorem applied to topological spaces and simplicial sets).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ".", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (Gives a broad view of higher-dimensional van Kampen theorems involving multiple groupoids).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ". \"Gives a general theorem on the fundamental groupoid with a set of base points of a space which is the union of open sets.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 55264190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ".", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ". \"The first 2-dimensional version of van Kampen's theorem.\" ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " This provides a homotopy theoretic approach to basic algebraic topology, without needing a basis in singular homology, or the method of simplicial approximation. It contains a lot of material on crossed modules.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 431041, 1977281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 118 ], [ 196, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ". A functorial, algebraic approach originally by Greenberg with geometric flavoring added by Harper. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ". A modern, geometrically flavoured introduction to algebraic topology.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ".", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " and .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Section 2.7 provides a category-theoretic presentation of the theorem as a colimit in the category of groupoids.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Algebraic_topology" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Louis IV (; 1 April 1282 – 11 October 1347), called the Bavarian, of the house of Wittelsbach, was King of the Romans from 1314, King of Italy from 1327, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1328.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38848, 302609, 434937, 50853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 93 ], [ 99, 117 ], [ 129, 142 ], [ 158, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis' election as king of Germany in 1314 was controversial, as his Habsburg cousin Frederick the Fair was simultaneously elected king by a separate set of electors. Louis defeated Frederick in the Battle of Mühldorf in 1322, and the two eventually reconciled. Louis was opposed and excommunicated by the French Pope John XXII; Louis in turn attempted to depose the pope and install an anti-pope.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13824, 1147252, 3190276, 37670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 77 ], [ 85, 103 ], [ 199, 217 ], [ 313, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis IV was Duke of Upper Bavaria from 1294 to 1301 together with his elder brother Rudolf I, was Margrave of Brandenburg until 1323, and Count Palatine of the Rhine until 1329, and became Duke of Lower Bavaria in 1340. He became Count of Hainaut, Holland, Zeeland, and Friesland in 1345 when his wife Margaret inherited those domains.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 222076, 3141918, 8206970, 38846, 222076, 690885, 691057, 12472788, 11254, 358964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 34 ], [ 85, 93 ], [ 99, 122 ], [ 139, 166 ], [ 190, 211 ], [ 240, 247 ], [ 249, 256 ], [ 258, 265 ], [ 271, 280 ], [ 294, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis was born in Munich, the son of Louis II, Duke of Upper Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine, and Matilda, a daughter of King Rudolph I.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early reign as Duke of Upper Bavaria", "target_page_ids": [ 19058, 3142097, 21032761, 45321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 37, 45 ], [ 106, 113 ], [ 134, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though Louis was partly educated in Vienna and became co-regent of his brother Rudolf I in Upper Bavaria in 1301 with the support of his Habsburg mother and her brother, King Albert I, he quarreled with the Habsburgs from 1307 over possessions in Lower Bavaria. A civil war against his brother Rudolf due to new disputes on the partition of their lands was ended in 1313, when peace was made at Munich.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early reign as Duke of Upper Bavaria", "target_page_ids": [ 55866, 3141918, 190061, 13824, 38446, 190144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 42 ], [ 79, 87 ], [ 91, 104 ], [ 137, 145 ], [ 175, 183 ], [ 247, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the same year, on November 9, Louis defeated his Habsburg cousin Frederick the Fair who was further aided by duke Leopold I. Originally, he was a friend of Frederick, with whom he had been raised. However, armed conflict arose when the guardianship over the young Dukes of Lower Bavaria (Henry XIV, Otto IV, and Henry XV) was entrusted to Frederick, even though the late Duke Otto III, the former King of Hungary, had chosen Louis. On 9 November 1313, Frederick was defeated by Louis in the Battle of Gammelsdorf and had to renounce the tutelage. This victory caused a stir within the Holy Roman Empire and increased the reputation of the Bavarian Duke.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early reign as Duke of Upper Bavaria", "target_page_ids": [ 1147252, 1220065, 1632880, 8304017, 13047358, 8303053, 4153813, 3197649, 299965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 86 ], [ 117, 126 ], [ 239, 251 ], [ 291, 300 ], [ 302, 309 ], [ 315, 323 ], [ 379, 387 ], [ 494, 515 ], [ 540, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The death of Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII in August 1313 necessitated the election of a successor. Henry's son John, King of Bohemia since 1310, was considered by many prince-electors to be too young, and by others to be already too powerful. One alternative was Frederick the Fair, the son of Henry's predecessor, Albert I, of the House of Habsburg. In reaction, the pro-Luxembourg party among the prince electors settled on Louis as its candidate to prevent Frederick's election.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Election as German King and conflict with Frederick the Fair", "target_page_ids": [ 27485249, 38197, 1625048, 14056, 38446, 13824, 2646925, 14056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 41 ], [ 111, 115 ], [ 125, 132 ], [ 168, 182 ], [ 315, 323 ], [ 332, 349 ], [ 372, 382 ], [ 399, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 19 October 1314, Archbishop Henry II of Cologne chaired an assembly of four electors at Sachsenhausen, south of Frankfurt. Participants were Louis' brother, Rudolph I of the Palatinate, who objected to the election of his younger brother, Duke Rudolph I of Saxe-Wittenberg, and Henry of Carinthia, whom the Luxembourgs had deposed as King of Bohemia. These four electors chose Frederick as King.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Election as German King and conflict with Frederick the Fair", "target_page_ids": [ 26241170, 58319772, 30873291, 10992, 3141918, 34191205, 875094, 1625048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 50 ], [ 62, 87 ], [ 91, 104 ], [ 115, 124 ], [ 160, 187 ], [ 242, 275 ], [ 281, 299 ], [ 337, 352 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Luxembourg party did not accept this election and the next day a second election was held. Upon the instigation of Peter of Aspelt, Archbishop of Mainz, five different electors convened at Frankfurt and elected Louis as King. These electors were Archbishop Peter himself, Archbishop Baldwin of Trier and King John of Bohemia - both of the House of Luxembourg - Margrave Waldemar of Brandenburg and Duke John II of Saxe-Lauenburg, who contested Rudolph of Wittenberg's claim to the electoral vote.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Election as German King and conflict with Frederick the Fair", "target_page_ids": [ 14344319, 5436361, 8150714, 38197, 3536960, 25291056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 134 ], [ 136, 155 ], [ 276, 303 ], [ 313, 328 ], [ 365, 397 ], [ 407, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This double election was quickly followed by two coronations: Louis was crowned at Aachen - the customary site of coronations - by Archbishop Peter of Mainz, while the Archbishop of Cologne, who by custom had the right to crown the new king, crowned Frederick at Bonn. In the following conflict between the kings, Louis recognized in 1316 the independence of Switzerland from the Habsburg dynasty.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Election as German King and conflict with Frederick the Fair", "target_page_ids": [ 1520, 3295, 1063933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 89 ], [ 263, 267 ], [ 359, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After several years of bloody war, victory finally seemed within the grasp of Frederick, who was strongly supported by his brother Leopold. However, Frederick's army was decisively defeated in the Battle of Mühldorf on 28 September 1322 on the Ampfing Heath, where Frederick and 1300 nobles from Austria and Salzburg were captured.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Election as German King and conflict with Frederick the Fair", "target_page_ids": [ 1220065, 3190276, 10195817, 55859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 138 ], [ 197, 215 ], [ 244, 251 ], [ 308, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis held Frederick captive in Trausnitz Castle (Schwandorf) for three years, but the determined resistance by Frederick's brother Leopold, the retreat of John of Bohemia from his alliance, and a ban by Pope John XXII, who excommunicated Louis in 1324, induced Louis to release Frederick in the Treaty of Trausnitz of 13 March 1325. In this agreement, Frederick recognized Louis as legitimate ruler and undertook to return to captivity should he not succeed in convincing his brothers to submit to Louis.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Election as German King and conflict with Frederick the Fair", "target_page_ids": [ 11510021, 517421, 38197, 37670, 10338, 58320213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 41 ], [ 50, 60 ], [ 156, 171 ], [ 204, 218 ], [ 225, 238 ], [ 297, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As he did not manage to overcome Leopold's obstinacy, Frederick returned to Munich as a prisoner, even though the Pope had released him from his oath. Louis, who was impressed by such nobility, renewed the old friendship with Frederick, and they agreed to rule the Empire jointly. Since the Pope and the electors strongly objected to this agreement, another treaty was signed at Ulm on 7 January 1326, according to which Frederick would administer Germany as King of the Romans, while Louis would be crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in Italy. However, after Leopold's death in 1326, Frederick withdrew from the regency of the Empire and returned to rule only Austria. He died on 13 January 1330.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Election as German King and conflict with Frederick the Fair", "target_page_ids": [ 13277, 14056, 58320392, 189455, 302609, 50853, 14532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 265, 271 ], [ 304, 312 ], [ 350, 364 ], [ 379, 382 ], [ 459, 477 ], [ 511, 529 ], [ 533, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the reconciliation with the Habsburgs in 1326, Louis marched to Italy and was crowned King of Italy in Milan in 1327. Already in 1323, Louis had sent an army to Italy to protect Milan against the Kingdom of Naples, which was together with France the strongest ally of the papacy. But now the Lord of Milan Galeazzo I Visconti was deposed since he was suspected of conspiring with the pope.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Coronation as Holy Roman Emperor and conflict with the Pope", "target_page_ids": [ 36511, 258779, 9008896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 114 ], [ 202, 219 ], [ 312, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 1328, Louis entered Rome and had himself crowned emperor by the aged senator Sciarra Colonna, called captain of the Roman people. Three months later, Louis published a decree declaring Pope John XXII (Jacques Duèze), who resided in Avignon, deposed on grounds of heresy. He then installed a Spiritual Franciscan, Pietro Rainalducci as antipope Nicholas V, who soon left Rome and a few years later submitted to Pope John XXII. In the meantime, Robert, King of Naples had sent both a fleet and an army against Louis and his ally Frederick II of Sicily. Louis spent the winter 1328/29 in Pisa and stayed then in Northern Italy. When his co-ruler Frederick of Habsburg died in 1330, Louis returned from Italy. In fulfillment of an oath, Louis founded Ettal Abbey on 28 April 1330.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Coronation as Holy Roman Emperor and conflict with the Pope", "target_page_ids": [ 25458, 619635, 610665, 20611083, 64176, 44995, 44995, 204279, 150904, 24636, 2587889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 35 ], [ 88, 103 ], [ 243, 250 ], [ 274, 280 ], [ 312, 322 ], [ 324, 342 ], [ 355, 365 ], [ 454, 476 ], [ 538, 560 ], [ 596, 600 ], [ 759, 770 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Franciscan theologians Michael of Cesena and William of Ockham, and the philosopher Marsilius of Padua, who were all on bad terms with the Pope as well, joined Emperor Louis in Italy and accompanied him to his court at Alter Hof in Munich which became the first imperial residence of the Holy Roman Empire.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Coronation as Holy Roman Emperor and conflict with the Pope", "target_page_ids": [ 252503, 33617, 33786652, 5237052, 19058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 40 ], [ 45, 62 ], [ 84, 102 ], [ 219, 228 ], [ 232, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1333, Emperor Louis sought to counter French influence in the southwest of the empire so he offered Humbert II of Viennois the Kingdom of Arles which was an opportunity to gain full authority over Savoy, Provence, and its surrounding territories. Humbert was reluctant to take the crown due to the conflict that would follow with all around him, so he declined, telling the emperor that he should make peace with the church first.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Coronation as Holy Roman Emperor and conflict with the Pope", "target_page_ids": [ 8488705, 2891230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 125 ], [ 130, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emperor Louis also allied with King Edward III of England in 1337 against King Philip VI of France, the protector of the new Pope Benedict XII in Avignon. King Philip VI had prevented any agreement between the Emperor and the Pope. Thus, the failure of negotiations with the papacy led to the declaration at Rhense in 1338 by six electors to the effect that election by all or the majority of the electors automatically conferred the royal title and rule over the empire, without papal confirmation. King Edward III was the Emperor's guest at the Imperial Diet in the Kastorkirche at Coblence in 1338 and was named Vicar-General of the Holy Roman Empire. However in 1341, the Emperor deserted Edward III but came to terms with Philip VI only temporarily. For the expected English payments were missing and Louis intended to reach an agreement with the Pope one more time.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Coronation as Holy Roman Emperor and conflict with the Pope", "target_page_ids": [ 46377, 9316, 77498, 5843419, 24018, 38166, 3530647, 30599237, 167926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 46 ], [ 50, 57 ], [ 74, 88 ], [ 92, 98 ], [ 130, 142 ], [ 146, 153 ], [ 293, 314 ], [ 547, 560 ], [ 584, 592 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis IV was a protector of the Teutonic Knights. In 1337 he allegedly bestowed upon the Teutonic Order a privilege to conquer Lithuania and Russia, although the Order had only petitioned for three small territories. Later he forbade the Order to stand trial before foreign courts in their territorial conflicts with foreign rulers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Imperial privileges", "target_page_ids": [ 30776, 17675, 25391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 48 ], [ 127, 136 ], [ 141, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis concentrated his energies also on the economic development of the cities of the empire, so his name can be found in many city chronicles for the privileges he granted. In 1330 the emperor for example permitted the Frankfurt Trade Fair, and in 1340 Lübeck, as the leading member of the Hanseatic League, received the coinage prerogative for golden gulden.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Imperial privileges", "target_page_ids": [ 3778733, 17750, 14105, 29421478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 240 ], [ 254, 260 ], [ 291, 307 ], [ 353, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1323 Louis gave Brandenburg as a fiefdom to his eldest son Louis V after the Brandenburg branch of the House of Ascania had died out. With the Treaty of Pavia in 1329 the emperor reconciled the sons of his late brother Rudolph and returned the Palatinate to his nephews Rudolf and Rupert. After the death of Henry of Bohemia, the duchy of Carinthia was released as an imperial fief on 2 May 1335 in Linz to his Habsburg cousins Albert II, Duke of Austria, and Otto, Duke of Austria, while Tyrol was first placed into Luxemburg hands.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Dynastic policy", "target_page_ids": [ 8206970, 3315388, 2441, 9837981, 38846, 3506104, 5710525, 875094, 74817, 145893, 55856, 1151624, 1159679, 6493681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 30 ], [ 62, 69 ], [ 106, 122 ], [ 146, 161 ], [ 247, 257 ], [ 273, 279 ], [ 284, 290 ], [ 311, 327 ], [ 342, 351 ], [ 380, 384 ], [ 402, 406 ], [ 431, 457 ], [ 463, 484 ], [ 492, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the death of duke John I in 1340 Louis inherited Lower Bavaria and then reunited the duchy of Bavaria. John's mother, a member of the Luxemburg dynasty, had to return to Bohemia. In 1342 Louis also acquired Tyrol for the Wittelsbach by voiding the first marriage of Margarete Maultasch with John Henry of Bohemia and marrying her to his own son Louis V, thus alienating the House of Luxemburg even more.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Dynastic policy", "target_page_ids": [ 6230332, 17277939, 7946086, 1007951, 5600212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 29 ], [ 115, 121 ], [ 212, 217 ], [ 271, 290 ], [ 296, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1345 the emperor further antagonized the lay princes by conferring Hainaut, Holland, Zeeland, and Friesland upon his wife, Margaret II of Hainaut. The hereditary titles of Margaret's sisters, one of whom was the queen of England, were ignored. Because of the dangerous hostility of the Luxemburgs, Louis had increased his power base ruthlessly.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Dynastic policy", "target_page_ids": [ 690885, 13288, 52229, 11254, 358964, 47754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 77 ], [ 79, 86 ], [ 88, 95 ], [ 101, 110 ], [ 126, 148 ], [ 195, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The acquisition of these territories and his restless foreign policy had earned Louis many enemies among the German princes. In the summer of 1346 the Luxemburg Charles IV was elected rival king, with the support of Pope Clement VI. Louis himself obtained much support from the Imperial Free Cities and the knights and successfully resisted Charles, who was widely regarded as a papal puppet (\"rex clericorum\" as William of Ockham called him). Also the Habsburg dukes stayed loyal to Louis. In the Battle of Crécy Charles' father John of Luxemburg was killed; Charles himself also took part in the battle but escaped.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Conflict with Luxemburg", "target_page_ids": [ 2646925, 38895, 24103, 220358, 16897, 33617, 58916, 38197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 160 ], [ 161, 171 ], [ 216, 231 ], [ 278, 298 ], [ 307, 313 ], [ 413, 430 ], [ 498, 513 ], [ 530, 547 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "But then Louis' sudden death avoided a longer civil war. Louis died in October 1347 from a stroke suffered during a bear-hunt in Puch near Fürstenfeldbruck. He is buried in the Frauenkirche in Munich. The sons of Louis supported Günther von Schwarzburg as new rival king to Charles but finally joined the Luxemburg party after Günther's early death in 1349 and divided the Wittelsbach possessions amongst themselves again. In continuance of the conflict of the House of Wittelsbach with the House of Luxemburg, the Wittelsbach family returned to power in the Holy Roman Empire in 1400 with King Rupert of Germany, a great-grandnephew of Louis.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Conflict with Luxemburg", "target_page_ids": [ 625404, 999233, 3357494, 1449744, 38830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 97 ], [ 139, 155 ], [ 177, 189 ], [ 229, 252 ], [ 595, 612 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1308 Louis IV married his first wife, Beatrice of Silesia (1290-1322). Their children were:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 22030358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mathilda (aft. 21 June 1313 – 2 July 1346, Meißen), married at Nuremberg 1 July 1329 Frederick II, Margrave of Meissen (d. 1349)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 22277814, 40674, 21287, 3108686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 44, 50 ], [ 64, 73 ], [ 86, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Daughter (end September 1314 – died shortly after).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Louis V, Duke of Bavaria (July 1315 – 17/18 September 1361), duke of Upper Bavaria, margrave of Brandenburg, count of Tyrol", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 3315388, 3765, 7946086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 97, 108 ], [ 119, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anna (c. July 1317 – 29 January 1319, Kastl)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 3720621, 11393783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 39, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Agnes (c. 1318 – died shortly after).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stephen II (autumn 1319 – 19 May 1375), duke of Lower Bavaria", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 3129714, 190144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 49, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1324 he married his second wife, Margaret II, Countess of Hainaut and Holland (1308-1356).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 358964, 13288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 68 ], [ 73, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Their children were:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret (1325 – 1374), married:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 36647415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in 1351 in Ofen Stephen, Duke of Slavonia (d. 1354), son of the King Charles I of Hungary;", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 95472, 17657832, 70219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 16 ], [ 17, 42 ], [ 70, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1357/58 Gerlach von Hohenlohe.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anna (c. 1326 – 3 June 1361, Fontenelles) married John I of Lower Bavaria (d. 1340).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 6230332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Louis VI the Roman (7 May 1328 – 17 May 1365), duke of Upper Bavaria, elector of Brandenburg.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 38800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elisabeth (1329 – 2 August 1402, Stuttgart), married:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 28565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cangrande II della Scala, Lord of Verona (d. 1359) in Verona on 22 November 1350;", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 10842107, 11925113, 263991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 27, 41 ], [ 55, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Count Ulrich of Württemberg (died 1388 in the Battle of Döffingen) in 1362.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 40981147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William V of Holland (12 May 1330 – 15 April 1389), as William I duke of Lower Bavaria, as William III count of Hainaut.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 3323393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Agnes (Munich, 1335 – 11 November 1352, Munich).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 4119308, 19058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Albert I of Holland (25 Jul 1336 – 13 December 1404), duke of Lower Bavaria, count of Hainaut and Holland.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 2598206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Otto V the Bavarian (1340/42 – 15/16 November 1379), duke of Upper Bavaria, elector of Brandenburg.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 3322535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beatrice (1344 – 25 December 1359), married bef. 25 October 1356 Eric XII of Sweden.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 14689076, 1155180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 66, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Louis (October 1347 – 1348).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kings of Germany family tree. He was related to every other king of Germany.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17767437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charter given by Louis to the Hospital of the Holy Spirit in Nuremberg taken from the collections of the LBA Marburg", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Veröffentlichungen zu Ludwig IV. im Opac der Regesta Imperii", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Deed by Emperor Louis the Bavarian for the Hospital of the Holy Spirit (Heilig-Geist-Spital) in Nuremberg, ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1282_births", "1347_deaths", "14th-century_Holy_Roman_Emperors", "13th-century_dukes_of_Bavaria", "14th-century_dukes_of_Bavaria", "Counts_of_Hainaut", "Counts_of_Holland", "Counts_Palatine_of_the_Rhine", "Prince-electors_of_Brandenburg", "House_of_Wittelsbach", "Nobility_from_Munich", "People_excommunicated_by_the_Catholic_Church", "Burials_at_Munich_Frauenkirche" ]

[ "Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV", "Ludwig IV. der Bayern" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Compression may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Compression (physics), size reduction due to forces", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical science", "target_page_ids": [ 425779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compression member, a structural element such as a column", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical science", "target_page_ids": [ 8825092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compressibility, susceptibility to compression", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical science", "target_page_ids": [ 166084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gas compression", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical science", "target_page_ids": [ 508504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compression ratio, of a combustion engine", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical science", "target_page_ids": [ 6863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compression (geology)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical science", "target_page_ids": [ 6286819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compression or compressive strength", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical science", "target_page_ids": [ 335109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Data compression, reducing the data required for information", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Information science", "target_page_ids": [ 8013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Audio compression (data), reducing the data required for audio", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Information science", "target_page_ids": [ 8013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bandwidth compression", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Information science", "target_page_ids": [ 40771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compression artifact, defect in data due to compression", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Information science", "target_page_ids": [ 185669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Image compression, of digital images", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Information science", "target_page_ids": [ 46469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Video compression", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Information science", "target_page_ids": [ 8013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One-way compression function, a cryptographic primitive", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Information science", "target_page_ids": [ 3851622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dynamic range compression, reducing audio dynamic range", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Information science", "target_page_ids": [ 262733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brain compression, a medical condition", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 2983424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compression bandage", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 273978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pressing on the lower abdominal area in an intravenous pyelogram", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 5910079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cold compression therapy, for minor injuries", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 7137759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amplifier gain compression, due to nonlinearity", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 3951487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compression (dance), several techniques", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 409416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compression (functional analysis)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 681190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compression (phonetics), running syllables together", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 407574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compaction (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3770990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compress", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 205779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compression garment", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15427598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compressor (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Decompression (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1222284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Expansion (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 988163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "GNU Privacy Guard (GnuPG or GPG) is a free-software replacement for Symantec's PGP cryptographic software suite. The software is compliant with RFC 4880, the IETF standards-track specification of OpenPGP. Modern versions of PGP are interoperable with GnuPG and other OpenPGP-compliant systems.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10635, 354414, 23080, 18934432, 15285, 23080, 23080, 41285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 51 ], [ 68, 76 ], [ 79, 82 ], [ 83, 96 ], [ 158, 162 ], [ 196, 203 ], [ 224, 227 ], [ 232, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GnuPG is part of the GNU Project and received major funding from the German government in 1999.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 275549, 11935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ], [ 69, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GnuPG is a hybrid-encryption software program because it uses a combination of conventional symmetric-key cryptography for speed, and public-key cryptography for ease of secure key exchange, typically by using the recipient's public key to encrypt a session key which is used only once. This mode of operation is part of the OpenPGP standard and has been part of PGP from its first version.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 11756462, 53042, 24222, 63941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 28 ], [ 92, 118 ], [ 134, 157 ], [ 250, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The GnuPG1.x series uses an integrated cryptographic library, while the GnuPG2.x series replaces this with Libgcrypt.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 29870579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GnuPG encrypts messages using asymmetric key pairs individually generated by GnuPG users. The resulting public keys may be exchanged with other users in a variety of ways, such as Internet key servers. They must always be exchanged carefully to prevent identity spoofing by corrupting public key ↔ \"owner\" identity correspondences. It is also possible to add a cryptographic digital signature to a message, so the message integrity and sender can be verified, if a particular correspondence relied upon has not been corrupted.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 24222, 616119, 59644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 50 ], [ 189, 200 ], [ 375, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GnuPG also supports symmetric encryption algorithms. By default, GnuPG uses the AES symmetrical algorithm since version 2.1, CAST5 was used in earlier versions. GnuPG does not use patented or otherwise restricted software or algorithms. Instead, GnuPG uses a variety of other, non-patented algorithms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 53042, 1260, 240998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 40 ], [ 80, 83 ], [ 125, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For a long time, it did not support the IDEA encryption algorithm used in PGP. It was in fact possible to use IDEA in GnuPG by downloading a plugin for it, however, this might require a license for some uses in countries in which IDEA was patented. Starting with versions 1.4.13 and 2.0.20, GnuPG supports IDEA because the last patent of IDEA expired in 2012. Support of IDEA is intended \"to get rid of all the questions from folks either trying to decrypt old data or migrating keys from PGP to GnuPG\", and hence is not recommended for regular use.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 15076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More recent releases of GnuPG2.x (\"modern\" and the now deprecated \"stable\" series) expose most cryptographic functions and algorithms Libgcrypt (its cryptography library) provides, including support for elliptic curve cryptography (ECDH, ECDSA and EdDSA) in the \"modern\" series (i.e. since GnuPG2.1).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 29870579, 9966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 143 ], [ 203, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2.3 or 2.2 versions, GnuPG supports the following algorithms:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Public key RSA, ElGamal, DSA, ECDH (cv25519, cv448, nistp256, nistp384, nistp521, brainpoolP256r1, brainpoolP384r1, brainpoolP512r1, secp256k1), ECDSA (nistp256, nistp384, nistp521, brainpoolP256r1, brainpoolP384r1, brainpoolP512r1, secp256k1), EdDSA (ed25519, ed448)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 24222, 25385, 59458, 59470, 3357958, 17935444, 56665655, 9966, 9966, 450525, 40775836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 12, 15 ], [ 17, 24 ], [ 26, 29 ], [ 31, 35 ], [ 37, 44 ], [ 46, 51 ], [ 53, 81 ], [ 83, 132 ], [ 146, 151 ], [ 246, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cipher 3DES, IDEA (for backward compatibility), CAST5, Blowfish, Twofish, AES-128, AES-192, AES-256, Camellia-128, -192 and -256", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 53042, 48375, 15076, 240998, 3940, 26508356, 1260, 532475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 8, 12 ], [ 14, 18 ], [ 49, 54 ], [ 56, 64 ], [ 66, 73 ], [ 75, 100 ], [ 102, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hash MD5, SHA-1, RIPEMD-160, SHA-256, SHA-384, SHA-512, SHA-224", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 439526, 18826, 26672, 26363, 1638777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 6, 9 ], [ 11, 16 ], [ 18, 28 ], [ 30, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compression Uncompressed, ZIP, ZLIB, BZIP2", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 8013, 188488, 34499, 66255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 27, 30 ], [ 32, 36 ], [ 38, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GnuPG was initially developed by Werner Koch. The first production version, version 1.0.0, was released on September 7, 1999, almost two years after the first GnuPG release (version 0.0.0). The German Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology funded the documentation and the port to Microsoft Windows in 2000.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 430503, 12512020, 18890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 44 ], [ 195, 246 ], [ 288, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GnuPG is a system compliant to the OpenPGP standard, thus the history of OpenPGP is of importance; it was designed to interoperate with PGP, an email encryption program initially designed and developed by Phil Zimmermann.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23080, 23486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 139 ], [ 205, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On February 7, 2014, a GnuPG crowdfunding effort closed, raising €36,732 for a new Web site and infrastructure improvements.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 48505834, 9472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 41 ], [ 65, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the release of a stable GnuPG 2.3, starting with version 2.3.3 in October 2021, three stable branches of GnuPG are actively maintained:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A \"stable branch\", which currently is (as of 2021) the 2.3 branch.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 220901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A \"LTS (long-term support) branch\", which currently is (as of 2021) the 2.2 branch (which was formerly called \"modern branch\", in comparison to the 2.0 branch).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39758769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The old \"legacy branch\" (formerly called \"classic branch\"), which is and will stay the 1.4 branch. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before GnuPG 2.3, two stable branches of GnuPG were actively maintained:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Modern\" (2.2), with numerous new features, such as elliptic curve cryptography, compared to the former \"stable\" (2.0) branch, which it replaced with the release of GnuPG 2.2.0 on August 28, 2017. It was initially released on November 6, 2014.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Classic\" (1.4), the very old, but still maintained stand-alone version, most suitable for outdated or embedded platforms. Initially released on December 16, 2004.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Different GnuPG 2.x versions (e.g. from the 2.2 and 2.0 branches) cannot be installed at the same time. However, it is possible to install a \"classic\" GnuPG version (i.e. from the 1.4 branch) along with any GnuPG 2.x version.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Before the release of GnuPG 2.2 (\"modern\"), the now deprecated \"stable\" branch (2.0) was recommended for general use, initially released on November 13, 2006. This branch reached its end-of-life on December 31, 2017; Its last version is 2.0.31, released on December 29, 2017.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 300571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before the release of GnuPG 2.0, all stable releases originated from a single branch; i.e., before November 13, 2006, no multiple release branches were maintained in parallel. These former, sequentially succeeding (up to 1.4) release branches were:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1.2 branch, initially released on September 22, 2002, with 1.2.6 as the last version, released on October 26, 2004.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1.0 branch, initially released on September 7, 1999, with 1.0.7 as the last version, released on April 30, 2002.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(Note that before the release of GnuPG 2.3.0, branches with an odd minor release number (e.g. 2.1, 1.9, 1.3) were development branches leading to a stable release branch with a \"+ 0.1\" higher version number (e.g. 2.2, 2.0, 1.4); hence branches 2.2 and 2.1 both belong to the \"modern\" series, 2.0 and 1.9 both to the \"stable\" series, while the branches 1.4 and 1.3 both belong to the \"classic\" series.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With the release of GnuPG 2.3.0, this nomenclature was altered to be composed of a \"stable\" and \"LTS\" branch from the \"modern\" series, plus 1.4 as the last maintained \"classic\" branch. Also note that even or odd minor release numbers do not indicate a stable or development release branch, anymore.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although the basic GnuPG program has a command-line interface, there exists various front-ends that provide it with a graphical user interface. For example, GnuPG encryption support has been integrated into KMail and Evolution, the graphical email clients found in KDE and GNOME, the most popular Linux desktops. There are also graphical GnuPG front-ends, for example Seahorse for GNOME and KGPG and Kleopatra for KDE.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Platforms", "target_page_ids": [ 28338635, 428625, 12293, 1444691, 145630, 43478, 16629, 23715667, 6097297, 2071353, 2121988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 61 ], [ 84, 94 ], [ 118, 142 ], [ 207, 212 ], [ 217, 226 ], [ 242, 254 ], [ 265, 268 ], [ 273, 278 ], [ 297, 302 ], [ 368, 376 ], [ 391, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GPGTools provides a number of front-ends for OS integration of encryption and key management as well as GnuPG installations via Installer packages for macOS. GPG Suite installs all related OpenPGP applications (GPG Keychain), plugins (GPG Mail) and dependencies (MacGPG), along with GPG Services (integration into macOS Services menu) to use GnuPG based encryption.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Platforms", "target_page_ids": [ 631063, 1050997, 47017, 20640, 31078162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 92 ], [ 128, 137 ], [ 138, 146 ], [ 151, 156 ], [ 235, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Instant messaging applications such as Psi and Fire can automatically secure messages when GnuPG is installed and configured. Web-based software such as Horde also makes use of it. The cross-platform extension Enigmail provides GnuPG support for Mozilla Thunderbird and SeaMonkey. Similarly, Enigform provides GnuPG support for Mozilla Firefox. FireGPG was discontinued June 7, 2010.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Platforms", "target_page_ids": [ 55951, 603183, 310786, 2342207, 1907070, 435217, 228547, 1590193, 210892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 39, 42 ], [ 47, 51 ], [ 153, 158 ], [ 200, 209 ], [ 210, 218 ], [ 246, 265 ], [ 270, 279 ], [ 328, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2005, g10 Code GmbH and Intevation GmbH released Gpg4win, a software suite that includes GnuPG for Windows, GNU Privacy Assistant, and GnuPG plug-ins for Windows Explorer and Outlook. These tools are wrapped in a standard Windows installer, making it easier for GnuPG to be installed and used on Windows systems.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Platforms", "target_page_ids": [ 12220682, 445959, 176271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 59 ], [ 157, 173 ], [ 178, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The OpenPGP standard specifies several methods of digitally signing messages. In 2003, due to an error in a change to GnuPG intended to make one of those methods more efficient, a security vulnerability was introduced. It affected only one method of digitally signing messages, only for some releases of GnuPG (1.0.2 through 1.2.3), and there were fewer than 1000 such keys listed on the key servers. Most people did not use this method, and were in any case discouraged from doing so, so the damage caused (if any, since none has been publicly reported) would appear to have been minimal. Support for this method has been removed from GnuPG versions released after this discovery (1.2.4 and later).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Vulnerabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 59644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two further vulnerabilities were discovered in early 2006; the first being that scripted uses of GnuPG for signature verification may result in false positives, the second that non-MIME messages were vulnerable to the injection of data which while not covered by the digital signature, would be reported as being part of the signed message. In both cases updated versions of GnuPG were made available at the time of the announcement.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Vulnerabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 43286898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2017, a vulnerability (CVE-2017-7526) was discovered within Libgcrypt by Bernstein, Breitner and others: a library used by GnuPG, which enabled a full key recovery for RSA-1024 and about more than 1/8th of RSA-2048 keys. This side-channel attack exploits the fact that Libgcrypt used a sliding windows method for exponentiation which leads to the leakage of exponent bits and to full key recovery. Again, an updated version of GnuPG was made available at the time of the announcement.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Vulnerabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 29870579, 667678, 29870579, 10237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 77 ], [ 234, 253 ], [ 277, 286 ], [ 294, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2017, the ROCA vulnerability was announced that affects RSA keys generated by YubiKey 4 tokens, which often are used with PGP/GPG. Many published PGP keys were found to be susceptible.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Vulnerabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 55620314, 44331841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 39 ], [ 90, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Around June 2018, the SigSpoof attacks were announced. These allowed an attacker to convincingly spoof digital signatures.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Vulnerabilities", "target_page_ids": [ 58423453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2021, Libgcrypt 1.9.0 was released, which was found to contain a severe bug that was simple to exploit. A fix was released 10 days later in Libgcrypt 1.9.1.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Vulnerabilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Acoustic cryptanalysis", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1561321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Key signing party", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 424764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Off-the-Record Messaging– also known as OTR", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1915691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " OpenPGP card– a smartcard with many GnuPG functions", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13015049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Package manager", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " RetroShare– a friend-to-friend network based on PGP authentication", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30992851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Web of trust", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 296356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Short History of the GNU Privacy Guard, written by Werner Koch, published on GnuPG's 10th birthday", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1999_software", "Cross-platform_software", "Cryptographic_software", "Free_security_software", "GNU_Project_software", "Linux_security_software", "OpenPGP", "Privacy_software" ]

[ "GnuPG", "GPG" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Proline (symbol Pro or P) is an organic acid classed as a proteinogenic amino acid (used in the biosynthesis of proteins), although it does not contain the amino group but is rather a secondary amine. The secondary amine nitrogen is in the protonated form (NH2+) under biological conditions, while the carboxyl group is in the deprotonated −COO− form. The \"side chain\" from the α carbon connects to the nitrogen forming a pyrrolidine loop, classifying it as a aliphatic amino acid. It is non-essential in humans, meaning the body can synthesize it from the non-essential amino acid -glutamate. It is encoded by all the codons starting with CC (CCU, CCC, CCA, and CCG).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 427499, 24553, 1412, 1412, 6099, 522274, 2475322, 2016821, 2120, 1207, 63541, 12385, 12385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 82 ], [ 96, 120 ], [ 156, 167 ], [ 185, 200 ], [ 303, 317 ], [ 328, 340 ], [ 379, 387 ], [ 423, 434 ], [ 461, 470 ], [ 471, 481 ], [ 584, 593 ], [ 601, 608 ], [ 620, 625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proline is the only proteinogenic secondary amino acid which is a secondary amine, as the nitrogen atom is attached both to the α-carbon and to a chain of three carbons that together form a five-membered ring.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 68109605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proline was first isolated in 1900 by Richard Willstätter who obtained the amino acid while studying N-methylproline, and synthesized proline by the reaction of sodium salt of diethyl malonate with 1,3-dibromopropane. The next year, Emil Fischer isolated proline from casein and the decomposition products of γ-phthalimido-propylmalonic ester, and published the synthesis of proline from phthalimide propylmalonic ester.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History and etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 7577160, 570580, 6831196, 826323, 88935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 57 ], [ 176, 192 ], [ 198, 216 ], [ 233, 245 ], [ 268, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name proline comes from pyrrolidine, one of its constituents.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History and etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 2016821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proline is biosynthetically derived from the amino acid -glutamate. Glutamate-5-semialdehyde is first formed by glutamate 5-kinase (ATP-dependent) and glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (which requires NADH or NADPH). This can then either spontaneously cyclize to form 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylic acid, which is reduced to proline by pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase (using NADH or NADPH), or turned into ornithine by ornithine aminotransferase, followed by cyclisation by ornithine cyclodeaminase to form proline.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Biosynthesis", "target_page_ids": [ 1123902, 63541, 43394620, 14678267, 14132828, 11471648, 14161977, 92135, 11393804, 14246600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ], [ 57, 66 ], [ 69, 93 ], [ 113, 131 ], [ 152, 190 ], [ 274, 303 ], [ 336, 369 ], [ 408, 417 ], [ 421, 447 ], [ 476, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "-Proline has been found to act as a weak agonist of the glycine receptor and of both NMDA and non-NMDA (AMPA/kainate) ionotropic glutamate receptors. It has been proposed to be a potential endogenous excitotoxin. In plants, proline accumulation is a common physiological response to various stresses but is also part of the developmental program in generative tissues (e.g. pollen). A diet rich in proline was linked to an increased risk of depression in humans.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Biological activity", "target_page_ids": [ 500878, 1768173, 374338, 374335, 2186918, 5504687, 790808, 1043263, 19828134, 46980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 48 ], [ 56, 72 ], [ 85, 89 ], [ 104, 108 ], [ 109, 116 ], [ 118, 147 ], [ 189, 199 ], [ 200, 211 ], [ 216, 222 ], [ 374, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The distinctive cyclic structure of proline's side chain gives proline an exceptional conformational rigidity compared to other amino acids. It also affects the rate of peptide bond formation between proline and other amino acids. When proline is bound as an amide in a peptide bond, its nitrogen is not bound to any hydrogen, meaning it cannot act as a hydrogen bond donor, but can be a hydrogen bond acceptor.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties in protein structure", "target_page_ids": [ 13609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 356, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peptide bond formation with incoming Pro-tRNAPro is considerably slower than with any other tRNAs, which is a general feature of N-alkylamino acids. Peptide bond formation is also slow between an incoming tRNA and a chain ending in proline; with the creation of proline-proline bonds slowest of all.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties in protein structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The exceptional conformational rigidity of proline affects the secondary structure of proteins near a proline residue and may account for proline's higher prevalence in the proteins of thermophilic organisms. Protein secondary structure can be described in terms of the dihedral angles φ, ψ and ω of the protein backbone. The cyclic structure of proline's side chain locks the angle φ at approximately −65°.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties in protein structure", "target_page_ids": [ 28691, 30393, 28691, 338046, 338046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 82 ], [ 185, 197 ], [ 210, 237 ], [ 271, 285 ], [ 287, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proline acts as a structural disruptor in the middle of regular secondary structure elements such as alpha helices and beta sheets; however, proline is commonly found as the first residue of an alpha helix and also in the edge strands of beta sheets. Proline is also commonly found in turns (another kind of secondary structure), and aids in the formation of beta turns. This may account for the curious fact that proline is usually solvent-exposed, despite having a completely aliphatic side chain.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties in protein structure", "target_page_ids": [ 28691, 3054, 4906, 3054, 4906, 5139050, 2120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 83 ], [ 101, 114 ], [ 119, 129 ], [ 194, 205 ], [ 238, 248 ], [ 286, 291 ], [ 480, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Multiple prolines and/or hydroxyprolines in a row can create a polyproline helix, the predominant secondary structure in collagen. The hydroxylation of proline by prolyl hydroxylase (or other additions of electron-withdrawing substituents such as fluorine) increases the conformational stability of collagen significantly. Hence, the hydroxylation of proline is a critical biochemical process for maintaining the connective tissue of higher organisms. Severe diseases such as scurvy can result from defects in this hydroxylation, e.g., mutations in the enzyme prolyl hydroxylase or lack of the necessary ascorbate (vitamin C) cofactor.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties in protein structure", "target_page_ids": [ 138914, 5176951, 28691, 6058, 398687, 14046015, 17481271, 6058, 228845, 28266, 32509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 39 ], [ 63, 80 ], [ 98, 117 ], [ 121, 129 ], [ 135, 148 ], [ 163, 181 ], [ 247, 255 ], [ 299, 307 ], [ 414, 431 ], [ 478, 484 ], [ 606, 627 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peptide bonds to proline, and to other N-substituted amino acids (such as sarcosine), are able to populate both the cis and trans isomers. Most peptide bonds overwhelmingly adopt the trans isomer (typically 99.9% under unstrained conditions), chiefly because the amide hydrogen (trans isomer) offers less steric repulsion to the preceding Cα atom than does the following Cα atom (cis isomer). By contrast, the cis and trans isomers of the X-Pro peptide bond (where X represents any amino acid) both experience steric clashes with the neighboring substitution and have a much lower energy difference. Hence, the fraction of X-Pro peptide bonds in the cis isomer under unstrained conditions is significantly elevated, with cis fractions typically in the range of 3-10%. However, these values depend on the preceding amino acid, with Gly and aromatic residues yielding increased fractions of the cis isomer. Cis fractions up to 40% have been identified for Aromatic-Pro peptide bonds.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cis-trans isomerization", "target_page_ids": [ 24446, 427520, 12528, 12528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 74, 83 ], [ 116, 119 ], [ 124, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From a kinetic standpoint, cis-trans proline isomerization is a very slow process that can impede the progress of protein folding by trapping one or more proline residues crucial for folding in the non-native isomer, especially when the native protein requires the cis isomer. This is because proline residues are exclusively synthesized in the ribosome as the trans isomer form. All organisms possess prolyl isomerase enzymes to catalyze this isomerization, and some bacteria have specialized prolyl isomerases associated with the ribosome. However, not all prolines are essential for folding, and protein folding may proceed at a normal rate despite having non-native conformers of many X-Pro peptide bonds.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cis-trans isomerization", "target_page_ids": [ 264740, 52085, 25766, 6283679, 9257, 9028799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 58 ], [ 114, 129 ], [ 346, 354 ], [ 403, 419 ], [ 420, 426 ], [ 469, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proline and its derivatives are often used as asymmetric catalysts in proline organocatalysis reactions. The CBS reduction and proline catalysed aldol condensation are prominent examples.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 41228482, 2383535, 498255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 93 ], [ 109, 122 ], [ 145, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In brewing, proteins rich in proline combine with polyphenols to produce haze (turbidity).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "-Proline is an osmoprotectant and therefore is used in many pharmaceutical and biotechnological applications.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 19525882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The growth medium used in plant tissue culture may be supplemented with proline. This can increase growth, perhaps because it helps the plant tolerate the stresses of tissue culture. For proline's role in the stress response of plants, see .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1623208, 21076226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 26, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proline is one of the two amino acids that do not follow along with the typical Ramachandran plot, along with glycine. Due to the ring formation connected to the beta carbon, the ψ and φ angles about the peptide bond have fewer allowable degrees of rotation. As a result, it is often found in \"turns\" of proteins as its free entropy (ΔS) is not as comparatively large to other amino acids and thus in a folded form vs. unfolded form, the change in entropy is smaller. Furthermore, proline is rarely found in α and β structures as it would reduce the stability of such structures, because its side chain α-N can only form one nitrogen bond.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Specialties", "target_page_ids": [ 964378, 11835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 97 ], [ 110, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Additionally, proline is the only amino acid that does not form a red/purple colour when developed by spraying with ninhydrin for uses in chromatography. Proline, instead, produces an orange/yellow colour.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Specialties", "target_page_ids": [ 684312, 6329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 125 ], [ 138, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Racemic proline can be synthesized from diethyl malonate and acrylonitrile:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Synthesis", "target_page_ids": [ 75089, 570580, 309333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 40, 56 ], [ 61, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hyperprolinemia", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12774693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Inborn error of metabolism", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1125625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prolidase deficiency", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9165714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prolinol", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9089235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " For a thorough scientific overview of disorders of proline and hydroxyproline metabolism, one can consult chapter 81 of OMMBID Charles Scriver, Beaudet, A.L., Valle, D., Sly, W.S., Vogelstein, B., Childs, B., Kinzler, K.W. (Accessed 2007). The Online Metabolic and Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease. New York: McGraw-Hill. - Summaries of 255 chapters, full text through many universities. There is also the OMMBID blog.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1345291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Proline MS Spectrum", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Proline biosynthesis", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Proline biosynthesis", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "AMPA_receptor_agonists", "Kainate_receptor_agonists", "NMDA_receptor_agonists", "Proteinogenic_amino_acids", "Glucogenic_amino_acids", "Glycine_receptor_agonists", "Cyclic_amino_acids", "Pyrrolidines", "Secondary_amino_acids", "Excitatory_amino_acids" ]

[ "Pro", "P", "pyrrolidine-2-carboxylic acid", "Proline", "Hpro", "DL-Proline", "proline" ]

[ { "plaintext": "\"Coven\" () usually refers to a group or gathering of witches. The word \"coven\" (from Anglo-Norman covent, cuvent, from Old French covent, from Latin conventum = convention) remained largely unused in English until 1921 when Margaret Murray promoted the idea that all witches across Europe met in groups of thirteen which they called \"covens\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33959, 11292933, 17730, 8569916, 20208, 20198419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 60 ], [ 85, 97 ], [ 143, 148 ], [ 200, 207 ], [ 224, 239 ], [ 253, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Wicca and other similar forms of neopagan witchcraft, such as Stregheria and Feri, a coven is a gathering or community of witches, like an affinity group, engagement group, or small covenant group. It is composed of a group of practitioners who gather together for rituals such as Drawing Down the Moon, or celebrating the Sabbats.. The place at which they generally meet is called a covenstead.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Neopaganism", "target_page_ids": [ 33295, 21686, 33959, 430320, 367427, 33959, 3088136, 33653, 2448469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 8 ], [ 36, 44 ], [ 45, 55 ], [ 65, 75 ], [ 80, 84 ], [ 125, 130 ], [ 284, 305 ], [ 326, 333 ], [ 387, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The number of people involved may vary. Although some consider thirteen to be ideal (probably in deference to Murray's theories), any group of at least three can be a coven. A group of two is usually called a \"working couple\" (regardless of their gender). It can also unofficially be called an \"Obaven\" by some members of the community, derived from the Scottish Gaelic word \"obair\" meaning work, a tribute to the more official term \"working couple\", a portmanteau with the word \"coven\". Thus creating the word, \"Obaven\". Within the community, many believe that a coven larger than thirteen is unwieldy, citing unwieldy group dynamics and an unfair burden on the leadership. When a coven has grown too large to be manageable, it may split, or \"hive\". In Wicca, this may also occur when a newly made High Priest or High Priestess, also called 3rd Degree initiation, leaves to start their own coven.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Neopaganism", "target_page_ids": [ 20208, 16823212, 789004, 789004, 33295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 116 ], [ 453, 464 ], [ 799, 810 ], [ 814, 828 ], [ 842, 852 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wiccan covens are usually jointly led by a High Priestess and a High Priest, although some are led by only one or the other, and some by a same-sex couple. In more recent forms of neopagan witchcraft, covens are sometimes run as democracies with a rotating leadership.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Neopaganism", "target_page_ids": [ 789004, 789004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 57 ], [ 64, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the rise of the Internet as a platform for collaborative discussion and media dissemination, it became popular for adherents and practitioners of Wicca to establish \"online covens\" which remotely teach tradition-specific crafts to students in a similar method of education as non-religious virtual online schools. One of the first online covens to take this route is the Coven of the Far Flung Net (CFFN), which was established in 1998 as the online arm of the Church of Universal Eclectic Wicca.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Neopaganism", "target_page_ids": [ 1733839, 8997, 20130863, 20130863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 295, 302 ], [ 303, 317 ], [ 376, 402 ], [ 466, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, because of potentially-unwieldy membership sizes, many online covens limit their memberships to anywhere between 10 and 100 students. The CFFN, in particular, tried to devolve its structure into a system of sub-coven clans (which governed their own application processes), a system which ended in 2003 due to fears by the CFFN leadership that the clans were becoming communities in their own right.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Neopaganism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Urban Coven is a group founded on Facebook by Becca Gordon for women in Los Angeles to gather, hike, and howl at the moon. It meets monthly and is estimated to have almost 3,500 members. A January 2016 gathering at Griffith Park drew nearly 1,000 women, and was described as follows: \"A lot of the women ... were there in groups — mothers and daughters, friends, colleagues. Some arrived solo and struck up conversations with other women or hiked in solitude.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Neopaganism", "target_page_ids": [ 7529378, 18110, 19331, 583413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 46 ], [ 76, 87 ], [ 121, 125 ], [ 219, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In popular culture, a coven is a group or gathering of witches who work spells in tandem. Such imagery can be traced back to Renaissance prints depicting witches and to the three \"weird sisters\" in Shakespeare's Macbeth (1606).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Usage in literature and popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 25532, 15903914, 32897, 18866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 137 ], [ 174, 195 ], [ 199, 210 ], [ 213, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Orgiastic meetings of witches are depicted in the Robert Burns poem \"Tam o' Shanter\" (1791) and in the Goethe play Faust (1832).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Usage in literature and popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 21222213, 3732063, 19242322, 554299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 62 ], [ 69, 83 ], [ 103, 109 ], [ 115, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Films featuring covens include Rosemary's Baby (1968), Crowhaven Farm (1970), Suspiria (1977) and its 2018 remake, The Witches of Eastwick (1987), Four Rooms (1995), The Craft (1996), Coven (1997), Underworld (2003), Evolution (2006), The Covenant (2006), Paranormal Activity 3 (2011), The Witch (2015) and Hereditary (2018).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Usage in literature and popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 9830229, 57271523, 347000, 52715813, 5526366, 554858, 86533, 6523280, 452767, 6432572, 30695973, 45379583, 56407071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 46 ], [ 55, 69 ], [ 78, 86 ], [ 102, 113 ], [ 115, 138 ], [ 147, 157 ], [ 166, 175 ], [ 184, 189 ], [ 198, 208 ], [ 236, 248 ], [ 257, 278 ], [ 287, 296 ], [ 308, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In television, covens have been portrayed in the U.S. in supernatural dramas such as Charmed, Witches of East End, The Vampire Diaries, The Originals, The Secret Circle, True Blood, Once Upon a Time and Chilling Adventures of Sabrina. The third season of American Horror Story is entitled Coven, and focuses on witches. The animated series The Owl House (2020–present) also focuses on witches, and interprets covens as required organizations of witches with specialized magic.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Usage in literature and popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 212370, 38394742, 22823014, 38440928, 31050747, 18624945, 4704229, 55398611, 31227103, 56669815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 92 ], [ 94, 113 ], [ 115, 134 ], [ 136, 149 ], [ 151, 168 ], [ 170, 180 ], [ 182, 198 ], [ 203, 233 ], [ 255, 276 ], [ 340, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In vampire novels such as The Vampire Chronicles by Anne Rice and the Twilight series by Stephenie Meyer, covens are families or unrelated groups of vampires who live together.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Usage in literature and popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 476833, 18951262, 13039867, 4484462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 48 ], [ 52, 61 ], [ 70, 78 ], [ 89, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Covens feature in the video game Dishonored, specifically in the DLC's Knife of Dunwall, and The Brigmore Witches.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Usage in literature and popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Popular tabletop card game Magic the Gathering features a keyword ability known as Coven, which was introduced in expansion set Midnight Hunt. The Coven ability provides its controller a beneficial effect if they control at least three creatures with different offense values or \"powers\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Usage in literature and popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 18830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magical organization", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " New Forest coven", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2448259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Margot Adler (2006) Drawing Down the Moon (book). Penguin Books. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 598713, 1261005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 20, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Miriam Simos (1999) The Spiral Dance. San Francisco: Harper.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 178756, 3284275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 20, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Janet and Stuart Farrar (1996) A Witches' Bible: The Complete Witches Handbook. Phoenix Publishing.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aquelarre", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "European_witchcraft", "Wiccan_covens", "Wiccan_terminology" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Amstrad was a British electronics company, founded in 1968 by Alan Sugar at the age of 21. The name is a contraction of Alan Michael Sugar Trading. It was first listed on the London Stock Exchange in April 1980. During the late 1980s, Amstrad had a substantial share of the PC market in the UK. Amstrad was once a FTSE 100 Index constituent, but since 2007 has been wholly owned by Sky UK. , Amstrad's main business was manufacturing Sky UK interactive boxes. In 2010, Sky integrated Amstrad's satellite division as part of Sky so they could make their own set-top boxes in-house.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 417559, 197867, 497717, 321943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 72 ], [ 175, 196 ], [ 314, 328 ], [ 434, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The company had offices in Kings Road, Brentwood, Essex.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14666430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amstrad (also known as AMSTrad) was founded in 1968 by Alan Sugar at the age of 21, the name of the original company being AMS Trading (Amstrad) Limited, derived from its founder's initials (Alan Michael Sugar). Amstrad entered the market in the field of consumer electronics. During the 1970s they were at the forefront of low-priced hi-fi, TV and car stereo cassette technologies. Lower prices were achieved by injection moulding plastic hi-fi turntable covers, undercutting competitors who used the vacuum forming process.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 417559, 189768, 65880, 325831, 1145865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 65 ], [ 255, 275 ], [ 360, 368 ], [ 413, 431 ], [ 502, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amstrad expanded to the marketing of low cost amplifiers and tuners, imported from East Asia and badged with the Amstrad name for the UK market. Their first electrical product was the Amstrad 8000 amplifier.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 92791, 903897, 19605700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 56 ], [ 61, 67 ], [ 83, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1980, Amstrad went public trading on the London Stock Exchange, and doubled in size each year during the early '80s. Amstrad began marketing its own home computers in an attempt to capture the market from Commodore and Sinclair, with the Amstrad CPC range in 1984. The CPC 464 was launched in the UK, Ireland, France, Australia, New Zealand, Germany, Spain and Italy. It was followed by the CPC 664 and CPC 6128 models. Later \"Plus\" variants of the 464 and 6128, launched in 1990, increased their functionality slightly.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 197867, 25122906, 7580, 1023996, 2197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 65 ], [ 152, 165 ], [ 208, 217 ], [ 222, 230 ], [ 241, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1985, the popular Amstrad PCW range was introduced, which were principally word processors, complete with printer, running the LocoScript word processing program. They were also capable of running the CP/M operating system. The Amsoft division of Amstrad was set up to provide in-house software and consumables.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 156337, 57307464, 639165, 45146, 2905620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ], [ 78, 92 ], [ 130, 140 ], [ 204, 208 ], [ 231, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 7 April 1986 Amstrad announced it had bought from Sinclair Research \"the worldwide rights to sell and manufacture all existing and future Sinclair computers and computer products, together with the Sinclair brand name and those intellectual property rights where they relate to computers and computer related products\", which included the ZX Spectrum, for £5 million. This included Sinclair's unsold stock of Sinclair QLs and Spectrums. Amstrad made more than £5 million on selling these surplus machines alone. Amstrad launched two new variants of the Spectrum: the ZX Spectrum +2, based on the ZX Spectrum 128, with a built-in cassette tape drive (like the CPC 464) and, the following year, the ZX Spectrum +3, with a built-in floppy disk drive (similar to the CPC 664 and 6128), taking the 3\" disks that many Amstrad machines used.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 34467, 28418, 65880, 10891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 342, 353 ], [ 412, 423 ], [ 632, 651 ], [ 732, 743 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1986 Amstrad entered the IBM PC-compatible arena with the PC1512 system. In standard Amstrad livery and priced at £399 it was a success, capturing more than 25% of the European computer market. It was MS-DOS-based, but with the GEM graphics interface, and later Windows. In 1988 Amstrad attempted to make the first affordable portable personal computer with the PPC512 and 640 models, introduced a year before the Macintosh Portable. They ran MS-DOS on an 8MHz processor, and the built-in screen could emulate the Monochrome Display Adapter or Color Graphics Adapter. Amstrad's final (and ill-fated) attempts to exploit the Sinclair brand were based on the company's own PCs; a compact desktop PC derived from the PPC 512, branded as the Sinclair PC200, and the PC1512 rebadged as the Sinclair PC500.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 49803, 467585, 21291954, 18890, 7992594, 393057, 21291954, 613646, 474231, 7992594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 45 ], [ 61, 67 ], [ 204, 210 ], [ 265, 272 ], [ 365, 379 ], [ 417, 435 ], [ 446, 452 ], [ 517, 543 ], [ 547, 569 ], [ 741, 755 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amstrad's second generation of PCs, the PC2000 series, were launched in 1989. However,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "due to a problem with the Seagate ST277R hard disk shipped with the PC2386 model, these had to be recalled and fitted with Western Digital controllers. Amstrad later successfully sued Seagate, but following bad press over the hard disk problems, Amstrad lost its lead in the European PC market.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 328029, 222333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 33 ], [ 123, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 1990s, Amstrad began to focus on portable computers rather than desktop computers. In 1990, Amstrad tried to enter the video game console market with the Amstrad GX4000, similar to what Commodore did at the same time with the C64 GS. The console, based on the Amstrad 464 Plus hardware, was a commercial failure, because it used outdated technology, and most games available for it were straight ports of CPC games that could be purchased for much less in their original format.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 52742, 32629, 1605189, 7580, 1977241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 93 ], [ 132, 150 ], [ 167, 181 ], [ 199, 208 ], [ 239, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1993, Amstrad was licensed by Sega to produce a system which was similar to the Sega TeraDrive, going by the name of the Amstrad Mega PC, to try to regain their image in the gaming market. The system didn't succeed as well as expected, mostly due to its high initial retail price of £999. In that same year, Amstrad released the PenPad, a PDA similar to the Apple Newton, and released only weeks before it. It was a commercial failure, and had several technical and usability problems. It lacked most features that the Apple Newton included, but had a lower price at $450.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 28222625, 8076624, 8774934, 4549316, 23304, 20647724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 37 ], [ 83, 97 ], [ 124, 139 ], [ 332, 338 ], [ 342, 345 ], [ 361, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Amstrad began to concentrate less on computers and more in communication, they purchased several telecommunications businesses including Betacom, Dancall Telecom, Viglen Computers, and modem manufacturer Dataflex Design Communications, bought out of liquidation, during the early 1990s. The company also established a direct marketing channel, Amstrad Direct, in late 1994 and announced 486- and Pentium-based products including an \"All-in-One Multimedia PC\" with built-in television tuner, infra-red remote control, amplifier and speakers. A pen-based personal digital assistant with support for a PCMCIA-based modem, the InfoPad, was also unveiled with a September 1995 launch scheduled.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3275884, 3275986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 147 ], [ 166, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amstrad has been a major supplier of set top boxes to UK satellite TV provider Sky since its launch in 1989. Amstrad was key to the introduction of Sky, as the company was responsible for finding methods to produce the requisite equipment at an attractive price for the consumer - Alan Sugar famously approached \"someone who bashes out dustbin lids\", to manufacture satellite dishes cheaply. Ultimately, it was the only manufacturer producing receiver boxes and dishes at the system's launch, and has continued to manufacture set top boxes for Sky, from analogue to digital and now including Sky's Sky+ digital video recorder.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 29580, 321943, 2379632, 348300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 48 ], [ 79, 82 ], [ 598, 602 ], [ 603, 625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1996, Alan Sugar was reported as having been looking for a buyer for Amstrad \"for some time\". Amongst the group's assets, cumulatively valued at , the Dancall subsidiary was of particular interest to potential acquirer Psion, producer of handheld computer products, for its expertise in \"GSM digital mobile phone functionality\" and the potential to integrate such functionality into Psion's own product range. Despite \"long drawn out negotiations\", the parties failed to agree a price and a strategy to dispose of the group's other assets. In 1997, Amstrad PLC was wound up, its shares being split into Viglen and Betacom instead. Betacom PLC was then renamed Amstrad PLC.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 46016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 222, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The same year, Amstrad supplied set top boxes to Australian broadcaster Foxtel, and in 2004 to Italian broadcaster Sky Italia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 494665, 1560773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 78 ], [ 115, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2000, Amstrad released the first of its combined telephony and e-mail devices, called the E-m@iler. This was followed by the E-m@iler Plus in 2002, and the E3 Videophone in 2004. Amstrad's UK E-m@iler business is operated through a separate company, Amserve Ltd which is 89.8% owned by Amstrad and 10.2% owned by DSG International plc (formerly Dixons plc).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 41831, 9738, 12552680, 985802, 985802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 61 ], [ 66, 72 ], [ 93, 101 ], [ 316, 337 ], [ 348, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amstrad has also produced a variety of home entertainment products over their history, including hi-fi, televisions, VCRs, and DVD players.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23442715, 11014498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 121 ], [ 127, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2007, BSkyB announced a takeover of Amstrad for £125m, a 23.7% premium on its market capitalisation. BSkyB had been a major client of Amstrad, accounting for 75% of sales for its 'set top box' business. Having supplied BSkyB with hardware since its inception in 1988, market analysts had noted the two companies becoming increasingly close.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 321943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sugar commented that he wished to play a part in the business, saying: \"I turn 60 this year and I have had 40 years of hustling in the business, but now I have to start thinking about my team of loyal staff, many of whom have been with me for many years.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It was announced on 2 July 2008 that Sugar had stepped down as Chairman of Amstrad, which had been planned since BSkyB took over in 2007.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Amstrad was taken off the Stock Exchange on 9 October 2008.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Amstrad has ceased operations as a trading company, and exists in name only. Under Sky, Amstrad currently only produce satellite receivers for Sky, as doing so allows them to reduce costs by cutting out the middleman. Amstrad's former offices are now a Premier Inn Hotel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sky bought Amstrad so they could have their own hardware development division to develop new Satellite boxes (Sky Q) made in-house.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 58210767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CPC464 (64 KB RAM, cassette drive)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 252793, 16794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 12, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CPC472 (same as CPC464 but with 72 KB instead of 64 KB)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 2197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CPC664 (3inch internal disk variant of CPC464)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 2197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CPC6128 (128 KB version of the CPC664 with 3inch disk)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 2197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 464 Plus (CPC464 with enhanced graphics and sound)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 2197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 6128 Plus (CPC6128 with enhanced graphics and sound)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 2197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " GX4000 (games console based on 464 Plus)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 1605189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sinclair ZX Spectrum +2 (re-engineered ZX Spectrum 128 with tape drive)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 34467, 34467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 40, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sinclair ZX Spectrum +3 (as ZX Spectrum +2 but with 3inch disk drive instead of tape drive)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 34467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PCW8256 (Z80, 3.5MHz, 256 KB RAM, single 180 KB 3\" floppy drive, dot-matrix printer, green screen)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 156337, 34461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PCW8512 (same as PCW8256 but with 512 KB RAM, 180 KB 3\" A: drive, 720 KB 3\" B: drive)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PCW9512 (Z80, 3.5MHz, 512 KB RAM, single or dual 720 KB 3\" floppy drives, daisywheel printer, \"paper white\" screen)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PcW9256 (Z80, 3.5MHz, 256 KB RAM, single 720 KB 3.5\" floppy drive, dot-matrix printer, \"paper white\" screen)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PcW9512+ (same as PCW9512 but with single 3.5\" 720 KB floppy drive)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PcW10 (same as PcW9256 but with 512 KB RAM and a built-in parallel port)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PcW16 (Z80, 16MHz, single 1.44 MB 3.5\" floppy drive, new machine not directly compatible with old PCWs)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " NC100 (Z80, 64 KB RAM, 80×8 character LCD)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 1047234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NC150 (NC100 with 128 KB RAM, floppy disk interface and NC200 firmware— sold in France and Italy)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 1047234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NC200 (Z80, 128 KB RAM, adjustable 80×16 character LCD, 3.5 in floppy disk drive)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 1047234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PC1512 (Intel 8086, 8MHz, 512 KB RAM, enhanced CGA graphics up to 640x200x16) - Marketed in the United States as the PC5120", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 467585, 15063, 474231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 19 ], [ 48, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PC1640 (Intel 8086, 8MHz, 640 KB RAM, MDA/Hercules/CGA/EGA colour graphics) - Marketed in the United States as the PC6400", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 613646, 145591, 160527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 42 ], [ 43, 51 ], [ 56, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PPC512 (Portable using NEC V30 processor, 512 KB RAM, non-backlit supertwist CGA, one or two 720 KB 3.5\" floppy drives) - released around the same time as the PC1512.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 7992594, 553547, 2217896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 24, 31 ], [ 67, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PPC640 (Portable using NEC V30 processor, 640 KB RAM, non-backlit supertwist CGA, one or two 720 KB 3.5\" floppy drives, internal modem) - released around the same time as the PC1640.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 20647197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sinclair PC200 (integral desktop PC for home computer market based on PPC512)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 7992594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PC-20 the Australian and USA version of the Sinclair PC200 except that the USA version does not have a RF modulator.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sinclair PC500 (rebadged PC1512)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PC1286", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PC1386 (Intel 80386SX CPU, 20MHz, 1 MB RAM)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 15070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PC2086 (Intel 8086 CPU, 8MHz, 640 KB RAM, VGA graphics) launched 1989", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 73041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PC2286 (Intel 80286 CPU, 12.5MHz, 1 MB RAM, VGA graphics) launched 1989", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 9893013, 15054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PC2386 (Intel 80386DX CPU, 20MHz, 4 MB RAM, VGA graphics) launched 1989.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 15070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PC3086 ( 8MHz 8086 CPU, 640 KB RAM)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PC3286 (16MHz 80286 CPU, 1 MB RAM)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PC3386SX (20MHz 80286SX CPU, 1 MB RAM)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PC4386SX (20MHz 80386SX CPU, 4 MB RAM)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PC5086 (8MHz 8086 CPU, 640 KB RAM)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PC5286 (16MHz 80286 CPU, 1 MB RAM)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PC5386SX (20MHz 80386SX CPU, 2 MB RAM, VGA graphics) launched 1991", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PC6486SX", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PC7000 series: PC7286, PC7386SX, PC7486SLC", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PC8486", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PC9486 (25 or 33MHz 80486SX, or 50MHz 80486DX2)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PC9486i (66MHz 80486DX2 CPU, 4 MB RAM)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PC9555i (120MHz Pentium)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 5144840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amstrad Mega PC (Intel 80386SX CPU, 25MHz, Integrated Mega Drive)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 8774934, 2639573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 55, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ALT286 (laptop; 16MHz 80286 CPU, 1 MB RAM)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ALT386SX (laptop; 16MHz 80386SX CPU, 1 MB RAM)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ACL386SX (laptop; 20MHz 80386SX CPU, 1 MB RAM, colour TFT LCD)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 1240595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ANB386SX (notebook; 80386SX CPU, 1 MB RAM)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Amstrad DMP1000 9-pin dot matrix printer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 60107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amstrad DMP3000, DMP3160, DMP3250di 9-pin dot matrix printer (different printing speed), the special model 3250di (dual interface) having both serial and parallel ports", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Amstrad SM2400 2400 baud internal modem (came with Mirror software)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 40688, 20647197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 25 ], [ 35, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PDA 600 Pen Pad (1993, Z8S180 CPU)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [ 4549316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amstrad/Fidelity Satellite Systems SRX100 (1989), SRX200 (1989), SRD400 (1990)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Amstrad Sky box DRX100 (2001), DRX200 (2001), DRX300 (2003), DRX400 (2004), DRX500 (2004), DRX550, (2006)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Amstrad Sky+ box DRX180 (2003), DRX280 (2003)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Amstrad Sky+HD box DRX780 (2007), DRX890, DRX895 (2009)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Amstrad Sky HD Multiroom Receiver DRX595 (2011)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computer product lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Amsoft", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2905620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PC-1512", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 467585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amstrad Action", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 207972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amstrad NC150", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1047234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amstrad NC200", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1047234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amstrad NC100", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1047234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sugar, Alan. What You See Is What You Get: My Autobiography (2010) hardback ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas, David. Alan Sugar: The Amstrad Story (1991), paperback .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Amstrad", "Electronics_companies_established_in_1968", "Home_computer_hardware_companies", "Electronics_companies_of_the_United_Kingdom", "Computer_companies_of_the_United_Kingdom", "Companies_formerly_listed_on_the_London_Stock_Exchange", "Companies_based_in_Brentwood,_Essex", "1968_establishments_in_England", "Defunct_computer_hardware_companies" ]

[ "Amstrad Limited" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Power transmission is the movement of energy from its place of generation to a location where it is applied to perform useful work.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9649, 149861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 44 ], [ 126, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Power is defined formally as units of energy per unit time. In SI units:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24236, 9649, 30012, 26764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 38, 44 ], [ 54, 58 ], [ 63, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the development of technology, transmission and storage systems have been of immense interest to technologists and technology users.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 29816, 609147, 29816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 35 ], [ 37, 49 ], [ 121, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the widespread establishment of electrical grids, power transmission is usually associated most with electric power transmission. Alternating current is normally preferred as its voltage may be easily stepped up by a transformer in order to minimize resistive loss in the conductors used to transmit power over great distances; another set of transformers is required to step it back down to safer or more usable voltage levels at destination.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Electrical power", "target_page_ids": [ 20344155, 38824, 42986, 30906, 61577, 198984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 52 ], [ 106, 133 ], [ 136, 155 ], [ 223, 234 ], [ 256, 265 ], [ 278, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Power transmission is usually performed with overhead lines as this is the most economical way to do so. Underground transmission by high-voltage cables is chosen in crowded urban areas and in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) submarine connections.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Electrical power", "target_page_ids": [ 1355057, 24910791, 47716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 58 ], [ 133, 151 ], [ 193, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Power might also be transmitted by changing electromagnetic fields or by radio waves; microwave energy may be carried efficiently over short distances by a waveguide or in free space via wireless power transfer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Electrical power", "target_page_ids": [ 9735, 98132, 20097, 41863, 570662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 65 ], [ 73, 84 ], [ 86, 95 ], [ 156, 165 ], [ 187, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electrical power transmission has replaced mechanical power transmission in all but the very shortest distances.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mechanical power", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From the 16th century through the industrial revolution to the end of the 19th century, mechanical power transmission was the norm. The oldest long-distance power transmission technology involved systems of push-rods or jerker lines (stängenkunst or feldstängen) connecting waterwheels to distant mine-drainage and brine-well pumps. A surviving example from 1780 exists at Bad Kösen that transmits power approximately 200 meters from a waterwheel to a salt well, and from there, an additional 150 meters to a brine evaporator. This technology survived into the 21st century in a handful of oilfields in the US, transmitting power from a central pumping engine to the numerous pump-jacks in the oil field.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mechanical power", "target_page_ids": [ 14914, 31878431, 2094708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 55 ], [ 220, 232 ], [ 373, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mechanical power may be transmitted directly using a solid structure such as a driveshaft; transmission gears can adjust the amount of torque or force vs. speed in much the same way an electrical transformer adjusts voltage vs current. Factories were fitted with overhead line shafts providing rotary power. Short line-shaft systems were described by Agricola, connecting a waterwheel to numerous ore-processing machines. While the machines described by Agricola used geared connections from the shafts to the machinery, by the 19th century, drivebelts would become the norm for linking individual machines to the line shafts. One mid 19th century factory had 1,948 feet of line shafting with 541 pulleys.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mechanical power", "target_page_ids": [ 1022803, 609147, 82916, 30400, 10902, 28748, 32549, 6207, 2498045, 30400, 12475, 1364502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 89 ], [ 91, 103 ], [ 104, 108 ], [ 135, 141 ], [ 145, 150 ], [ 155, 160 ], [ 216, 223 ], [ 227, 234 ], [ 273, 283 ], [ 295, 307 ], [ 352, 360 ], [ 544, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hydraulic systems use liquid under pressure to transmit power; canals and hydroelectric power generation facilities harness natural water power to lift ships or generate electricity. Pumping water or pushing mass uphill with (windmill pumps) is one possible means of energy storage. London had a hydraulic network powered by five pumping stations operated by the London Hydraulic Power Company, with a total effect of 5 MW.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mechanical power", "target_page_ids": [ 65424, 5623, 381399, 9540, 27008, 43490, 24130, 17867, 4488634, 851965, 873892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 63, 68 ], [ 74, 87 ], [ 88, 104 ], [ 152, 156 ], [ 226, 234 ], [ 267, 281 ], [ 283, 289 ], [ 296, 313 ], [ 330, 345 ], [ 363, 393 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pneumatic systems use gasses under pressure to transmit power; compressed air is commonly used to operate pneumatic tools in factories and repair garages. A pneumatic wrench (for instance) is used to remove and install automotive tires far more quickly than could be done with standard manual hand tools. A pneumatic system was proposed by proponents of Edison's direct current as the basis of the power grid. Compressed air generated at Niagara Falls would drive far away generators of DC power. The war of the currents ended with alternating current (AC) as the only means of long distance power transmission.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mechanical power", "target_page_ids": [ 195891, 195891, 195891, 30677, 166784, 91191, 29778, 47713, 52028, 342086, 42986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 63, 77 ], [ 106, 115 ], [ 116, 120 ], [ 125, 134 ], [ 139, 145 ], [ 355, 363 ], [ 364, 378 ], [ 439, 452 ], [ 502, 521 ], [ 533, 552 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thermal power can be transported in pipelines containing a high heat capacity fluid such as oil or water as used in district heating systems, or by physically transporting material items, such as bottle cars, or in the ice trade.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Thermal power", "target_page_ids": [ 194227, 1669741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 77 ], [ 116, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While not technically power transmission, energy is commonly transported by shipping chemical or nuclear fuels. Possible artificial fuels include radioactive isotopes, wood alcohol, grain alcohol, methane, synthetic gas, hydrogen gas (H2), cryogenic gas, and liquefied natural gas (LNG).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Chemicals and fuels", "target_page_ids": [ 9722260, 22153, 21188370, 37245, 19712, 10048, 18582230, 201479, 13255, 7176, 18993869, 832128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 93 ], [ 97, 104 ], [ 105, 109 ], [ 146, 165 ], [ 168, 180 ], [ 182, 195 ], [ 197, 204 ], [ 206, 219 ], [ 221, 229 ], [ 240, 249 ], [ 250, 253 ], [ 259, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Distributed generation", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 245963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of energy storage projects", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38861135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] } ]

[ "Electric_power_transmission" ]

[ "transmission" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Fulda () (historically in English called Fuld) is a town in Hesse, Germany; it is located on the river Fulda and is the administrative seat of the Fulda district (Kreis). In 1990, the town hosted the 30th Hessentag state festival.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38412, 11867, 285509, 203592, 36092480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 65 ], [ 67, 74 ], [ 97, 108 ], [ 147, 161 ], [ 205, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 744 Saint Sturm, a disciple of Saint Boniface, founded the Benedictine monastery of Fulda as one of Boniface's outposts in the reorganization of the church in Germany. It later served as a base from which missionaries could accompany Charlemagne's armies in their political and military campaigns to fully conquer and convert pagan Saxony.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30872193, 28172, 4240, 23923021, 62229, 5314, 3535274, 2420186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ], [ 34, 48 ], [ 62, 73 ], [ 74, 92 ], [ 162, 169 ], [ 237, 248 ], [ 290, 299 ], [ 335, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The initial grant for the abbey was signed by Carloman, Mayor of the Palace in Austrasia (in office 741–47), the son of Charles Martel. The support of the Mayors of the Palace, and later of the early Pippinid and Carolingian rulers, was important to Boniface's success. Fulda also received support from many of the leading families of the Carolingian world. Sturm, whose tenure as abbot lasted from 747 until 779, was most likely related to the Agilolfing dukes of Bavaria.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 77512, 148585, 62778, 6452, 87655, 3764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 54 ], [ 56, 75 ], [ 79, 88 ], [ 120, 134 ], [ 213, 224 ], [ 465, 472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fulda also received large and constant donations from the Etichonids, a leading family in Alsace, and from the Conradines, predecessors of the Salian Holy Roman Emperors. Under Sturm, the donations Fulda received from these and other important families helped in the establishment of daughter-houses near Fulda.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 48129, 16300619, 29545, 50853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 96 ], [ 111, 121 ], [ 143, 149 ], [ 150, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After his martyrdom by the Frisians, the relics of Saint Boniface were brought back to Fulda. Because of the stature this afforded the monastery, the donations increased, and Fulda could establish daughter-houses further away, for example in Hamelin. Meanwhile, Saint Lullus, successor of Boniface as archbishop of Mainz, tried to absorb the abbey into his archbishopric, but failed. This was one reason he founded Hersfeld Abbeyto limit the attempts of the enlargement of Fulda.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11797, 153044, 1530880, 5436361, 5490261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 34 ], [ 242, 249 ], [ 268, 274 ], [ 301, 320 ], [ 415, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 790 and 819 the community rebuilt the main monastery church to more fittingly house the relics. They based their new basilica on the original 4th-century (since demolished) Old St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, using the transept and crypt plan of that great pilgrimage church to frame their own saint as the \"Apostle to the Germans\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 45856, 226651, 54675, 5793151, 775214, 211786, 23763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 60 ], [ 96, 101 ], [ 125, 133 ], [ 181, 205 ], [ 225, 233 ], [ 238, 243 ], [ 263, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The crypt of the original abbey church still holds those relics, but the church itself has been subsumed into a Baroque renovation. A small, 9th-century chapel remains standing within walking distance of the church, as do the foundations of a later women's abbey. Rabanus Maurus served as abbot at Fulda from 822 to 842.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1315, 3957, 683585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 31 ], [ 112, 119 ], [ 264, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prince-abbot Balthasar von Dernbach adopted a policy of counter-reformation. In 1571 he called in the Jesuits to found a school and college. He insisted the members of the chapter should return to a monastic form of life. Whereas his predecessors had tolerated Protestantism, resulting in most of the citizenry of Fulda and a large portion of the principality's countryside professing Lutheranism, Balthasar ordered his subjects either to return to the Catholic faith or leave his territories. He also ordered the Fulda witch trials, in which hundreds of people, mostly women, were burnt alive on charges of witchcraft.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 36322880, 236236, 16083, 19626, 25814008, 23371382, 606848, 16400864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 35 ], [ 56, 75 ], [ 102, 109 ], [ 199, 207 ], [ 261, 274 ], [ 385, 396 ], [ 453, 467 ], [ 514, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The foundation of the abbey of Fulda and its territory originated with an Imperial grant, and the sovereign principality therefore was subject only to the German emperor. Fulda became a bishopric in 1752 and the prince-abbots were given the additional title of prince-bishop. The prince-abbots (and later prince-bishops) ruled Fulda and the surrounding region until the bishopric was forcibly dissolved by Napoleon I in 1802.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 77322, 38382, 1745788, 51270, 50549, 69880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 120 ], [ 155, 169 ], [ 212, 224 ], [ 261, 274 ], [ 370, 379 ], [ 406, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city went through a baroque building campaign in the 18th century, resulting in the current \"Baroque City\" status. This included a remodeling of Fulda Cathedral (1704–12) and of the Stadtschloss (Fulda Castle-Palace, 1707–12) by Johann Dientzenhofer. The city parish church, St. Blasius, was built between 1771 and 1785. In 1764 a porcelain factory was started in Fulda under Prince-Bishop, Prince-Abbot Heinrich von Bibra, but shortly after his death it was closed down in 1789 by his successor, Prince-Bishop, Prince-Abbot Adalbert von Harstall.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 28227842, 8344630, 167718, 7465624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 164 ], [ 233, 253 ], [ 335, 344 ], [ 408, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city was given to Prince William Frederick of Orange-Nassau (the later King William I of the Netherlands) in 1803 (as part of the short-lived Principality of Nassau-Orange-Fulda), was annexed to the Grand Duchy of Berg in 1806, and in 1809 to the Principality of Frankfurt. After the Congress of Vienna of 1814–15, most of the territory went to the Electorate of Hesse, which Prussia annexed in 1866.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 37211, 37211, 26359674, 7502668, 253140, 44628, 34655783, 242701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 63 ], [ 80, 108 ], [ 146, 181 ], [ 203, 222 ], [ 251, 276 ], [ 288, 306 ], [ 353, 372 ], [ 380, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1938 to 1943, Fulda was the location of a Nazi forced labour camp for Romani people.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15642219, 26152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 65 ], [ 75, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fulda lends its name to the Fulda Gap, a traditional east–west invasion route used by Napoleon I and others. During the Cold War, it was presumed to be an invasion route for any conventional war between NATO and Soviet forces. Downs Barracks in Fulda was the headquarters of the American 14th Armored Cavalry Regiment, later replaced by the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment. The cavalry had as many as 3,000 soldiers from the end of World War II until 1993. Not all those soldiers were in Fulda proper, but scattered over observation posts and in the cities of Bad Kissingen and Bad Hersfeld. The strategic importance of this region, along the border between East and West Germany, led to a large United States and Soviet military presence.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 528092, 325329, 21133, 3010721, 4784405, 851378, 32927, 1431076, 271043, 32087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 37 ], [ 120, 128 ], [ 203, 207 ], [ 212, 225 ], [ 288, 317 ], [ 341, 370 ], [ 430, 442 ], [ 558, 571 ], [ 576, 588 ], [ 694, 707 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fulda has traditionally been a conservative Catholic city, with the Roman Catholic Diocese of Fulda being based in the city cathedral. During the time of German Empire and Weimar Republic, the city was a stronghold for Centre Party. After the end of World War II, in addition to all mayors, Fulda's constituency seats have been safe seats for CDU in both the Landtag of Hesse (District X 1946-1950, District 14 1950-1983, Fulda I since 1983) and Bundestag (Fulda electoral district). CDU has never received less than 42.4 percent of the vote in communal elections since 1946.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 15142127, 12674, 33685, 320023, 60584, 17718437, 3768, 66283022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 99 ], [ 154, 167 ], [ 172, 187 ], [ 219, 231 ], [ 343, 346 ], [ 359, 375 ], [ 446, 455 ], [ 457, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oberbürgermeister (Lord mayor) Department I (head and personnel administration, finance, committee work, culture, business development, city marketing, investments)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cuno Raabe (CDU): 1946–1956", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alfred Dregger (CDU): 1956–1970", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 2348763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dr. Wolfgang Hamberger (CDU): 1970–1998", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dr. Alois Rhiel (CDU): 1998–2003", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gerhard Möller (CDU): 2003–2015", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Heiko Wingenfeld (CDU): 2015–", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Department II (public security and order, family, youth, schools, sports, social affairs, seniors)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Karl Ehser: 1934–1945", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Karl Schmitt: 1946–1948", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Heinrich Gellings: 1948–1969", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dr. Wolfgang Hamberger: 1969–1970", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dr. Tilman Pünder: 1971–1980", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lutz von Pufendorf: 1981–1984", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dr. Alois Rhiel: 1984–1989", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Josef H. Mayer: 1990–1995", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Oda Scheibelhuber: 1995–1999", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bernd Woide: 1999–2003", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dr. Wolfgang Dippel: 2004–2014 ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dag Wehner (CDU): 2014–", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Landtag (state parliament)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cuno Raabe (CDU): 1946-1962, elected in 1946, 1950, 1954 and 1958", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alfred Dregger (CDU): 1962-1972, elected in 1962, 1966 and 1970, resigned to accept Bundestag mandate", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Winfried Rippert (CDU): 1972-1999, appointed in 1972, elected in 1974, 1978, 1982, 1983, 1987, 1991 and 1995", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Walter Arnold (CDU): 1999-2004 and again 2009-2018, elected in 1999, 2003; resigned in 2004; elected in 2009 and 2013", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Margarete Ziegler-Raschdorf (CDU): 2004-2009, appointed in 2004, elected in 2008", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Hering (CDU): 2018-, elected in 2018", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bundestag (federal parliament)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anton Sabel (CDU): 1949-1957, elected in 1949 and 1953", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 64195899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hermann Götz (CDU): 1957-1976, elected in 1957, 1961, 1965, 1969 and 1972", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 64183133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alfred Dregger (CDU): 1976-1998, elected in 1976, 1980, 1983, 1987, 1990 and 1994", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Martin Hohmann (CDU): 1998-2005, elected in 1998 and 2002; expelled from CDU in 2003 for anti-Semitic remarks", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 368865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michael Brand (CDU): 2005-, elected in 2005, 2009, 2013, 2017 and 2021", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 24539236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fulda station is a transport hub and interchange point between local and long-distance traffic of the German railway network, and is classified by Deutsche Bahn as a category2 station. It is on the Hanover–Würzburg high-speed railway; the North–South line (Nord-Süd-Strecke), comprising the Bebra–Fulda line north of Fulda, and the Kinzig Valley Railway and Fulda–Main Railway to the south; the Vogelsberg Railway, which connects to the hills of the Vogelsberg in the west; and the Fulda–Gersfeld Railway (Rhön Railway) to Gersfeld in the Rhön Mountains to the east.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 9470599, 186748, 172065, 8349781, 4857987, 9152948, 26382953, 26381299, 34795414, 53865967, 44300932, 5908789, 405063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 102, 124 ], [ 147, 160 ], [ 166, 183 ], [ 198, 233 ], [ 239, 255 ], [ 291, 307 ], [ 332, 353 ], [ 395, 413 ], [ 450, 460 ], [ 482, 504 ], [ 523, 531 ], [ 539, 553 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fulda is on the Bundesautobahn 7 (BAB 7). Bundesautobahn 66 starts at the interchange with the BAB 7, heading south towards Frankfurt. Fulda is also on the Bundesstraße 27.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 1792354, 5292772, 10992, 18204590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 32 ], [ 42, 59 ], [ 124, 133 ], [ 156, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fulda is twinned with:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 1155299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Como, Italy (1960)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 60679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arles, France (1964)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 79494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sergiyev Posad, Russia (1991)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 461225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wilmington, United States (1997)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 108930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Litoměřice, Czech Republic (2001)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 838782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dokkum, Netherlands (2013)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 557573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adam of Fulda (), composer and music theorist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 1001524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adam Krafft (1493–1558), Protestant church reformer", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Justus Menius (1499–1558), theologian", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 2309595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Franz Kaspar Lieblein (1744–1810), botanist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 10436526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heinrich von Bibra Prince-Bishop, Prince-Abbot and of Fulda from 1759 to 1788", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 7465624, 51270, 1745788, 23923021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 19, 32 ], [ 34, 46 ], [ 51, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Georg von Adelmann (1811–1888), physician and surgeon", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 43853752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto Bähr (1817–1895), lawyer and politician", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 48434220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hugo Staehle (1826–1848), composer", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 29651473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ferdinand Braun (1850–1918), physicist, electrical engineer and Nobel laureate in physics", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 17297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adalbert Ricken (1851–1921), mycologist and priest", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 19870791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ludwig Hupfeld (1864–1949), instrument maker and industrialist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 36682048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wilhelm Heye (1869–1947), officer", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 25955321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clara Harnack (1877–1962), painter, teacher and mother of the resistance fighters Arvid and Falk Harnack", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 2858594, 34762795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 87 ], [ 92, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anton Storch (1892–1975), politician", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 39889624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wilm Hosenfeld (1895–1952), officer and Righteous Among the Nations", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 1056923, 797799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 40, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paul Deichmann (1898–1981), officer of the Luftwaffe", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 18597287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Max Stern (1898–1982), businessman, investor and philanthropist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 4109522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karl Storch (1913–1992), athlete (hammer thrower)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 8115551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wilhelm Balthasar (1914–1941), Luftwaffe military aviator and wing commander during Spanish Civil War and WWII", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 6740440, 18842471, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 84, 101 ], [ 106, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fr. Gereon Goldmann (1916–2003), WWII veteran of the Wehrmacht and Waffen SS; later a Franciscan priest ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 24275548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Martin Hohmann (born 1948), politician (CDU, now AfD)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 368865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Winfried Michel (born 1948), composer, recorder player and music publisher", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 8318686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Markus Oestreich (born 1963), racing driver", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 47376113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Immanuel Bloch (born 1972), physicist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 37752671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tobias Sammet (born 1977), musician", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 2075516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sebastian Kehl (born 1980), football player", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 4164222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Patrik Sinkewitz (born 1980), professional cyclist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 5604731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tobias Wolf (born 1988), football player", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 30929710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Damien Haas (born 1990), actor", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 12346158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fulda Gap", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 528092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Official website", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "360degree virtual tour through downtown Fulda ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Vonderau Museum Fulda", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hochschule Fulda (University of Applied Science)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Holocaust survivor testimony of the Kristallnacht pogrom in Fulda on the Yad Vashem website", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 181963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 83 ] ] } ]

[ "Fulda", "Fulda_(district)", "Hesse-Nassau", "Populated_places_established_in_the_8th_century", "8th-century_establishments_in_Germany", "744_establishments", "Christian_monasteries_established_in_the_12th_century", "12th-century_establishments_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire", "Carolingian_architecture", "Counter-Reformation", "Historic_Jewish_communities" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines which facilitate this movement are known as a transmission network. This is distinct from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to as electric power distribution. The combined transmission and distribution network is part of electricity delivery, known as the electrical grid.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1343597, 9540, 212141, 320217, 212253, 326545, 20344155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 69 ], [ 77, 87 ], [ 104, 115 ], [ 123, 144 ], [ 360, 387 ], [ 451, 471 ], [ 486, 501 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Efficient long-distance transmission of electric power requires high voltages. This reduces the losses produced by heavy current. Transmission lines mostly use high-voltage AC (alternating current), but an important class of transmission line uses high voltage direct current. The voltage level is changed with transformers, stepping up the voltage for transmission, then reducing voltage for local distribution and then use by customers.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 47716, 30906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 275 ], [ 311, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A wide area synchronous grid, also known as an \"interconnection\" in North America, directly connects many generators delivering AC power with the same relative frequency to many consumers. For example, there are four major interconnections in North America (the Western Interconnection, the Eastern Interconnection, the Quebec Interconnection and the Texas Interconnection). In Europe one large grid connects most of continental Europe.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20588316, 4908586, 4908578, 15160401, 4908564, 15309950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 29 ], [ 263, 286 ], [ 292, 315 ], [ 321, 343 ], [ 352, 373 ], [ 386, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historically, transmission and distribution lines were often owned by the same company, but starting in the 1990s, many countries have liberalized the regulation of the electricity market in ways that have led to the separation of the electricity transmission business from the distribution business.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1303857, 215909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 146 ], [ 169, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most transmission lines are high-voltage three-phase alternating current (AC), although single phase AC is sometimes used in railway electrification systems. High-voltage direct-current (HVDC) technology is used for greater efficiency over very long distances (typically hundreds of miles). HVDC technology is also used in submarine power cables (typically longer than 30 miles (50km)), and in the interchange of power between grids that are not mutually synchronized. HVDC links are used to stabilize large power distribution networks where sudden new loads, or blackouts, in one part of a network might otherwise result in synchronization problems and cascading failures.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [ 38829, 42986, 227049, 558959, 47716, 1721161, 297024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 52 ], [ 53, 72 ], [ 88, 100 ], [ 125, 155 ], [ 158, 185 ], [ 323, 344 ], [ 654, 671 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electricity is transmitted at high voltages to reduce the energy loss which occurs in long-distance transmission. Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines. Underground power transmission has a significantly higher installation cost and greater operational limitations, but reduced maintenance costs. Underground transmission is sometimes used in urban areas or environmentally sensitive locations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [ 1205325, 1355057, 12232494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 42 ], [ 151, 170 ], [ 173, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A lack of electrical energy storage facilities in transmission systems leads to a key limitation. Electrical energy must be generated at the same rate at which it is consumed. A sophisticated control system is required to ensure that the power generation very closely matches the demand. If the demand for power exceeds supply, the imbalance can cause generation plant(s) and transmission equipment to automatically disconnect or shut down to prevent damage. In the worst case, this may lead to a cascading series of shut downs and a major regional blackout. Examples include the US Northeast blackouts of 1965, 1977, 2003, and major blackouts in other US regions in 1996 and 2011. Electric transmission networks are interconnected into regional, national, and even continent wide networks to reduce the risk of such a failure by providing multiple redundant, alternative routes for power to flow should such shut downs occur. Transmission companies determine the maximum reliable capacity of each line (ordinarily less than its physical or thermal limit) to ensure that spare capacity is available in the event of a failure in another part of the network.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [ 9540, 296636, 296941, 502730, 6455551, 22321800, 33029579, 1953581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 254 ], [ 549, 557 ], [ 606, 610 ], [ 612, 616 ], [ 618, 622 ], [ 667, 671 ], [ 676, 680 ], [ 849, 858 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The conductor material is nearly always an aluminum alloy, made into several strands and possibly reinforced with steel strands. Copper was sometimes used for overhead transmission, but aluminum is lighter, yields only marginally reduced performance and costs much less. Overhead conductors are a commodity supplied by several companies worldwide. Improved conductor material and shapes are regularly used to allow increased capacity and modernize transmission circuits. Conductor sizes range from 12mm2 (#6 American wire gauge) to 750mm2 (1,590,000circular mils area), with varying resistance and current-carrying capacity. For large conductors (more than a few centimetres in diameter) at power frequency, much of the current flow is concentrated near the surface due to the skin effect. The center part of the conductor carries little current, but contributes weight and cost to the conductor. Because of this current limitation, multiple parallel cables (called bundle conductors) are used when higher capacity is needed. Bundle conductors are also used at high voltages to reduce energy loss caused by corona discharge.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overhead transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 904, 311366, 4975365, 2099596, 261642, 1355057, 318352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 115 ], [ 572, 591 ], [ 613, 625 ], [ 662, 687 ], [ 841, 852 ], [ 1031, 1047 ], [ 1172, 1188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today, transmission-level voltages are usually considered to be 110kV and above. Lower voltages, such as 66kV and 33kV, are usually considered Subtransmission voltages, but are occasionally used on long lines with light loads. Voltages less than 33kV are usually used for distribution. Voltages above 765kV are considered extra high voltage and require different designs compared to equipment used at lower voltages.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overhead transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 212253, 1205325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 272, 284 ], [ 322, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since overhead transmission wires depend on air for insulation, the design of these lines requires minimum clearances to be observed to maintain safety. Adverse weather conditions, such as high winds and low temperatures, can lead to power outages. Wind speeds as low as can permit conductors to encroach operating clearances, resulting in a flashover and loss of supply.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overhead transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 1239265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 343, 352 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oscillatory motion of the physical line can be termed conductor gallop or flutter depending on the frequency and amplitude of oscillation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overhead transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 4133988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electric power can also be transmitted by underground power cables instead of overhead power lines. Underground cables take up less right-of-way than overhead lines, have lower visibility, and are less affected by bad weather. However, costs of insulated cable and excavation are much higher than overhead construction. Faults in buried transmission lines take longer to locate and repair.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Underground transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 24910791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some metropolitan areas, underground transmission cables are enclosed by metal pipe and insulated with dielectric fluid (usually an oil) that is either static or circulated via pumps. If an electric fault damages the pipe and produces a dielectric leak into the surrounding soil, liquid nitrogen trucks are mobilized to freeze portions of the pipe to enable the draining and repair of the damaged pipe location. This type of underground transmission cable can prolong the repair period and increase repair costs. The temperature of the pipe and soil are usually monitored constantly throughout the repair period.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Underground transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 27700947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Underground lines are strictly limited by their thermal capacity, which permits less overload or re-rating than overhead lines. Long underground AC cables have significant capacitance, which may reduce their ability to provide useful power to loads beyond . DC cables are not limited in length by their capacitance, however, they do require HVDC converter stations at both ends of the line to convert from DC to AC before being interconnected with the transmission network.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Underground transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 140711, 1277251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 183 ], [ 341, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early days of commercial electric power, transmission of electric power at the same voltage as used by lighting and mechanical loads restricted the distance between generating plant and consumers. In 1882, generation was with direct current (DC), which could not easily be increased in voltage for long-distance transmission. Different classes of loads (for example, lighting, fixed motors, and traction/railway systems) required different voltages, and so used different generators and circuits.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 47713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 233, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to this specialization of lines and because transmission was inefficient for low-voltage high-current circuits, generators needed to be near their loads. It seemed, at the time, that the industry would develop into what is now known as a distributed generation system with large numbers of small generators located near their loads.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 245963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 242, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The transmission of electric power with alternating current (AC) became possible after Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs built what they called the secondary generator, an early transformer provided with 1:1 turn ratio and open magnetic circuit, in 1881.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 42986, 742559, 45033649, 30906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 59 ], [ 87, 101 ], [ 106, 122 ], [ 180, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first long distance AC line was long, built for the 1884 International Exhibition of Electricity in Turin, Italy. It was powered by a 2 kV, 130Hz Siemens & Halske alternator and featured several Gaulard \"secondary generators\" (transformers) with their primary windings connected in series, which fed incandescent lamps. The system proved the feasibility of AC electric power transmission over long distances.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19450529, 4444747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 117 ], [ 151, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The very first AC distribution system to operate was in service in 1885 in via dei Cerchi, Rome, Italy, for public lighting. It was powered by two Siemens & Halske alternators rated 30hp (22kW), 2 kV at 120Hz and used 19km of cables and 200parallel-connected 2 kV to 20V step-down transformers provided with a closed magnetic circuit, one for each lamp. A few months later it was followed by the first British AC system, which was put into service at the Grosvenor Gallery, London. It also featured Siemens alternators and 2.4 kV to 100V step-down transformers one per user with shunt-connected primaries.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25458, 3154091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 102 ], [ 455, 472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Working from what he considered an impractical Gaulard-Gibbs design, electrical engineer William Stanley, Jr. developed what is considered the first practical series AC transformer in 1885. Working with the support of George Westinghouse, in 1886 he demonstrated a transformer based alternating current lighting system in Great Barrington, Massachusetts. Powered by a steam engine driven 500V Siemens generator, voltage was stepped down to 100Volts using the new Stanley transformer to power incandescent lamps at 23businesses along main street with very little power loss over . This practical demonstration of a transformer and alternating current lighting system would lead Westinghouse to begin installing AC based systems later that year.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 296104, 49195, 342654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 109 ], [ 218, 237 ], [ 322, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1888 saw designs for a functional AC motor, something these systems had lacked up till then. These were induction motors running on polyphase current, independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla (with Tesla's design being licensed by Westinghouse in the US). This design was further developed into the modern practical three-phase form by Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky and Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown. Practical use of these types of motors would be delayed many years by development problems and the scarcity of poly-phase power systems needed to power them.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5578272, 251075, 261881, 1644203, 21473, 38829, 6003471, 2987449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 42 ], [ 104, 119 ], [ 132, 141 ], [ 177, 193 ], [ 198, 210 ], [ 335, 346 ], [ 355, 381 ], [ 386, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The late 1880s and early 1890s would see the financial merger of smaller electric companies into a few larger corporations such as Ganz and AEG in Europe and General Electric and Westinghouse Electric in the US. These companies continued to develop AC systems but the technical difference between direct and alternating current systems would follow a much longer technical merger. Due to innovation in the US and Europe, alternating current's economy of scale with very large generating plants linked to loads via long-distance transmission was slowly being combined with the ability to link it up with all of the existing systems that needed to be supplied. These included single phase AC systems, poly-phase AC systems, low voltage incandescent lighting, high voltage arc lighting, and existing DC motors in factories and street cars. In what was becoming a universal system, these technological differences were temporarily being bridged via the development of rotary converters and motor-generators that would allow the large number of legacy systems to be connected to the AC grid. These stopgaps would slowly be replaced as older systems were retired or upgraded.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1146140, 632451, 12730, 238338, 1149802, 1118317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 135 ], [ 140, 143 ], [ 158, 174 ], [ 179, 200 ], [ 964, 980 ], [ 986, 1001 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first transmission of single-phase alternating current using high voltage took place in Oregon in 1890 when power was delivered from a hydroelectric plant at Willamette Falls to the city of Portland downriver. The first three-phase alternating current using high voltage took place in 1891 during the international electricity exhibition in Frankfurt. A 15 kV transmission line, approximately 175km long, connected Lauffen on the Neckar and Frankfurt.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14585095, 10992, 5656161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 306, 342 ], [ 346, 355 ], [ 420, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Voltages used for electric power transmission increased throughout the 20thcentury. By 1914, fifty-five transmission systems each operating at more than 70 kV were in service. The highest voltage then used was 150 kV.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By allowing multiple generating plants to be interconnected over a wide area, electricity production cost was reduced. The most efficient available plants could be used to supply the varying loads during the day. Reliability was improved and capital investment cost was reduced, since stand-by generating capacity could be shared over many more customers and a wider geographic area. Remote and low-cost sources of energy, such as hydroelectric power or mine-mouth coal, could be exploited to lower energy production cost.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 381399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 431, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rapid industrialization in the 20thcentury made electrical transmission lines and grids critical infrastructure items in most industrialized nations. The interconnection of local generation plants and small distribution networks was spurred by the requirements of World War I, with large electrical generating plants built by governments to provide power to munitions factories. Later these generating plants were connected to supply civil loads through long-distance transmission.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 521286, 4764461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 115 ], [ 268, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Engineers design transmission networks to transport the energy as efficiently as possible, while at the same time taking into account the economic factors, network safety and redundancy. These networks use components such as power lines, cables, circuit breakers, switches and transformers. The transmission network is usually administered on a regional basis by an entity such as a regional transmission organization or transmission system operator.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 235899, 30906, 2428152, 3255917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 261 ], [ 277, 288 ], [ 383, 417 ], [ 421, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Transmission efficiency is greatly improved by devices that increase the voltage (and thereby proportionately reduce the current), in the line conductors, thus allowing power to be transmitted with acceptable losses. The reduced current flowing through the line reduces the heating losses in the conductors. According to Joule's Law, energy losses are directly proportional to the square of the current. Thus, reducing the current by a factor of two will lower the energy lost to conductor resistance by a factor of four for any given size of conductor.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 604798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 321, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The optimum size of a conductor for a given voltage and current can be estimated by Kelvin's law for conductor size, which states that the size is at its optimum when the annual cost of energy wasted in the resistance is equal to the annual capital charges of providing the conductor. At times of lower interest rates, Kelvin's law indicates that thicker wires are optimal; while, when metals are expensive, thinner conductors are indicated: however, power lines are designed for long-term use, so Kelvin's law has to be used in conjunction with long-term estimates of the price of copper and aluminum as well as interest rates for capital.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The increase in voltage is achieved in AC circuits by using a step-up transformer. HVDC systems require relatively costly conversion equipment which may be economically justified for particular projects such as submarine cables and longer distance high capacity point-to-point transmission. HVDC is necessary for the import and export of energy between grid systems that are not synchronized with each other.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 30906, 47716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 81 ], [ 83, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A transmission grid is a network of power stations, transmission lines, and substations. Energy is usually transmitted within a grid with three-phase AC. Single-phase AC is used only for distribution to end users since it is not usable for large polyphase induction motors. In the 19thcentury, two-phase transmission was used but required either four wires or three wires with unequal currents. Higher order phase systems require more than three wires, but deliver little or no benefit.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 212141, 320217, 38829, 42986, 251075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 49 ], [ 76, 87 ], [ 138, 149 ], [ 150, 152 ], [ 256, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The price of electric power station capacity is high, and electric demand is variable, so it is often cheaper to import some portion of the needed power than to generate it locally. Because loads are often regionally correlated (hot weather in the Southwest portion of the US might cause many people to use air conditioners), electric power often comes from distant sources. Because of the economic benefits of load sharing between regions, wide area transmission grids now span countries and even continents. The web of interconnections between power producers and consumers should enable power to flow, even if some links are inoperative.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 20588316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 441, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The unvarying (or slowly varying over many hours) portion of the electric demand is known as the base load and is generally served by large facilities (which are more efficient due to economies of scale) with fixed costs for fuel and operation. Such facilities are nuclear, coal-fired or hydroelectric, while other energy sources such as concentrated solar thermal and geothermal power have the potential to provide base load power. Renewable energy sources, such as solar photovoltaics, wind, wave, and tidal, are, due to their intermittency, not considered as supplying \"base load\" but will still add power to the grid. The remaining or 'peak' power demand, is supplied by peaking power plants, which are typically smaller, faster-responding, and higher cost sources, such as combined cycle or combustion turbine plants fueled by natural gas.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 1867804, 413092, 13021878, 1916632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 106 ], [ 338, 364 ], [ 369, 385 ], [ 675, 694 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Long-distance transmission of electricity (hundreds of kilometers) is cheap and efficient, with costs of US$0.005–0.02 per kWh (compared to annual averaged large producer costs of US$0.01–0.025 per kWh, retail rates upwards of US$0.10 per kWh, and multiples of retail for instantaneous suppliers at unpredicted highest demand moments). Thus distant suppliers can be cheaper than local sources (e.g., New York often buys over 1000MW of electricity from Canada). Multiple local sources (even if more expensive and infrequently used) can make the transmission grid more fault tolerant to weather and other disasters that can disconnect distant suppliers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Long-distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to be used to displace fossil fuel consumption. Hydro and wind sources cannot be moved closer to populous cities, and solar costs are lowest in remote areas where local power needs are minimal. Connection costs alone can determine whether any particular renewable alternative is economically sensible. Costs can be prohibitive for transmission lines, but various proposals for massive infrastructure investment in high capacity, very long distance super grid transmission networks could be recovered with modest usage fees.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 20617690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 516, 526 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the power stations, the power is produced at a relatively low voltage between about 2.3kV and 30kV, depending on the size of the unit. The generator terminal voltage is then stepped up by the power station transformer to a higher voltage (115kV to 765kV AC, varying by the transmission system and by the country) for transmission over long distances.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 212141, 30906, 32549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ], [ 209, 220 ], [ 233, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, power transmission is, variously, 230kV to 500kV, with less than 230kV or more than 500kV being local exceptions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For example, the Western Interconnection has two primary interchange voltages: 500kV AC at 60Hz, and ±500kV (1,000kV net) DC from North to South (Columbia River to Southern California) and Northeast to Southwest (Utah to Southern California). The 287.5kV (Hoover Dam to Los Angeles line, via Victorville) and 345kV (Arizona Public Service (APS) line) being local standards, both of which were implemented before 500kV became practical, and thereafter the Western Interconnection standard for long distance AC power transmission.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 4908586, 5408, 62520, 14308, 18110, 108019, 3233116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 40 ], [ 146, 160 ], [ 164, 183 ], [ 256, 266 ], [ 270, 281 ], [ 292, 303 ], [ 316, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Transmitting electricity at high voltage reduces the fraction of energy lost to resistance, which varies depending on the specific conductors, the current flowing, and the length of the transmission line. For example, a span at 765kV carrying 1000MW of power can have losses of 1.1% to 0.5%. A 345kV line carrying the same load across the same distance has losses of 4.2%. For a given amount of power, a higher voltage reduces the current and thus the resistive losses in the conductor. For example, raising the voltage by a factor of 10 reduces the current by a corresponding factor of 10 and therefore the losses by a factor of 100, provided the same sized conductors are used in both cases. Even if the conductor size (cross-sectional area) is decreased ten-fold to match the lower current, the losses are still reduced ten-fold. Long-distance transmission is typically done with overhead lines at voltages of 115 to 1,200kV. At extremely high voltages, where more than 2,000kV exists between conductor and ground, corona discharge losses are so large that they can offset the lower resistive losses in the line conductors. Measures to reduce corona losses include conductors having larger diameters; often hollow to save weight, or bundles of two or more conductors.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 604798, 604798, 318352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 90 ], [ 453, 467 ], [ 1021, 1037 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Factors that affect the resistance, and thus loss, of conductors used in transmission and distribution lines include temperature, spiraling, and the skin effect. The resistance of a conductor increases with its temperature. Temperature changes in electric power lines can have a significant effect on power losses in the line. Spiraling, which refers to the way stranded conductors spiral about the center, also contributes to increases in conductor resistance. The skin effect causes the effective resistance of a conductor to increase at higher alternating current frequencies. Corona and resistive losses can be estimated using a mathematical model.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 261642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Transmission and distribution losses in the United States were estimated at 6.6% in 1997, 6.5% in 2007 and 5% from 2013 to 2019. In general, losses are estimated from the discrepancy between power produced (as reported by power plants) and power sold to the end customers; the difference between what is produced and what is consumed constitute transmission and distribution losses, assuming no utility theft occurs.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As of 1980, the longest cost-effective distance for direct-current transmission was determined to be . For alternating current it was , though all transmission lines in use today are substantially shorter than this.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 47713, 42986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 66 ], [ 107, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In any alternating current transmission line, the inductance and capacitance of the conductors can be significant. Currents that flow solely in ‘reaction’ to these properties of the circuit, (which together with the resistance define the impedance) constitute reactive power flow, which transmits no ‘real’ power to the load. These reactive currents, however, are very real and cause extra heating losses in the transmission circuit. The ratio of 'real' power (transmitted to the load) to 'apparent' power (the product of a circuit's voltage and current, without reference to phase angle) is the power factor. As reactive current increases, the reactive power increases and the power factor decreases. For transmission systems with low power factor, losses are higher than for systems with high power factor. Utilities add capacitor banks, reactors and other components (such as phase-shifters; static VAR compensators; and flexible AC transmission systems, FACTS) throughout the system help to compensate for the reactive power flow, reduce the losses in power transmission and stabilize system voltages. These measures are collectively called 'reactive support'.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 165146, 61577, 41957, 1780823, 41568, 3573125, 275945, 275935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 60 ], [ 216, 226 ], [ 238, 247 ], [ 260, 274 ], [ 596, 608 ], [ 879, 892 ], [ 895, 917 ], [ 924, 955 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Current flowing through transmission lines induces a magnetic field that surrounds the lines of each phase and affects the inductance of the surrounding conductors of other phases. The mutual inductance of the conductors is partially dependent on the physical orientation of the lines with respect to each other. Three-phase power transmission lines are conventionally strung with phases separated on different vertical levels. The mutual inductance seen by a conductor of the phase in the middle of the other two phases will be different from the inductance seen by the conductors on the top or bottom. An imbalanced inductance among the three conductors is problematic because it may result in the middle line carrying a disproportionate amount of the total power transmitted. Similarly, an imbalanced load may occur if one line is consistently closest to the ground and operating at a lower impedance. Because of this phenomenon, conductors must be periodically transposed along the length of the transmission line so that each phase sees equal time in each relative position to balance out the mutual inductance seen by all three phases. To accomplish this, line position is swapped at specially designed transposition towers at regular intervals along the length of the transmission line in various transposition schemes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 165146, 29476970, 3341108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 133 ], [ 1209, 1228 ], [ 1304, 1325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subtransmission is part of an electric power transmission system that runs at relatively lower voltages. It is uneconomical to connect all distribution substations to the high main transmission voltage, because the equipment is larger and more expensive. Typically, only larger substations connect with this high voltage. It is stepped down and sent to smaller substations in towns and neighborhoods. Subtransmission circuits are usually arranged in loops so that a single line failure does not cut off service to many customers for more than a short time. Loops can be \"normally closed\", where loss of one circuit should result in no interruption, or \"normally open\" where substations can switch to a backup supply. While subtransmission circuits are usually carried on overhead lines, in urban areas buried cable may be used. The lower-voltage subtransmission lines use less right-of-way and simpler structures; it is much more feasible to put them underground where needed. Higher-voltage lines require more space and are usually above-ground since putting them underground is very expensive.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 320217, 1355057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 162 ], [ 771, 785 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is no fixed cutoff between subtransmission and transmission, or subtransmission and distribution. The voltage ranges overlap somewhat. Voltages of 69kV, 115kV, and 138kV are often used for subtransmission in North America. As power systems evolved, voltages formerly used for transmission were used for subtransmission, and subtransmission voltages became distribution voltages. Like transmission, subtransmission moves relatively large amounts of power, and like distribution, subtransmission covers an area instead of just point-to-point.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 212253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the substations, transformers reduce the voltage to a lower level for distribution to commercial and residential users. This distribution is accomplished with a combination of sub-transmission (33 to 132kV) and distribution (3.3 to 25kV). Finally, at the point of use, the energy is transformed to low voltage (varying by country and customer requirements see Mains electricity by country).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Bulk power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 320217, 212253, 864168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ], [ 73, 85 ], [ 364, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "High-voltage power transmission allows for lesser resistive losses over long distances in the wiring. This efficiency of high voltage transmission allows for the transmission of a larger proportion of the generated power to the substations and in turn to the loads, translating to operational cost savings.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Advantage of high-voltage power transmission", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a simplified model, assume the electrical grid delivers electricity from a generator (modelled as an ideal voltage source with voltage , delivering a power ) to a single point of consumption, modelled by a pure resistance , when the wires are long enough to have a significant resistance .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Advantage of high-voltage power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 20344155, 1686418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 49 ], [ 104, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the resistance are simply in series without any transformer between them, the circuit acts as a voltage divider, because the same current runs through the wire resistance and the powered device. As a consequence, the useful power (used at the point of consumption) is:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Advantage of high-voltage power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 270770, 393519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 38 ], [ 99, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Assume now that a transformer converts high-voltage, low-current electricity transported by the wires into low-voltage, high-current electricity for use at the consumption point. If we suppose it is an ideal transformer with a voltage ratio of (i.e., the voltage is divided by and the current is multiplied by in the secondary branch, compared to the primary branch), then the circuit is again equivalent to a voltage divider, but the transmission wires now have apparent resistance of only . The useful power is then:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Advantage of high-voltage power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 30906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For (i.e. conversion of high voltage to low voltage near the consumption point), a larger fraction of the generator's power is transmitted to the consumption point and a lesser fraction is lost to Joule heating.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Advantage of high-voltage power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 604798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oftentimes, we are only interested in the terminal characteristics of the transmission line, which are the voltage and current at the sending (S) and receiving (R) ends. The transmission line itself is then modeled as a \"black box\" and a 2by2 transmission matrix is used to model its behavior, as follows:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modeling and the transmission matrix", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The line is assumed to be a reciprocal, symmetrical network, meaning that the receiving and sending labels can be switched with no consequence. The transmission matrix T also has the following properties:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modeling and the transmission matrix", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The parameters A, B, C, and D differ depending on how the desired model handles the line's resistance (R), inductance (L), capacitance (C), and shunt (parallel, leak) conductance G. The four main models are the short line approximation, the medium line approximation, the long line approximation (with distributed parameters), and the lossless line. In all models described, a capital letter such as R refers to the total quantity summed over the line and a lowercase letter such as c refers to the per-unit-length quantity.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modeling and the transmission matrix", "target_page_ids": [ 61577, 165146, 140711, 61577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 101 ], [ 107, 117 ], [ 123, 134 ], [ 167, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lossless line approximation is the least accurate model; it is often used on short lines when the inductance of the line is much greater than its resistance. For this approximation, the voltage and current are identical at the sending and receiving ends.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modeling and the transmission matrix", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The characteristic impedance is pure real, which means resistive for that impedance, and it is often called surge impedance for a lossless line. When lossless line is terminated by surge impedance, there is no voltage drop. Though the phase angles of voltage and current are rotated, the magnitudes of voltage and current remain constant along the length of the line. For load>SIL, the voltage will drop from sending end and the line will \"consume\" VARs. For load<SIL, the voltage will increase from sending end, and the line will \"generate\" VARs.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modeling and the transmission matrix", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The short line approximation is normally used for lines less than long. For a short line, only a series impedance Z is considered, while C and G are ignored. The final result is that A=D=1 per unit, B=ZOhms, and C=0. The associated transition matrix for this approximation is therefore:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modeling and the transmission matrix", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The medium line approximation is used for lines between long. In this model, the series impedance and the shunt (current leak) conductance are considered, with half of the shunt conductance being placed at each end of the line. This circuit is often referred to as a \"nominal π (pi)\" circuit because of the shape (π) that is taken on when leak conductance is placed on both sides of the circuit diagram. The analysis of the medium line brings one to the following result:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modeling and the transmission matrix", "target_page_ids": [ 166728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 277, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Counterintuitive behaviors of medium-length transmission lines:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modeling and the transmission matrix", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " voltage rise at no load or small current (Ferranti effect)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modeling and the transmission matrix", "target_page_ids": [ 14386363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " receiving-end current can exceed sending-end current", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modeling and the transmission matrix", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The long line model is used when a higher degree of accuracy is needed or when the line under consideration is more than long. Series resistance and shunt conductance are considered as distributed parameters, meaning each differential length of the line has a corresponding differential series impedance and shunt admittance. The following result can be applied at any point along the transmission line, where is the propagation constant.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modeling and the transmission matrix", "target_page_ids": [ 41586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 419, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To find the voltage and current at the end of the long line, should be replaced with (the line length) in all parameters of the transmission matrix.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modeling and the transmission matrix", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(For the full development of this model, see the Telegrapher's equations.)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modeling and the transmission matrix", "target_page_ids": [ 5161169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "High-voltage direct current (HVDC) is used to transmit large amounts of power over long distances or for interconnections between asynchronous grids. When electrical energy is to be transmitted over very long distances, the power lost in AC transmission becomes appreciable and it is less expensive to use direct current instead of alternating current. For a very long transmission line, these lower losses (and reduced construction cost of a DC line) can offset the additional cost of the required converter stations at each end.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "High-voltage direct current", "target_page_ids": [ 47713, 42986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 306, 320 ], [ 332, 351 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "HVDC is also used for long submarine cables where AC cannot be used because of the cable capacitance. In these cases special high-voltage cables for DC are used. Submarine HVDC systems are often used to connect the electricity grids of islands, for example, between Great Britain and continental Europe, between Great Britain and Ireland, between Tasmania and the Australian mainland, between the North and South Islands of New Zealand, between New Jersey and New York City, and between New Jersey and Long Island. Submarine connections up to in length are presently in use.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "High-voltage direct current", "target_page_ids": [ 47716, 1721161, 24910791, 13530298, 5867, 29944, 21648, 645042, 18315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 27, 43 ], [ 125, 143 ], [ 266, 279 ], [ 284, 302 ], [ 347, 355 ], [ 445, 455 ], [ 460, 473 ], [ 502, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "HVDC links can be used to control problems in the grid with AC electricity flow. The power transmitted by an AC line increases as the phase angle between source end voltage and destination ends increases, but too large a phase angle will allow the systems at either end of the line to fall out of step. Since the power flow in a DC link is controlled independently of the phases of the AC networks at either end of the link, this phase angle limit does not exist, and a DC link is always able to transfer its full rated power. A DC link therefore stabilizes the AC grid at either end, since power flow and phase angle can then be controlled independently.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "High-voltage direct current", "target_page_ids": [ 3270043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As an example, to adjust the flow of AC power on a hypothetical line between Seattle and Boston would require adjustment of the relative phase of the two regional electrical grids. This is an everyday occurrence in AC systems, but one that can become disrupted when AC system components fail and place unexpected loads on the remaining working grid system. With an HVDC line instead, such an interconnection would:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "High-voltage direct current", "target_page_ids": [ 11388236, 24437894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 84 ], [ 89, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Convert AC in Seattle into HVDC;", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "High-voltage direct current", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Use HVDC for the of cross-country transmission; and ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "High-voltage direct current", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Convert the HVDC to locally synchronized AC in Boston,", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "High-voltage direct current", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(and possibly in other cooperating cities along the transmission route). Such a system could be less prone to failure if parts of it were suddenly shut down. One example of a long DC transmission line is the Pacific DC Intertie located in the Western United States.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "High-voltage direct current", "target_page_ids": [ 860812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The amount of power that can be sent over a transmission line is limited. The origins of the limits vary depending on the length of the line. For a short line, the heating of conductors due to line losses sets a thermal limit. If too much current is drawn, conductors may sag too close to the ground, or conductors and equipment may be damaged by overheating. For intermediate-length lines on the order of , the limit is set by the voltage drop in the line. For longer AC lines, system stability sets the limit to the power that can be transferred. Approximately, the power flowing over an AC line is proportional to the cosine of the phase angle of the voltage and current at the receiving and transmitting ends. This angle varies depending on system loading and generation. It is undesirable for the angle to approach 90 degrees, as the power flowing decreases but the resistive losses remain. Very approximately, the allowable product of line length and maximum load is proportional to the square of the system voltage. Series capacitors or phase-shifting transformers are used on long lines to improve stability. High-voltage direct current lines are restricted only by thermal and voltage drop limits, since the phase angle is not material to their operation.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Capacity", "target_page_ids": [ 2608394, 488815, 47716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 432, 444 ], [ 479, 495 ], [ 1117, 1144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Up to now, it has been almost impossible to foresee the temperature distribution along the cable route, so that the maximum applicable current load was usually set as a compromise between understanding of operation conditions and risk minimization. The availability of industrial distributed temperature sensing (DTS) systems that measure in real time temperatures all along the cable is a first step in monitoring the transmission system capacity. This monitoring solution is based on using passive optical fibers as temperature sensors, either integrated directly inside a high voltage cable or mounted externally on the cable insulation. A solution for overhead lines is also available. In this case the optical fiber is integrated into the core of a phase wire of overhead transmission lines (OPPC). The integrated Dynamic Cable Rating (DCR) or also called Real Time Thermal Rating (RTTR) solution enables not only to continuously monitor the temperature of a high voltage cable circuit in real time, but to safely utilize the existing network capacity to its maximum. Furthermore, it provides the ability to the operator to predict the behavior of the transmission system upon major changes made to its initial operating conditions.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Capacity", "target_page_ids": [ 6593900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 280, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To ensure safe and predictable operation, the components of the transmission system are controlled with generators, switches, circuit breakers and loads. The voltage, power, frequency, load factor, and reliability capabilities of the transmission system are designed to provide cost effective performance for the customers.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Control", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The transmission system provides for base load and peak load capability, with safety and fault tolerance margins. The peak load times vary by region largely due to the industry mix. In very hot and very cold climates home air conditioning and heating loads have an effect on the overall load. They are typically highest in the late afternoon in the hottest part of the year and in mid-mornings and mid-evenings in the coldest part of the year. This makes the power requirements vary by the season and the time of day. Distribution system designs always take the base load and the peak load into consideration.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Control", "target_page_ids": [ 1916632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The transmission system usually does not have a large buffering capability to match the loads with the generation. Thus generation has to be kept matched to the load, to prevent overloading failures of the generation equipment.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Control", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Multiple sources and loads can be connected to the transmission system and they must be controlled to provide orderly transfer of power. In centralized power generation, only local control of generation is necessary, and it involves synchronization of the generation units, to prevent large transients and overload conditions.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Control", "target_page_ids": [ 11254565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 233, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In distributed power generation the generators are geographically distributed and the process to bring them online and offline must be carefully controlled. The load control signals can either be sent on separate lines or on the power lines themselves. Voltage and frequency can be used as signaling mechanisms to balance the loads.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Control", "target_page_ids": [ 245963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In voltage signaling, the variation of voltage is used to increase generation. The power added by any system increases as the line voltage decreases. This arrangement is stable in principle. Voltage-based regulation is complex to use in mesh networks, since the individual components and setpoints would need to be reconfigured every time a new generator is added to the mesh.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Control", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In frequency signaling, the generating units match the frequency of the power transmission system. In droop speed control, if the frequency decreases, the power is increased. (The drop in line frequency is an indication that the increased load is causing the generators to slow down.)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Control", "target_page_ids": [ 20159769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wind turbines, vehicle-to-grid and other locally distributed storage and generation systems can be connected to the power grid, and interact with it to improve system operation. Internationally, the trend has been a slow move from a heavily centralized power system to a decentralized power system. The main draw of locally distributed generation systems which involve a number of new and innovative solutions is that they reduce transmission losses by leading to consumption of electricity closer to where it was produced.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Control", "target_page_ids": [ 20541773, 2008322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 15, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under excess load conditions, the system can be designed to fail gracefully rather than all at once. Brownouts occur when the supply power drops below the demand. Blackouts occur when the supply fails completely.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Control", "target_page_ids": [ 11917751, 296636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 110 ], [ 163, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rolling blackouts (also called load shedding) are intentionally engineered electrical power outages, used to distribute insufficient power when the demand for electricity exceeds the supply.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Control", "target_page_ids": [ 911516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Operators of long transmission lines require reliable communications for control of the power grid and, often, associated generation and distribution facilities. Fault-sensing protective relays at each end of the line must communicate to monitor the flow of power into and out of the protected line section so that faulted conductors or equipment can be quickly de-energized and the balance of the system restored. Protection of the transmission line from short circuits and other faults is usually so critical that common carrier telecommunications are insufficiently reliable, and in remote areas a common carrier may not be available. Communication systems associated with a transmission project may use:", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Communications", "target_page_ids": [ 28691929, 235898, 40910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 192 ], [ 456, 469 ], [ 516, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Microwaves", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Communications", "target_page_ids": [ 20097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Power-line communication", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Communications", "target_page_ids": [ 238420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Optical fibers", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Communications", "target_page_ids": [ 3372377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rarely, and for short distances, a utility will use pilot-wires strung along the transmission line path. Leased circuits from common carriers are not preferred since availability is not under control of the electric power transmission organization.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Communications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Transmission lines can also be used to carry data: this is called power-line carrier, or power line communication (PLC). PLC signals can be easily received with a radio for the long wave range.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Communications", "target_page_ids": [ 238420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Optical fibers can be included in the stranded conductors of a transmission line, in the overhead shield wires. These cables are known as optical ground wire (OPGW). Sometimes a standalone cable is used, all-dielectric self-supporting (ADSS) cable, attached to the transmission line cross arms.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Communications", "target_page_ids": [ 8326732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some jurisdictions, such as Minnesota, prohibit energy transmission companies from selling surplus communication bandwidth or acting as a telecommunications common carrier. Where the regulatory structure permits, the utility can sell capacity in extra dark fibers to a common carrier, providing another revenue stream.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Communications", "target_page_ids": [ 19590, 40910, 294737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 37 ], [ 157, 171 ], [ 252, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some regulators regard electric transmission to be a natural monopoly and there are moves in many countries to separately regulate transmission (see electricity market).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Electricity market reform", "target_page_ids": [ 21143, 215909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 69 ], [ 149, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spain was the first country to establish a regional transmission organization. In that country, transmission operations and market operations are controlled by separate companies. The transmission system operator is Red Eléctrica de España (REE) and the wholesale electricity market operator is Operador del Mercado Ibérico de Energía – Polo Español, S.A. (OMEL) OMEL Holding | Omel Holding. Spain's transmission system is interconnected with those of France, Portugal, and Morocco.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Electricity market reform", "target_page_ids": [ 2428152, 16329317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 77 ], [ 216, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The establishment of RTOs in the United States was spurred by the FERC's Order 888, Promoting Wholesale Competition Through Open Access Non-discriminatory Transmission Services by Public Utilities; Recovery of Stranded Costs by Public Utilities and Transmitting Utilities, issued in 1996.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Electricity market reform", "target_page_ids": [ 56976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States and parts of Canada, several electric transmission companies operate independently of generation companies, but there are still regions - the Southern United States - where vertical integration of the electric system is intact. In regions of separation, transmission owners and generation owners continue to interact with each other as market participants with voting rights within their RTO. RTOs in the United States are regulated by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Electricity market reform", "target_page_ids": [ 56976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 461, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The cost of high voltage electricity transmission (as opposed to the costs of electric power distribution) is comparatively low, compared to all other costs arising in a consumer's electricity bill. In the UK, transmission costs are about 0.2p per kWh compared to a delivered domestic price of around 10p per kWh.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Cost of electric power transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 212253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Research evaluates the level of capital expenditure in the electric power T&D equipment market will be worth $128.9bn in 2011.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Cost of electric power transmission", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Merchant transmission is an arrangement where a third party constructs and operates electric transmission lines through the franchise area of an unrelated incumbent utility.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Merchant transmission", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Operating merchant transmission projects in the United States include the Cross Sound Cable from Shoreham, New York to New Haven, Connecticut, Neptune RTS Transmission Line from Sayreville, New Jersey to New Bridge, New York, and Path 15 in California. Additional projects are in development or have been proposed throughout the United States, including the Lake Erie Connector, an underwater transmission line proposed by ITC Holdings Corp., connecting Ontario to load serving entities in the PJM Interconnection region.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Merchant transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 1594763, 127376, 53825, 125444, 5357119, 54458870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 91 ], [ 97, 115 ], [ 119, 141 ], [ 178, 200 ], [ 230, 237 ], [ 358, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is only one unregulated or market interconnector in Australia: Basslink between Tasmania and Victoria. Two DC links originally implemented as market interconnectors, Directlink and Murraylink, have been converted to regulated interconnectors. NEMMCO", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Merchant transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 30864714, 29944, 4689460, 1711236, 1711223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 77 ], [ 86, 94 ], [ 99, 107 ], [ 172, 182 ], [ 187, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A major barrier to wider adoption of merchant transmission is the difficulty in identifying who benefits from the facility so that the beneficiaries will pay the toll. Also, it is difficult for a merchant transmission line to compete when the alternative transmission lines are subsidized by incumbent utility businesses with a monopolized and regulated rate base. In the United States, the FERC's Order 1000, issued in 2010, attempts to reduce barriers to third party investment and creation of merchant transmission lines where a public policy need is found.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Merchant transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 56976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 391, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some large studies, including a large study in the United States, have failed to find any link between living near power lines and developing any sickness or diseases, such as cancer. A 1997 study found that it did not matter how close one was to a power line or a sub-station, there was no increased risk of cancer or illness.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Health concerns", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The mainstream scientific evidence suggests that low-power, low-frequency, electromagnetic radiation associated with household currents and high transmission power lines does not constitute a short- or long-term health hazard. Some studies, however, have found statistical correlations between various diseases and living or working near power lines. No adverse health effects have been substantiated for people not living close to power lines.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Health concerns", "target_page_ids": [ 157057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 261, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The New York State Public Service Commission conducted a study, documented in Opinion No. 78-13 (issued June 19, 1978), to evaluate potential health effects of electric fields. The study's case number is too old to be listed as a case number in the commission's online database, DMM, and so the original study can be difficult to find. The study chose to utilize the electric field strength that was measured at the edge of an existing (but newly built) right-of-way on a 765 kV transmission line from New York to Canada, 1.6 kV/m, as the interim standard maximum electric field at the edge of any new transmission line right-of-way built in New York State after issuance of the order. The opinion also limited the voltage of all new transmission lines built in New York to 345 kV. On September 11, 1990, after a similar study of magnetic field strengths, the NYSPSC issued their Interim Policy Statement on Magnetic Fields. This study established a magnetic field interim standard of 200 mG at the edge of the right-of-way using the winter-normal conductor rating. This later document can also be difficult to find on the NYSPSC's online database, since it predates the online database system. As a comparison with everyday items, a hair dryer or electric blanket produces a 100 mG – 500 mG magnetic field. An electric razor can produce 2.6 kV/m. Whereas electric fields can be shielded, magnetic fields cannot be shielded, but are usually minimized by optimizing the location of each phase of a circuit in cross-section.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Health concerns", "target_page_ids": [ 26329177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When a new transmission line is proposed, within the application to the applicable regulatory body (usually a public utility commission), there is often an analysis of electric and magnetic field levels at the edge of rights-of-way. These analyses are performed by a utility or by an electrical engineering consultant using modelling software. At least one state public utility commission has access to software developed by an engineer or engineers at the Bonneville Power Administration to analyze electric and magnetic fields at edge of rights-of-way for proposed transmission lines. Often, public utility commissions will not comment on any health impacts due to electric and magnetic fields and will refer information seekers to the state's affiliated department of health.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Health concerns", "target_page_ids": [ 406336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 457, 488 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are established biological effects for acute high level exposure to magnetic fields well above 100µT (1G) (1,000 mG). In a residential setting, there is \"limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and less than sufficient evidence for carcinogenicity in experimental animals\", in particular, childhood leukemia, associated with average exposure to residential power-frequency magnetic field above 0.3µT (3mG) to 0.4µT (4mG). These levels exceed average residential power-frequency magnetic fields in homes, which are about 0.07µT (0.7mG) in Europe and 0.11µT (1.1mG) in North America.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Health concerns", "target_page_ids": [ 1042866, 935979, 12462, 6445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 50 ], [ 104, 106 ], [ 109, 110 ], [ 180, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Earth's natural geomagnetic field strength varies over the surface of the planet between 0.035mT and 0.07mT (35µT – 70µT or 350 mG – 700 mG) while the International Standard for the continuous exposure limit is set at 40mT (400,000 mG or 400G) for the general public.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Health concerns", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tree Growth Regulator and Herbicide Control Methods may be used in transmission line right of ways, which may have health effects.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Health concerns", "target_page_ids": [ 53916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) is the primary regulatory agency of electric power transmission and wholesale electricity sales within the United States. It was originally established by Congress in 1920 as the Federal Power Commission and has since undergone multiple name and responsibility modifications. That which is not regulated by FERC, primarily electric power distribution and the retail sale of power, is under the jurisdiction of state authority.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Policy by country", "target_page_ids": [ 56976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two of the more notable U.S. energy policies impacting electricity transmission are Order No. 888 and the Energy Policy Act of 2005.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Policy by country", "target_page_ids": [ 2170017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Order No.888 adopted by FERC on 24April 1996, was \"designed to remove impediments to competition in the wholesale bulk power marketplace and to bring more efficient, lower cost power to the Nation’s electricity consumers. The legal and policy cornerstone of these rules is to remedy undue discrimination in access to the monopoly owned transmission wires that control whether and to whom electricity can be transported in interstate commerce.\" Order No.888 required all public utilities that own, control, or operate facilities used for transmitting electric energy in interstate commerce, to have open access non-discriminatory transmission tariffs. These tariffs allow any electricity generator to utilize the already existing power lines for the transmission of the power that they generate. Order No.888 also permits public utilities to recover the costs associated with providing their power lines as an open access service.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Policy by country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct) signed into law by congress on 8August 2005, further expanded the federal authority of regulating power transmission. EPAct gave FERC significant new responsibilities including but not limited to the enforcement of electric transmission reliability standards and the establishment of rate incentives to encourage investment in electric transmission.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Policy by country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Historically, local governments have exercised authority over the grid and have significant disincentives to encourage actions that would benefit states other than their own. Localities with cheap electricity have a disincentive to encourage making interstate commerce in electricity trading easier, since other regions will be able to compete for local energy and drive up rates. For example, some regulators in Maine do not wish to address congestion problems because the congestion serves to keep Maine rates low. Further, vocal local constituencies can block or slow permitting by pointing to visual impact, environmental, and perceived health concerns. In the US, generation is growing four times faster than transmission, but big transmission upgrades require the coordination of multiple states, a multitude of interlocking permits, and cooperation between a significant portion of the 500 companies that own the grid. From a policy perspective, the control of the grid is balkanized, and even former energy secretary Bill Richardson refers to it as a third world grid. There have been efforts in the EU and US to confront the problem. The US national security interest in significantly growing transmission capacity drove passage of the 2005 energy act giving the Department of Energy the authority to approve transmission if states refuse to act. However, soon after the Department of Energy used its power to designate two National Interest Electric Transmission Corridors, 14senators signed a letter stating the DOE was being too aggressive.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Policy by country", "target_page_ids": [ 277462, 183584, 45561, 375375, 2170017, 20689880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 268 ], [ 980, 990 ], [ 1008, 1024 ], [ 1025, 1040 ], [ 1245, 1260 ], [ 1433, 1481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some countries where electric locomotives or electric multiple units run on low frequency AC power, there are separate single phase traction power networks operated by the railways. Prime examples are countries in Europe (including Austria, Germany and Switzerland) which utilize the older AC technology based on 162/3Hz (Norway and Sweden also use this frequency but use conversion from the 50Hz public supply; Sweden has a 162/3Hz traction grid but only for part of the system).", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "Special transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 390883, 3697808, 1675948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 43 ], [ 48, 70 ], [ 135, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "High-temperature superconductors (HTS) promise to revolutionize power distribution by providing lossless transmission of electrical power. The development of superconductors with transition temperatures higher than the boiling point of liquid nitrogen has made the concept of superconducting power lines commercially feasible, at least for high-load applications. It has been estimated that the waste would be halved using this method, since the necessary refrigeration equipment would consume about half the power saved by the elimination of the majority of resistive losses. Some companies such as Consolidated Edison and American Superconductor have already begun commercial production of such systems. In one hypothetical future system called a SuperGrid, the cost of cooling would be eliminated by coupling the transmission line with a liquid hydrogen pipeline.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "Special transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 101336, 306364, 899286, 4658070, 5929448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ], [ 236, 251 ], [ 600, 619 ], [ 624, 647 ], [ 749, 758 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superconducting cables are particularly suited to high load density areas such as the business district of large cities, where purchase of an easement for cables would be very costly.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "Special transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 18935378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Single-wire earth return (SWER) or single wire ground return is a single-wire transmission line for supplying single-phase electrical power for an electrical grid to remote areas at low cost. It is principally used for rural electrification, but also finds use for larger isolated loads such as water pumps. Single wire earth return is also used for HVDC over submarine power cables.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "Special transmission", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Both Nikola Tesla and Hidetsugu Yagi attempted to devise systems for large scale wireless power transmission in the late 1800s and early 1900s, with no commercial success.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "Special transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 21473, 643982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 17 ], [ 22, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 2009, LaserMotive won the NASA 2009 Power Beaming Challenge by powering a cable climber 1km vertically using a ground-based laser transmitter. The system produced up to 1kW of power at the receiver end. In August 2010, NASA contracted with private companies to pursue the design of laser power beaming systems to power low earth orbit satellites and to launch rockets using laser power beams.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "Special transmission", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wireless power transmission has been studied for transmission of power from solar power satellites to the earth. A high power array of microwave or laser transmitters would beam power to a rectenna. Major engineering and economic challenges face any solar power satellite project.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "Special transmission", "target_page_ids": [ 6757017, 20097, 427633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 97 ], [ 135, 144 ], [ 189, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Federal government of the United States admits that the power grid is susceptible to cyber-warfare. The United States Department of Homeland Security works with industry to identify vulnerabilities and to help industry enhance the security of control system networks, the federal government is also working to ensure that security is built in as the U.S. develops the next generation of 'smart grid' networks.", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Security of control systems", "target_page_ids": [ 195149, 3369375, 58236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 43 ], [ 89, 102 ], [ 108, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2019, Russia conceded that it is \"possible\" its electrical grid is under cyber-attack by the United States. The New York Times reported that American hackers from the United States Cyber Command planted malware potentially capable of disrupting the Russian electrical grid.", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Security of control systems", "target_page_ids": [ 31006441, 22616613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 71 ], [ 175, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Highest capacity system: 12 GW Zhundong–Wannan（准东-皖南）±1100kV HVDC.", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Highest transmission voltage (AC):", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "planned: 1.20MV (Ultra High Voltage) on Wardha-Aurangabad line (India) – under construction. Initially will operate at 400 kV.", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "worldwide: 1.15MV (Ultra High Voltage) on Ekibastuz-Kokshetau line (Kazakhstan)", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [ 1753439, 16642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 66 ], [ 68, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Largest double-circuit transmission, Kita-Iwaki Powerline (Japan).", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [ 25350481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Highest towers: Yangtze River Crossing (China) (height: )", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [ 827692, 6517434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 15 ], [ 17, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Longest power line: Inga-Shaba (Democratic Republic of Congo) (length: )", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [ 1277199, 76762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ], [ 33, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Longest span of power line: at Ameralik Span (Greenland, Denmark)", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [ 1269816, 12118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 46 ], [ 48, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Longest submarine cables:", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "North Sea Link, (Norway/United Kingdom) – (length of submarine cable: )", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [ 29592420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NorNed, North Sea (Norway/Netherlands) – (length of submarine cable: )", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [ 1699982, 21179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 8, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Basslink, Bass Strait, (Australia) – (length of submarine cable: , total length: )", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [ 30864714, 65928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baltic Cable, Baltic Sea (Germany/Sweden) – (length of submarine cable: , HVDC length: , total length: )", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [ 860746, 3335, 47716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 14, 24 ], [ 74, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Longest underground cables:", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Murraylink, Riverland/Sunraysia (Australia) – (length of underground cable: )", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [ 1711223, 1899196, 1162243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 12, 21 ], [ 22, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dynamic demand (electric power)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5069898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Demand response", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2696466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of energy storage projects", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38861135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Traction power network", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1675948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Backfeeding", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1291730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Conductor marking lights", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7400574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Double-circuit transmission line", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1355057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16775799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 275935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Geomagnetically induced current, (GIC)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9414169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Grid-tied electrical system", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11036055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of high voltage underground and submarine cables", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26827745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Load profile", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4490333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " National Grid (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3754047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Power line communications (PLC)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 238420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Power system simulation", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12825821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Radio frequency power transmission", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6321088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wheeling (electric power transmission)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5883740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Grigsby, L. L., et al. The Electric Power Engineering Handbook. USA: CRC Press. (2001). ", "section_idx": 22, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hughes, Thomas P., Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society 1880–1930, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1983 , an excellent overview of development during the first 50 years of commercial electric power", "section_idx": 22, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 4097515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pansini, Anthony J, E.E., P.E. undergrounding electric lines. USA Hayden Book Co, 1978. ", "section_idx": 22, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Westinghouse Electric Corporation, \"Electric power transmission patents; Tesla polyphase system\". (Transmission of power; polyphase system; Tesla patents)", "section_idx": 22, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 264823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Physics of Everyday Stuff - Transmission Lines", "section_idx": 22, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Electric_power_transmission", "Electrical_engineering", "Monopoly_(economics)", "Electrical_safety" ]

[ "electricity transmission", "electric transmission", "power transmission system", "power transmission" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Wenceslaus IV (also Wenceslas; ; , nicknamed \"the Idle\"; 26 February 136116 August 1419), also known as Wenceslaus of Luxembourg, was King of Bohemia from 1378 until his death and King of Germany from 1376 until he was deposed in 1400. As he belonged to the House of Luxembourg, he was also Duke of Luxembourg from 1383 to 1388.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 223907, 302609, 2646925, 3547997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 149 ], [ 180, 195 ], [ 259, 278 ], [ 292, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wenceslaus was born in the Imperial city of Nuremberg, the son of Emperor Charles IV by his third wife Anna von Schweidnitz, a scion of the Silesian Piasts, and baptized at St. Sebaldus Church. He was raised by the Prague Archbishops Arnošt of Pardubice and Jan Očko of Vlašim. His father had the two-year-old crowned King of Bohemia in June 1363 and in 1373 also obtained for him the Electoral Margraviate of Brandenburg. When on 10 June 1376 CharlesIV asserted Wenceslaus' election as King of the Romans by the prince-electors, two of seven votes, those of Brandenburg and Bohemia, were held by the emperor and his son themselves. Wenceslaus was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on 6 July.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 220358, 21287, 38895, 20052346, 14946662, 13880584, 245321, 6851905, 8206970, 302609, 14056, 3765, 1625048, 1520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 40 ], [ 44, 53 ], [ 74, 84 ], [ 103, 123 ], [ 140, 155 ], [ 173, 192 ], [ 234, 253 ], [ 258, 276 ], [ 395, 421 ], [ 487, 505 ], [ 513, 527 ], [ 559, 570 ], [ 575, 582 ], [ 659, 674 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In order to secure the election of his son, CharlesIV revoked the privileges of many Imperial Cities that he had earlier granted, and mortgaged them to various nobles. The cities, however, were not powerless, and as executors of the public peace, they had developed into a potent military force. Moreover, as CharlesIV had organised the cities into leagues, he had made it possible for them to cooperate in large-scale endeavors. Indeed, on 4 July 1376, fourteen Swabian cities bound together into the independent Swabian League of Cities to defend their rights against the newly elected King, attacking the lands of Eberhard II, Count of Württemberg. The city league soon attracted other members and until 1389 acted as an autonomous state within the Empire.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 220358, 616237, 41160900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 100 ], [ 463, 469 ], [ 514, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wenceslaus took some part in government during his father's lifetime, and on Charles' death in 1378, he inherited the Crown of Bohemia and as king assumed the government of the Holy Roman Empire. In the cathedral of Monza there is preserved a series of reliefs depicting the coronations of the kings of Italy with the Iron Crown of Lombardy. The seventh of these depicts Wenceslaus being crowned in the presence of six electors, he himself being the seventh. The depiction is probably not accurate and was likely made solely to reinforce the claims of the cathedral on the custody of the Iron Crown.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1618997, 13277, 65143, 355409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 134 ], [ 177, 194 ], [ 216, 221 ], [ 318, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1387 a quarrel between Frederick, Duke of Bavaria, and the cities of the Swabian League allied with the Archbishop of Salzburg gave the signal for a general war in Swabia, in which the cities, weakened by their isolation, mutual jealousies and internal conflicts, were defeated by the forces of EberhardII, Count of Württemberg, at Döffingen, near Grafenau, on 24 August 1388. The cities were taken severally and devastated. Most of them quietly acquiesced when King Wenceslaus proclaimed an ambivalent arrangement at Cheb (Eger) in 1389 that prohibited all leagues between cities, while confirming their political autonomy. This settlement provided a modicum of stability for the next several decades, however the cities dropped out as a basis of the central Imperial authority.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 3460552, 255366, 10033826, 237656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 52 ], [ 107, 129 ], [ 351, 359 ], [ 521, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his long reign, Wenceslaus held a tenuous grip on power at best, as he came into repeated conflicts with the Bohemian nobility led by the House of Rosenberg. On two occasions he was even imprisoned for lengthy spells by rebellious nobles.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1285210, 17392847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 133 ], [ 145, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "But the greatest liability for Wenceslaus proved to be his own family. CharlesIV had divided his holdings among his sons and other relatives. Although Wenceslaus upon his father's death retained Bohemia, his younger half-brother Sigismund inherited Brandenburg, while John received the newly established Duchy of Görlitz in Upper Lusatia. The March of Moravia was divided between his cousins Jobst and Procopius, and his uncle Wenceslaus I had already been made Duke of Luxembourg. Hence the young king was left without the resources his father had enjoyed, although he inherited the duchy of Luxembourg from his uncle in 1383. In 1386, Sigismund became king of Hungary and became involved in affairs further east.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 38889, 34189482, 193044, 2349522, 38130219, 38204, 66633053, 5563404, 17515, 879716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 238 ], [ 268, 272 ], [ 313, 320 ], [ 324, 337 ], [ 343, 359 ], [ 392, 397 ], [ 402, 411 ], [ 427, 439 ], [ 470, 480 ], [ 662, 669 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wenceslaus also faced serious opposition from the Bohemian nobles and even from his chancellor, the Prague archbishop Jan of Jenštejn. In a conflict surrounding the investiture of the abbot of Kladruby, the torture and murder of the archbishop's vicar-general John of Nepomuk by royal officials in 1393 sparked a noble rebellion. In 1394 Wenceslaus' cousin Jobst of Moravia was named regent, while Wenceslaus was arrested at Králův Dvůr. King Sigismund of Hungary arranged a truce in 1396, and for his efforts he was recognized as heir to Wenceslaus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 214175, 6851823, 958133, 555211, 68703414, 38204, 14017109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 94 ], [ 118, 133 ], [ 193, 201 ], [ 260, 275 ], [ 313, 328 ], [ 357, 373 ], [ 425, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Papal Schism, Wenceslaus had supported the Roman Pope Urban VI. As Bohemian king he sought to protect the religious reformer Jan Hus and his followers against the demands of the Roman Catholic Church for their suppression as heretics. This caused many Germans to withdraw from the University of Prague, and set up their own university at Leipzig.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 543939, 16028, 606848, 20611083, 152735, 38091, 340454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ], [ 132, 139 ], [ 185, 206 ], [ 232, 240 ], [ 259, 266 ], [ 288, 308 ], [ 331, 352 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He then met Charles VI of France at Reims, where the two monarchs decided to persuade the rival popes, now Benedict XIII and Boniface IX, to resign, and to end the papal schisms by the election of a new pontiff. Many of the princes were angry at this abandonment of Boniface by Wenceslaus, who had also aroused much indignation by his long absence from Germany and by selling the title of duke of Milan to Gian Galeazzo Visconti.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 77413, 48845, 1778562, 24061, 235467, 50850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 32 ], [ 36, 41 ], [ 107, 120 ], [ 125, 136 ], [ 389, 402 ], [ 406, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hus was eventually executed in Konstanz in 1415, and the rest of Wenceslaus' reign in Bohemia featured precursors of the Hussite Wars that would follow his death during the Defenestrations of Prague.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 98095, 303005, 44397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 39 ], [ 121, 133 ], [ 173, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In view of his troubles in Bohemia, Wenceslaus did not seek a coronation ceremony as Holy Roman Emperor, which did little to endear him to the pope. He also was long absent from the German lands. Consequently, he faced anger at the Reichstag diets of Nuremberg (1397) and Frankfurt (1398). The four Rhenish electors, Count Palatine Rupert III and the Archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier, accused him of failing to maintain the public peace or to resolve the Schism. They demanded that Wenceslaus appear before them to answer to the charges in June 1400. Wenceslaus demurred, in large part because of renewed hostilities in Bohemia. When he failed to appear, the electors meeting at Lahneck Castle declared him deposed on 20 August 1400 on account of \"futility, idleness, negligence and ignobility\". The next day they chose Rupert as their king at Rhens. Although Wenceslaus refused to acknowledge this successor's decade-long reign, he made no move against Rupert.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 50853, 30599237, 51556, 25805199, 38830, 253137, 253147, 5436222, 30860786, 4253389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 103 ], [ 232, 241 ], [ 299, 306 ], [ 317, 331 ], [ 332, 342 ], [ 366, 371 ], [ 373, 380 ], [ 385, 390 ], [ 687, 701 ], [ 852, 857 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 29 June 1402 Wenceslaus was captured by Sigismund, who at first intended to escort him to Rome to have him crowned emperor, but Rupert heard of this plan and tried to prevent the passage to Italy, so that Sigismund had Wenceslaus imprisoned, at first in Schaumberg, and from 16 August in Vienna, in the charge of William, Duke of Austria.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 38889, 48874576, 1168530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 52 ], [ 257, 267 ], [ 316, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 20 November, Wenceslaus was forced to sign his renunciation of all his powers to Sigismund and the Dukes of Austria. In exchange, the conditions of his imprisonment were relaxed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In early 1403, Rupert made diplomatic overtures to Sigismund, attempting to get him to forgo his attempt to secure the imperial crown. But Sigismund invaded Bohemia with Hungarian forces, looting and imposing heavy taxes, and persecuting the supporters of Wenceslaus. He also plundered the royal treasury to pay for his military campaigns against the supporters of Rupert and of Jobst of Moravia. An armistice between Sigismund and Jobst was agreed to be in effect from 14 April until 20 May. This gave Sigismund's opponents time to prepare, and after the end of the armistice, Sigismund could make no further gains and retreated from Bohemia, reaching Bratislava on 24 July.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 38204, 18933194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 379, 395 ], [ 653, 663 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 1 October 1403, Pope Boniface IX finally acknowledged the deposition of Wenceslaus and the election of Rupert as King of the Romans. As a coronation of Wenceslaus was now no longer a possibility, and while he was nominally still prisoner in Vienna, he was no longer under strict guard, and he managed to escape on 11 November.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 24061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He crossed the Danube and was escorted by John II of Liechtenstein via Mikulov back to Bohemia, meeting his supporters in Kutná Hora before moving on Prague, which he entered on Christmas.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 67084265, 1554283, 245286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 66 ], [ 71, 78 ], [ 122, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among the charges raised by Rupert as the basis for his predecessor's deposition was the Papal Schism. King Rupert called the Council of Pisa in 1409, attended by defectors from both papal parties. They elected Antipope Alexander V, worsening the situation because he was not acknowledged by his two rivals, and from 1409 to 1417 there were three popes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 38268796, 23535646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 141 ], [ 211, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the death of Rupert in 1410, his succession at first proved difficult, as both Wenceslaus' cousin Jobst of Moravia and Wenceslaus' brother Sigismund of Hungary were elected King of the Romans. Wenceslaus himself had never recognized his deposition and hence still claimed the kingship. Jobst died in1411, and Wenceslaus agreed to give up the crown, so long as he could keep Bohemia. This settled the issue, and after1411 Sigismund reigned as king and later also became Holy Roman Emperor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 38204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The bishops and secular leaders, tired of the Great Schism, supported Sigismund when he called the Council of Constance in1414. The goal of the council was to reform the church in head and members. In1417, the council deposed all three popes and elected a new one. By resolving the schism, Sigismund restored the honour of the imperial title and made himself the most influential monarch in the west.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 7661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wenceslaus was married twice, first to Joanna of Bavaria, a scion of the Wittelsbach dynasty, on 29 September 1370. Following her death on 31 December 1386 (according to an unproven legend \"mangled by one of Wenceslaus' beloved deer-hounds\"), he married her first cousin once removed, Sofia of Bavaria, on 2 May1389. He had no children by either wife.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 9670219, 38848, 4364223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 56 ], [ 73, 92 ], [ 285, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wenceslaus was described as a man of great knowledge and is known for the Wenceslas Bible, a richly illuminated manuscript he had drawn up between 1390 and1400. However, his rule remained uncertain, varying between idleness and cruel measures as in the case of John of Nepomuk. Unlike his father, Wenceslaus relied on favouritism, which made him abhorrent to many nobles and led to increasing isolation. Moreover, he probably suffered from alcoholism, which was brought to light in 1398 when he was unable to accept an invitation by King Charles VI of France for a reception at Reims due to his drunkenness.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 43038373, 92310, 555211, 2965, 48845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 89 ], [ 100, 122 ], [ 261, 276 ], [ 440, 450 ], [ 578, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wenceslaus died in 1419 of a heart attack during a hunt in the woods surrounding his castle Nový Hrad at Kunratice (today a part of Prague), leaving the country in a deep political crisis. His death was followed by almost two decades of conflict called the Hussite Wars, which were centred on greater calls for religious reform by Jan Hus and spurred by popular outrage provoked by his execution.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 23524424, 23844, 303005, 16028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 114 ], [ 132, 138 ], [ 257, 269 ], [ 331, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2018 video game Deliverance is set in Bohemia under the rule of King Wenceslaus IV in 1403. The plot revolves around a blacksmith's son unwittingly getting involved in the War of Succession after the death of Charles IV.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wenceslaus is a character in the novel Irina by Philip Warren.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "List of rulers of Bohemia", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 223907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kings of Germany family tree", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17767437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Decree of Kutná Hora", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13179856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Theodor Lindner. Deutsche Geschichte unter den Habsburgern und Luxemburgern. Vol. II. Stuttgart, 1893.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 52387325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wenceslas (king of Bohemia and Germany) at Encyclopædia Britannica", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Medieval_kings_of_Bohemia", "1361_births", "1419_deaths", "14th-century_Bohemian_people", "15th-century_Bohemian_people", "14th-century_Kings_of_the_Romans", "Prince-electors_of_Brandenburg", "Dukes_of_Luxembourg", "House_of_Luxembourg", "People_from_Nuremberg", "People_of_the_Hussite_Wars", "Burials_at_St._Vitus_Cathedral", "Czech_people_of_Luxembourgian_descent", "15th-century_people_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire", "14th-century_Luxembourgian_people", "15th-century_Luxembourgian_people", "15th-century_monarchs_in_Europe", "Dethroned_monarchs", "Sons_of_emperors" ]

[ "Wenceslaus IV" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Michael Rubens Bloomberg (born February 14, 1942) is an American businessman, politician, philanthropist, and author. He is the majority owner, co-founder and CEO of Bloomberg L.P. He was Mayor of New York City from 2002 to 2013, and was a candidate for the 2020 Democratic nomination for President of the United States.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 432006, 206327, 52266833, 24113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 180 ], [ 188, 210 ], [ 258, 284 ], [ 289, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg grew up in Medford, Massachusetts, and graduated from Johns Hopkins University and Harvard Business School. He began his career at the securities brokerage Salomon Brothers before forming his own company in 1981. That company, Bloomberg L.P., is a financial information, software and media firm that is known for its Bloomberg Terminal. Bloomberg spent the next twenty years as its chairman and CEO. As of June 2022, Forbes ranked him as the sixteenth-richest person in the world, with an estimated net worth of US$82billion and ranked 14th in Forbes 400 with net worth $55billion. Since signing The Giving Pledge, Bloomberg has given away $8.2billion to philanthropic causes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 116851, 38420, 18998741, 1043102, 503961, 294894, 33331732, 28257262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 43 ], [ 64, 88 ], [ 93, 116 ], [ 166, 182 ], [ 327, 345 ], [ 427, 433 ], [ 448, 489 ], [ 607, 624 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg was elected the 108th mayor of New York City, and the city’s third Jewish mayor. First elected in 2001, he held office for three consecutive terms, winning re-election in 2005 and 2009. Pursuing socially liberal and fiscally moderate policies, Bloomberg developed a technocratic managerial style.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 54864, 21874629, 2350794, 714012, 3129276, 12596065, 1325116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 31 ], [ 77, 83 ], [ 108, 112 ], [ 181, 185 ], [ 190, 194 ], [ 205, 252 ], [ 276, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the mayor of New York, Bloomberg established public charter schools, rebuilt urban infrastructure, and supported gun control, public health initiatives, and environmental protections. He also led a rezoning of large areas of the city, which facilitated massive and widespread new commercial and residential construction after the September 11 attacks. Bloomberg is considered to have had far-reaching influence on the politics, business sector, and culture of New York City during his three terms as mayor. He has also faced significant criticism for his expansion of the city's stop and frisk program, support for which he reversed with an apology before his 2020 presidential run.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40148490, 450957, 463734, 17133971, 5058690, 44589079, 3848717, 1344486, 1268656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 69 ], [ 116, 127 ], [ 129, 142 ], [ 160, 185 ], [ 333, 353 ], [ 417, 429 ], [ 431, 446 ], [ 452, 476 ], [ 582, 596 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After a brief stint as a full-time philanthropist, he re-assumed the position of CEO at Bloomberg L.P. by the end of 2014. In November 2019, Bloomberg officially launched his campaign for the Democratic nomination for president of the United States in the 2020 election. He ended his campaign in March 2020, after having won only 61 delegates. Bloomberg self-funded $935million for his candidacy, which set the record for the most expensive U.S. presidential primary campaign.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 62324657, 48410011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 183 ], [ 256, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2022, Bloomberg was nominated to chair the Defense Innovation Board.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg was born on February 14, 1942, at St. Elizabeth's Hospital, in the Brighton neighborhood of Boston, to William Henry Bloomberg (1906–1963), a bookkeeper for a dairy company, and Charlotte (née Rubens) Bloomberg (1909–2011). The Bloomberg Center at the Harvard Business School was named in William Henry's honor. Bloomberg's family is Jewish, and he is a member of the Temple Emanu-El in Manhattan. Bloomberg's paternal grandfather, Rabbi Alexander \"Elick\" Bloomberg, was a Polish Jew. Bloomberg's maternal grandfather, Max Rubens, was a Lithuanian Jewish immigrant from present-day Belarus, and his maternal grandmother was born in New York to Lithuanian Jewish parents.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 8329173, 972225, 24437894, 55526631, 18998741, 25955086, 1174230, 416798, 964634, 3457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 68 ], [ 77, 85 ], [ 102, 108 ], [ 238, 254 ], [ 262, 285 ], [ 344, 350 ], [ 378, 393 ], [ 483, 493 ], [ 547, 564 ], [ 592, 599 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The family lived in Allston until Bloomberg was two years old, followed by Brookline, Massachusetts, for two years, finally settling in the Boston suburb of Medford, Massachusetts, where he lived until after he graduated from college.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 1090210, 99048, 116851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 27 ], [ 75, 99 ], [ 157, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg became an Eagle Scout when he was twelve years old. He graduated from Medford High School in 1960. He went on to attend Johns Hopkins University, where he joined the fraternity Phi Kappa Psi. While there, he constructed the blue jay costume for the university's mascot. He graduated in 1964 with a Bachelor of Science degree in electrical engineering. In 1966, he graduated from Harvard Business School with a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 178626, 31664742, 38420, 95182, 213498, 159908, 21068988, 9531, 18998741, 47293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 31 ], [ 80, 99 ], [ 130, 154 ], [ 187, 200 ], [ 234, 242 ], [ 272, 278 ], [ 308, 327 ], [ 338, 360 ], [ 389, 412 ], [ 420, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg is a member of Kappa Beta Phi and Tau Beta Pi. He wrote an autobiography, Bloomberg by Bloomberg, with help from Bloomberg News editor-in-chief Matthew Winkler.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 21118016, 554021, 3057255, 42052514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 39 ], [ 44, 55 ], [ 123, 137 ], [ 154, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1973, Bloomberg became a general partner at Salomon Brothers, a large Wall Street investment bank, where he headed equity trading and, later, systems development. Phibro Corporation bought Salomon Brothers in 1981, and the new management fired Bloomberg, paying him $10million for his equity in the firm.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Business career", "target_page_ids": [ 8807547, 1043102, 37274, 163118, 2785607, 23407868, 14734448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 43 ], [ 47, 63 ], [ 73, 84 ], [ 85, 100 ], [ 118, 132 ], [ 145, 164 ], [ 166, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Using this money, Bloomberg, having designed in-house computerized financial systems for Salomon, set up a data services company named Innovative Market Systems (IMS) based on his belief that Wall Street would pay a premium for high-quality business information, delivered instantaneously on computer terminals in a variety of usable formats. The company sold customized computer terminals that delivered real-time market data, financial calculations and other analytics to Wall Street firms. The terminal, first called the Market Master terminal, was released to market in December 1982.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Business career", "target_page_ids": [ 249402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 371, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1986, the company renamed itself Bloomberg L.P. Over the years, ancillary products including Bloomberg News, Bloomberg Radio, Bloomberg Message, and Bloomberg Tradebook were launched. Bloomberg, L.P. had revenues of approximately $10billion in 2018. As of 2019, the company has more than 325,000 terminal subscribers worldwide and employs 20,000 people in dozens of locations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Business career", "target_page_ids": [ 3057255, 5060750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 110 ], [ 112, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The culture of the company in the 1980s and 1990s has been compared to a fraternity, with employees bragging in the company's office about their sexual exploits. The company was sued four times by female employees for sexual harassment, including one incident in which a victim claimed to have been raped. To celebrate Bloomberg's 48th birthday, colleagues published a pamphlet entitled The Wit and Wisdom of Michael Bloomberg. Among various sayings that were attributed to him, several have subsequently been criticized as sexist or misogynistic.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Business career", "target_page_ids": [ 432006, 236331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 213 ], [ 218, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When he left the position of CEO to pursue a political career as the mayor of New York City, Bloomberg was replaced by Lex Fenwick and later by Daniel L. Doctoroff, after his initial service as deputy mayor under Bloomberg. After completing his final term as the mayor of New York City, Bloomberg spent his first eight months out of office as a full-time philanthropist. In fall 2014, he announced that he would return to Bloomberg L.P. as CEO at the end of 2014, succeeding Doctoroff, who had led the company since February 2008. Bloomberg resigned as CEO of Bloomberg L.P. to run for president in 2019.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Business career", "target_page_ids": [ 9390020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2009, Forbes reported Bloomberg's wealth at $16billion, a gain of $4.5billion over the previous year, the world's biggest increase in wealth from 2008 to 2009. Bloomberg moved from 142nd to 17th in the Forbes list of the world's billionaires in only two years. In the 2019 Forbes list of the world's billionaires, he was the ninth-richest person; his net worth was estimated at $55.5billion. Currently, Bloomberg's net worth is estimated at $59billion, ranking him 20th on Forbes''' list of billionaires.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Business career", "target_page_ids": [ 294894, 33331732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 21 ], [ 330, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg assumed office as the 108th mayor of New York City on January 1, 2002. He won re-election in 2005 and again in 2009. As mayor, he initially struggled with approval ratings as low as 24 percent; however, he subsequently developed and maintained high approval ratings. Bloomberg joined Rudy Giuliani, John Lindsay, and Fiorello La Guardia as re-elected Republican mayors in the mostly Democratic city.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 206327, 25938, 279089, 11418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 60 ], [ 294, 307 ], [ 309, 321 ], [ 327, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg stated that he wanted public education reform to be the legacy of his first term and addressing poverty to be the legacy of his second.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 471603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg chose to apply a statistical, metrics-based management approach to city government, and granted departmental commissioners broad autonomy in their decision-making. Breaking with 190 years of tradition, he implemented what New York Times political reporter Adam Nagourney called a \"bullpen\" open office plan, similar to a Wall Street trading floor, in which dozens of aides and managerial staff are seated together in a large chamber. The design is intended to promote accountability and accessibility.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 5748181, 12388223, 37274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 266, 280 ], [ 300, 311 ], [ 331, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg accepted a remuneration of $1 annually in lieu of the mayoral salary.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 14274278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As mayor, Bloomberg turned the city's $6billion budget deficit into a $3billion surplus, largely by raising property taxes. Bloomberg increased city funding for the new development of affordable housing through a plan that created and preserved an estimated 160,000 affordable homes in the city. In 2003, he implemented a successful smoking ban in all indoor workplaces, including bars and restaurants, and many other cities and states followed suit. On December 5, 2006, New York City became the first city in the United States to ban trans-fat from all restaurants. This went into effect in July 2008 and has since been adopted in many other cities and countries. Bloomberg created bicycle lanes, required chain restaurants to post calorie counts, and pedestrianized much of Times Square. In 2011, Bloomberg launched the NYC Young Men's Initiative, a $127million initiative to support programs and policies designed to address disparities between young Black and Latino men and their peers, and personally donated $30million to the project. In 2010, Bloomberg supported the then-controversial Islamic complex near Ground Zero.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 386818, 11042, 33466720, 26353784, 426982, 31389, 27540718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 333, 344 ], [ 532, 545 ], [ 684, 697 ], [ 734, 748 ], [ 754, 768 ], [ 777, 789 ], [ 1095, 1127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg greatly expanded the New York City Police Department's stop and frisk program, with a sixfold increase in documented stops. The policy was challenged in U.S. Federal Court, which ruled that the city's implementation of the policy violated citizens' rights under the Fourth Amendment of the Constitution and encouraged racial profiling. Bloomberg's administration appealed the ruling; however, his successor, Mayor Bill de Blasio, dropped the appeal and allowed the ruling to take effect. After the September 11 attacks, with assistance from the Central Intelligence Agency, Bloomberg's administration oversaw a controversial program that surveilled Muslim communities on the basis of their religion, ethnicity, and language. The program was discontinued in 2014.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 255413, 35257558, 1636627, 31656, 5058690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 62 ], [ 65, 79 ], [ 163, 181 ], [ 276, 312 ], [ 508, 528 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a January 2014 Quinnipiac poll, 64 percent of voters called Bloomberg's 12 years as mayor \"mainly a success.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 24870500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2001, New York's Republican mayor Rudy Giuliani, was ineligible for re-election due to the city's limit of two consecutive terms. Bloomberg, who had been a lifelong member of the Democratic Party, decided to run for mayor on the Republican ticket. Voting in the primary began on the morning of September 11, 2001. The primary was postponed later that day, due to the September 11 attacks. In the rescheduled primary, Bloomberg defeated Herman Badillo, a former Democratic congressman, to become the Republican nominee. After a runoff, the Democratic nomination went to New York City Public Advocate Mark J. Green.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 25938, 5043544, 32070, 5058690, 1001109, 19468510, 25932, 2631557, 509760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 50 ], [ 182, 198 ], [ 232, 242 ], [ 370, 390 ], [ 439, 453 ], [ 475, 486 ], [ 530, 536 ], [ 572, 601 ], [ 602, 615 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg received Giuliani's endorsement to succeed him in the 2001 election. He also had a huge campaign spending advantage. Although New York City's campaign finance law restricts the amount of contributions that a candidate can accept, Bloomberg chose not to use public funds and therefore his campaign was not subject to these restrictions. He spent $73million of his own money on his campaign, outspending Green five to one. One of the major themes of his campaign was that, with the city's economy suffering from the effects of the World Trade Center attacks, it needed a mayor with business experience.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 2166873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to running on the Republican line, Bloomberg ran on the ticket of the controversial Independence Party, in which \"Social Therapy\" leaders Fred Newman and Lenora Fulani exerted strong influence. Bloomberg's votes on that line exceeded his margin of victory over Green. (Under New York's fusion rules, a candidate can run on more than one party's line and combine all the votes received.) Another factor was the vote in Staten Island, which has traditionally been friendlier to Republicans than the rest of the city. Bloomberg received 75 percent of the vote in Staten Island. Overall, he won 50.3 percent to 47.9 percent.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 1375913, 6760075, 805625, 651493, 46699, 127062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 114 ], [ 126, 140 ], [ 150, 161 ], [ 166, 179 ], [ 298, 304 ], [ 430, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the wake of the September 11 attacks, Bloomberg's administration made a successful bid to host the 2004 Republican National Convention. The convention drew thousands of protesters, among them New Yorkers who despised George W. Bush and the Bush administration's pursuit of the Iraq War.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 640635, 937609, 3414021, 5043324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 137 ], [ 143, 182 ], [ 220, 234 ], [ 280, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg was re-elected mayor in November 2005 by a margin of 20 percent, the widest margin ever for a Republican mayor of New York City. He spent almost $78million on his campaign, exceeding the record of $74million he spent on the previous election. In late 2004 or early 2005, Bloomberg gave the Independence Party of New York $250,000 to fund a phone bank seeking to recruit volunteers for his re-election campaign.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 1375913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 300, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Former Bronx Borough President Fernando Ferrer won the Democratic nomination to oppose Bloomberg in the general election. Thomas Ognibene sought to run against Bloomberg in the Republican Party's primary election. The Bloomberg campaign successfully challenged the signatures Ognibene submitted to the Board of Elections to prevent Ognibene from appearing on ballots for the Republican primary. Instead, Ognibene ran on only the Conservative Party ticket. Ognibene accused Bloomberg of betraying Republican Party ideals, a feeling echoed by others.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 713393, 1677518, 635592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 46 ], [ 122, 137 ], [ 429, 447 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg opposed the confirmation of John Roberts as Chief Justice of the United States. Bloomberg is a staunch supporter of abortion rights and did not believe that Roberts was committed to maintaining Roe v. Wade. In addition to Republican support, Bloomberg obtained the endorsements of several prominent Democrats: former Democratic mayor Ed Koch; former Democratic governor Hugh Carey; former Democratic City Council Speaker Peter Vallone, and his son, Councilman Peter Vallone Jr.; former Democratic Congressman Floyd Flake (who had previously endorsed Bloomberg in 2001), and Brooklyn Borough President Marty Markowitz.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 1928850, 31739, 37600898, 68493, 246297, 574434, 1023676, 3609700, 2807116, 47384, 3256380, 2344096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 50 ], [ 54, 88 ], [ 126, 141 ], [ 204, 215 ], [ 344, 351 ], [ 380, 390 ], [ 431, 444 ], [ 470, 487 ], [ 519, 530 ], [ 584, 592 ], [ 593, 610 ], [ 611, 626 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On October 2, 2008, Bloomberg announced he would seek to extend the city's term limits law and run for a third mayoral term in 2009, arguing a leader of his field was needed following the financial crisis of 2007–08. \"Handling this financial crisis while strengthening essential services... is a challenge I want to take on,\" Bloomberg said at a news conference. \"So should the City Council vote to amend term limits, I plan to ask New Yorkers to look at my record of independent leadership and then decide if I have earned another term.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 1108394, 32005855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 90 ], [ 188, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ronald Lauder, who campaigned for New York City's term limits in 1993 and spent over 4million dollars of his own money to limit the maximum years a mayor could serve to eight years, sided with Bloomberg and agreed to stay out of future legality issues. In exchange, he was promised a seat on an influential city board by Bloomberg.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 5637902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some people and organizations objected and NYPIRG filed a complaint with the City Conflict of Interest Board. On October 23, 2008, the city council voted 29–22 in favor of extending the term limit to three consecutive four-year terms. After two days of public hearings, Bloomberg signed the bill into law on November 3.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 1038390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg's bid for a third term generated some controversy. Civil libertarians such as former New York Civil Liberties Union Director Norman Siegel and New York Civil Rights Coalition Executive Director Michael Meyers joined with local politicians to protest the process as undermining the democratic process.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 9030114, 5618444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 125 ], [ 135, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg's opponent was Democratic and Working Families Party nominee Bill Thompson, who had been New York City Comptroller for the past eight years and before that, president of the New York City Board of Education. Bloomberg defeated Thompson by a vote of 51 percent to 46 percent. Bloomberg spent $109.2million on his 2009 campaign, outspending Thompson by a margin of more than 11 to one.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 5043544, 938552, 23434844, 3663276, 4152637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 35 ], [ 40, 62 ], [ 71, 84 ], [ 99, 124 ], [ 184, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the release of Independence Party campaign filings in January 2010, it was reported that Bloomberg had made two $600,000 contributions from his personal account to the Independence Party on October 30 and November 2, 2009. The Independence Party then paid $750,000 of that money to Republican Party political operative John Haggerty Jr.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This prompted an investigation beginning in February 2010 by the office of New York County District Attorney Cyrus Vance Jr. into possible improprieties. The Independence Party later questioned how Haggerty spent the money, which was to go to poll-watchers. Former New York State Senator Martin Connor contended that because the Bloomberg donations were made to an Independence Party housekeeping account rather than to an account meant for current campaigns, this was a violation of campaign finance laws. Haggerty also spent money from a separate $200,000 donation from Bloomberg on office space.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 21217228, 22779050, 2516998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 108 ], [ 109, 124 ], [ 288, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On September 13, 2013, Bloomberg announced that he would not endorse any of the candidates to succeed him. On his radio show, he stated, \"I don't want to do anything that complicates it for the next mayor. And that's one of the reasons I've decided I'm just not going to make an endorsement in the race.\" He added, \"I want to make sure that person is ready to succeed, to take what we've done and build on that.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg praised The New York Times for its endorsement of Christine Quinn and Joe Lhota as their favorite candidates in the Democratic and Republican primaries, respectively. Quinn came in third in the Democratic primary and Lhota won the Republican primary. Bloomberg criticized Democratic mayoral candidate Bill de Blasio's campaign methods, which he initially called \"racist;\" Bloomberg later downplayed and partially retracted those remarks.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 30680, 3609283, 34702214, 6712182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ], [ 60, 75 ], [ 80, 89 ], [ 311, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On January 1, 2014, de Blasio became New York City's new mayor, succeeding Bloomberg.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg was frequently mentioned as a possible centrist candidate for the presidential elections in 2008 and 2012, as well as for governor of New York in 2010 or vice-president in 2008. He eventually declined to seek all of these offices.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 39619035, 406859, 20102947, 7854845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 57 ], [ 102, 106 ], [ 111, 115 ], [ 153, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the immediate aftermath of Hurricane Sandy in November 2012, Bloomberg penned an op-ed officially endorsing Barack Obama for president, citing Obama's policies on climate change.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 37423368, 534366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 45 ], [ 111, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On January 23, 2016, it was reported that Bloomberg was again considering a presidential run, as an independent candidate in the 2016 election, if Bernie Sanders got the Democratic party nomination. This was the first time he had officially confirmed he was considering a run. Bloomberg supporters believed that Bloomberg could run as a centrist and capture many voters who were dissatisfied with the likely Democratic and Republican nominees. However, on March 7, Bloomberg announced he would not be running for president.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 21377251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2016, Bloomberg delivered a speech at the 2016 Democratic National Convention in which he called Hillary Clinton \"the right choice\". Bloomberg warned of the dangers a Donald Trump presidency would pose. He said Trump \"wants you to believe that we can solve our biggest problems by deporting Mexicans and shutting out Muslims. He wants you to believe that erecting trade barriers will bring back good jobs. He's wrong on both counts.\" Bloomberg also said Trump's economic plans \"would make it harder for small businesses to compete\" and would \"erode our influence in the world\". Trump responded to the speech by condemning Bloomberg in a series of tweets.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 30714536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2018, Bloomberg pledged $80million to support Democratic congressional candidates in the 2018 election, with the goal of flipping control of the Republican-controlled House to Democrats. In a statement, Bloomberg said that Republican House leadership were \"absolutely feckless\" and had failed to govern responsibly. Bloomberg advisor Howard Wolfson was chosen to lead the effort, which was to target mainly suburban districts. By early October, Bloomberg had committed more than $100million to returning the House and Senate to Democratic power, fueling speculation about a presidential run in 2020. On October 10, 2018, Bloomberg announced that he had returned to the Democratic party.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 52232058, 15609253, 48410011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 110 ], [ 342, 356 ], [ 602, 606 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On March 5, 2019, Bloomberg had announced that he would not run for president in 2020. Instead, he encouraged the Democratic Party to \"nominate a Democrat who will be in the strongest position to defeat Donald Trump\". However, due to his dissatisfaction with the Democratic field, Bloomberg reconsidered. He officially launched his campaign for the 2020 Democratic nomination on November 24, 2019.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 4848272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg self-funded his campaign from his personal fortune, and did not accept campaign contributions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg's campaign suffered from his lackluster performance in two televised debates. When Bloomberg participated in his first presidential debate, Elizabeth Warren challenged him to release women from non-disclosure agreements relating to their allegations of sexual harassment at Bloomberg L.P. Two days later, Bloomberg announced that there were three women who had made complaints concerning him, and added that he would release any of the three if they request him to do so. Warren continued her attack in the second debate the next week. Others criticized Bloomberg for his wealth and campaign spending, as well as his former affiliation with the Republican Party.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 290195, 432006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 166 ], [ 248, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a late entrant to the race, Bloomberg skipped the first four state primaries and caucuses. He spent $676million of his personal fortune on the primary campaign, breaking a record for the most money ever spent on a presidential primary campaign. His campaign blanketed the country with campaign advertisements on broadcast and cable television, the Internet, and radio, as well as direct mail. Bloomberg also spent heavily on campaign operations that grew to 200 field offices and more than 2,400 paid campaign staffers. His support in nationwide opinion polls hovered around 15 percent but stagnated or dropped before Super Tuesday, while former vice president Joe Biden had become the centrist frontrunner after receiving the support of major candidates Pete Buttigieg and Amy Klobuchar shortly before Super Tuesday. Bloomberg suspended his campaign on March 4, 2020, after a disappointing Super Tuesday in which he won only American Samoa, and subsequently endorsed Biden. Bloomberg donated $18 million to the Democratic National Committee and publicly planned a \"massive spending blitz\" to support Biden's campaign.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 915515, 59151996, 453899, 145422, 33687378, 1596343, 60941566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 383, 394 ], [ 538, 562 ], [ 621, 634 ], [ 664, 673 ], [ 758, 772 ], [ 777, 790 ], [ 920, 943 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When a 60 Minutes correspondent remarked on March 1 that Bloomberg had spent twice what President Trump had raised, he was asked how much he would spend. Bloomberg replied, \"I'm making an investment in this country. My investment is I'm going to remove President Trump from 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue or at least try as hard as I can.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 35061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Speaking on the final night of the 2020 Democratic National Convention, Bloomberg took aim at Trump's handling of the COVID-19 pandemic and the American economy: \"Would you rehire or work for someone who ran your business into the ground? Who always does what's best for him or her, even when it hurts the company, and whose reckless decisions put you in danger, and who spends more time tweeting than working? If the answer is no, why the hell would we ever rehire Donald Trump for another four years?\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg was a lifelong Democrat until 2001, when he switched to the Republican Party to run for mayor. He switched to an independent in 2007 and registered again as a Democrat in October 2018. In 2004, he endorsed the re-election of George W. Bush and spoke at the 2004 Republican National Convention. He endorsed Barack Obama's re-election in 2012, endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 election, and spoke at the 2016 Democratic National Convention.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Political positions", "target_page_ids": [ 5043544, 32070, 2172378, 3414021, 640635, 534366, 5043192, 21377251, 30714536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 33 ], [ 70, 86 ], [ 123, 134 ], [ 235, 249 ], [ 267, 302 ], [ 316, 328 ], [ 361, 376 ], [ 384, 397 ], [ 416, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Mayor of New York, Bloomberg supported government initiatives in public health and welfare. This included tobacco control efforts (including an increase in the legal age to purchase tobacco products, a ban on smoking in indoor workplaces, and an increase in the cigarette tax); the elimination of the use of artificial trans fats in restaurants; and bans on all flavored tobacco and e-cigarette products including menthol flavors. Bloomberg also launched an unsuccessful effort to ban on certain large (more than 16 fluid ounce) sugary sodas at restaurants and food service establishments in the city. These initiatives were supported by public health advocates but were criticized by some as \"nanny state\" policies.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Political positions", "target_page_ids": [ 22145250, 65161632, 38788185, 19629830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 124 ], [ 322, 332 ], [ 484, 544 ], [ 697, 708 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over his career, Bloomberg has \"mingled support for progressive causes with more conservative positions on law enforcement, business regulation and school choice.\" Bloomberg supports gun-control measures, abortion rights, same-sex marriage, and a pathway to citizenship for illegal immigrants. He advocates for a public health insurance option that he has called \"Medicare for all for people that are uncovered\" rather than a universal single-payer healthcare system. He is concerned about climate change and has touted his mayoral efforts to reduce greenhouse gases. Bloomberg supported the Iraq War and opposed creating a timeline for withdrawing troops. Bloomberg has sometimes embraced the use of surveillance in efforts to deter crime and protect against terrorism.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Political positions", "target_page_ids": [ 27761, 24008878, 1043143, 5042951, 21350772, 5043324, 87231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 161 ], [ 313, 343 ], [ 436, 459 ], [ 490, 504 ], [ 550, 566 ], [ 592, 600 ], [ 701, 713 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During and after his tenure, he was a staunch supporter of stop-and-frisk. In November 2019, Bloomberg apologized for supporting it. He advocates reversing many of the Trump tax cuts. His own tax plan includes implementing a 5 percent surtax on incomes above $5million a year and would raise federal revenue by $5trillion over a decade. He opposes a wealth tax, saying that it would likely be found unconstitutional. He has also proposed more stringent financial regulations that include tougher oversight for big banks, a financial transactions tax, and stronger consumer protections. He supported decreasing estate-tax threshold to collect more estate taxes and close tax avoidance schemes. According to Propublica investigation he set up multiple GRATs thus shielding parts of his fortune for his heirs.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Political positions", "target_page_ids": [ 35257558, 55697602, 1139167, 25681121, 13743889, 14677091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 73 ], [ 168, 182 ], [ 350, 360 ], [ 523, 549 ], [ 706, 716 ], [ 750, 755 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg stated that running as a Democratnot an independentwas the only path he saw to defeating Donald Trump, saying: \"In 2020, the great likelihood is that an independent would just split the anti-Trump vote and end up re-electing the President. That's a risk I refused to run in 2016 and we can't afford to run it now.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Political positions", "target_page_ids": [ 4848272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 2010, Bloomberg signed The Giving Pledge, whereby the wealthy pledge to give away at least half of their wealth. Since then, he has given away $9.5billion overall including $3.3billion in 2019. According to Chronicle of Philanthropy, he gave away the most money of any philanthropist in 2019.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 28257262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His Bloomberg Philanthropies foundation focuses on public health, the arts, government innovation, the environment, and education. Through the foundation, he donated or pledged $767million in 2018, and more than $1 billion in 2019.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 38340622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2011 recipients included the Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health; World Lung Foundation and the World Health Organization. According to The New York Times, Bloomberg was an \"anonymous donor\" to the Carnegie Corporation from 2001 to 2010, with gifts ranging from $5million to $20million each year. The Carnegie Corporation distributed these contributions to hundreds of New York City organizations ranging from the Dance Theatre of Harlem to Gilda's Club, a non-profit organization that provides support to people and families living with cancer. He continues to support the arts through his foundation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 56846920, 6811, 1877646, 18572060, 33583, 1964018, 1964018, 2280213, 2417442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 59 ], [ 61, 103 ], [ 105, 152 ], [ 154, 175 ], [ 184, 209 ], [ 286, 306 ], [ 389, 409 ], [ 502, 525 ], [ 529, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg gave $254million in 2009 to almost 1,400 nonprofit organizations, saying, \"I am a big believer in giving it all away and have always said that the best financial planning ends with bouncing the check to the undertaker.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic and its aftermath, Bloomberg through his foundation committed to a wide range of urgent causes including researching treatments and vaccines, leading contact tracing to root out the virus, supporting the World Health Organization, and funding global efforts to fight the spread of the disease and protect vulnerable populations. Action included:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 63030231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cofounding a $75million fund for nonprofits impacted by COVID-19 in New York City", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Donating $6million to World Central Kitchen to serve meals to health care workers in New York City", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 57118589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Partnering with Johns Hopkins University to train COVID-19 contact tracers through its school of public health and search for a treatment of the virus.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Convening mayors through a partnership with Harvard College to learn and discuss their pandemic response, featuring a bipartisan roster of speakers and attendees.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Leading New York's contact tracing effort", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Launching an information and action sharing network for cities through the National League of Cities", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 2005288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Supporting international efforts to combat the spread of COVID-19 and prepare regional leaders through the International Rescue Committee, the World Health Organization, Vital Strategies and other partners", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 196452, 33583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 138 ], [ 144, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg is an environmentalist and has advocated policy to fight climate change at least since he became the mayor of New York City. At the national level, Bloomberg has consistently pushed for transitioning the United States' energy mix from fossil fuels to clean energy. In July 2011, Bloomberg Philanthropies donated $50 million to Sierra Club's Beyond Coal campaign, allowing the campaign to expand its efforts to shut down coal-fired power plants from 15 states to 45 states. In 2015, Bloomberg announced an additional $30 million contribution to the Beyond Coal initiative, matched with another $30million by other donors, to help secure the retirement of half of America's fleet of coal plants by 2017. In July 2017, Europe Beyond Coal was established to phase out use of coal on the continent by 2030. Austria closed its final coal-fired plant in April 2020. In early June 2019, Bloomberg pledged $500 million to reduce climate impacts and shut remaining coal-fired power plants by 2030 via the new Beyond Carbon initiative.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 242098, 36072163, 11588774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 337, 348 ], [ 351, 362 ], [ 430, 452 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg Philanthropies awarded a $6 million grant to the Environmental Defense Fund in support of strict regulations on fracking in the 14 states with the heaviest natural gas production.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 1564855, 32544339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 85 ], [ 122, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2013, Bloomberg and Bloomberg Philanthropies launched the Risky Business initiative with former Treasury Secretary Hank Paulson and hedge-fund billionaire Tom Steyer. The joint effort worked to convince the business community of the need for more sustainable energy and development policies, by quantifying and publicizing the economic risks the United States faces from the impact of climate change. In January 2015, Bloomberg led Bloomberg Philanthropies in a $48-million partnership with the Heising-Simons family to launch the Clean Energy Initiative. The initiative supports state-based solutions aimed at ensuring America has a clean, reliable, and affordable energy system.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 1726480, 28162971, 2119174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 130 ], [ 158, 168 ], [ 378, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 2010, Bloomberg has taken an increasingly global role on environmental issues. From 2010 to 2013, he served as the chairman of the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, a network of the world's biggest cities working together to reduce carbon emissions. During his tenure, Bloomberg worked with President Bill Clinton to merge C40 with the Clinton Climate Initiative, with the goal of amplifying their efforts in the global fight against climate change worldwide. He serves as the president of the board of C40 Cities. In January 2014, Bloomberg began a five-year commitment totaling $53million through Bloomberg Philanthropies to the Vibrant Oceans Initiative. The initiative partners Bloomberg Philanthropies with Oceana, Rare, and Encourage Capital to help reform fisheries and increase sustainable populations worldwide. In 2018, Bloomberg joined Ray Dalio in announcing a commitment of $185million towards protecting the oceans.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 6227166, 9528025, 6115598, 8759405, 47197847, 15339320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 172 ], [ 241, 257 ], [ 345, 371 ], [ 721, 727 ], [ 729, 733 ], [ 856, 865 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon appointed Bloomberg as his first Special Envoy for Cities and Climate Change to help the United Nations work with cities to prevent climate change. In September 2014, Bloomberg convened with Ban and global leaders at the UN Climate Summit to announce definite action to fight climate change in 2015. In 2018, Ban's successor António Guterres appointed Bloomberg as UN envoy for climate action. He resigned in November 2019, in the run-up to his presidential campaign. On 5 February 2021, however, he was re-appointed by Guterres as his Special Envoy on Climate Ambition and Solutions in the lead-up to the climate conference in Scotland scheduled for November 2021.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 162415, 2346975, 471806, 26994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 41 ], [ 42, 53 ], [ 379, 395 ], [ 682, 690 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In late 2014, Bloomberg, Ban Ki-moon, and global city networks ICLEI-Local Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI), C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group (C40) and United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG), with support from UN-Habitat, launched the Compact of Mayors, a global coalition of mayors and city officials pledging to reduce local greenhouse gas emissions, enhance climate resilience, and track their progress transparently. To date, over 250 cities representing more than 300million people worldwide and 4.1 percent of the total global population, have committed to the Compact of Mayors, which was merged with the Covenant of Mayors in June 2016.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 5355180, 6227166, 14919917, 48635968, 42673705, 24547311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 68 ], [ 115, 150 ], [ 161, 196 ], [ 248, 265 ], [ 374, 392 ], [ 625, 643 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, Bloomberg and Paris mayor Anne Hidalgo created the Climate Summit for Local Leaders. which convened assembled hundreds of city leaders from around the world at Paris City Hall to discuss fighting climate change. The Summit concluded with the presentation of the Paris Declaration, a pledge by leaders from assembled global cities to cut carbon emissions by 3.7 gigatons annually by 2030.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 3186556, 15251436, 1587534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 34 ], [ 35, 47 ], [ 169, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 2015 UN Climate Change Conference in Paris, Mark Carney, Governor of the Bank of England and chair of the Financial Stability Board, announced that Bloomberg would lead a new global task force designed to help industry and financial markets understand the growing risks of climate change.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 41793940, 13571049, 1624191, 22263201, 12850901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 44 ], [ 55, 66 ], [ 68, 99 ], [ 117, 142 ], [ 275, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following President Donald Trump's announcement that the U.S. government would withdraw from the Paris climate accord, Bloomberg outlined a coalition of cities, states, universities and businesses that had come together to honor America's commitment under the agreement through 'America's Pledge.' Bloomberg offered up to $15million to the UNFCCC, the UN body that assists countries with climate change efforts. About a month later, Bloomberg and California Governor Jerry Brown announced that the America's Pledge coalition would work to \"quantify the actions taken by U.S. states, cities and business to drive down greenhouse gas emissions consistent with the goals of the Paris Agreement.\" In announcing the initiative, Bloomberg said \"the American government may have pulled out of the Paris agreement, but American society remains committed to it.\" Two think tanks, World Resource Institute and the Rocky Mountain Institute, will work with America's Pledge to analyze the work cities, states and businesses do to meet the U.S. commitment to the Paris agreement.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 4848272, 54199706, 31898, 175220, 37101, 43491966, 727863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 32 ], [ 57, 117 ], [ 340, 346 ], [ 467, 478 ], [ 858, 868 ], [ 871, 895 ], [ 904, 928 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 2019, Bloomberg announced a 2020 Midwestern Collegiate Climate Summit in Washington University in St. Louis with the aim to bring together leaders from Midwestern universities, local government and the private sector to reduce climate impacts in the region.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 58920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2019, Bloomberg has given more than $3.3billion to Johns Hopkins University, his alma mater, making him \"the most generous living donor to any education institution in the United States.\" His first contribution, in 1965, had been $5. He made his first $1million commitment to JHU in 1984, and subsequently became the first individual to exceed $1billion in lifetime donations to a single U.S. institution of higher education.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 38420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg's contributions to Johns Hopkins \"fueled major improvements in the university's reputation and rankings, its competitiveness for faculty and students, and the appearance of its campus,\" and included construction of a children's hospital (the Charlotte R. Bloomberg Children's Center Building, named after Bloomberg's mother); a physics building, a school of public health (the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health), libraries, and biomedical research facilities, including the Institute for Cell Engineering, a stem-cell research institute within the School of Medicine, and the Malaria Research Institute within the School of Public Health. In 2013, Bloomberg committed $350million to Johns Hopkins, five-sevenths of which were allocated to the Bloomberg Distinguished Professorships. In 2016, Bloomberg Philanthropies contributed $300million to establish the Bloomberg American Health Initiative. Bloomberg also funded the launch of the Bloomberg–Kimmel Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy within the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine in East Baltimore, with a $50million gift; an additional $50million was given by philanthropist Sidney Kimmel, and $25million by other donors. It will support cancer therapy research, technology and infrastructure development, and private sector partnerships. In 2016, Bloomberg joined Vice President Joe Biden for the institute's formal launch, embracing Biden's \"Cancer Moonshot\" initiative, which seeks to find a cure for cancer through national coordination of government and private sector resources. In 2018, Bloomberg contributed a further gift of $1.8billion to Johns Hopkins, allowing the university to practice need-blind admission and meet the full financial need of admitted students.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 64523444, 64523444, 22939, 1877646, 27783, 1991054, 45689615, 52587818, 19194765, 32759, 145422, 49087209, 2976430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 227, 246 ], [ 252, 301 ], [ 338, 345 ], [ 387, 434 ], [ 532, 550 ], [ 572, 590 ], [ 767, 805 ], [ 960, 1011 ], [ 1152, 1165 ], [ 1342, 1356 ], [ 1357, 1366 ], [ 1421, 1436 ], [ 1677, 1697 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Through Bloomberg Philanthropies, Bloomberg established the American Talent Initiative in 2016 which is committed to increasing the number of lower-income high-achieving students attending elite colleges. Bloomberg Philanthropies also supports CollegePoint which has provided advising to lower- and moderate-income high school students since 2014.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016, the Museum of Science, Boston announced a $50million gift from Bloomberg. Bloomberg credited the museum with sparking his intellectual curiosity as a patron and student during his youth in Medford, Massachusetts. It is the largest donation in the museum's 186-year history.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 1277059, 116851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 38 ], [ 198, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, Bloomberg donated $100million to Cornell Tech, the applied sciences graduate school of Cornell University on the school's Roosevelt Island campus.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 38342085, 7954422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 54 ], [ 96, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1996, Bloomberg endowed the William Henry Bloomberg Professorship at Harvard University with a $3million gift in honor of his father, who died in 1963, saying, \"throughout his life, he recognized the importance of reaching out to the nonprofit sector to help better the welfare of the entire community.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 18426501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2011, Bloomberg launched a $24million initiative to fund \"Innovation Delivery Teams\" in five cities. The teams are one of Bloomberg Philanthropies' key goals: advancing government innovation. In December 2011, Bloomberg Philanthropies launched a partnership with online ticket search engine SeatGeek to connect artists with new audiences. Called the Discover New York Arts Project, the project includes organizations HERE, New York Theatre Workshop, and the Kaufman Center.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 26235878, 1243552, 23373849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 299, 307 ], [ 431, 456 ], [ 466, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2013, Bloomberg announced the Mayors Challenge competition to drive innovation in American cities. The program was later expanded to competitions in Latin America and Europe.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016, Bloomberg gave Harvard $32million to create the Bloomberg Harvard City Leadership Initiative within Harvard Kennedy School's Ash Center for Democratic Governance and Innovation; the initiative provides training to mayors and their aides on innovative municipal leadership and challenges facing cities.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 360816, 29610993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 131 ], [ 134, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2021, Bloomberg gave Harvard $150million to create the Bloomberg Center for Cities to support mayors.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg has been a longtime donor to global tobacco control efforts. Bloomberg has donated close to $1billion to the World Health Organization (WHO) to promote anti-smoking efforts, including $125million in 2006, $250million in 2008, and $360million, making Bloomberg Philanthropies the developing world's biggest funder of tobacco-control initiatives. In 2013, it was reported that Bloomberg had donated $109.24million in 556 grants and 61 countries to campaigns against tobacco. Bloomberg's contributions are aimed at \"getting countries to monitor tobacco use, introduce strong tobacco-control laws, and create mass media campaigns to educate the public about the dangers of tobacco use.\" Bloomberg Philanthropies and the Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids jointly launched a $160 million, three-year campaign against youth use of electronic cigarettes (vaping).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 22145250, 33583, 78449, 3585815, 56846920, 60958050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 61 ], [ 119, 144 ], [ 289, 305 ], [ 668, 690 ], [ 726, 756 ], [ 824, 852 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Bloomberg is the co-founder of Everytown for Gun Safety (formerly Mayors Against Illegal Guns), a gun control advocacy group.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 11343645, 44276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 58 ], [ 101, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016, the World Health Organization appointed Bloomberg as its Global Ambassador for Noncommunicable Diseases.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 33583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Through Bloomberg Philanthropies, Bloomberg supported the Fresh Air Fund's creation of 'Open Spaces in the City' in summer 2020 to provide socially-distant areas for kids to play during the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as jobs for local teens. He donated $3 million to the construction of a new public library in his hometown of Medford and $75million for The Shed, a new arts and cultural center in Hudson Yards, Manhattan.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 41876352, 6065329, 57778944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 354, 362 ], [ 379, 394 ], [ 398, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg also endowed his hometown synagogue, Temple Shalom, which was renamed for his parents as the William and Charlotte Bloomberg Jewish Community Center of Medford.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg hosted the Global Business Forum in 2017, during the annual meeting of the United Nations General Assembly; the gathering featured international CEOs, heads of state, and other prominent speakers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 57865328, 31957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 42 ], [ 85, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2009 Bloomberg met with other billionaires such as Warren Buffett, Bill Gates, Ted Turner and Oprah Winfrey to address issues ranging from the environment, health care and concerns over population growth. Although no formal organization was established, the effort was understood to be designed to help bring various philanthropic projects of the mega-donors into a more unified effort to address various problems on our planet.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 2119179, 676718, 4599275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 157 ], [ 159, 170 ], [ 189, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1975, Bloomberg married Susan Elizabeth Barbara Brown, a British national from Yorkshire, United Kingdom. They have two daughters: Emma (born c. 1979) and Georgina (born 1983), who were featured on Born Rich, a 2003 documentary film about the children of the extremely wealthy. Bloomberg divorced Brown in 1993, but he has said she remains his \"best friend.\" Since 2000, Bloomberg has lived with former New York state banking superintendent Diana Taylor.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 36637, 25776236, 1761225, 20329093, 2947031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 91 ], [ 158, 166 ], [ 201, 210 ], [ 406, 443 ], [ 444, 456 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg's younger sister, Marjorie Tiven, has been commissioner of the New York City Commission for the United Nations, Consular Corps and Protocol, since February 2002.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although he attended Hebrew school, had a bar mitzvah, and his family kept a kosher kitchen, Bloomberg today is relatively secular, attending synagogue mainly during the High Holidays and a Passover Seder with his sister, Marjorie Tiven. Neither of his daughters had bat mitzvahs.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 2899790, 52526, 16881, 908121, 46403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 34 ], [ 42, 53 ], [ 77, 83 ], [ 170, 183 ], [ 190, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout his business career, Bloomberg has made numerous statements which have been considered by some to be insulting, derogatory, sexist or misogynistic. When working on Wall Street in the 1960s and 1970s, Bloomberg claimed in his 1997 autobiography, he had \"a girlfriend in every city\". On various occasions, Bloomberg allegedly commented \"I'd do her\", regarding certain women, some of whom were coworkers or employees. Bloomberg later said that by \"do\", he meant that he would have a personal relationship with the woman. Bloomberg's staff told the New York Times that he now regrets having made \"disrespectful\" remarks concerning women.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During his term as mayor, he lived at his own home on the Upper East Side of Manhattan instead of Gracie Mansion, the official mayoral residence. In 2013, he owned 13 properties in various countries around the world, including a $20million Georgian mansion in Southampton, New York. In 2015, he acquired 4 Cheyne Walk, a historical property in Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, London, which once belonged to writer George Eliot. Bloomberg and his daughters own houses in Bermuda and stay there frequently.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 327270, 45470, 1206268, 12924, 260097, 40558486, 310638, 310113, 13049, 3460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 73 ], [ 77, 86 ], [ 98, 112 ], [ 240, 248 ], [ 260, 281 ], [ 304, 317 ], [ 344, 355 ], [ 357, 372 ], [ 404, 416 ], [ 460, 467 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg stated that during his mayoralty, he rode the New York City Subway on a daily basis, particularly in the commute from his 79th Street home to his office at City Hall. An August 2007 story in The New York Times stated that he was often seen chauffeured by two New York Police Department-owned SUVs to an express train station to avoid having to change from the local to the express trains on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line. He supported the construction of the 7 Subway Extension and the Second Avenue Subway; in December 2013, Bloomberg took a ceremonial ride on a train to the new 34th Street station to celebrate a part of his legacy as mayor.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 285510, 276722, 30680, 255413, 1442734, 3722170, 552650, 33393347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 76 ], [ 166, 175 ], [ 201, 219 ], [ 269, 295 ], [ 405, 430 ], [ 469, 487 ], [ 496, 516 ], [ 591, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his tenure as mayor, Bloomberg made cameos playing himself in the films The Adjustment Bureau and New Year's Eve, as well as in episodes of 30 Rock, Curb Your Enthusiasm, The Good Wife, and two episodes of Law & Order.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 23778776, 29679260, 5174671, 217231, 22851889, 173629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 100 ], [ 105, 119 ], [ 147, 154 ], [ 156, 176 ], [ 178, 191 ], [ 213, 224 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg is a private pilot. He owns six airplanes: three Dassault Falcon 900s, a Beechcraft B300, a Pilatus PC-24, and a Cessna 182 Skylane. Bloomberg also owns two helicopters: an AW109 and an Airbus helicopter and as of 2012 was near the top of the waiting list for an AW609 tiltrotor aircraft. In his youth he was a licensed amateur radio operator, was proficient in Morse code, and built ham radios.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 3098395, 9023483, 39438695, 643970, 510266, 93272, 840022, 5397065, 18935, 23275402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 78 ], [ 83, 98 ], [ 102, 115 ], [ 123, 141 ], [ 183, 188 ], [ 196, 213 ], [ 273, 278 ], [ 330, 352 ], [ 372, 382 ], [ 394, 403 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg has received honorary degrees from Tufts University (2007), Bard College (2007), Rockefeller University (2007), the University of Pennsylvania (2008), Fordham University (2009), Williams College (2014), Harvard University (2014), the University of Michigan (2016), Villanova University (2017) and Washington University in St. Louis (2019). Bloomberg was the speaker for Princeton University's 2011 baccalaureate service.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 464751, 84077, 276259, 605466, 31793, 430029, 34105, 18426501, 31740, 241099, 58920, 23922, 11736363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 38 ], [ 45, 61 ], [ 70, 82 ], [ 91, 113 ], [ 126, 152 ], [ 161, 179 ], [ 188, 204 ], [ 213, 231 ], [ 244, 266 ], [ 275, 295 ], [ 308, 342 ], [ 381, 401 ], [ 409, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On May 27, 2010, Bloomberg delivered the commencement speech at his alma mater, Johns Hopkins University. In addition, he was invited to and delivered guest remarks for the Johns Hopkins Class of 2020. Other notable guest speakers during the virtual ceremony included Reddit co-founder and Commencement speaker Alexis Ohanian; Anthony Fauci, director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and a leading member of the White House Coronavirus Task Force; and senior class president Pavan Patel", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 38420, 34084898, 1227250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 104 ], [ 311, 325 ], [ 327, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg has received the Yale School of Management's Award for Distinguished Leadership in Global Capital Markets (2003); Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Ehud Barak (2004); Barnard College's Barnard Medal of Distinction (2008); the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Leadership for Healthy Communities' Healthy Communities Leadership Award (2009); and the Jefferson Awards Foundation's U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official (2010). He was the inaugural laureate of the annual Genesis Prize for Jewish values in 2013, and donated the $1million prize money to a global competition, the Genesis Generation Challenge, to identify young adults' big ideas to better the world.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 1948177, 5041317, 168212, 4237, 1245121, 23283481, 28119858, 40612017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 52 ], [ 150, 181 ], [ 195, 205 ], [ 214, 229 ], [ 273, 303 ], [ 304, 338 ], [ 393, 420 ], [ 569, 582 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg was named the 39th most influential person in the world in the 2007 and 2008 Time 100. In 2010, Vanity Fair ranked him #7 in its \"Vanity Fair 100\" list of influential figures.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 7773235, 286542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 95 ], [ 106, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, Queen Elizabeth II appointed Bloomberg an Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his \"prodigious entrepreneurial and philanthropic endeavors, and the many ways in which they have benefited the United Kingdom and the U.K.-U.S. special relationship.\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 12153654, 212182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ], [ 51, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bloomberg, with Matthew Winkler, wrote an autobiography, Bloomberg by Bloomberg, published in 1997 by Wiley. A second edition was released in 2019, ahead of Bloomberg's presidential run. Bloomberg and former Sierra Club Executive Director Carl Pope co-authored Climate of Hope: How Cities, Businesses, and Citizens Can Save the Planet (2017), published by St. Martin's Press; the book appeared on the New York Times hardcover nonfiction best-seller list. Bloomberg has written a number of op-eds in The New York Times'' about various issues, including an op-ed supporting state and local efforts to fight climate change (2017), an op-ed about his donation of $1.8billion in financial aid for college students and support for need-blind admission policies (2018); an op-ed supporting a ban on flavored e-cigarettes (2019); and an op-ed supporting policies to reduce economic inequality (2020).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Books and other works", "target_page_ids": [ 42052514, 537930, 5480262, 57410816, 2072415, 81240, 534478, 5042951, 2976430, 11996885, 370432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 31 ], [ 102, 107 ], [ 239, 248 ], [ 261, 276 ], [ 356, 374 ], [ 401, 453 ], [ 489, 494 ], [ 605, 619 ], [ 725, 745 ], [ 801, 812 ], [ 865, 884 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Harvard University people", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 584985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Johns Hopkins University people", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2829505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of people from Boston", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6213280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of philanthropists", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 166142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of richest American politicians", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1449870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timeline of New York City, 2000s–2010s", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41800017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Uses anthropology and geography to examine the mayor's corporate-style governance, with particular attention to the Hudson Yards plan, which aims to transform the far West Side into a high-end district.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mike Bloomberg official website", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mike Blomberg biography at Bloomberg Philanthropies", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 38340622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Issue positions and quotes at On the Issues", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 17501420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Office of the Mayor of New York City (Archived November 23, 2013)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

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[ "Michael Rubens Bloomberg", "Michael R. Bloomberg", "Mike Bloomberg" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Three-phase electric power (abbreviated 3φ) is a common type of alternating current used in electricity generation, transmission, and distribution. It is a type of polyphase system employing three wires (or four including an optional neutral return wire) and is the most common method used by electrical grids worldwide to transfer power.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 42986, 9540, 38824, 212253, 261881, 20344155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 83 ], [ 92, 114 ], [ 116, 128 ], [ 134, 146 ], [ 164, 180 ], [ 293, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three-phase electrical power was developed in the 1880s by multiple people. Three-phase power works by the voltage and currents being 120 degrees out of phase on the three wires. As an AC system it allows the voltages to be easily stepped up using transformers to high voltage for transmission, and back down for distribution, giving high efficiency.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A three-wire three-phase circuit is usually more economical than an equivalent two-wire single-phase circuit at the same line to ground voltage because it uses less conductor material to transmit a given amount of electrical power. Three-phase power is mainly used directly to power large induction motors, other electric motors, and other heavy loads. Small loads often use only a two-wire single-phase circuit, which may be derived from a three-phase system. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 227049, 32549, 251075, 76086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 100 ], [ 136, 143 ], [ 289, 305 ], [ 313, 328 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The conductors between a voltage source and a load are called lines, and the voltage between any two lines is called line voltage. The voltage measured between any line and neutral is called phase voltage. For example, for a 208/120 volt service, the line voltage is 208 Volts, and the phase voltage is 120 Volts.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Terminology", "target_page_ids": [ 198984, 1686418, 3462904, 32549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 25, 39 ], [ 46, 50 ], [ 77, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Polyphase power systems were independently invented by Galileo Ferraris, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, Jonas Wenström, John Hopkinson, William Stanley Jr., and Nikola Tesla in the late 1880s.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1644203, 6003471, 23912480, 250626, 296104, 21473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 71 ], [ 73, 99 ], [ 101, 115 ], [ 117, 131 ], [ 133, 152 ], [ 158, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three phase power evolved out of electric motor development. In 1885, Galileo Ferraris was doing research on rotating magnetic fields. Ferraris experimented with different types of asynchronous electric motors. The research and his studies resulted in the development of an alternator, which may be thought of as an alternating-current motor operating in reverse, so as to convert mechanical (rotating) power into electric power (as alternating current). On 11 March 1888, Ferraris published his research in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 261621, 76086, 223352, 19450529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 132 ], [ 194, 208 ], [ 274, 284 ], [ 552, 557 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two months later Nikola Tesla gained for a three-phase electric motor design, application filed October 12, 1887. Figure 13 of this patent shows that Tesla envisaged his three-phase motor being powered from the generator via six wires.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These alternators operated by creating systems of alternating currents displaced from one another in phase by definite amounts, and depended on rotating magnetic fields for their operation. The resulting source of polyphase power soon found widespread acceptance. The invention of the polyphase alternator is key in the history of electrification, as is the power transformer. These inventions enabled power to be transmitted by wires economically over considerable distances. Polyphase power enabled the use of water-power (via hydroelectric generating plants in large dams) in remote places, thereby allowing the mechanical energy of the falling water to be converted to electricity, which then could be fed to an electric motor at any location where mechanical work needed to be done. This versatility sparked the growth of power-transmission network grids on continents around the globe.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 364, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky developed a three-phase electrical generator and a three-phase electric motor in 1888 and studied star and delta connections. His three-phase three-wire transmission system was displayed in Europe at the International Electro-Technical Exhibition of 1891, where Dolivo-Dobrovolsky used the system to transmit electric power at the distance of 176km with 75% efficiency. In 1891 he also created a three-phase transformer and short-circuited (squirrel-cage) induction motor. He designed the world's first three-phase hydroelectric power plant in 1891.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 82330, 268145, 327511, 1075803, 251075, 381399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 71 ], [ 125, 150 ], [ 385, 395 ], [ 468, 481 ], [ 483, 498 ], [ 542, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a symmetric three-phase power supply system, three conductors each carry an alternating current of the same frequency and voltage amplitude relative to a common reference, but with a phase difference of one third of a cycle (i.e. 120 degrees out of phase) between each. The common reference is usually connected to ground and often to a current-carrying conductor called the neutral. Due to the phase difference, the voltage on any conductor reaches its peak at one third of a cycle after one of the other conductors and one third of a cycle before the remaining conductor. This phase delay gives constant power transfer to a balanced linear load. It also makes it possible to produce a rotating magnetic field in an electric motor and generate other phase arrangements using transformers (for instance, a two phase system using a Scott-T transformer). The amplitude of the voltage difference between two phases is (1.732...) times the amplitude of the voltage of the individual phases.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Principle", "target_page_ids": [ 42986, 32549, 76086, 4878884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 98 ], [ 420, 427 ], [ 720, 734 ], [ 834, 853 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The symmetric three-phase systems described here are simply referred to as three-phase systems because, although it is possible to design and implement asymmetric three-phase power systems (i.e., with unequal voltages or phase shifts), they are not used in practice because they lack the most important advantages of symmetric systems.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Principle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a three-phase system feeding a balanced and linear load, the sum of the instantaneous currents of the three conductors is zero. In other words, the current in each conductor is equal in magnitude to the sum of the currents in the other two, but with the opposite sign. The return path for the current in any phase conductor is the other two phase conductors.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Principle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Constant power transfer and cancelling phase currents are possible with any number (greater than one) of phases, maintaining the capacity-to-conductor material ratio that is twice that of single-phase power. However, two phases results in a less smooth (pulsating) current to the load (making smooth power transfer a challenge), and more than three phases complicates infrastructure unnecessarily.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Principle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Three-phase systems may have a fourth wire, common in low-voltage distribution. This is the neutral wire. The neutral allows three separate single-phase supplies to be provided at a constant voltage and is commonly used for supplying multiple single-phase loads. The connections are arranged so that, as far as possible in each group, equal power is drawn from each phase. Further up the distribution system, the currents are usually well balanced. Transformers may be wired to have a four-wire secondary and a three-wire primary, while allowing unbalanced loads and the associated secondary-side neutral currents.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Principle", "target_page_ids": [ 1065627, 227049, 212253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 99 ], [ 243, 255 ], [ 388, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wiring for the three phases is typically identified by colors which vary by country. The phases must be connected in the right order to achieve the intended direction of rotation of three-phase motors. For example, pumps and fans do not work in reverse. Maintaining the identity of phases is required if two sources could be connected at the same time; a direct interconnect between two different phases is a short circuit.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Principle", "target_page_ids": [ 235898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 409, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As compared to a single-phase AC power supply that uses two conductors (phase and neutral), a three-phase supply with no neutral and the same phase-to-ground voltage and current capacity per phase can transmit three times as much power using just 1.5 times as many wires (i.e., three instead of two). Thus, the ratio of capacity to conductor material is doubled. The ratio of capacity to conductor material increases to 3:1 with an ungrounded three-phase and center-grounded single-phase system (or 2.25:1 if both employ grounds of the same gauge as the conductors). This leads to higher efficiency, lower weight, and cleaner waveforms.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [ 1065627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three-phase supplies have properties that make them desirable in electric power distribution systems:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The phase currents tend to cancel out one another, summing to zero in the case of a linear balanced load. This makes it possible to reduce the size of the neutral conductor because it carries little or no current. With a balanced load, all the phase conductors carry the same current and so can be the same size.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Power transfer into a linear balanced load is constant. In motor/generator applications, this helps to reduce vibrations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Three-phase systems can produce a rotating magnetic field with a specified direction and constant magnitude, which simplifies the design of electric motors, as no starting circuit is required.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [ 261621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most household loads are single-phase. In North American residences, three-phase power might feed an apartment block, while the household loads are connected as single phase. In lower-density areas, a single phase might be used for distribution. Some high-power domestic appliances such as electric stoves and clothes dryers are powered by a split phase system at 240 volts or from two phases of a three phase system at 208 volts.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [ 1047958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 341, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the power station, an electrical generator converts mechanical power into a set of three AC electric currents, one from each coil (or winding) of the generator. The windings are arranged such that the currents are at the same frequency but with the peaks and troughs of their wave forms offset to provide three complementary currents with a phase separation of one-third cycle (120° or radians). The generator frequency is typically 50 or 60 Hz, depending on the country.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generation and distribution", "target_page_ids": [ 212141, 82330, 42986, 6207, 33516, 324749, 488815, 14121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ], [ 25, 45 ], [ 92, 94 ], [ 95, 111 ], [ 279, 283 ], [ 381, 397 ], [ 404, 423 ], [ 446, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the power station, transformers change the voltage from generators to a level suitable for transmission in order to minimize losses.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generation and distribution", "target_page_ids": [ 30906, 38824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 33 ], [ 94, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After further voltage conversions in the transmission network, the voltage is finally transformed to the standard utilization before power is supplied to customers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generation and distribution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Most automotive alternators generate three-phase AC and rectify it to DC with a diode bridge.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generation and distribution", "target_page_ids": [ 176964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A \"delta\" connected transformer winding is connected between phases of a three-phase system. A \"wye\" transformer connects each winding from a phase wire to a common neutral point.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transformer connections", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A single three-phase transformer can be used, or three single-phase transformers.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transformer connections", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In an \"open delta\" or \"V\" system, only two transformers are used. A closed delta made of three single-phase transformers can operate as an open delta if one of the transformers has failed or needs to be removed. In open delta, each transformer must carry current for its respective phases as well as current for the third phase, therefore capacity is reduced to 87%. With one of three transformers missing and the remaining two at 87% efficiency, the capacity is 58% ( of 87%).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transformer connections", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Where a delta-fed system must be grounded for detection of stray current to ground or protection from surge voltages, a grounding transformer (usually a zigzag transformer) may be connected to allow ground fault currents to return from any phase to ground. Another variation is a \"corner grounded\" delta system, which is a closed delta that is grounded at one of the junctions of transformers.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transformer connections", "target_page_ids": [ 1241344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are two basic three-phase configurations: wye(Y) and delta(Δ). As shown in the diagram, a delta configuration requires only three wires for transmission but a wye (star) configuration may have a fourth wire. The fourth wire, if present, is provided as a neutral and is normally grounded. The three-wire and four-wire designations do not count the ground wire present above many transmission lines, which is solely for fault protection and does not carry current under normal use.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Three-wire and four-wire circuits", "target_page_ids": [ 41215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 353, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A four-wire system with symmetrical voltages between phase and neutral is obtained when the neutral is connected to the \"common star point\" of all supply windings. In such a system, all three phases will have the same magnitude of voltage relative to the neutral. Other non-symmetrical systems have been used.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Three-wire and four-wire circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The four-wire wye system is used when a mixture of single-phase and three-phase loads are to be served, such as mixed lighting and motor loads. An example of application is local distribution in Europe (and elsewhere), where each customer may be only fed from one phase and the neutral (which is common to the three phases). When a group of customers sharing the neutral draw unequal phase currents, the common neutral wire carries the currents resulting from these imbalances. Electrical engineers try to design the three-phase power system for any one location so that the power drawn from each of three phases is the same, as far as possible at that site. Electrical engineers also try to arrange the distribution network so the loads are balanced as much as possible, since the same principles that apply to individual premises also apply to the wide-scale distribution system power. Hence, every effort is made by supply authorities to distribute the power drawn on each of the three phases over a large number of premises so that, on average, as nearly as possible a balanced load is seen at the point of supply.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Three-wire and four-wire circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For domestic use, some countries such as the UK may supply one phase and neutral at a high current (up to 100A) to one property, while others such as Germany may supply 3phases and neutral to each customer, but at a lower fuse rating, typically 4063A per phase, and \"rotated\" to avoid the effect that more load tends to be put on the first phase.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Three-wire and four-wire circuits", "target_page_ids": [ 31717, 772, 11867, 772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 47 ], [ 109, 110 ], [ 150, 157 ], [ 249, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Based on wye (Y) and delta (Δ) connection. Generally, there are four different types of three-phase transformer winding connections for transmission and distribution purposes.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Three-wire and four-wire circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " wye (Y) - wye (Y) is used for small current and high voltage.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Three-wire and four-wire circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Delta (Δ) - Delta (Δ) is used for large currents and low voltages.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Three-wire and four-wire circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Delta (Δ) - wye (Y) is used for step-up transformers i.e., at generating stations.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Three-wire and four-wire circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " wye (Y) - Delta (Δ) is used for step-down transformers i.e., at the end of the transmission.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Three-wire and four-wire circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In North America, a high-leg delta supply is sometimes used where one winding of a delta-connected transformer feeding the load is center-tapped and that center tap is grounded and connected as a neutral as shown in the second diagram. This setup produces three different voltages: If the voltage between the center tap (neutral) and each of the top and bottom taps (phase and anti-phase) is 120V (100%), the voltage across the phase and anti-phase lines is 240V (200%), and the neutral to \"high leg\" voltage is ≈208V (173%).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Three-wire and four-wire circuits", "target_page_ids": [ 8205082, 32567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 34 ], [ 395, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The reason for providing the delta connected supply is usually to power large motors requiring a rotating field. However, the premises concerned will also require the \"normal\" North American 120V supplies, two of which are derived (180degrees \"out of phase\") between the \"neutral\" and either of the center tapped phase points.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Three-wire and four-wire circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the perfectly balanced case all three lines share equivalent loads. Examining the circuits we can derive relationships between line voltage and current, and load voltage and current for wye and delta connected loads.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Balanced circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a balanced system each line will produce equal voltage magnitudes at phase angles equally spaced from each other. With V1 as our reference and V3 lagging V2 lagging V1, using angle notation, and VLN the voltage between the line and the neutral we have:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Balanced circuits", "target_page_ids": [ 1256073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These voltages feed into either a wye or delta connected load.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Balanced circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The voltage seen by the load will depend on the load connection; for the wye case, connecting each load to a phase (line-to-neutral) voltages gives:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Balanced circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where Ztotal is the sum of line and load impedances (Ztotal = ZLN + ZY), and θ is the phase of the total impedance (Ztotal).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Balanced circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The phase angle difference between voltage and current of each phase is not necessarily 0 and is dependent on the type of load impedance, Zy. Inductive and capacitive loads will cause current to either lag or lead the voltage. However, the relative phase angle between each pair of lines (1 to 2, 2 to 3, and 3 to 1) will still be −120°.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Balanced circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By applying Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) to the neutral node, the three phase currents sum to the total current in the neutral line. In the balanced case:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Balanced circuits", "target_page_ids": [ 591253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the delta circuit, loads are connected across the lines, and so loads see line-to-line voltages:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Balanced circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(Φv1 is the phase shift for the first voltage, commonly taken to be 0°; in this case, Φv2 = −120° and Φv3 = −240° or 120°.)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Balanced circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Further:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Balanced circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where θ is the phase of delta impedance (ZΔ).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Balanced circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Relative angles are preserved, so I31 lags I23 lags I12 by 120°. Calculating line currents by using KCL at each delta node gives:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Balanced circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and similarly for each other line:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Balanced circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where, again, θ is the phase of delta impedance (ZΔ).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Balanced circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Inspection of a phasor diagram, or conversion from phasor notation to complex notation, illuminates how the difference between two line-to-neutral voltages yields a line-to-line voltage that is greater by a factor of . As a delta configuration connects a load across phases of a transformer, it delivers the line-to-line voltage difference, which is times greater than the line-to-neutral voltage delivered to a load in the wye configuration. As the power transferred is V2/Z, the impedance in the delta configuration must be 3 times what it would be in a wye configuration for the same power to be transferred.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Balanced circuits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Except in a high-leg delta system and a corner grounded delta system, single-phase loads may be connected across any two phases, or a load can be connected from phase to neutral. Distributing single-phase loads among the phases of a three-phase system balances the load and makes most economical use of conductors and transformers. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Single-phase loads", "target_page_ids": [ 8205082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a symmetrical three-phase four-wire, wye system, the three phase conductors have the same voltage to the system neutral. The voltage between line conductors is times the phase conductor to neutral voltage:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Single-phase loads", "target_page_ids": [ 9126665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The currents returning from the customers' premises to the supply transformer all share the neutral wire. If the loads are evenly distributed on all three phases, the sum of the returning currents in the neutral wire is approximately zero. Any unbalanced phase loading on the secondary side of the transformer will use the transformer capacity inefficiently.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Single-phase loads", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the supply neutral is broken, phase-to-neutral voltage is no longer maintained. Phases with higher relative loading will experience reduced voltage, and phases with lower relative loading will experience elevated voltage, up to the phase-to-phase voltage.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Single-phase loads", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A high-leg delta provides phase-to-neutral relationship of , however, LN load is imposed on one phase. A transformer manufacturer's page suggests that LN loading not exceed 5% of transformer capacity.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Single-phase loads", "target_page_ids": [ 8205082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since ≈ 1.73, defining as 100% gives . If was set as 100%, then .", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Single-phase loads", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When the currents on the three live wires of a three-phase system are not equal or are not at an exact 120° phase angle, the power loss is greater than for a perfectly balanced system. The method of symmetrical components is used to analyze unbalanced systems.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Single-phase loads", "target_page_ids": [ 1868834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With linear loads, the neutral only carries the current due to imbalance between the phases. Gas-discharge lamps and devices that utilize rectifier-capacitor front-end such as switch-mode power supplies, computers, office equipment and such produce third-order harmonics that are in-phase on all the supply phases. Consequently, such harmonic currents add in the neutral in a wye system (or in the grounded (zigzag) transformer in a delta system), which can cause the neutral current to exceed the phase current.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Single-phase loads", "target_page_ids": [ 2925786, 223407, 19196354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 111 ], [ 176, 202 ], [ 249, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An important class of three-phase load is the electric motor. A three-phase induction motor has a simple design, inherently high starting torque and high efficiency. Such motors are applied in industry for many applications. A three-phase motor is more compact and less costly than a single-phase motor of the same voltage class and rating, and single-phase AC motors above 10HP (7.5kW) are uncommon. Three-phase motors also vibrate less and hence last longer than single-phase motors of the same power used under the same conditions.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Three-phase loads", "target_page_ids": [ 76086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Resistance heating loads such as electric boilers or space heating may be connected to three-phase systems. Electric lighting may also be similarly connected.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Three-phase loads", "target_page_ids": [ 175722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Line frequency flicker in light is detrimental to high speed cameras used in sports event broadcasting for slow motion replays. It can be reduced by evenly spreading line frequency operated light sources across the three phases so that the illuminated area is lit from all three phases. This technique was applied successfully at the 2008 Beijing Olympics.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Three-phase loads", "target_page_ids": [ 1070737, 213525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 67 ], [ 107, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rectifiers may use a three-phase source to produce a six-pulse DC output. The output of such rectifiers is much smoother than rectified single phase and, unlike single-phase, does not drop to zero between pulses. Such rectifiers may be used for battery charging, electrolysis processes such as aluminium production or for operation of DC motors. \"Zig-zag\" transformers may make the equivalent of six-phase full-wave rectification, twelve pulses per cycle, and this method is occasionally employed to reduce the cost of the filtering components, while improving the quality of the resulting DC.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Three-phase loads", "target_page_ids": [ 60569, 38257, 904, 1241344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 263, 275 ], [ 294, 314 ], [ 346, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One example of a three-phase load is the electric arc furnace used in steelmaking and in refining of ores.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Three-phase loads", "target_page_ids": [ 1425422, 189284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 61 ], [ 70, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many European countries electric stoves are usually designed for a three-phase feed with permanent connection. Individual heating units are often connected between phase and neutral to allow for connection to a single-phase circuit if three-phase is not available. Other usual three-phase loads in the domestic field are tankless water heating systems and storage heaters. Homes in Europe and the UK have standardized on a nominal 230V between any phase and ground. (Existing supplies remain near 240V in the UK.) Most groups of houses are fed from a three-phase street transformer so that individual premises with above-average demand can be fed with a second or third phase connection.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Three-phase loads", "target_page_ids": [ 38946253, 1166646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 324, 354 ], [ 359, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Phase converters are used when three-phase equipment needs to be operated on a single-phase power source. They are used when three-phase power is not available or cost is not justifiable. Such converters may also allow the frequency to be varied, allowing speed control. Some railway locomotives use a single-phase source to drive three-phase motors fed through an electronic drive.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Phase converters", "target_page_ids": [ 3841657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A rotary phase converter is a three-phase motor with special starting arrangements and power factor correction that produces balanced three-phase voltages. When properly designed, these rotary converters can allow satisfactory operation of a three-phase motor on a single-phase source. In such a device, the energy storage is performed by the inertia (flywheel effect) of the rotating components. An external flywheel is sometimes found on one or both ends of the shaft.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Phase converters", "target_page_ids": [ 3699152, 41568, 14909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 24 ], [ 87, 99 ], [ 343, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A three-phase generator can be driven by a single-phase motor. This motor-generator combination can provide a frequency changer function as well as phase conversion, but requires two machines with all their expenses and losses. The motor-generator method can also form an uninterruptible power supply when used in conjunction with a large flywheel and a battery-powered DC motor; such a combination will deliver nearly constant power compared to the temporary frequency drop experienced with a standby generator set gives until the standby generator kicks in.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Phase converters", "target_page_ids": [ 41834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 272, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Capacitors and autotransformers can be used to approximate a three-phase system in a static phase converter, but the voltage and phase angle of the additional phase may only be useful for certain loads.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Phase converters", "target_page_ids": [ 1080101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Variable-frequency drives and digital phase converters use power electronic devices to synthesize a balanced three-phase supply from single-phase input power.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Phase converters", "target_page_ids": [ 1845708, 3841657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 30, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Verification of the phase sequence in a circuit is of considerable practical importance. Two sources of three-phase power must not be connected in parallel unless they have the same phase sequence, for example, when connecting a generator to an energized distribution network or when connecting two transformers in parallel. Otherwise, the interconnection will behave like a short circuit, and excess current will flow. The direction of rotation of three-phase motors can be reversed by interchanging any two phases; it may be impractical or harmful to test a machine by momentarily energizing the motor to observe its rotation. Phase sequence of two sources can be verified by measuring voltage between pairs of terminals and observing that terminals with very low voltage between them will have the same phase, whereas pairs that show a higher voltage are on different phases.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Testing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Where the absolute phase identity is not required, phase rotation test instruments can be used to identify the rotation sequence with one observation. The phase rotation test instrument may contain a miniature three-phase motor, whose direction of rotation can be directly observed through the instrument case. Another pattern uses a pair of lamps and an internal phase-shifting network to display the phase rotation. Another type of instrument can be connected to a de-energized three-phase motor and can detect the small voltages induced by residual magnetism, when the motor shaft is rotated by hand. A lamp or other indicator lights to show the sequence of voltages at the terminals for the given direction of shaft rotation.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Testing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Split-phase electric power Used when three-phase power is not available and allows double the normal utilization voltage to be supplied for high-power loads.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Alternatives to three-phase", "target_page_ids": [ 1047958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Two-phase electric power Uses two AC voltages, with a 90-electrical-degree phase shift between them. Two-phase circuits may be wired with two pairs of conductors, or two wires may be combined, requiring only three wires for the circuit. Currents in the common conductor add to 1.4 times the current in the individual phases, so the common conductor must be larger. Two-phase and three-phase systems can be interconnected by a Scott-T transformer, invented by Charles F. Scott. Very early AC machines, notably the first generators at Niagara Falls, used a two-phase system, and some remnant two-phase distribution systems still exist, but three-phase systems have displaced the two-phase system for modern installations. ", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Alternatives to three-phase", "target_page_ids": [ 1047944, 4878884, 12888484, 52028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 427, 446 ], [ 460, 476 ], [ 534, 547 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Monocyclic power An asymmetrical modified two-phase power system used by General Electric around 1897, championed by Charles Proteus Steinmetz and Elihu Thomson. This system was devised to avoid patent infringement. In this system, a generator was wound with a full-voltage single-phase winding intended for lighting loads and with a small fraction (usually 1/4 of the line voltage) winding that produced a voltage in quadrature with the main windings. The intention was to use this \"power wire\" additional winding to provide starting torque for induction motors, with the main winding providing power for lighting loads. After the expiration of the Westinghouse patents on symmetrical two-phase and three-phase power distribution systems, the monocyclic system fell out of use; it was difficult to analyze and did not last long enough for satisfactory energy metering to be developed.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Alternatives to three-phase", "target_page_ids": [ 12730, 6451, 306704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 90 ], [ 118, 143 ], [ 148, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " High-phase-order systems Have been built and tested for power transmission. Such transmission lines typically would use six or twelve phases. High-phase-order transmission lines allow transfer of slightly less than proportionately higher power through a given volume without the expense of a high-voltage direct current (HVDC) converter at each end of the line. However, they require correspondingly more pieces of equipment.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Alternatives to three-phase", "target_page_ids": [ 47716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 293, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " DC AC was historically used because it could be easily transformed to higher voltages for long distance transmission. However modern electronics can raise the voltage of DC with high efficiency, and DC lacks skin effect which permits transmission wires to be lighter and cheaper and so high-voltage direct current gives lower losses over long distances.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Alternatives to three-phase", "target_page_ids": [ 261642, 47716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 220 ], [ 287, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conductors of a three-phase system are usually identified by a color code, to allow for balanced loading and to assure the correct phase rotation for motors. Colors used may adhere to International Standard IEC 60446 (later IEC 60445), older standards or to no standard at all and may vary even within a single installation. For example, in the U.S. and Canada, different color codes are used for grounded (earthed) and ungrounded systems.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Color codes", "target_page_ids": [ 76086, 2239442, 463506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 156 ], [ 207, 216 ], [ 224, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Industrial and multiphase power plugs and sockets", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 976663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " International Electrotechnical Exhibition", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14585095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mathematics of three-phase electric power", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1175180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Three-phase AC railway electrification", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27328585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rotary phase converter", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3699152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Y-Δ transform", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 268145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AC Power History and Timeline", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Electric_power", "Electrical_engineering", "Electrical_wiring", "Inventions_by_Nikola_Tesla", "Three-phase_AC_power", "AC_power" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Rupert of the Palatinate (; 5 May 1352 18 May 1410), sometimes known as Robert of the Palatinate, a member of the House of Wittelsbach, was Elector Palatine from 1398 (as Rupert III) and King of Germany from 1400 until his death.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38848, 25805199, 302609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 135 ], [ 141, 157 ], [ 188, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rupert was born at Amberg in the Upper Palatinate, the son of Elector Palatine Rupert II and Beatrice of Aragon, daughter of King Peter II of Sicily. Rupert's great-granduncle was the Wittelsbach emperor Louis IV. He was raised at the Dominican Liebenau monastery near Worms, where his widowed grandmother Irmengard of Oettingen lived as a nun.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 191726, 190155, 3840652, 29040070, 2812611, 38802, 35250596, 33896, 32370943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 25 ], [ 33, 49 ], [ 79, 88 ], [ 93, 111 ], [ 130, 148 ], [ 204, 212 ], [ 245, 263 ], [ 269, 274 ], [ 306, 328 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From his early years Rupert took part in the government of the Electoral Palatinate to which he succeeded on his father's death in 1398. He and the three ecclesiastical prince-electors (of Mainz, Cologne and Trier) met at Lahneck Castle in Oberlahnstein on 20 August 1400 and declared their king, Wenceslaus, deposed. On the next day the same four electors met at Rhens to ballot for Rupert as next German king, thus the majority of the college including the Elector Palatine's own vote. As the Imperial City of Aachen refused to let him enter through its gates, Rupert was crowned by Archbishop Frederick III in Cologne on 6 January 1401.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 38846, 14056, 253137, 253147, 5436222, 30860786, 2268011, 38826, 4253389, 34945500, 6187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 83 ], [ 169, 183 ], [ 189, 194 ], [ 196, 203 ], [ 208, 213 ], [ 222, 236 ], [ 240, 253 ], [ 297, 307 ], [ 364, 369 ], [ 495, 518 ], [ 613, 620 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lacking a solid power base in the Empire, his rule remained contested by Wenceslaus' family, the mighty House of Luxembourg, though Wenceslaus himself did not take any action to regain his royal title. In the Western Schism, Rupert backed Pope Boniface IX who, however, was reluctant to acknowledge his rule in view of the Luxembourg claims. After the king had won some recognition in Southern Germany, he started a campaign to Italy, where he hoped to crush the rule of Gian Galeazzo Visconti over the thriving Duchy of Milan and to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope. In the autumn of 1401 he crossed the Alps, but was defeated at Brescia and in April 1402 Rupert returned to Germany.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 2646925, 543939, 24061, 4179595, 6006557, 50850, 679080, 50853, 981, 47862814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 123 ], [ 209, 223 ], [ 239, 255 ], [ 385, 401 ], [ 428, 433 ], [ 471, 493 ], [ 512, 526 ], [ 545, 563 ], [ 614, 618 ], [ 640, 647 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The news of this failure increased the disorder in Germany, but the king met with some success in his efforts to restore peace. The Luxembourg resistance waned after Wenceslaus was arrested at Prague Castle by his brother Sigismund in March 1402 and the next year his lordship was finally recognized by the Pope. Rupert also gained the support of England by the marriage of his son Louis with Blanche of Lancaster, daughter of King Henry IV on 6 July 1402. In his Palatinate hereditary lands, Rupert turned out to be a capable ruler.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 672020, 38889, 407950, 4036895, 7536842, 46861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 206 ], [ 222, 231 ], [ 347, 354 ], [ 382, 387 ], [ 393, 413 ], [ 432, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was nevertheless only the indolence of Wenceslaus that prevented his overthrow. After attempts to enlarge the king's allodium caused conflicts with his former ally, the Archbishop of Mainz forging an alliance with Count Eberhard III of Württemberg, the Zähringen margrave Bernard I of Baden and several Swabian cities in 1405, Rupert was compelled to make certain concessions. The quarrel was complicated by the Papal Schism, but the king was just beginning to make some headway when he died at his castle of Landskrone near Oppenheim on 18 May 1410 and was buried at the Church of the Holy Spirit in Heidelberg.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 4492015, 3547199, 75018, 3507781, 883749, 10695849, 46743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 128 ], [ 223, 250 ], [ 256, 265 ], [ 275, 293 ], [ 528, 537 ], [ 575, 600 ], [ 604, 614 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On his deathbed Rupert had decreed the division of his heritage among his four surviving sons. He was succeeded as elector by the eldest surviving son, Louis III. The second surviving son, John, received the County Palatine of Neumarkt, the third surviving son, Stephen, Count Palatine of Simmern-Zweibrücken, and the youngest son, Otto, the County Palatine of Mosbach. In the following imperial election on September 20, Louis III voted for Sigismund of Luxembourg, who however lost to his cousin Margrave Jobst of Moravia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 9421650, 9878451, 3852349, 21458404, 21458400, 38204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 193 ], [ 227, 235 ], [ 262, 308 ], [ 332, 336 ], [ 361, 368 ], [ 507, 523 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was married in Amberg on 27 June 1374 to Elisabeth, daughter of Burgrave Frederick V of Nuremberg and Elisabeth of Meissen.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 191726, 9594489, 3440652, 9598574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 44, 53 ], [ 76, 100 ], [ 105, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "They had the following children:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rupert Pipan (20 February 1375, Amberg 25 January 1397, Amberg)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret (1376 27 August 1434, Nancy), married on 6 February 1393 to Duke Charles II of Lorraine", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 17311287, 141920, 655729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 33, 38 ], [ 76, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frederick (c. 1377, Amberg 7 March 1401, Amberg)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Louis III, Elector Palatine (23 January 1378 30 December 1436, Heidelberg)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 4036895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Agnes (1379 1401, Heidelberg), married in Heidelberg shortly before March 1400 to Duke Adolph I of Cleves", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 7567453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elisabeth (27 October 1381 31 December 1408, Innsbruck), married in Innsbruck 24 December 1407 to Duke Frederick IV of Austria", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 55857, 1085742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 56 ], [ 105, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Count Palatine John of Neumarkt (1383, Neunburg vorm Wald 13–14 March 1443)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 9421650, 5949614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 32 ], [ 40, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Count Palatine Stephen of Simmern-Zweibrücken (23 June 1385 14 February 1459, Simmern)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 3852349, 729601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 46 ], [ 80, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Count Palatine Otto I of Mosbach (24 August 1390, Mosbach 5 July 1461)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 21458404, 173100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 33 ], [ 51, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rupert's strenuous efforts earned him the surname Clemens (\"the Gentle\"). He also commissioned the Ruprecht building in Heidelberg Castle.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1580072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kings of Germany family tree. He was related to every other king of Germany.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17767437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] } ]

[ "1352_births", "1410_deaths", "14th-century_Kings_of_the_Romans", "15th-century_Kings_of_the_Romans", "Prince-electors_of_the_Palatinate", "Counts_Palatine_of_Zweibrücken", "House_of_Wittelsbach", "People_from_Amberg", "Burials_at_the_Church_of_the_Holy_Spirit,_Heidelberg" ]

[ "Ruprecht", "Rupert of the Palatinate" ]

[ { "plaintext": "CRC may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse, an event at the end of the Carboniferous period", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 29957884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Class-responsibility-collaboration card, used as a brainstorming tool in the design of object-oriented software", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 891046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Clinical research coordinator, responsible for conducting clinical trials", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 14193140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Colorectal cancer, the development of cancer in the colon or rectum", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 206979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme, formerly the Carbon Reduction Commitment, a UK wide scheme designed to increase energy efficiency in large energy users", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 11378407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, a reference manual published by CRC Press", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 8126530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cyclic redundancy check, a type of hash function used to produce a checksum in order to detect errors in data storage or transmission", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 38838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " California Rehabilitation Center, a state prison in the United States Of America", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 14656891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Canadian Red Cross", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 608986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Capital Research Center, an American conservative non-profit organization", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 2830159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Central Revolutionary Committee (French: Comité révolutionnaire central), an extinct French political party", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 24131448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Civilian Response Corps, deployable American federal civilian employees who provide reconstruction and stabilization assistance", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 18527270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Commission for Rural Communities, a United Kingdom public body", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 6157275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Committee on the Rights of the Child, which reports on implementation of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 3031437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Convention on the Rights of the Child, of the United Nations", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 46489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Communications Research Centre Canada, an agency of Industry Canada", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 5956200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Communist, Republican, and Citizen Group, a French parliamentary group", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 20169050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Community Rehabilitation Company, a private-sector suppliers of offender rehabilitation services in England and Wales", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 50258447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Constitutional Research Council, a Unionist, pro-Brexit funding organisation in Scotland and Northern Ireland", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 55618168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Control and Reporting Centre, part of the Air Force control and reporting system in most NATO countries", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 49097471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Civil Rights Congress, a United States civil rights organization from 1946 until 1956", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 2110996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CRC Churches International, a Pentecostal Protestant Christian denomination located primarily in Australasia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 30857428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Central Rabbinical Congress, a Haredi group", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 12850121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chicago Rabbinical Council", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 6757428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Christian Reformed Church (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 1285568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Christian Revival Church, a Charismatic, Pentecostal and holistic Evangelical movement group", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 49671260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ligue de la contre-réforme catholique", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 23295612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cambridge Regional College, a further education college", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 11574429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center for Research and Communication, a Philippine think-tank that later became the University of Asia and the Pacific", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 1085385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cooperative Research Centre, a type of hybrid academic/industry research body existing in Australia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 1211171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cosumnes River College, a two-year community college in Sacramento, California", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 399591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crowley's Ridge College, a Christian college in Paragould, Arkansas", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 1574187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cyclotron Research Center and Cyclotron Resource Center, particle accelerator complex at the University of Louvain, Belgium", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 61564298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Georgia Tech Campus Recreation Center, the Rec center at Georgia Tech", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 5706988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " California Resources Corporation, a petroleum and natural gas company", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 58408668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chicago Recording Company, a recording studio in Chicago", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 12686436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " China Record Corporation, a large record company, based in Beijing", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 21122836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " China Resources (operated CRC Supermarkets)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 3375694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " China Resources Cement, a cement company parented by China Resources", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 26323546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Columbia Record Club, a mail-order music club offered by Columbia Records", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 1966508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CRC-Evans, a pipeline-construction company owned by Stanley Black & Decker", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 39276123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CRC Health Group, provider of addiction treatment and educational programs for adults and youth", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 41321733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CRC Industries, a worldwide manufacturer of specialist industrial chemicals", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 31384885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CRC Press, publisher, originally the Chemical Rubber Company", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 834382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Costa Rica (FIFA and IOC code)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 5551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Camp Red Cloud, a US Army Camp in Uijeongbu, South Korea", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 2850890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Canadian Rally Championship, a rally racing tournament", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 1582273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Canadian Rugby Championship, a rugby union tournament", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 32543682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Capablanca Random Chess, a 10x8 chess variant", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 3845184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Collegiate Rugby Championship, a rugby sevens tournament", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 34450768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Canadian Ringette Championships, a ringette tournament", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 57227980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Canada Research Chair, Canadian university research professorships", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 909615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Costa Rican colón (ISO 4217 currency code), the currency of Costa Rica", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1356597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crc (protein), catabolite repression control protein", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 44064812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Criminal record check", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 418462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cross Racing Championship Extreme 2005 (CRC 2005), a car-racing game developed by Invictus Games", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25290624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A shank is a type of knot that is used to shorten a rope or take up slack, such as the sheepshank. The sheepshank knot is not stable. It will fall apart under too much load or too little load.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17006, 334990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 25 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The knot has several features which allow a rope to be shortened:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " It provides two loops, one at each end of the knot which can be used to pass another rope through", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The knot remains somewhat secure under tension; the coarser the rope the more secure it is (see Disadvantages, below)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The knot falls apart easily when tension is removed", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A sheepshank knot may be constructed as follows: ...", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pull a section of rope back and lay it alongside the rope, so that the rope forms a Z approximately 20cm long.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Flatten the Z so that there are 3 sections of rope lying alongside each other, with two U-bends where the rope reverses direction.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " At each U-bend, grasp the U-bend in one hand, thus holding two of the rope sections. With the other hand form a small loop in the remaining section and draw it over the U-bend so that the loop forms a half hitch and stays there if the free end of the rope is pulled taut.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Many people draw the small loop over facing the wrong way at least half of the time. Instead, make with the U a half-hitch around the other part, by tucking through, then pull the U straight.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Repeat at the other U-bend.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An alternative method for quickly constructing a sheepshank is as follows:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Create a simple loop in the rope, so that the (left) leading end is on top of the (right) trailing end of the loop.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Repeat this process further down the rope to create 3 total loops that overlap slightly (similar to a venn diagram with three circles).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction methods", "target_page_ids": [ 61701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reach through the outer two loops and grab either side of the middle loop and pull outward while also keeping the rest of the rope slightly taut.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Once the middle loop is pulled through the outer loops, pull on the free ends of the rope to secure.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The result is a flattened loop which is held at each end by a half hitch. If the sides of the flattened loop are pulled away from each other, the flattened loop ends pull out of the half hitches and the knot falls apart, but if the free ends", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction methods", "target_page_ids": [ 1031898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "are pulled taut then the knot remains secure.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sheepshank knots are typically used for securing loads to trucks or trailers, and in sailing applications.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern usage", "target_page_ids": [ 853756, 27672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 76 ], [ 85, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sheepshank was developed before the use of modern \"slippery\" synthetic ropes. Constructed from such ropes, under load, it can fail. It is strongly advised that an alternative knot be used.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [ 270081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The man-o'war sheepshank is a sheepshank knot with a Handcuff knot in the middle. This configuration with the half-hitches formed close to the central knot is used in rope rescue and is called a Fireman's chair knot.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [ 17006, 1466174, 363248, 435462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 45 ], [ 53, 66 ], [ 168, 179 ], [ 196, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This version of the sheepshank is tied by using slipknots instead of half-hitches. It is one of the safest sheepshank variations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The kamikaze knot is a slight variant of the sheepshank. To perform a kamikaze knot, a sheepshank is first constructed. While holding sufficient tension on the sheepshank so it will not slip out, the middle rope is sliced. This allows climbers rappelling down cliff faces to keep most of the rope used for the rappel, by tying the knot at the top, and shaking the rope when they reach the bottom. The shaking disconnects the knot at the top, allowing the longer section of rope to fall, meaning only a small amount of rope is retained by the anchor at the top of the cliff. Thin or slippery rope is unsuitable for such a knot, as it can easily slip, and the knot should not be performed unless desperately needed.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This variant of the sheepshank knot appeared in an episode of the TV show Man vs. Wild. Although certainly not invented by him, Bear Grylls uses by cutting one of the lengths of rope in the knot, while rappelling down an edge during the Ireland episode of Man Vs Wild in order to retrieve his rope at the bottom by severing the middle leg of the sheepshank knot before his descent. He refers to it as a \"Kamikaze\" knot.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [ 7881441, 2179398, 400564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 86 ], [ 129, 140 ], [ 204, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A simpler variant of the sheepshank wherein a half-hitch is only tied around only one end produces a bell-ringer's knot (ABoK #1147). It will immediately spill under tension, and is used to keep a long rope from the belfry deck when not in use.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The catshank is a variant of the sheepshank, clinched by two overhand knots with the bights passed through the twists (one end of the rope must be available to tie the overhands).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [ 37454, 9066654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 74 ], [ 85, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The dogshank, or sheepshank pouch knot, is a variant of the sheepshank where the eyes formed at each end have the ends of the rope passed through them to prevents the knot from spilling. At least one end of the rope must be available to tie or untie this knot. It is mostly useful for the hammock-like space it creates.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The dogshank can be thought of as two opposite bowlines where", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [ 37421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the two ends provide the respective standing lines each with its pinching turn, and", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the two elbows of the Z-folded middle part provide the bights that pass through the turns and come back from around the standing lines.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Project Gutenberg (September 21, 2004). The Project Gutenberg eBook, Knots, Splices and Rope Work, by A. Hyatt Verrill. Retrieved November 6, 2005. The Dogshank is shown in Figure 82.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chiang Kai Shek College (September 13, 2005). Basic Knots. Retrieved November 6, 2005. Section 8 contains a description of the Dogshank.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Coil knot", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20774032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of knots", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 59024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lead shank", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20225962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sheepshank & Variants", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Boatsafe.com", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Project Gutenberg (September 21, 2004). The Project Gutenberg eBook, Knots, Splices and Rope Work, by A. Hyatt Verrill. Retrieved November 6, 2005. Though the name's a little different, the Sheepshank described above is shown in Figure 79.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scouting Resources. Sheepshank. Retrieved December 11, 2006. Shows diagrams with accompanying text.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "The clove hitch is a type of knot. Along with the bowline and the sheet bend, it is often considered one of the most important knots. A clove hitch is two successive half-hitches around an object. It is most effectively used as a crossing knot. It can be used as a binding knot, but is not particularly secure in that role. A clove hitch made around the rope's own standing part is known as either two half-hitches or buntline hitch, depending on whether the turns of the clove hitch progress away from or towards the hitched object.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17006, 37421, 801978, 1031898, 61022, 17006, 4005540, 1457134, 7733977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 34 ], [ 51, 58 ], [ 67, 77 ], [ 167, 179 ], [ 268, 275 ], [ 370, 383 ], [ 403, 419 ], [ 423, 437 ], [ 464, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This knot is particularly useful where the length of the running end needs to be adjustable, since feeding in rope from either direction will loosen the knot to be tightened at a new position. With certain types of cord, the clove hitch can slip when loaded. In modern climbing rope, the clove hitch will slip to a point, and then stop slipping. When tied around a carabiner, the load should pull on the end closest to its spine. With smaller diameter cords, after being heavily weighted it may become difficult to untie. It is also unreliable when used on a square or rectangular post, rather than round.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 5898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 365, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The clove hitch is also commonly used in pioneering to start and finish a lashing such as the traditional square lashing, tripod lashing, round lashing and shear lashing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 398203, 44128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 51 ], [ 74, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The clove hitch is tied by first passing the running end of the rope around the spar and back over itself to form an X. The running end then passes around the spar again, under the intersection of the last two turns, and both ends are pulled tight. There are several methods of tying it using both hands or one hand.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Tying", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When a rope is passed around an object and then tied around itself with a clove hitch, this is called a buntline hitch, commonly used as a necktie knot called the four-in-hand knot.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Related knots", "target_page_ids": [ 1457134, 298232, 1517154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 118 ], [ 140, 147 ], [ 164, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of knots", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 59024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Notable Knot Index - shows quick method of tying", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hitch Knots - including instructions", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Misunderstood Clove Hitch - illustrations and stories", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "A cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is an error-detecting code commonly used in digital networks and storage devices to detect accidental changes to digital data. Blocks of data entering these systems get a short check value attached, based on the remainder of a polynomial division of their contents. On retrieval, the calculation is repeated and, in the event the check values do not match, corrective action can be taken against data corruption. CRCs can be used for error correction (see bitfilters).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4237207, 46545, 314205, 10375, 10972761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 58 ], [ 84, 92 ], [ 260, 279 ], [ 467, 483 ], [ 489, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CRCs are so called because the check (data verification) value is a redundancy (it expands the message without adding information) and the algorithm is based on cyclic codes. CRCs are popular because they are simple to implement in binary hardware, easy to analyze mathematically, and particularly good at detecting common errors caused by noise in transmission channels. Because the check value has a fixed length, the function that generates it is occasionally used as a hash function.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 15445, 775, 4706825, 21808348, 3966982, 185427, 13790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 129 ], [ 139, 148 ], [ 161, 173 ], [ 239, 247 ], [ 340, 345 ], [ 421, 429 ], [ 474, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CRCs are based on the theory of cyclic error-correcting codes. The use of systematic cyclic codes, which encode messages by adding a fixed-length check value, for the purpose of error detection in communication networks, was first proposed by W. Wesley Peterson in 1961.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4706825, 4237207, 8722775, 10901372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 38 ], [ 39, 60 ], [ 74, 84 ], [ 243, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cyclic codes are not only simple to implement but have the benefit of being particularly well suited for the detection of burst errors: contiguous sequences of erroneous data symbols in messages. This is important because burst errors are common transmission errors in many communication channels, including magnetic and optical storage devices. Typically an n-bit CRC applied to a data block of arbitrary length will detect any single error burst not longer than n bits, and the fraction of all longer error bursts that it will detect is .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41119, 156700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 133 ], [ 274, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Specification of a CRC code requires definition of a so-called generator polynomial. This polynomial becomes the divisor in a polynomial long division, which takes the message as the dividend and in which the quotient is discarded and the remainder becomes the result. The important caveat is that the polynomial coefficients are calculated according to the arithmetic of a finite field, so the addition operation can always be performed bitwise-parallel (there is no carry between digits).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16259862, 49492, 314205, 53696, 332640, 502897, 51203, 11615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 83 ], [ 113, 120 ], [ 126, 150 ], [ 183, 191 ], [ 209, 217 ], [ 239, 248 ], [ 314, 325 ], [ 375, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In practice, all commonly used CRCs employ the Galois field, or more simply a finite field, of two elements, GF(2). The two elements are usually called 0 and 1, comfortably matching computer architecture.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11615, 11137263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 59 ], [ 109, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A CRC is called an n-bit CRC when its check value is n bits long. For a given n, multiple CRCs are possible, each with a different polynomial. Such a polynomial has highest degree n, which means it has terms. In other words, the polynomial has a length of ; its encoding requires bits. Note that most polynomial specifications either drop the MSB or LSB, since they are always 1. The CRC and associated polynomial typically have a name of the form CRC-n-XXX as in the table below.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11310261, 11310261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 345, 348 ], [ 352, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The simplest error-detection system, the parity bit, is in fact a 1-bit CRC: it uses the generator polynomial (two terms), and has the name CRC-1.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 194467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A CRC-enabled device calculates a short, fixed-length binary sequence, known as the check value or CRC, for each block of data to be sent or stored and appends it to the data, forming a codeword.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Application", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When a codeword is received or read, the device either compares its check value with one freshly calculated from the data block, or equivalently, performs a CRC on the whole codeword and compares the resulting check value with an expected residue constant.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Application", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the CRC values do not match, then the block contains a data error.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Application", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The device may take corrective action, such as rereading the block or requesting that it be sent again. Otherwise, the data is assumed to be error-free (though, with some small probability, it may contain undetected errors; this is inherent in the nature of error-checking).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Application", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "CRCs are specifically designed to protect against common types of errors on communication channels, where they can provide quick and reasonable assurance of the integrity of messages delivered. However, they are not suitable for protecting against intentional alteration of data.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Data integrity", "target_page_ids": [ 40995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Firstly, as there is no authentication, an attacker can edit a message and recompute the CRC without the substitution being detected. When stored alongside the data, CRCs and cryptographic hash functions by themselves do not protect against intentional modification of data. Any application that requires protection against such attacks must use cryptographic authentication mechanisms, such as message authentication codes or digital signatures (which are commonly based on cryptographic hash functions).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Data integrity", "target_page_ids": [ 567523, 59644, 439526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 395, 422 ], [ 427, 445 ], [ 475, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Secondly, unlike cryptographic hash functions, CRC is an easily reversible function, which makes it unsuitable for use in digital signatures.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Data integrity", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thirdly, CRC satisfies a relation similar to that of a linear function (or more accurately, an affine function):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Data integrity", "target_page_ids": [ 152111, 38449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 70 ], [ 95, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where depends on the length of and . This can be also stated as follows, where , and have the same length", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Data integrity", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "as a result, even if the CRC is encrypted with a stream cipher that uses XOR as its combining operation (or mode of block cipher which effectively turns it into a stream cipher, such as OFB or CFB), both the message and the associated CRC can be manipulated without knowledge of the encryption key; this was one of the well-known design flaws of the Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) protocol.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Data integrity", "target_page_ids": [ 49007, 105979, 160202, 4594, 422014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 62 ], [ 73, 76 ], [ 108, 112 ], [ 116, 128 ], [ 350, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To compute an n-bit binary CRC, line the bits representing the input in a row, and position the ()-bit pattern representing the CRC's divisor (called a \"polynomial\") underneath the left end of the row.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [ 23000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In this example, we shall encode 14 bits of message with a 3-bit CRC, with a polynomial . The polynomial is written in binary as the coefficients; a 3rd-degree polynomial has 4 coefficients (). In this case, the coefficients are 1, 0, 1 and 1. The result of the calculation is 3 bits long, which is why it is called a 3-bit CRC. However, you need 4 bits to explicitly state the polynomial.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Start with the message to be encoded:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This is first padded with zeros corresponding to the bit length n of the CRC. This is done so that the resulting code word is in systematic form. Here is the first calculation for computing a 3-bit CRC:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [ 8722775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The algorithm acts on the bits directly above the divisor in each step. The result for that iteration is the bitwise XOR of the polynomial divisor with the bits above it. The bits not above the divisor are simply copied directly below for that step. The divisor is then shifted right to align with the highest remaining 1 bit in the input, and the process is repeated until the divisor reaches the right-hand end of the input row. Here is the entire calculation:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since the leftmost divisor bit zeroed every input bit it touched, when this process ends the only bits in the input row that can be nonzero are the n bits at the right-hand end of the row. These n bits are the remainder of the division step, and will also be the value of the CRC function (unless the chosen CRC specification calls for some postprocessing).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The validity of a received message can easily be verified by performing the above calculation again, this time with the check value added instead of zeroes. The remainder should equal zero if there are no detectable errors.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following Python code outlines a function which will return the initial CRC remainder for a chosen input and polynomial, with either 1 or 0 as the initial padding. Note that this code works with string inputs rather than raw numbers:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [ 23862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This is a practical algorithm for the CRC-32 variant of CRC. The CRCTable is a memoization of a calculation that would have to be repeated for each byte of the message ().", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [ 723483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CRC32", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " data: Bytes ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " crc32: UInt32 ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " crc32 0xFFFFFFFF", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " byte data ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " nLookupIndex (crc32 xor byte) and 0xFF", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " crc32 (crc32 shr 8) xor CRCTable[nLookupIndex] ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " crc32 crc32 xor 0xFFFFFFFF", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " crc32", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In C, the algorithm looks as such:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mathematical analysis of this division-like process reveals how to select a divisor that guarantees good error-detection properties. In this analysis, the digits of the bit strings are taken as the coefficients of a polynomial in some variable x—coefficients that are elements of the finite field GF(2) (the integers modulo 2, i.e. either a zero or a one), instead of more familiar numbers. The set of binary polynomials is a mathematical ring.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 11137263, 48404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 297, 302 ], [ 439, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The selection of the generator polynomial is the most important part of implementing the CRC algorithm. The polynomial must be chosen to maximize the error-detecting capabilities while minimizing overall collision probabilities.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most important attribute of the polynomial is its length (largest degree(exponent) +1 of any one term in the polynomial), because of its direct influence on the length of the computed check value.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most commonly used polynomial lengths are 9 bits (CRC-8), 17 bits (CRC-16), 33 bits (CRC-32), and 65 bits (CRC-64).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A CRC is called an n-bit CRC when its check value is n-bits. For a given n, multiple CRCs are possible, each with a different polynomial. Such a polynomial has highest degree n, and hence terms (the polynomial has a length of ). The remainder has length n. The CRC has a name of the form CRC-n-XXX.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The design of the CRC polynomial depends on the maximum total length of the block to be protected (data + CRC bits), the desired error protection features, and the type of resources for implementing the CRC, as well as the desired performance. A common misconception is that the \"best\" CRC polynomials are derived from either irreducible polynomials or irreducible polynomials times the factor, which adds to the code the ability to detect all errors affecting an odd number of bits. In reality, all the factors described above should enter into the selection of the polynomial and may lead to a reducible polynomial. However, choosing a reducible polynomial will result in a certain proportion of missed errors, due to the quotient ring having zero divisors.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 188725, 51441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 326, 348 ], [ 745, 757 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The advantage of choosing a primitive polynomial as the generator for a CRC code is that the resulting code has maximal total block length in the sense that all 1-bit errors within that block length have different remainders (also called syndromes) and therefore, since the remainder is a linear function of the block, the code can detect all 2-bit errors within that block length. If is the degree of the primitive generator polynomial, then the maximal total block length is , and the associated code is able to detect any single-bit or double-bit errors. We can improve this situation. If we use the generator polynomial , where is a primitive polynomial of degree , then the maximal total block length is , and the code is able to detect single, double, triple and any odd number of errors.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 1029177, 1940782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 48 ], [ 238, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A polynomial that admits other factorizations may be chosen then so as to balance the maximal total blocklength with a desired error detection power. The BCH codes are a powerful class of such polynomials. They subsume the two examples above. Regardless of the reducibility properties of a generator polynomial of degreer, if it includes the \"+1\" term, the code will be able to detect error patterns that are confined to a window of r contiguous bits. These patterns are called \"error bursts\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 40779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The concept of the CRC as an error-detecting code gets complicated when an implementer or standards committee uses it to design a practical system. Here are some of the complications:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sometimes an implementation prefixes a fixed bit pattern to the bitstream to be checked. This is useful when clocking errors might insert 0-bits in front of a message, an alteration that would otherwise leave the check value unchanged.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Usually, but not always, an implementation appends n 0-bits (n being the size of the CRC) to the bitstream to be checked before the polynomial division occurs. Such appending is explicitly demonstrated in the Computation of CRC article. This has the convenience that the remainder of the original bitstream with the check value appended is exactly zero, so the CRC can be checked simply by performing the polynomial division on the received bitstream and comparing the remainder with zero. Due to the associative and commutative properties of the exclusive-or operation, practical table driven implementations can obtain a result numerically equivalent to zero-appending without explicitly appending any zeroes, by using an equivalent, faster algorithm that combines the message bitstream with the stream being shifted out of the CRC register.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specification", "target_page_ids": [ 15378076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sometimes an implementation exclusive-ORs a fixed bit pattern into the remainder of the polynomial division.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bit order: Some schemes view the low-order bit of each byte as \"first\", which then during polynomial division means \"leftmost\", which is contrary to our customary understanding of \"low-order\". This convention makes sense when serial-port transmissions are CRC-checked in hardware, because some widespread serial-port transmission conventions transmit bytes least-significant bit first.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specification", "target_page_ids": [ 77359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Byte order: With multi-byte CRCs, there can be confusion over whether the byte transmitted first (or stored in the lowest-addressed byte of memory) is the least-significant byte (LSB) or the most-significant byte (MSB). For example, some 16-bit CRC schemes swap the bytes of the check value.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specification", "target_page_ids": [ 43026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Omission of the high-order bit of the divisor polynomial: Since the high-order bit is always 1, and since an n-bit CRC must be defined by an ()-bit divisor which overflows an n-bit register, some writers assume that it is unnecessary to mention the divisor's high-order bit.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specification", "target_page_ids": [ 2151421, 486432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 171 ], [ 181, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Omission of the low-order bit of the divisor polynomial: Since the low-order bit is always 1, authors such as Philip Koopman represent polynomials with their high-order bit intact, but without the low-order bit (the or 1 term). This convention encodes the polynomial complete with its degree in one integer.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These complications mean that there are three common ways to express a polynomial as an integer: the first two, which are mirror images in binary, are the constants found in code; the third is the number found in Koopman's papers. In each case, one term is omitted. So the polynomial may be transcribed as:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "0x3 = 0b0011, representing (MSB-first code)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "0xC = 0b1100, representing (LSB-first code)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "0x9 = 0b1001, representing (Koopman notation)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the table below they are shown as:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "CRCs in proprietary protocols might be obfuscated by using a non-trivial initial value and a final XOR, but these techniques do not add cryptographic strength to the algorithm and can be reverse engineered using straightforward methods.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Obfuscation", "target_page_ids": [ 88369, 18935488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 49 ], [ 187, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Numerous varieties of cyclic redundancy checks have been incorporated into technical standards. By no means does one algorithm, or one of each degree, suit every purpose; Koopman and Chakravarty recommend selecting a polynomial according to the application requirements and the expected distribution of message lengths. The number of distinct CRCs in use has confused developers, a situation which authors have sought to address. There are three polynomials reported for CRC-12, twenty-two conflicting definitions of CRC-16, and seven of CRC-32.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Standards and common use", "target_page_ids": [ 18934904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The polynomials commonly applied are not the most efficient ones possible. Since 1993, Koopman, Castagnoli and others have surveyed the space of polynomials between 3 and 64 bits in size, finding examples that have much better performance (in terms of Hamming distance for a given message size) than the polynomials of earlier protocols, and publishing the best of these with the aim of improving the error detection capacity of future standards. In particular, iSCSI and SCTP have adopted one of the findings of this research, the CRC-32C (Castagnoli) polynomial.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Standards and common use", "target_page_ids": [ 41227, 87409, 30876097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 252, 268 ], [ 462, 467 ], [ 472, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The design of the 32-bit polynomial most commonly used by standards bodies, CRC-32-IEEE, was the result of a joint effort for the Rome Laboratory and the Air Force Electronic Systems Division by Joseph Hammond, James Brown and Shyan-Shiang Liu of the Georgia Institute of Technology and Kenneth Brayer of the Mitre Corporation. The earliest known appearances of the 32-bit polynomial were in their 1975 publications: Technical Report 2956 by Brayer for Mitre, published in January and released for public dissemination through DTIC in August, and Hammond, Brown and Liu's report for the Rome Laboratory, published in May. Both reports contained contributions from the other team. During December 1975, Brayer and Hammond presented their work in a paper at the IEEE National Telecommunications Conference: the IEEE CRC-32 polynomial is the generating polynomial of a Hamming code and was selected for its error detection performance. Even so, the Castagnoli CRC-32C polynomial used in iSCSI or SCTP matches its performance on messages from 58 bits to 131 kbits, and outperforms it in several size ranges including the two most common sizes of Internet packet. The ITU-T G.hn standard also uses CRC-32C to detect errors in the payload (although it uses CRC-16-CCITT for PHY headers).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Standards and common use", "target_page_ids": [ 957556, 28486339, 458752, 12966709, 41226, 14744, 17216326, 78300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 145 ], [ 251, 282 ], [ 309, 326 ], [ 527, 531 ], [ 866, 878 ], [ 1164, 1169 ], [ 1170, 1174 ], [ 1269, 1280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CRC-32C computation is implemented in hardware as an operation () of SSE4.2 instruction set, first introduced in Intel processors' Nehalem microarchitecture. ARM AArch64 architecture also provides hardware acceleration for both CRC-32 and CRC-32C operations.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Standards and common use", "target_page_ids": [ 6821879, 14617, 6833322, 60558, 40197703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 75 ], [ 113, 118 ], [ 131, 138 ], [ 158, 161 ], [ 162, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The table below lists only the polynomials of the various algorithms in use. Variations of a particular protocol can impose pre-inversion, post-inversion and reversed bit ordering as described above. For example, the CRC32 used in Gzip and Bzip2 use the same polynomial, but Gzip employs reversed bit ordering, while Bzip2 does not.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Polynomial representations of cyclic redundancy checks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Note that even parity polynomials in GF(2) with degree greater than 1 are never primitive. Even parity polynomial marked as primitive in this table represent a primitive polynomial multiplied by . The most significant bit of a polynomial is always 1, and is not shown in the hex representations.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Polynomial representations of cyclic redundancy checks", "target_page_ids": [ 11137263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Implementation of CRC32 in GNU Radio up to 3.6.1 (ca. 2012)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Polynomial representations of cyclic redundancy checks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "C class code for CRC checksum calculation with many different CRCs to choose from", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Polynomial representations of cyclic redundancy checks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Catalogue of parametrised CRC algorithms", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Polynomial representations of cyclic redundancy checks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " CRC Polynomial Zoo", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Polynomial representations of cyclic redundancy checks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mathematics of cyclic redundancy checks", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10972761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Computation of cyclic redundancy checks", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15378076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of hash functions", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2155690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of checksum algorithms", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2155690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Information security", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Simple file verification", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 574566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "LRC", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cyclic Redundancy Checks, MathPages, overview of error-detection of different polynomials", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Algorithm 4 was used in Linux and Bzip2.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", Slicing-by-4 and slicing-by-8 algorithms", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " — Bitfilters", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " — theory, practice, hardware, and software with emphasis on CRC-32.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Reverse-Engineering a CRC Algorithm ", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " — includes links to PDFs giving 16 and 32-bit CRC Hamming distances", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 41227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ISO/IEC 13239:2002: Information technology -- Telecommunications and information exchange between systems -- High-level data link control (HDLC) procedures", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " CRC32-Castagnoli Linux Library", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Binary_arithmetic", "Cyclic_redundancy_checks", "Finite_fields", "Polynomials", "Wikipedia_articles_with_ASCII_art", "Articles_with_example_Python_(programming_language)_code" ]

[ "CRC", "CRC8", "CRC32", "Cyclic Redundancy Check, CRC", "cyclical redundancy check" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Jochem Simon Uytdehaage (born 9 July 1976) is a Dutch former long track speed skater who won two Olympic gold medals in Salt Lake City and was the 2002 World Allround champion. He retired in 2007 at the age of 30, following two consecutive seasons of poor results.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 989619, 39645, 34650926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 84 ], [ 120, 134 ], [ 147, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Uytdehaage was born on 9 July 1976 in Oog in Al, Utrecht, Netherlands. He was the 2002 European Allround champion. During the 2002 Winter Olympics, he won the gold medal in the 5,000 and 10,000 meter events and the silver in the 1500 meter event. His winning time on the 10,000 meter was 12:58.92, the first time a skater broke the 13-minute barrier on this distance, and this world record stood for three years, until it was broken by Carl Verheijen and Chad Hedrick. His 5,000 meter time of 6:14.66 was also a world record. Uytdehaage led the long track speed skating Adelskalender from 2001 until 13 November 2005, when Chad Hedrick (US) overtook him.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 6481835, 50333, 38678, 3204966, 261778, 3109857, 261778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 47 ], [ 49, 56 ], [ 126, 146 ], [ 436, 450 ], [ 455, 467 ], [ 570, 583 ], [ 623, 635 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2005, at the Dutch Olympic trials in Heerenveen, Uytdehaage failed to qualify for the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 99186, 77743, 19450529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 59 ], [ 98, 118 ], [ 122, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NC = No classification", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tournament overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "DNQ = Did not qualify for the last event", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tournament overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(b) = Division B", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "World Cup", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "* = 10000 meter", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "World Cup", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "– = Did not participate", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "World Cup", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Photos of Jochem Uytdehaage", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1976_births", "Living_people", "Dutch_male_speed_skaters", "Olympic_speed_skaters_of_the_Netherlands", "Speed_skaters_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Olympic_gold_medalists_for_the_Netherlands", "Olympic_silver_medalists_for_the_Netherlands", "Sportspeople_from_Utrecht_(city)", "Olympic_medalists_in_speed_skating", "World_record_setters_in_speed_skating", "Medalists_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Universiade_medalists_in_speed_skating", "World_Allround_Speed_Skating_Championships_medalists", "World_Single_Distances_Speed_Skating_Championships_medalists", "Universiade_silver_medalists_for_the_Netherlands", "Competitors_at_the_1997_Winter_Universiade" ]

[ "Jochem Simon Uytdehaage" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Renate Titzia Groenewold (born 8 October 1976) is a Dutch former long track speed skater and road bicycle racer.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 989619, 1755460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 88 ], [ 93, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Groenewold has won several Dutch Championships. In 1999, 2002 and 2003 she won the Dutch allround championship. At the European Allround Championships she has won various medals. Five times she came in third in the overall ranking. In 2005, she won the silver medal which was her best result at the European Championships. In 2001, she also came in third in the overall ranking on the World Allround Championships, which she won in 2004.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26370854, 3988566, 454554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 111 ], [ 120, 151 ], [ 386, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Besides participating in the all-round championships Groenewold has participated in the championships for individual distances. Her best results there were winning the team pursuit in 2008 and the 3000 meters in 2009.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2002 Groenewold participated at the 2002 Winter Olympics. She won the silver medal in the 3000 m. However, on the 1500 m she fell in the second turn. At the 2006 Winter Olympics, rookie compatriot Ireen Wüst beat her to the gold on the 3000 m, leaving Groenewold with silver once more.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38678, 77743, 4051628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 59 ], [ 160, 180 ], [ 200, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, Groenewold joined Team DSB Bank, which was a women's professional cycling team that competed in international and UCI Women's Road World Cup events. In 2010, Groenewold competed again at the 2010 Winter Olympics, in Vancouver. She falsely listed as one of lesbian athletes at the Games.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10939863, 1863658, 178749, 17846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 40 ], [ 123, 149 ], [ 200, 220 ], [ 265, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After her active skating career she was a coach from 2011 until 2014. In October 2018 she was appointed in the speed skating Technical Committee of the International Skating Union (ISU).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1625178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Renate Groenewold at SpeedSkatingStats.com", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1976_births", "People_from_Veendam", "Sportspeople_from_Groningen_(province)", "Dutch_female_speed_skaters", "Dutch_female_cyclists", "Olympic_speed_skaters_of_the_Netherlands", "Speed_skaters_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Speed_skaters_at_the_2006_Winter_Olympics", "Speed_skaters_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics", "Olympic_silver_medalists_for_the_Netherlands", "Olympic_medalists_in_speed_skating", "Medalists_at_the_2006_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Universiade_medalists_in_speed_skating", "Living_people", "World_Allround_Speed_Skating_Championships_medalists", "Universiade_gold_medalists_for_the_Netherlands", "Competitors_at_the_1997_Winter_Universiade", "Dutch_speed_skating_coaches", "Dutch_sports_coaches", "20th-century_Dutch_women", "21st-century_Dutch_women" ]

[ "Renate Titzia Groenewold" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Electoral Palatinate () or the Palatinate (), officially the Electorate of the Palatinate (), was a state that was part of the Holy Roman Empire. Counts palatine of the Rhine served as prince-electors () from \"time immemorial\", were noted as such in a papal letter of 1261, and were confirmed as electors by the Golden Bull of 1356.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 784912, 13277, 25805199, 14056, 80248, 6732160, 671259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 109 ], [ 131, 148 ], [ 150, 178 ], [ 189, 203 ], [ 214, 229 ], [ 256, 268 ], [ 316, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It stretched from the left bank of the Upper Rhine, from the Hunsrück mountain range in what is today the Palatinate region in the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate and the adjacent parts of the French regions of Alsace and Lorraine (bailiwick of Seltz from 1418 to 1766) to the opposite territory on the east bank of the Rhine in present-day Hesse and Baden-Württemberg up to the Odenwald range and the southern Kraichgau region, containing the capital cities of Heidelberg and Mannheim.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 173280, 200618, 38849, 26239, 5843419, 48129, 2393620, 646269, 15309166, 38412, 66401, 149331, 3860663, 46743, 99627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 50 ], [ 61, 69 ], [ 106, 116 ], [ 155, 175 ], [ 206, 212 ], [ 224, 230 ], [ 235, 243 ], [ 245, 254 ], [ 258, 263 ], [ 354, 359 ], [ 364, 381 ], [ 392, 400 ], [ 424, 433 ], [ 475, 485 ], [ 490, 498 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The counts palatine of the Rhine held the office of imperial vicars in the territories under Frankish law (in Franconia, Swabia and the Rhineland) and ranked among the most significant secular Princes of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1541 elector Otto Henry converted to Lutheranism. Their climax and decline is marked by the rule of Elector Palatine Frederick V, whose coronation as king of Bohemia in 1619 sparked the Thirty Years' War. After the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, the ravaged lands were further afflicted by the \"Reunion\" campaigns launched by King Louis XIV of France, culminating in the Nine Years' War (1688–97). Ruled in personal union with the Electorate of Bavaria from 1777, the Palatinate was finally disestablished with the German mediatization and annexation by Baden on 27 April 1803.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11071897, 77740, 11401, 616237, 51556, 3755105, 8338709, 23371382, 164700, 223907, 30583, 23850, 975053, 18553, 224589, 475807, 8984250, 1807702, 18950961, 12749794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 66 ], [ 93, 105 ], [ 110, 119 ], [ 121, 127 ], [ 136, 145 ], [ 193, 225 ], [ 243, 253 ], [ 267, 278 ], [ 347, 358 ], [ 380, 395 ], [ 416, 433 ], [ 450, 469 ], [ 519, 538 ], [ 556, 575 ], [ 596, 611 ], [ 632, 646 ], [ 656, 677 ], [ 740, 760 ], [ 765, 775 ], [ 779, 784 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The comital office of Count Palatine at the Frankish court of King Childebert I was already mentioned about 535. The Counts Palatine were the permanent representatives of the King, in particular geographic areas, in contrast to the semi-independent authority of the dukes (and their successors). Under the Merovingian dynasty, the position had been a purely appointed one, but by the Middle Ages had evolved into an hereditary one.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 183760, 303481, 106002, 20333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 36 ], [ 44, 52 ], [ 67, 79 ], [ 306, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Up to the 10th century, the Frankish empire was centered at the royal palace () in Aachen, in what had become the Carolingian kingdom of Lotharingia. Consequently, the Count Palatine of Lotharingia became the most important of the Counts Palatine. Marital alliances meant that, by the Middle Ages, most Count Palatine positions had been inherited by the duke of the associated province, but the importance of the Count Palatine of Lotharingia enabled it to remain an independent position.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1520, 87655, 183853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 89 ], [ 114, 125 ], [ 137, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 985, Herman I, a scion of the Ezzonids, is mentioned as count palatine of Lotharingia (which by then had been divided into Upper and Lower Lorraine). While his Palatine authority operated over the whole of Upper Lorraine, the feudal territories of his family were instead scattered around south western Franconia, including parts of the Rhineland around Cologne and Bonn, and areas around the Moselle, and the Nahe Rivers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5650901, 5651473, 49149, 11401, 51556, 6187, 3295, 143868, 1282700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 16 ], [ 33, 41 ], [ 209, 223 ], [ 306, 315 ], [ 340, 349 ], [ 357, 364 ], [ 369, 373 ], [ 396, 403 ], [ 413, 417 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In continual conflicts with the rivalling Archbishops of Cologne, he changed the emphasis of his rule to the southern Eifel region and further to the Upper Rhine, where the Ezzonian dynasty governed several counties on both banks of the river. The southernmost point was near Alzey.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 662592, 190152, 496503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 64 ], [ 118, 123 ], [ 276, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From about 1085/86, after the death of the last Ezzonian count palatine Herman II, Palatinate authority ceased to have any military significance in Lotharingia. In practice, the Count Palatinate's Palatine authority had collapsed, reducing his successor (Henry of Laach) to a mere feudal magnate over his own territories – along the Upper Rhine in south-western Franconia. From this time on, his territory became known as the County Palatine of the Rhine (not because Palatine authority existed there, but as an acknowledgement that the Count still held the title, if not the authority, of Count Palatine).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5663571, 20960750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 81 ], [ 255, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Various noble dynasties competed to be enfeoffed with the Palatinate by the Holy Roman Emperor – among them the House of Ascania, the House of Salm (Count Otto I of Salm in 1040) and the House of Babenberg (Henry Jasomirgott in 1140/41).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 50853, 2441, 20015311, 37679059, 40347, 1116423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 94 ], [ 112, 128 ], [ 134, 147 ], [ 155, 169 ], [ 187, 205 ], [ 207, 224 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first hereditary Count Palatine of the Rhine was Conrad, a member of the House of Hohenstaufen and younger half-brother of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. The territories attached to this hereditary office in 1156 started from those held by the Hohenstaufens in the Donnersberg, Nahegau, Haardt, Bergstraße and Kraichgau regions (other branches of the Hohenstaufens received lands in the Duchy of Swabia, Franche-Comté, and so forth). Much of this was from their imperial ancestors, the Salian emperors, and apart from Conrad's maternal ancestry, the Counts of Saarbrücken. These backgrounds explain the composition of Upper and Rhenish Palatinate in the inheritance centuries onwards. About 1182, Conrad moved his residence from Stahleck Castle near Bacharach up the Rhine River to Heidelberg.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5135625, 13805, 39699, 22701749, 29034977, 14218244, 2511735, 3196657, 38476, 29545, 140379, 906764, 58241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 59 ], [ 77, 98 ], [ 135, 155 ], [ 268, 279 ], [ 281, 288 ], [ 290, 296 ], [ 298, 308 ], [ 390, 405 ], [ 407, 420 ], [ 489, 495 ], [ 563, 574 ], [ 732, 747 ], [ 753, 762 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon Conrad's death in 1195, the Palatinate passed to the House of Welf through the (secret) marriage of his daughter Agnes with Henry of Brunswick. When Henry's son Henry the Younger died without heirs in 1214, the Hohenstaufen king Frederick II enfeoffed the Wittelsbach duke Louis I of Bavaria. The Bavarian House of Wittelsbach eventually held the Palatinate territories until 1918.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 330634, 34197136, 3801797, 24077654, 68974, 38848, 3153711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 71 ], [ 118, 123 ], [ 129, 147 ], [ 166, 183 ], [ 234, 246 ], [ 261, 272 ], [ 278, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During a later division of territory among the heirs of Duke Louis II, Duke of Upper Bavaria, in 1294, the elder branch of the Wittelsbachs came into possession of both the Rhenish Palatinate and the territories in the Bavarian Nordgau (Bavaria north of the Danube river) with the centre around the town of Amberg. As this region was politically connected to the Rhenish Palatinate, the name Upper Palatinate () became common from the early 16th century in contrast to the Lower Palatinate along the Rhine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3142097, 11641870, 191726, 190155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 92 ], [ 228, 235 ], [ 307, 313 ], [ 392, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the Treaty of Pavia in 1329, the Wittelsbach emperor Louis IV, a son of Louis II, returned the Palatinate to his nephews Rudolf and Rupert.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9837981, 38802, 3506104, 5710525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 58, 66 ], [ 126, 132 ], [ 137, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Golden Bull of 1356, the Palatinate was recognized as one of the secular electorates, and given the hereditary offices of archsteward (, ) of the Empire and imperial vicar () of Franconia, Swabia, the Rhine, and southern Germany. From that time forth, the Count Palatine of the Rhine was usually known as the Elector Palatine (, ).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 671259, 14056, 11071897, 11401, 616237, 25845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 26 ], [ 80, 91 ], [ 164, 178 ], [ 185, 194 ], [ 196, 202 ], [ 208, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the practice of dividing territories among different branches of the family, by the early 16th century junior lines of the Palatine Wittelsbachs came to rule in Simmern, Kaiserslautern, and Zweibrücken in the Lower Palatinate, and in Neuburg and Sulzbach in the Upper Palatinate. The Elector Palatine, now based in Heidelberg, adopted Lutheranism in the 1530s; when the senior branch of the family died out in 1559, the Electorate passed to Frederick III of Simmern, a staunch Calvinist, and the Palatinate became one of the major centers of Calvinism in Europe, supporting Calvinist rebellions in both the Netherlands and France.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3861998, 21458344, 3862491, 3932778, 21430543, 46743, 23371382, 2999128, 3861998, 6024, 21148, 5843419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 175 ], [ 177, 191 ], [ 197, 208 ], [ 241, 248 ], [ 253, 261 ], [ 322, 332 ], [ 342, 353 ], [ 448, 461 ], [ 465, 472 ], [ 484, 493 ], [ 614, 625 ], [ 630, 636 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1619, the Protestant Frederick V, Elector Palatine accepted the throne of Bohemia from the Bohemian estates. This initiated the 1618–1648 Thirty Years' War, one of the most destructive conflicts in human history; it caused over eight million fatalities from military action, violence, famine and plague, the vast majority in the German states of the Holy Roman Empire. In terms of proportional German casualties and destruction, it was surpassed only by the period January to May 1945 and remains the single greatest war trauma in German memory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 164700, 1625048, 30583, 13277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 53 ], [ 77, 84 ], [ 141, 158 ], [ 353, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick was evicted from Bohemia in 1620 following his defeat by the forces of Emperor Ferdinand II at the Battle of the White Mountain. Over the period 1621–1622, the Palatinate was occupied by Spanish and Bavarian troops and Frederick was exiled to the Dutch Republic. His territories and electoral rights were transferred to the distantly related but Catholic Maximilian I of Bavaria, who now became Elector of Bavaria.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 151083, 160956, 52626, 415476, 222076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 101 ], [ 109, 137 ], [ 257, 271 ], [ 365, 388 ], [ 405, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After his death in 1632, Frederick's daughter Princess Elizabeth and wife Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia, worked tirelessly to have the Palatinate restored to her son Charles Louis and the Protestant cause. When the Peace of Westphalia ended the war in 1648, he regained the Lower Palatinate and the title 'Elector Palatine' but now ranked lower in precedence than the others. He was succeeded by Charles II, Elector Palatine in 1680 but the Simmern family became extinct in the male line after he died in 1685.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2016634, 164676, 1468438, 23850, 1468404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 64 ], [ 74, 108 ], [ 171, 184 ], [ 220, 239 ], [ 401, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1670, Charles II's cousin Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate married Philippe of Orléans, younger brother of Louis XIV; on this basis, Louis claimed half of the Palatinate for France. The direct heir to the Palatinate was Philip William, Catholic Count Palatine of Neuburg, Duke of Jülich and Berg. His eldest daughter Eleonore married Emperor Leopold, while another, Maria Anna, married Charles II of Spain in 1690.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 946890, 394583, 18553, 1468400, 3932778, 1872869, 186717, 6597610, 148788, 2779272, 163002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 66 ], [ 75, 94 ], [ 115, 124 ], [ 228, 242 ], [ 271, 278 ], [ 288, 294 ], [ 299, 303 ], [ 325, 333 ], [ 342, 357 ], [ 374, 384 ], [ 394, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When France invaded the Palatinate in September 1688 to enforce its claim, these wider connections meant the conflict rapidly escalated, leading to the outbreak of the Nine Years' War. The French were forced to withdraw in 1689 but before doing so, destroyed much of Heidelberg, another 20 substantial towns and numerous villages. This destruction was systematically applied across a large section of the Rhineland but especially the Palatinate, which was raided again in 1693; the devastation shocked much of Europe. France later renounced its claim to the region in the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 224589, 46743, 180963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 183 ], [ 267, 277 ], [ 577, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johann Wilhelm succeeded as Elector in 1690, changing his residence first to Düsseldorf, then back to Heidelberg and finally Mannheim in 1720. Like his father, he was a Catholic, which under the 1555 Peace of Augsburg meant the Protestant majority in the Palatine was theoretically obliged to convert to Catholicism. The 1705 'Palatine Church Division' compromised by allocating five-sevenths of public church property to the Reformed or Calvinist church and the remainder to Catholicism, while excluding the Lutheran Church, whose membership exceeded 40% of the population in some areas.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1468381, 46743, 99627, 320616, 6024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 102, 112 ], [ 125, 133 ], [ 200, 217 ], [ 438, 447 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1716, Charles Philip succeeded his brother as Elector and in January 1742, helped his cousin Charles Albert become the first non-Habsburg Emperor in over 300 years. He died in December and the Palatinate passed to Charles Theodore, then Duke of Sulzbach, who also inherited the Electorate of Bavaria in 1777. The title and authority of the two Electorates were combined, Charles and his heirs retaining only the vote and precedence of the Bavarian elector, although continuing to use the title 'Count Palatine of the Rhine'.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1665390, 51109, 50853, 650526, 21430543, 8984250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 23 ], [ 96, 110 ], [ 132, 148 ], [ 217, 233 ], [ 248, 256 ], [ 281, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Palatine territories on the left bank of the Rhine were annexed by France in 1795, mainly becoming part of the Mont-Tonnerre department. The loss of these territories was accepted by Elector Maximilian Joseph in the Treaty of Paris. Those on the right were taken by the Elector of Baden, after the 1805 Peace of Pressburg dissolved the Holy Roman Empire; the remaining Wittelsbach territories were united by Maximilian Joseph as the Kingdom of Bavaria.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 41041355, 1387614, 295384, 38492336, 12749794, 36165710, 13277, 295384, 3043377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 54 ], [ 115, 128 ], [ 195, 212 ], [ 220, 235 ], [ 286, 291 ], [ 308, 326 ], [ 341, 358 ], [ 413, 430 ], [ 438, 456 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1156 Conrad of Hohenstaufen, brother of emperor Frederick Barbarossa became Count Palatine. The old coat of arms of the House of Hohenstaufen, the single lion, became coat of arms of the Palatinate.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Coat of arms and flag", "target_page_ids": [ 5135625, 39699, 13805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 30 ], [ 51, 71 ], [ 123, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By marriage, the Palatinate's arms also became quartered with those of Welf and later Wittelsbach. The arms of Bavaria were used with reference to the elector's holdings in Bavaria. This was extended to quartering of the lion and the Bavarian Arms upon the ascension of Maximilian I to the position of elector of the Palatinate in 1623, used concurrently with the arms shown. From 1356 onwards, the orb represented their position as Arch-Steward of the Holy Roman Empire.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Coat of arms and flag", "target_page_ids": [ 415476, 1699990, 11307201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 270, 282 ], [ 399, 402 ], [ 438, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1806, Baden was raised to a grand duchy and parts of the former Palatinate including Mannheim became part of it. At the Congress of Vienna in 1814 and 1815, southern parts of the left-bank Palatinate were restored and enlarged by mediatisation (consuming the former Bishopric of Speyer, the Free Imperial City of Speyer, and others) up to the new border with France, and given (temporarily) to the Habsburg Austrian Empire; after this time, it was this new region that was principally known as \"the Palatinate\". The right-bank Palatinate remained with Baden while northern parts became part of Prussia (Rhine Province) and Hesse (Rhenish Hesse).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 42273705, 44628, 2023276, 234933, 266894, 38849, 242701, 1744792, 7502277, 581874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 42 ], [ 123, 141 ], [ 269, 288 ], [ 316, 322 ], [ 410, 425 ], [ 451, 466 ], [ 597, 604 ], [ 606, 620 ], [ 626, 631 ], [ 633, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1816, the Palatinate became a formal part of the Wittelsbach Kingdom of Bavaria (the or Circle of the Rhine) in a pre-arranged exchange for Tirol, which Bavaria ceded to Austria. Most of the area remained a part of Bavaria until after the Second World War (after 1918 the Free State of Bavaria), with some western parts becoming part of the Territory of the Saar Basin after World War I.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 3043377, 43536109, 6493681, 3764, 219184, 5108238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 82 ], [ 92, 111 ], [ 144, 149 ], [ 276, 297 ], [ 305, 323 ], [ 345, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 1946 the territory was made part of the federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate, along with former left bank territories of Prussia (southern part of the Rhine Province, including the former Principality of Birkenfeld which had been an exclave of Oldenburg until 1937, and western parts of the Province of Nassau) and Rhenish Hesse. The former Territory of the Saar Basin was reinstated and expanded to create the French Saar Protectorate, which returned to Germany in 1956 as the modern state of Saarland.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 26239, 4967784, 1296944, 11190111, 9578752, 581874, 1664815, 27123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 90 ], [ 135, 142 ], [ 202, 228 ], [ 258, 267 ], [ 305, 323 ], [ 329, 342 ], [ 432, 449 ], [ 508, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " German Palatines", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4380305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] } ]

[ "Electoral_Palatinate", "1085_establishments_in_Europe", "1080s_establishments_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire", "1803_disestablishments_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire", "Central_European_countries", "Electorates_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire", "Former_countries", "German-speaking_countries_and_territories", "History_of_the_Palatinate_(region)", "States_and_territories_established_in_1085", "States_and_territories_disestablished_in_1803", "Former_monarchies_of_Europe" ]

[ "County Palatine of Lotharingia", "Bavarian Palatinate", "Electorate of Palatinate", "Pfalzgrafschaft bei Rhein", "Kurpfalz", "Electorate the Palatinate", "Palatinate of the rhein", "County Palatine of the Rhine", "Palatine Electorate", "Rhenish County Palatine", "Electorate Palatinate", "Kurfürstentum von der Pfalz", "Palatinate of the Rhine", "Electorate of the Palatine", "County Palatinate of the Rhine", "Electorate of the Palatinate" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Unpowered aircraft can remain airborne for a significant period of time without onboard propulsion. They can be classified as fixed-wing gliders, lighter-than-air balloons and tethered kites. This requires a trajectory that is not merely a vertical descent such as a parachute. In the case of kites, lift is obtained by tethering to a fixed or moving object, perhaps another kite, to obtain a flow of wind over the lifting surfaces. In the case of balloons, lift is obtained through inherent buoyancy and the balloon may or may not be tethered. Free balloon flight has little directional control. Gliding aircraft include sailplanes, hang gliders, and paragliders that have full directional control in free flight.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13049012, 809005, 11100, 48339, 245982, 25856119, 13850, 63501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 144 ], [ 163, 170 ], [ 185, 189 ], [ 267, 276 ], [ 492, 500 ], [ 622, 632 ], [ 634, 645 ], [ 652, 662 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first manned aircraft were kites, balloons and gliders. Man-lifting kites were used in ancient China and Japan, often as a punishment for prisoners. Unmanned hot-air balloons and toy \"bamboo-copters\" are also recorded in Chinese history.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first manned free flight was in a hot-air balloon built by the brothers Joseph-Michel and Jacques-Etienne Montgolfier in Annonay, France in 1783. The hydrogen balloon appeared at about the same time and proved more practical.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 51621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first practical, controllable glider was designed and built by the British scientist and pioneer George Cayley who many recognise as the first aeronautical engineer. It flew in 1849.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 81936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tethered balloons and, to a lesser extent, kites were developed for military and meteorological observation, however the use of kites has remained largely recreational. Free-flying ballooning using coal gas (which has about half the lifting power of hydrogen) became a popular sport. Gliders were used mainly for aerodynamic research until their sporting use was developed in the 1920s.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the two World Wars, tethered barrage balloons were made and deployed in large numbers. Military assault gliders were also developed during World War II, while the rotor kite was used by the German Navy for seaborne observation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 298486, 18045330, 12960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 51 ], [ 170, 180 ], [ 197, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern applications include experimental High altitude wind power generation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5315193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sailplanes, hang gliders and paragliders are all types of glider aircraft.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Gliders", "target_page_ids": [ 25856119, 13850, 63501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 12, 23 ], [ 29, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For a glider to generate lift, it must first gain and then maintain sufficient forward air speed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Gliders", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Launching a glider gives it the initial forward airspeed to start flying. This is often done by towing the aircraft into the air on a long line, using either a ground-based winch or vehicle, or a powered \"tug\" aircraft. A small foot-launched glider is launched by running downhill or stepping off a high location.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Gliders", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Forward speed is then maintained by a gradual descent through the surrounding air, with the wings angled slightly down so that their lift also provides a small forward thrust to counter the drag of the wing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Gliders", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the air is rising faster than the aircraft is descending through it, the glider will gain height and additional potential energy. Sources of such rising air include warm thermals and hill ridges.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Gliders", "target_page_ids": [ 23703, 21389223, 354370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 131 ], [ 149, 159 ], [ 173, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the past, unpowered military gliders have been used for military applications.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Gliders", "target_page_ids": [ 3482374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today, the majority of use of all types of glider aircraft is recreational.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Gliders", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Free-flying Balloons drift with the wind. The pilot controls the altitude either by heating the air more or by releasing ballast weight. The wind direction usually changes with altitude, so crude directional control can be obtained by changing altitude.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Balloons", "target_page_ids": [ 809005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A round tethered balloon is unstable in any significant wind. A kite balloon is streamlined to make it stable in strong winds.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Balloons", "target_page_ids": [ 7135419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today, the majority of manned balloon flights are recreational, whereas unmanned and usually free-flying balloons are widely used for meteorological measurement.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Balloons", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Kites are aircraft that are tethered to some other object (fixed or mobile) or other means that maintain tension in the kite line; and rely on virtual or real wind blowing over and under them to generate lift and drag. Kytoons are balloon kites that are shaped and tethered to obtain kiting deflections, and can be lighter-than-air, neutrally buoyant, or heavier-than air. Kites have been developed for commercial applications using kite control systems, including the airborne wind energy systems of high altitude wind power.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Kites", "target_page_ids": [ 15869247, 25227555, 523009, 5315193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 129 ], [ 219, 225 ], [ 433, 453 ], [ 501, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kite types", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15898382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gliding", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21491527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gliding competitions", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2487812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gimli Glider, a passenger jet aircraft that ran out of fuel", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 160797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gyroglider", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18045330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Colditz Cock, a glider built to escape from Colditz", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13743313, 150268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 44, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fédération Aéronautique Internationale This is the world organisation for air sports such as gliding, hang gliding and paragliding", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Unpowered_aircraft", "Unpowered_flight" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The House of Wittelsbach () is a German dynasty, with branches that have ruled over territories including Bavaria, the Palatinate, Holland and Zeeland, Sweden (with Denmark and Norway), Hungary (with Romania), Bohemia, the Electorate of Cologne and other prince-bishoprics, and Greece. Their ancestral lands of the Palatinate and Bavaria were Prince-electorates, and the family had three of its members elected emperors and kings of the Holy Roman Empire. They ruled over the Kingdom of Bavaria which was created in 1805 and continued to exist until 1918.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 253147, 14056, 13277, 3043377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 244 ], [ 343, 357 ], [ 437, 454 ], [ 476, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The House of Windsor, the reigning royal house of the British monarchy, are descendants of Sophia of Hanover, a Wittelsbach Princess of the Palatinate by birth and Electress of Hanover by marriage, who had inherited the succession rights of the House of Stuart and passed them on to the House of Hanover.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 172905, 47063, 27773, 253174, 176558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 54, 70 ], [ 91, 108 ], [ 245, 260 ], [ 287, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Otto I, Count of Scheyern, died in 1072, his third son Otto II, Count of Scheyern, acquired the castle of Wittelsbach (near Aichach). The Counts of Scheyern left Scheyern Castle (constructed around 940) in 1119 for Wittelsbach Castle and the former was given to monks to establish Scheyern Abbey. The origins of the counts of Scheyern are unclear. Some rather speculative theories link them to margrave Henry of Schweinfurt and his father Berthold whose background is also disputed; some guess the Schweinfurters may be descendants of the Luitpolding dynasty, the Bavarian dukes of the 10th century.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 35851430, 31939638, 27108152, 521666, 27108152, 3767872, 11406150, 36704848, 8550862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 30 ], [ 60, 86 ], [ 101, 122 ], [ 129, 136 ], [ 220, 238 ], [ 286, 300 ], [ 408, 428 ], [ 444, 452 ], [ 544, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Wittelsbach Conrad of Scheyern-Dachau, a great-grandson of Otto I, Count of Scheyern, became Duke of Merania in 1153 and was succeeded by his son Conrad II. It was the first Duchy held by the Wittelsbach family (until 1180/82).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11388831, 51411268, 11388885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 41 ], [ 97, 112 ], [ 150, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto I's eldest son Eckhard I, Count of Scheyern, was father of the Count palatine of Bavaria Otto IV (died 1156), who was the first Count of Wittelsbach and whose son Otto was invested with the Duchy of Bavaria in 1180 after the fall of Henry the Lion and hence the first Bavarian ruler from the House of Wittelsbach. Duke Otto's son Louis I, Duke of Bavaria, acquired also the Electorate of the Palatinate in 1214.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 35581485, 183760, 9611475, 3153854, 1463463, 70712, 3153711, 38846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 48 ], [ 68, 82 ], [ 94, 101 ], [ 168, 172 ], [ 195, 211 ], [ 238, 252 ], [ 335, 359 ], [ 379, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout history, members of the royal house have reigned as: Dukes of Merania (1153–1180/82), Dukes, Electors and Kings of Bavaria (1180–1918), Counts Palatine of the Rhine (1214–1803 and 1816–1918), Margraves of Brandenburg (1323–1373), Counts of Holland, Hainaut and Zeeland (1345–1433), Elector-Archbishops of Cologne (1583–1761), Dukes of Jülich and Berg (1614–1794/1806), Kings of Sweden (1441–1448 and 1654–1720) and Dukes of Bremen-Verden (1654–1719).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 51411268, 222076, 38846, 2290530, 13288, 690885, 52229, 662592, 1872869, 186717, 5058739, 739383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 80 ], [ 97, 133 ], [ 147, 175 ], [ 203, 227 ], [ 251, 258 ], [ 260, 267 ], [ 272, 279 ], [ 293, 323 ], [ 337, 352 ], [ 357, 361 ], [ 389, 395 ], [ 426, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The family also provided two Holy Roman Emperors (1328–1347/1742–1745), one King of the Romans (1400–1410), two Anti-Kings of Bohemia (1619–20/1742–43), one King of Hungary (1305–1308), one King of Denmark and Norway (1440–1448) and one King of Greece (1832–1862).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 50853, 302609, 223907, 156666, 55661, 66051, 57010779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 47 ], [ 76, 94 ], [ 112, 133 ], [ 157, 172 ], [ 198, 205 ], [ 210, 216 ], [ 237, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Wittelsbach dynasty ruled the German territories of Bavaria from 1180 to 1918 and the Electorate of the Palatinate from 1214 until 1805. In both countries they had succeeded rulers from the House of Welf. Napoleon elevated Bavaria to a kingdom in 1806 and in 1815 the Palatinate became incorporated as Rhine Palatinate.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 11867, 3764, 38846, 330634, 69880, 38849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 40 ], [ 56, 63 ], [ 90, 118 ], [ 194, 207 ], [ 209, 217 ], [ 306, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On Duke Otto II's death in 1253, his sons divided the Wittelsbach possessions between them: Henry became Duke of Lower Bavaria, and Louis II Duke of Upper Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine. When Henry's branch died out in 1340 the Emperor Louis IV, a son of Duke Louis II, reunited the duchy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 3153441, 4153477, 3142097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 15 ], [ 92, 97 ], [ 132, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The family provided two Holy Roman Emperors: Louis IV (1314–1347) and Charles VII (1742–1745), both members of the Bavarian branch of the family, and one German King with Rupert of the Palatinate (1400–1410), a member of the Palatinate branch.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 13277, 38802, 51109, 302609, 38830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 43 ], [ 45, 53 ], [ 70, 81 ], [ 154, 165 ], [ 171, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The House of Wittelsbach split into these two branches in 1329: Under the Treaty of Pavia, Emperor Louis IV granted the Palatinate including the Bavarian Upper Palatinate to his brother Duke Rudolf's descendants, Rudolf II, Rupert I and Rupert II. Rudolf I in this way became the ancestor of the older (Palatinate) line of the Wittelsbach dynasty, which returned to power also in Bavaria in 1777 after the extinction of the younger (Bavarian) line, the descendants of Louis IV.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 9837981, 3141918, 3506104, 5710525, 3840652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 89 ], [ 191, 199 ], [ 213, 222 ], [ 224, 232 ], [ 237, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bavarian branch kept the duchy of Bavaria until its extinction in 1777.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Wittelsbach Emperor Louis IV acquired Brandenburg (1323), Tyrol (1342), Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut (1345) for his House but he had also released the Upper Palatinate for the Palatinate branch of the Wittelsbach in 1329. His six sons succeeded him as Duke of Bavaria and Count of Holland and Hainaut in 1347. The Wittelsbachs lost the Tyrol with the death of duke Meinhard and the following Peace of Schärding – the Tyrol was finally renounced to the Habsburgs in 1369. In 1373 Otto, the last Wittelsbach regent of Brandenburg, released the country to the House of Luxembourg. On Duke Albert's death in 1404, he was succeeded in the Netherlands by his eldest son, William. A younger son, John III, became Bishop of Liège. However, on William's death in 1417, a war of succession broke out between John and William's daughter Jacqueline of Hainaut. This last episode of the Hook and Cod wars finally left the counties in Burgundian hands in 1433.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 38802, 3765, 6493681, 13288, 52229, 690885, 190155, 13288, 690885, 1376601, 13824, 3322535, 2646925, 2598206, 3516988, 3595392, 3045454, 691000, 359398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 32 ], [ 42, 53 ], [ 62, 67 ], [ 76, 83 ], [ 85, 92 ], [ 97, 104 ], [ 155, 171 ], [ 285, 292 ], [ 297, 304 ], [ 369, 377 ], [ 457, 465 ], [ 484, 488 ], [ 562, 581 ], [ 591, 599 ], [ 670, 677 ], [ 694, 702 ], [ 711, 726 ], [ 831, 852 ], [ 879, 896 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emperor Louis IV had reunited Bavaria in 1340 but from 1349 onwards Bavaria was split among the descendants of Louis IV, who created the branches Bavaria-Landshut, Bavaria-Straubing, Bavaria-Ingolstadt and Bavaria-Munich. With the Landshut War of Succession Bavaria was reunited in 1505 against the claim of the Palatinate branch under the Bavarian branch Bavaria-Munich.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 11220583, 3129300, 9421692, 21210006, 8949264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 162 ], [ 164, 181 ], [ 183, 201 ], [ 206, 220 ], [ 231, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1549 to 1567 the Wittelsbach owned the County of Kladsko in Bohemia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 25296653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Strictly Catholic by upbringing, the Bavarian dukes became leaders of the German Counter-Reformation. From 1583 to 1761, the Bavarian branch of the dynasty provided the Prince-electors and Archbishops of Cologne and many other Bishops of the Holy Roman Empire, namely Liège (1581–1763). Wittelsbach princes served for example as Bishops of Regensburg, Freising, Liège, Münster, Hildesheim, Paderborn and Osnabrück, and as Grand Masters of the Teutonic Order.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 130918, 236236, 14056, 662592, 17200239, 5731876, 1831158, 3045454, 4626525, 14780850, 14780742, 9141459, 3273970, 30776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 17 ], [ 59, 65 ], [ 81, 100 ], [ 169, 183 ], [ 189, 211 ], [ 268, 273 ], [ 340, 350 ], [ 352, 360 ], [ 362, 367 ], [ 369, 376 ], [ 378, 388 ], [ 390, 399 ], [ 404, 413 ], [ 422, 434 ], [ 443, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1623 under Maximilian I the Bavarian dukes were invested with the electoral dignity and the duchy became the Electorate of Bavaria. His grandson Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria served also as Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands (1692–1706) and as Duke of Luxembourg (1712–1714). His son Emperor Charles VII was also king of Bohemia (1741–1743). With the death of Charles' son Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria the Bavarian branch died out in 1777.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 415476, 14056, 8984250, 63393, 255346, 17515, 51109, 4345, 1466832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 26 ], [ 69, 78 ], [ 112, 133 ], [ 148, 189 ], [ 205, 241 ], [ 269, 279 ], [ 309, 320 ], [ 338, 345 ], [ 390, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Palatinate branch kept the Palatinate until 1918, having succeeded also to Bavaria in 1777. With the Golden Bull of 1356 the Counts Palatine were invested with the electoral dignity, their county became the Electorate of the Palatinate. Princes of the Palatinate branch served as Bishops of the Empire and also as Elector-Archbishops of Mainz and Elector-Archbishops of Trier.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 671259, 14056, 38846, 253137, 15008891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 124 ], [ 168, 177 ], [ 211, 239 ], [ 318, 346 ], [ 351, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the death of the Wittelsbach king Rupert of Germany in 1410 the Palatinate lands began to split under numerous branches of the family such as Neumarkt, Simmern, Zweibrücken, Birkenfeld, Neuburg and Sulzbach. When the senior branch of the Palatinate branch died out in 1559, the Electorate passed to Frederick III of Simmern, a staunch Calvinist, and the Palatinate became one of the major centers of Calvinism in Europe, supporting Calvinist rebellions in both the Netherlands and France.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 38830, 9878451, 3861998, 2524256, 20751523, 3932778, 21430543, 2999128, 3861998, 6024, 21148, 5843419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 57 ], [ 148, 156 ], [ 158, 165 ], [ 167, 178 ], [ 180, 190 ], [ 192, 199 ], [ 204, 212 ], [ 305, 318 ], [ 322, 329 ], [ 341, 350 ], [ 471, 482 ], [ 487, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Neuburg cadet branch of the Palatinate branch also held the Duchy of Jülich and Berg from 1614 onwards: When the last duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg died without direct heirs in 1609, the War of the Jülich succession broke out, ended by the 1614 Treaty of Xanten, which divided the separate duchies between Palatinate-Neuburg and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. Jülich and Berg fell to the Wittelsbach Count Palatine Wolfgang William of Neuburg.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 1872869, 186717, 22722803, 7730163, 3932778, 8206970, 12119609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 79 ], [ 84, 88 ], [ 188, 216 ], [ 246, 262 ], [ 307, 325 ], [ 334, 360 ], [ 417, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1619, the Protestant Frederick V, Elector Palatine became King of Bohemia but was defeated by the Catholic Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria, a member of the Bavarian branch. As a result, the Upper Palatinate had to be ceded to the Bavarian branch in 1623. When the Thirty Years' War concluded with the Treaty of Münster (also called the Peace of Westphalia) in 1648, a new additional electorate was created for the Count Palatine of the Rhine. During their exile Frederick's sons, especially Prince Rupert of the Rhine, gained fame in England.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 164700, 4345, 415476, 190155, 23850, 153673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 53 ], [ 69, 76 ], [ 110, 142 ], [ 194, 210 ], [ 305, 322 ], [ 495, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The house of Palatinate of Zweibrücken-Kleeburg as heir to the Swedish throne ruled simultaneously the duchy of Bremen-Verden (1654–1719).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 2524256, 739383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 47 ], [ 112, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1685, the Simmern line died out, and the Catholic Philip William, Count Palatine of Neuburg inherited the Palatinate (and also Duke of Jülich and Berg). During the reign of Johann Wilhelm (1690–1716) the Electoral residence moved to Düsseldorf in Berg. His brother and successor Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine moved the Palatinate's capital back to Heidelberg in 1718 and then to Mannheim in 1720. To strengthen the union of all lines of the Wittelsbach dynasty Charles Philip organized a wedding on 17 January 1742 when his granddaughters were married to Charles Theodore of Palatinate-Sulzbach and to the Bavarian prince Clement. In the imperial election a few days later Charles III Philip voted for his Bavarian cousin Prince-Elector Charles Albert. After extinction of the Neuburg branch in 1742, the Palatinate was inherited by Duke Charles Theodore of the branch Palatinate-Sulzbach.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 1468400, 3932778, 1872869, 186717, 1468381, 65711, 1665390, 46743, 99627, 650526, 16780694, 51109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 67 ], [ 87, 94 ], [ 138, 144 ], [ 149, 153 ], [ 176, 190 ], [ 236, 246 ], [ 282, 318 ], [ 358, 368 ], [ 389, 397 ], [ 566, 605 ], [ 633, 640 ], [ 748, 762 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the extinction of the Bavarian branch in 1777, a succession dispute and the brief War of the Bavarian Succession, the Palatinate-Sulzbach branch under Elector Charles Theodore succeeded also in Bavaria.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 503189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the death of Charles Theodore in 1799 all Wittelsbach land in Bavaria and the Palatinate was reunited under Maximilian IV Joseph, a member of the branch Palatinate-Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld. At the time there were two surviving branches of the Wittelsbach family: Palatinate-Zweibrücken (headed by Maximilian Joseph) and Palatinate-Birkenfeld (headed by Count Palatine William). Maximilian Joseph inherited Charles Thedore's title of Elector of Bavaria, while William was compensated with the title of Duke in Bavaria. The form Duke in Bavaria was selected because in 1506 primogeniture had been established in the House of Wittelsbach resulting in there being only one Reigning Duke of Bavaria at any given time. Maximillian Joseph assumed the title of king as Maximilian I Joseph on 1 January 1806. The new king still served as a Prince-elector until the Kingdom of Bavaria left the Holy Roman Empire (1 August 1806).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Bavaria and Palatinate within the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 295384, 20751523, 23511624, 2804342, 136535, 1119712, 295384, 14056, 3043377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 133 ], [ 158, 191 ], [ 371, 378 ], [ 531, 546 ], [ 576, 589 ], [ 757, 761 ], [ 765, 784 ], [ 835, 849 ], [ 860, 878 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under Maximilian's descendants, Bavaria became the third most powerful German state, behind only Prussia and Austria. It was also far-and-away the most powerful secondary state. When the German Empire was formed in 1871, Bavaria became the new empire's second most powerful state after Prussia. The Wittelsbachs reigned as kings of Bavaria until 1918. On 12 November 1918 Ludwig III issued the Anif declaration (German: Anifer Erklärung) at Anif Palace, Austria, in which he released his soldiers and officials from their oath of loyalty to him and ended the 738-year rule of the House of Wittelsbach in Bavaria. The republican movement thereupon declared a republic.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Kingdom of Bavaria, 1806–1918", "target_page_ids": [ 12674, 357913, 17935512, 11387817, 26964606, 3764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 202 ], [ 375, 385 ], [ 397, 413 ], [ 444, 455 ], [ 457, 464 ], [ 607, 614 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before and during the Second World War, the Wittelsbachs were anti-Nazi. Crown Prince Rupert earned Hitler's eternal enmity by opposing the Beer Hall Putsch in 1923. The family initially left Germany for Hungary, but were eventually arrested. Family members spent time in several Nazi concentration camps including Oranienburg and Dachau.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Activities during the Nazi regime, 1933–1945", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 545889, 57538, 514725, 164114, 355852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 38 ], [ 73, 92 ], [ 140, 156 ], [ 280, 304 ], [ 315, 326 ], [ 331, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With Duke Otto III of Lower Bavaria, who was a maternal grandson of Béla IV of Hungary and was elected anti-king of Hungary and Croatia as Bela V (1305–1308) the Wittelsbach dynasty came to power outside the Holy Roman Empire for the first time. Otto had abdicated the Hungarian throne by 1308.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign outside the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 4153813, 875903, 10330111, 13275, 5573, 13277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 35 ], [ 68, 86 ], [ 103, 112 ], [ 116, 123 ], [ 128, 135 ], [ 208, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christopher III of the House of Palatinate-Neumarkt was king of Denmark, Sweden and Norway in 1440/1442–1448, but he left no descendants. The House of Palatinate-Zweibrücken contributed to the monarchy of Sweden again 1654–1720 under Charles X, Charles XI, Charles XII and Ulrika Eleonora. Sophia from the House of Palatinate-Simmern was a presumptive Queen of Great Britain, with her eldest son succeeding the throne.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign outside the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 187755, 9878451, 76972, 5058739, 21241, 2524256, 104942, 104943, 104944, 104938, 27773, 3861998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 23, 51 ], [ 64, 71 ], [ 73, 79 ], [ 84, 90 ], [ 142, 173 ], [ 234, 243 ], [ 245, 255 ], [ 257, 268 ], [ 273, 288 ], [ 290, 296 ], [ 306, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today, under the Bill of Rights 1689 and the Act of Settlement 1701, the line of succession to the throne stems from the Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hannover (1630–1714). She was heiress presumptive of Great Britain but died before her succession to the British throne. Her eldest son succeeded the throne in her place as George I of Great Britain, a descendant of the Houses of Hanover and Wittelsbach.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign outside the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 38867, 2070, 27773, 13530298, 46852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 36 ], [ 45, 67 ], [ 147, 165 ], [ 210, 223 ], [ 330, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The line of Jacobite succession, which recognises the right for a Catholic monarch from the House of Stuart, acknowledges Franz, Hereditary Prince of Bavaria to be the rightful heir as \"Francis II\". However, no claimant since Henry Benedict Stuart has publicly taken up the claim.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign outside the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 15925, 253174, 774005, 62777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 20 ], [ 92, 107 ], [ 122, 157 ], [ 226, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Queen Christina of Sweden abdicated her throne on 5 June 1654 in favour of her cousin Charles X Gustavus, a member of the Wittelsbach branch Palatinate-Zweibrücken. It was the second term for the rule of the House of Wittelsbach in Sweden since 1448 when Christopher III of the Palatinate branch was king of Denmark, Sweden and Norway.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign outside the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 49613, 104942, 2524256, 187755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 25 ], [ 86, 104 ], [ 141, 163 ], [ 255, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sweden reached its largest territorial extent under the rule of Charles X after the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658. Charles's son, Charles XI, rebuilt the economy and refitted the army. His legacy to his son, Charles XII, was one of the finest arsenals in the world, a large standing army and a great fleet. Charles XII was a skilled military leader and tactician. However, although he was also skilled as a politician, he was reluctant in making peace. While Sweden achieved several large scale military successes early on, and won the most battles, the Great Northern War eventually ended in Sweden's defeat and the end of the Swedish Empire. Charles was succeeded to the Swedish throne by his sister, Ulrika Eleonora. Her abdication in 1720 marked the end of Wittelsbach rule in Sweden.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign outside the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 247331, 104943, 104944, 48757, 21173183, 104938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 102 ], [ 127, 137 ], [ 205, 216 ], [ 551, 569 ], [ 625, 639 ], [ 700, 715 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prince Otto of Bavaria was elected king of newly independent Greece in 1832 and was forced to abdicate in 1862. King Otto I of the House of Wittelsbach was made the first King of modern Greece in 1832 under the Convention of London, whereby Greece became a new independent kingdom under the protection of the Great Powers (the United Kingdom, France and the Russian Empire). Throughout his reign, Otto faced political challenges concerning Greece's financial weakness and the role of the government in the affairs of the Church. The politics of Greece of this era was based on affiliations with the three Great Powers, and Otto's ability to maintain the support of the powers was key to his remaining in power. To remain strong, Otto had to play the interests of each of the Great Powers’ Greek adherents against the others, while not aggravating the Great Powers. When Greece was blockaded by the (British) Royal Navy in 1850 and again in 1853, to stop Greece from attacking the Ottoman Empire during the Crimean War, Otto's standing amongst Greeks suffered. As a result, there was an assassination attempt on the Queen and finally, in 1862, Otto was deposed while in the countryside. In 1863 the Greek National Assembly elected Prince William of Denmark, aged only 17, King of the Hellenes under the regal name of George I.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign outside the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 193686, 12108, 193686, 40941755, 13814, 2570744, 12108, 372836, 152256, 374278, 20611504, 26061, 22278, 46763, 187387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 11 ], [ 61, 67 ], [ 117, 123 ], [ 171, 175 ], [ 179, 192 ], [ 211, 231 ], [ 241, 247 ], [ 309, 321 ], [ 327, 341 ], [ 343, 349 ], [ 358, 372 ], [ 909, 919 ], [ 981, 995 ], [ 1007, 1018 ], [ 1317, 1326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The law of succession to the throne of Greece was defined by a supplementary article to the convention of 7 May 1832 awarding the Greek Throne to Otto I. It instituted a semi-salic order with an important rule preventing the union of the crown on the same head with any other crown, especially that of Bavaria. Under the terms of the succession law, a Wittelsbach claim to the throne would have passed on Otto's death in 1867 to his younger brother Luitpold, who was regent of Bavaria from 1886 to 1912; and after him to Ludwig who became king Ludwig III of Bavaria in 1913. At this point, tracing the claim becomes impossible as the same branch of the Wittelsbach became heir to both thrones, and a subsequent monarch or pretender should have issued a renunciation to one of the two thrones, which none did. In the end, neither Luitpold nor his son Ludwig actively pursued a claim to the Greek throne inherited from Otto, and the throne of Bavaria itself disappeared in 1918, leaving the future of the claim to be decided by a further arrangement that never occurred.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign outside the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 1426211, 357913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 829, 837 ], [ 850, 856 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Joseph Ferdinand, a son of Maximilian II Emanuel, was the favored choice of England and the Netherlands to succeed as the ruler of Spain, and young Charles II of Spain chose him as his heir. Due to the unexpected death of Joseph Ferdinand in 1699 the Wittelsbach did not come to power in Spain, leaving the Spanish Succession uncertain again.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reign outside the Holy Roman Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 313714, 26667, 33604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 288, 293 ], [ 307, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many women in the family are known as Elisabeth of Bavaria.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 31924020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Duke Franz's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son. Patrilineal descent is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 774005, 24942, 210254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 78, 97 ], [ 136, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heinrich I, Count of Pegnitz, 1008–1043", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 63247521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto I, Count of Scheyern, 1020–1072", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 35851430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eckhard I, Count of Scheyern, 1044-1088", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 35581485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto IV, Count of Wittelsbach, 1083–1156", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 9611475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto I, Duke of Bavaria, 1117–1183", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3153854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis I, Duke of Bavaria, 1173–1231", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3153711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto II Wittelsbach, Duke of Bavaria, 1206–1253", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3153441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis II, Duke of Bavaria, 1229–1294", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3142097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rudolf I, Duke of Bavaria, 1274–1319", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3141918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adolf, Count Palatine of the Rhine, 1300–1327", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3850857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rupert II, Elector Palatine, 1325–1398", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3840652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rupert of Germany, 1352–1410", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 38830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stephen, Count Palatine of Simmern-Zweibrücken, 1385–1459", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3852349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis I, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken, 1424–1489", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3905817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alexander, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken, 1462–1514", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3919094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis II, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken, 1502–1532", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3931490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wolfgang, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken, 1526–1569", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3931649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles I, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld, 1560–1600", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 21437497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christian I, Count Palatine of Birkenfeld-Bischweiler, 1598–1654", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 21437599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christian II, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken, 1637–1717", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 21437566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christian III, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken, 1674–1735", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 12581146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Count Palatine Frederick Michael of Zweibrücken, 1724–1767", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 12564719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria, 1756–1825", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 295384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ludwig I of Bavaria, 1786–1868", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 166611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Luitpold, Prince Regent of Bavaria, 1821–1912", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 1426211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ludwig III of Bavaria, 1845–1921", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 357913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria, 1869–1955", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 545889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Albrecht, Duke of Bavaria, 1905–1996", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 2064538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Franz, Duke of Bavaria, b. 1933", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 774005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis V, Margrave of Brandenburg, Duke of Bavaria and Count of Tyrol (1323–1361)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3315388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Albert I, Duke of Bavaria, Count of Holland and Hainaut (1347–1404)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 2598206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Isabeau de Bavière (1371–1435), queen-consort of France", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 954222, 170435, 5843419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 32, 45 ], [ 49, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ernest, Duke of Bavaria (1397–1438) duke of Bavaria-Munich", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3085834, 21210006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ], [ 44, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Albert III, Duke of Bavaria (1438–1460) duke of Bavaria-Munich", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3082647, 21210006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ], [ 48, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut and Holland (1417–1432)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 691000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria (1465–1508)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3082417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William IV, Duke of Bavaria (1508–1550), ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3081255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis X, Duke of Bavaria (1516–1545) ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3577781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Albert V, Duke of Bavaria (1550–1579)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 2777525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria (1597–1651)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 415476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maria Anna, Dauphine of France (1660–1690)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 2707889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria (1662–1726)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 63393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Duchess Violante Beatrice of Bavaria (1673–1731), Hereditary Princess of Tuscany and Governess of Siena,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 19962404, 235474, 27856145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ], [ 50, 80 ], [ 85, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clemens August of Bavaria (1700–1761)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 51113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maria Antonia of Bavaria (1724–1780)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 9376530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick I, Elector Palatine (1451–1476)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 8337682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick III, Elector Palatine (1559–1576)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 2999128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick V, Elector Palatine (1610–1623), King of Bohemia (the \"Winter King\")", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 164700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine (1648–1680)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 1468438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prince Rupert of the Rhine (1619–1682)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 153673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sophia of the Palatine (1630–1714), daughter of Frederick V, Heiress to the British throne, mother of King George I of Great Britain", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 27773, 164700, 19919075, 46852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 48, 59 ], [ 61, 90 ], [ 102, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine (1652–1722)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 946890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine (1690–1718), his wife Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici being the last scion of the House of Medici", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 1468381, 292522, 44175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ], [ 55, 82 ], [ 111, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "King Ludwig I of Bavaria (1825–1848)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 166611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Princess Sophie of Bavaria (1805–1872), Archduchess of Austria", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 295206, 26964606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 55, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elisabeth in Bavaria (1837–1898) (\"Sisi\"), Empress of Austria", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 153029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ludwig II of Bavaria (1864–1886)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 24383069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marie Sophie (1841–1925), last queen of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 3076872, 21486505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 59, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elisabeth of Bavaria (1876–1965), queen-consort of Albert I of Belgium", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 1216468, 170435, 59926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 34, 47 ], [ 51, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sophie, Hereditary Princess of Liechtenstein, b. 1967", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 1802647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christopher of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, reigned 1440–1448", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 187755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles X Gustav of Sweden, reigned 1654–1660", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 104942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles XI of Sweden, reigned 1660–1697", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 104943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles XII of Sweden, reigned 1697–1718", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 104944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden, reigned 1718–1720", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Major members of the family", "target_page_ids": [ 104938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some of the most important Bavarian castles and palaces that were built by Wittelsbach rulers, or served as seats of ruling branch lines, are the following:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Castles and palaces", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some of the most important castles and palaces of the Palatinate Wittelsbach were:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Castles and palaces", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From 1597 to 1794, Bonn was the capital of the Electorate of Cologne and residence of the Archbishops and Prince-electors of Cologne, most of them belonging to the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach (continuously from 1583 to 1761).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Castles and palaces", "target_page_ids": [ 3295, 253147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 23 ], [ 47, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A full armorial of the Wittelsbach family can be found on the French-language Wikipedia at Armorial of the House of Wittelsbach.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Coats of arms", "target_page_ids": [ 2943150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kings of Germany family tree", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17767437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of rulers of Bavaria", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 222076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of rulers of the Palatinate", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asteroid 90712 Wittelsbach, named in the castle and dynasty's honour", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 791, 1003123, 940058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 10, 27 ], [ 29, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wittelsbach Diamond", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20600407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Monarchism in Bavaria after 1918", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32262441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of coats of arms with the Palatine Lion", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 43580797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Héraldique Européenne.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Haus Bayern – webpage of the Royal House of Bavaria (in German)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Archived website about the Royal Family of Bavaria", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Haus Bayern – Wittelsbacher Ausgleichsfonds – Wittelsbach foundation (in German)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Die Genealogie der Wittelsbacher – Genealogy of the Wittelsbach family (in German)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "House_of_Wittelsbach", "Duchy_of_Bavaria", "Electorate_of_Bavaria", "History_of_the_Palatinate_(region)", "Ruling_families_of_the_County_of_Holland", "Ruling_families_of_the_Duchy_of_Berg" ]

[ "Wittelsbach Dynasty", "Wittelsbach", "Wittelsbacher" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Palatinate (; Palatine German: Palz) is a historical region of Germany (Deutschland). In the Middle Ages it was known as the Rhenish Palatinate (Rheinpfalz) and Lower Palatinate (Unterpfalz), which strictly speaking designated only the western part of the Electorate of the Palatinate (Kurfürstentum Pfalz), as opposed to the Upper Palatinate (Oberpfalz). It occupies roughly the southernmost quarter of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate (Rheinland-Pfalz), covering an area of with about 1.4million inhabitants. Its residents are known as Palatines (Pfälzers).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 429432, 11867, 18836, 38846, 190155, 217450, 26239, 4380305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 33 ], [ 67, 74 ], [ 97, 108 ], [ 260, 288 ], [ 330, 346 ], [ 419, 432 ], [ 436, 456 ], [ 559, 568 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Palatinate borders Saarland in the west, historically also comprising the state's Saarpfalz District. In the northwest, the Hunsrück mountain range forms the border with the Rhineland region. The eastern border with Hesse and the Baden region runs along the Upper Rhine river, while the left bank, with Mainz and Worms as well as the Selz basin around Alzey, belong to the Rhenish Hesse region. In the south, the German-French border separates the Palatinate from Alsace.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 27123, 219184, 200618, 51556, 38412, 66401, 173280, 20537, 33896, 5495373, 496503, 581874, 5843419, 48129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 31 ], [ 86, 95 ], [ 128, 136 ], [ 178, 187 ], [ 220, 225 ], [ 234, 239 ], [ 262, 273 ], [ 307, 312 ], [ 317, 322 ], [ 338, 342 ], [ 356, 361 ], [ 377, 390 ], [ 424, 430 ], [ 468, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One-third of the region is covered by the Palatinate Forest (Pfälzerwald), including the Palatinate Forest Nature Park popular with hikers. With about , it is Germany's largest contiguous forested area, and is part of the Franco-German Palatinate Forest-North Vosges Biosphere Reserve.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 4209088, 26581162, 38187761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 59 ], [ 89, 118 ], [ 237, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The western and northern part of the Palatinate is densely forested and mountainous. Its highest mountain is the Donnersberg with a height of , situated in the North Palatine Uplands near Kirchheimbolanden. Most of the major Palatinate towns (Ludwigshafen, Speyer, Landau, Frankenthal, Neustadt) lie in the lower eastern part of the Upper Rhine Plain down to the River Rhine. Here the German Wine Route (Deutsche Weinstraße) passes through the ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 22701749, 24020765, 752273, 145612, 234933, 18737, 1455619, 1253463, 17159605, 2065229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 124 ], [ 160, 182 ], [ 188, 205 ], [ 243, 255 ], [ 257, 263 ], [ 265, 271 ], [ 273, 284 ], [ 286, 294 ], [ 333, 350 ], [ 385, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Palatinate wine region. It is one of the greatest wine-producing regions in Germany, and in the last two decades has become well known for its numerous prizewinning white and reds of highest quality produced by a number of talented young winemakers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 9223433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Major rivers include the Upper Rhine tributaries Lauter, Queich and Speyerbach, as well as Schwarzbach and Glan in the west.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 12291417, 16658524, 31784014, 9480599, 4237158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 55 ], [ 57, 63 ], [ 68, 78 ], [ 91, 102 ], [ 107, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historically the Electoral Palatinate and several other territories were part of the Palatinate, but today belong to other German territories.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 38846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Palatinate is divided into four non-administrative sub-regions, comprising the following rural districts and independent towns and cities:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 1052073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "North Palatinate (Nordpfalz), i.e. the sparsely inhabited North Palatine Uplands, made up of", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 40907089, 24020765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 58, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Donnersbergkreis (KIB), including the small towns of Eisenberg, Kirchheimbolanden and Rockenhausen", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 220660, 4229521, 752273, 4229680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 53, 62 ], [ 64, 81 ], [ 86, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anterior Palatinate (Vorderpfalz) between Upper Rhine and the Haardt range of the Palatinate Forest", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 38849, 14218244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 62, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bad Dürkheim (DÜW)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 198792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rhein-Pfalz-Kreis (RP)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 222872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and the towns and cities of Frankenthal (FT), Ludwigshafen (LU), Neustadt an der Weinstraße (NW) and Speyer (SP)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 1455619, 145612, 1253463, 234933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 39 ], [ 46, 58 ], [ 65, 91 ], [ 101, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "South Palatinate (Südpfalz).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 38849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Germersheim (GER)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 221274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Südliche Weinstraße (SÜW)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 226941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " and the town of Landau (LD)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 18737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "West Palatinate (Westpfalz) up to the western part of the North Palatine Uplands", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 40722666, 24020765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 58, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kaiserslautern (district) (KL)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 222452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kusel (KUS)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 222591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Südwestpfalz (PS)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 227340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and the towns of Kaiserslautern (KL), Pirmasens (PS) and Zweibrücken (ZW).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 348725, 1523592, 58558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 31 ], [ 38, 47 ], [ 57, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like most of Europe, the Palatinate is part of the oceanic climate zone influenced by the Atlantic, with an average annual temperature of about 10 degrees Celsius. Wet air from the prevailing westerly and southwesterly winds leads to precipitation in the Mittelgebirge ranges, while it warms up on its way further down to the Rhine Valley.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 560047, 698, 19593040, 21287568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 66 ], [ 90, 98 ], [ 155, 162 ], [ 255, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Formerly a Celtic region, this area was conquered by the Roman Empire under Emperor Augustus in about 12 BCE, whereafter it was part of the Germania Superior province. During the decay of the Empire, Alamanni tribes settled here; their territory was conquered by Francia under King Clovis I about 496. From 511 onwards the area belonged to the eastern part of Frankish Austrasia, that—as Rhenish Franconia—became part of East Francia according to the 843 Treaty of Verdun.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6546, 25507, 1273, 437763, 1486, 303481, 36579, 62778, 14955366, 1722738, 30898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 57, 69 ], [ 84, 92 ], [ 140, 157 ], [ 200, 208 ], [ 263, 270 ], [ 282, 290 ], [ 369, 378 ], [ 388, 405 ], [ 421, 433 ], [ 455, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the Middle Ages until 1792, the Palatinate was divided into 45 secular and ecclesiastical territories, some of which were very small. The largest and most important of these was the Electorate of the Palatinate (Kurfürstentum Pfalz), a number of Franconian territories on both sides of the Rhine formerly held by the Counts palatine (Pfalzgrafen) of Lotharingia. By the late 12th century, the Count palatine had achieved the status of a Prince-elector (Kurfürst), becoming one of the seven higher nobles with the privilege of electing the Emperor, as confirmed by the Golden Bull of 1356. In 1214 the Bavarian House of Wittelsbach was enfeoffed with these estates, which they ruled until 1918, together with the collateral branch of Palatine Zweibrücken from 1410. They lost control (need for stronger protection) with the reunification with Bavaria under Elector Charles Theodore in 1777. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 37842745, 14955366, 183760, 183853, 14056, 302609, 671259, 38848, 1835106, 3862491, 3764, 650526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 106 ], [ 251, 261 ], [ 322, 337 ], [ 355, 366 ], [ 442, 456 ], [ 544, 551 ], [ 573, 592 ], [ 615, 635 ], [ 640, 649 ], [ 738, 758 ], [ 847, 854 ], [ 869, 885 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The major ecclesiastical territory in the region was the Bishopric of Speyer. The Imperial city of Landau joined the Alsacien Décapole in 1521 to preserve its status. Nevertheless, it was seized by France after the Thirty Years' War.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2023276, 220358, 18737, 2639855, 1069393, 30583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 76 ], [ 82, 95 ], [ 99, 105 ], [ 126, 134 ], [ 198, 204 ], [ 215, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other larger regional entities included the Duchy of Zweibrücken and the Prince-Bishopric of Speyer. The Prince-Bishopric held possessions on both sides of the Rhine. For centuries, the Electoral Palatinate and Bavaria maintained dynastic links because both were ruled by members of the Wittelsbach family.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3862491, 2023276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 64 ], [ 73, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1794 the Left Bank of the Rhine, including the Palatinate, was occupied by French revolutionary troops. As a result of the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797), the First French Republic annexed the region. In 1798 they introduced a new administrative system with the establishment of departments. Basically, the area of the Palatinate became the Département of Mont Tonnerre, laying the cornerstone of its regional identity today. Minor parts of today's region belonged to the neighbouring departments of Sarre and Bas-Rhin. The French further subdivided the department into cantons, mayoralties and municipalities, and introduced their legal system (Napoleonic Code) and the metric system.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 41041355, 176739, 180308, 62243, 18950961, 1387614, 1387568, 90599, 46523, 44142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 34 ], [ 78, 105 ], [ 126, 148 ], [ 161, 182 ], [ 183, 190 ], [ 343, 371 ], [ 502, 507 ], [ 512, 520 ], [ 648, 663 ], [ 673, 686 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, and the capture of the Left Bank of the Rhine by the Allies in January 1814; from 2 February 1814, the region was initially under the provisional authority of the General Government of the Middle Rhine, but, from 16 June of the same year, it was placed under the administration of the Imperial-Royal (\"k.k.\") Austrian and Royal Bavarian Joint Land Administration Commission (k.k. östreichischen und k.bairischen gemeinschaftliche Landes-Administrations-Kommission).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 69880, 147150, 40021663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 32 ], [ 40, 57 ], [ 352, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the main treaty agreed at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and dated 9 June 1815, Article 51 stated that (inter alia), on the Left Bank of the Rhine the former French departements of the Sarre and Mont Tonnerre, except where set forth in the same treaty, were to fall \"with full sovereignty\" and ownership rights within the overlordship of His Majesty the Emperor of Austria (Herrschaft Sr. Maj. des Kaisers von Oesterreich). Initially, however, joint Austro-Bavarian administration was retained.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 44628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 14 April 1816 a treaty was signed between Austria and Bavaria, in which the various territorial changes were agreed on. According to Article 2 of the treaty, Emperor Francis I of Austria ceded various regions to King Maximilian I of Bavaria. These included, in addition to various regions east of the Rhine, the following regions west of the Rhine:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 49645756, 266894, 3043377, 11551, 295384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 25 ], [ 45, 52 ], [ 57, 64 ], [ 169, 189 ], [ 220, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the Departement of Mont Tonnerre (Donnersberg):", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the districts of Zweibrücken, Kaiserslautern, and Speier; the latter with the exception of the cantons of Worms and Pfeddersheim; ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the canton of Kirchheim-Bolanden, in the district of Alzei. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In the Sarre Departement: ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the cantons of Waldmohr, Blieskastel, and Kusel, the latter with the exception of several villages on the road from Sankt Wendel to Baumholder, for which there was to be compensation, by another territorial transfer, with the agreement of the assembled plenipotentiaries of the allied powers at Frankfurt.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In the Departement of Bas Rhin:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the canton, town, and fortress of Landau, the latter as a federal fortress in accordance with the regulations of 3 November 1815;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the cantons of Bergzabern, Langenkandel, and the whole part of the Departement of Bas Rhin on the left bank of the Lauter, which had been ceded in the Paris Tractat of 20 November 1815.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 191928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These changes took effect on 1 May 1816.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In accordance with the prevailing Bavarian administrative structure, the region became one of eight Bavarian districts (Kreise). From 1808, Bavaria embarked on the administrative reorganisation of its territory, creating districts which, as in France, were named after the main local rivers. Thus the new district along the Rhine was given the name Rheinkreis (i.e. the Rhine district), with Speyer as its capital. Of the former French administrative structure, the subdivision of the district into arrondissements, cantons, mayoralties, and municipalities was, in large measure, retained. The Bavarian government also preserved the French legal system (Code Napoléon), giving the Palatinate a distinct legal status within the Bavarian kingdom.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3764, 234933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 147 ], [ 392, 398 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the next lower level, the three former French arrondissements were continued as Kreisdirektion (\"Circle\", i.e. district, \"direction\") Frankenthal, Kaiserslautern, and Zweibrücken. Kreisdirektion Landau was, however, a new creation. In 1818 the cantons were merged into 12 administrative districts called Landkommissariat. In 1862 these were designated individually as Bezirksamt. In 1939 each one became a Landkreis (rural district).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 64501, 18737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 63 ], [ 183, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As his first provincial governor, King Maximilian selected the Privy Councillor (Hofrat) Franz Xaver von Zwack, whose name gave rise to the popular Palatine nickname for Bavarians, Zwockel.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 295384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1832 the Rheinkreis became the focal point of liberal movements. The Hambach Festival, a large gathering near Neustadt an der Weinstraße, proved fertile ground for what came to be considered a milestone in German history.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3417741, 1253463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 88 ], [ 113, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1835, King Ludwig I of Bavaria's romantic outlook gave rise to the adoption of new names for the administrative districts of Bavaria by a system of historical allusion. As such, the Rheinkreis officially became the Pfalz (Palatinate). The historic Electorate of the Palatinate was on both sides of the Rhine with Heidelberg and Mannheim as its capitals on the eastern side, whereas the new \"Palatinate\" established in 1815/16 was solely on the left bank of the Rhine. It included territories that were never part of the historical Palatinate (e.g., territories of the former Bishopric of Speyer, the imperial city of Speyer or Kirchheimbolanden, which had formerly belonged to the Weilburg branch of Nassau). To avoid confusion of the new Palatinate and the former one (and with the Upper Palatinate), the name Rhenish Palatinate (Rheinpfalz) became common and is still used today, but was never made its official name. Another term, that of Rhenish Bavaria (Rheinbayern), though used occasionally, never gained great currency, but can, nonetheless, be found sometimes on older maps.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 166611, 46743, 99627, 752273, 3944400, 5214032, 190155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 33 ], [ 316, 326 ], [ 331, 339 ], [ 630, 647 ], [ 684, 692 ], [ 703, 709 ], [ 786, 802 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bavarian Royal Family tried to encourage Palatine unity with Bavaria by erecting a royal palace in Edenkoben, and through the restoration of Speyer Cathedral under the direct supervision of King Ludwig I himself. The new town of Ludwigshafen was named after the king. Despite these attempts, the Palatinate's representatives to the Bavarian Parliament always prided themselves on the claim that they came from a more progressive region. Indeed, they tried to promote their liberalism, which the French had introduced to the Palatinate, to the whole Bavarian kingdom. German historian Heiner Haan described the special status accorded the Palatinate within Bavaria as being one of a Hauptstaat (main state, i.e. Bavaria) with a Nebenstaat (alongside state, i.e. the Palatinate).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3692838, 4410605, 145612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 112 ], [ 145, 161 ], [ 233, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May/June 1849, after the failed revolution of 1848, and as part of the Imperial Constitution campaign, separatist elements wanted the district to secede from Bavaria and establish its own \"Palatine Republic\". A separatist uprising was suppressed by Prussian military intervention. The Palatinate's union with Bavaria persisted after it became part of the German Empire in 1871, and, indeed, after the Wittelsbach dynasty was deposed, and Bavaria became a free state of the Weimar Republic in 1918. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 274048, 46976134, 12674, 33685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 53 ], [ 74, 104 ], [ 358, 371 ], [ 476, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1910 the town of Landau was declared independent from the Bezirksamt.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After World War I, French troops occupied the Palatinate under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. In 1920 the western Bezirksämter of Sankt Ingbert and Homburg (Saarpfalz) were separated from the Bavarian Palatinate, and became part of the newly established Saarland which, according to the peace treaty, was governed by the League of Nations. That same year, seven more towns were declared independent from the Bezirksämter: Speyer, Ludwigshafen, Frankenthal, Neustadt an der Weinstraße, Kaiserslautern, Pirmasens, and Zweibrücken. They remain independent to this day.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 30030, 3926144, 2529820, 219184, 27123, 17926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 17 ], [ 80, 100 ], [ 138, 151 ], [ 156, 163 ], [ 165, 174 ], [ 262, 270 ], [ 329, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1919 and 1923, during the occupation, there were French-backed attempts at separating the Palatinate from Bavaria and the Empire. On 1 June 1919, Eberhard Haaß, founder of the “Free Palatine Association” (1918), proclaimed the “Palatine Republic”, but failed to occupy the government building in Speyer. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 23 November 1923, Franz Josef Heinz proclaimed the \"Government of the Autonomous Palatinate in the Association of the Rhenish Republic\" at Speyer, after gaining control of the towns of Kaiserslautern, Neustadt, and Landau, and after the capitulation of the Palatine government. In the following days, several more towns fell into his group's hands. The Bavarian government reacted sharply. It organised a squad under the command of Edgar Julius Jung. On 9 January 1924, Heinz was assassinated while dining at the Wittelsbacher Hof in Speyer. Other leading members of the separatist movement were killed on 12 February, in a shooting in Pirmasens. By then, a treaty between Bavaria and the Inter-Allied Rhineland High Commission (the supreme council of the Allied occupation forces) of January 1924 recognised the status quo and guaranteed that the Palatinate would remain a part of Bavaria, thereby putting an end to separatist attempts.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 37830344, 9728132, 873067, 1523592, 28780389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 38 ], [ 121, 137 ], [ 435, 452 ], [ 639, 648 ], [ 692, 730 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under Nazi rule, from 1933 to 1945, the Palatinate officially remained part of Bavaria, but was otherwise totally reorganised–it was merged with the Saarland into the Gau Westmark, with headquarters in Saarbrücken.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18158810, 140379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 179 ], [ 202, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The union with Bavaria was finally dissolved following the reorganisation of German states during the Allied occupation of Germany after World War II. While Bavaria itself was part of the U.S. occupation zone, the Palatinate was occupied by French forces. The French reorganised their occupation zone by founding new states, so that in 1947 the Palatinate was combined with Rhenish Hesse (Rheinhessen), the former parts of the People's State of Hesse west of the Rhine, and the southern part of the Prussian Rhine Province, to form the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. The Palatinate formed the administrative district (Regierungsbezirk) Pfalz. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2949977, 32927, 581874, 6772458, 1744792, 26239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 119 ], [ 137, 149 ], [ 374, 387 ], [ 427, 450 ], [ 508, 522 ], [ 560, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This reorganisation came with smaller losses of former district territory to the Saarland, especially in the area of Sankt Wendel. As part of the 1969 administrative reform, some minor border changes were made in the north. The Diocese of Speyer and the Evangelical Church of the Palatinate still exist today largely based on the historic boundaries of the old Bavarian district of die Pfalz.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1407585, 3861261, 9529030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 129 ], [ 228, 245 ], [ 254, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Pfalz was initially one of five districts in Rhineland-Palatinate; however in 1968 the district was merged with the neighbouring district of Rheinhessen to form the district of Rheinhessen-Pfalz. On 1 January 2000, all administrative districts of Rheinland-Pfalz were dissolved.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 581874, 192490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 156 ], [ 181, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many Pennsylvania Dutchmen are descendants of Palatine refugees. The Pennsylvania Dutch language, spoken by the Amish and Pennsylvania Dutch in the United States, is derived primarily from the Palatine German language which many Mennonite refugees brought to Pennsylvania in the years 1717 to 1732. The only existing Pennsylvania German newspaper, Hiwwe wie Driwwe, was founded 1996 in the village of Ober-Olm, which is located close to Mainz, the state capital (and is published bi-annually as a cooperation project with Kutztown University). In the same village one can find the headquarters of the German-Pennsylvanian Association.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "The Pennsylvania Dutch and other German Americans", "target_page_ids": [ 177674, 4380305, 181240, 19346935, 429432, 20798, 19465302, 13003709, 1127589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 26 ], [ 46, 63 ], [ 69, 96 ], [ 112, 117 ], [ 193, 217 ], [ 229, 238 ], [ 348, 364 ], [ 401, 409 ], [ 522, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many more Palatines emigrated in the course of the 19th century, and the great majority of them to North America, so that in the US temporarily \"Palatine\" was a common designation for German Americans. Johann Heinrich Heinz (1811-1891), the father of Henry John Heinz who founded the H. J. Heinz Company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, emigrated from Kallstadt, Palatinate, to the United States in 1840.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "The Pennsylvania Dutch and other German Americans", "target_page_ids": [ 290327, 13879, 13881, 25101, 23332, 11788401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 199 ], [ 251, 267 ], [ 284, 303 ], [ 307, 317 ], [ 319, 331 ], [ 348, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arguably the most famous dish in Palatinate is the saumagen, literally \"sow's stomach\", a dish that consists of a thick, crispy-fried casing (sow stomach) stuffed with a mixture of pork, potatoes, and seasonings. Other traditional meat dishes of the region include bratwurst, Palatinate liverwurst, a blood pudding sausage called grieweworscht (\"griewe\" are speck (bacon) cubes, so lit. \"sausage with bacon bits\"), lewwerknedel (Leberknödel) (or lewwerknepp, liver dumplings), and fleeschknepp (Fleischknödel: meat dumplings). Sauerkraut is the typical side dish in all seasons, but especially in winter, as are mashed potatoes and brown gravy. Also eaten are dampfnudels, which can be served with either sweet sauces or side dishes (such as wine, vanilla sauce or canned fruit such as plums, prunes, or pears) or with savory side dishes (such as potato soup, vegetable soup, goulash, or pepper pork).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cuisine", "target_page_ids": [ 231986, 36677745, 178951, 9672854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 59 ], [ 415, 441 ], [ 527, 537 ], [ 661, 671 ] ] } ]

[ "Palatinate_(region)", "Former_government_regions_of_Germany", "Geography_of_Rhineland-Palatinate", "Regions_of_Rhineland-Palatinate", "Historical_regions" ]

[ "Pfalz", "Rhenish Palatinate", "Lower Palatinate", "Palatinate (region)" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Finglas (; ) is a northwestern outer suburb of Dublin, Ireland. It lies close to Junction 5 of the M50 motorway, and the N2 road. Nearby suburbs include Glasnevin and Ballymun; Dublin Airport is to the north. Finglas lies mainly in the postal district of Dublin 11.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8504, 14560, 336922, 1107980, 12862, 382639, 293794, 961703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 53 ], [ 55, 62 ], [ 100, 112 ], [ 122, 129 ], [ 154, 163 ], [ 168, 176 ], [ 178, 192 ], [ 257, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finglas is the core of a civil parish of the same name in the barony of Castleknock.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 48791535, 4219233, 28022736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 54 ], [ 62, 68 ], [ 72, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name Finglas (), meaning clear streamlet, is derived from the Finglas River, which passed through the historic settlement.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The centre of Finglas lies on a rise overlooking the valley of the River Tolka, at an altitude of . The Tolka runs through western and southern Finglas, and forms part of the boundary between Finglas and Glasnevin. Flowing from the north is the stream, the Finglas River, for which the area is named, forming in turn from branches from the townlands of Grange and Kildonan to the north. After meeting a tributary, the St. Margaret's Road Stream, the Finglas flows through the village centre in culvert, and along the eastern side of Finglas Road, joining the Tolka at Finglas Bridge. To the west of the village centre rises the Finglaswood Stream, which joins the River Tolka via an Integrated Constructed Wetland near a small civic golf course.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 4469650, 1202852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 78 ], [ 687, 717 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finglas was originally the site of an Early Christian abbey, the origin of which has been associated, from early times, with the name of St. Cainnech, or Canice, the patron of Kilkenny, said to have founded it in 560 A.D. According to an ancient legend, the ground on which Finglas stands had been sanctified by St. Patrick, who is said to have uttered a prophecy that a great town would arise at the ford of hurdles in the vale beneath. The Nethercross from the first abbey can be seen today in the old graveyard.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14117, 2144166, 92621, 8161655, 87334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 53 ], [ 137, 149 ], [ 176, 184 ], [ 312, 323 ], [ 355, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "St. Canice is said to have been born at Glengiven near Derry. Several primary schools and churches in the area have been named after Canice, including the local Church of Ireland church (built in 1843) and Roman Catholic church (built in 1920 on the site of a much earlier mass house).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9055, 168130, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 60 ], [ 161, 178 ], [ 206, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Finglas or Finglass family, who were prominent in the legal profession and in politics in the sixteenth century, took their name from the district.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1649, the Duke of Ormonde used Finglas as a staging post for his army before launching an unsuccessful Siege of Dublin.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 192979, 55408278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ], [ 106, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the Battle of the Boyne in 1690, Finglas was used as a camp for four days by William of Orange en route to Dublin city. While there he issued the Declaration of Finglas, offering a pardon for many of James II's defeated supporters.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 68318, 47387, 48000594, 5243711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 33 ], [ 87, 104 ], [ 156, 178 ], [ 210, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1932, Ireland's first commercial airport was set up at Kildonan in Finglas. It was the site for the first Irish commercial aircraft, a Desoutter Mark II aircraft \"EI-AAD\", and the first commercial air taxi service, the Iona National Air Taxis and Flying School.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9000690, 9692085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 155 ], [ 222, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1950s, Finglas was developed with extensive housing estates, to rehouse many north inner-city Dublin residents. Many of these housing estates particularly in Finglas West were named after prominent Irish republicans from early 20th-century Irish history including Barry, Casement, Plunkett, Mellows, McKee, Clune and Clancy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 772738, 1168719, 25730, 330662, 2218736, 4536177, 15274148, 15149295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 222 ], [ 271, 276 ], [ 278, 286 ], [ 288, 296 ], [ 298, 305 ], [ 307, 312 ], [ 314, 319 ], [ 324, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the village centre are a range of shops, including one of the first-established Superquinn stores (since rebranded as SuperValu), banking facilities, pubs and restaurants. To the north are several light industrial estates.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Amenities", "target_page_ids": [ 886857, 996358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 93 ], [ 121, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charlestown Shopping Centre and Clearwater Shopping Centre, are located outside the village core, to the north and south of Finglas respectively.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Amenities", "target_page_ids": [ 24141856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finglas is home to one of Dublin's four Road Safety Authority Driving Testing Centres, which is located in Jamestown Business Park.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Amenities", "target_page_ids": [ 21494751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Finglas Maypole Arts Festival was launched in 2019. In its first year, the festival committee was part of a steering group that got the first blue plaque in Finglas – to honour the uileann piper Séamus Ennis.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Amenities", "target_page_ids": [ 1919737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are 13 primary and national schools in the Finglas area, and 6 secondary schools. Coláiste Íde College of Further Education is located in Finglas West and offers third level courses.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 552759, 554992, 27367553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 41 ], [ 69, 86 ], [ 88, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Rugby Union club Unidare RFC and the GAA club Erins Isle are based in the area. Soccer clubs include Tolka Rovers F.C., Valley Park United, WFTA Football Club, Willows FC and Finglas Celtic FC, Rivermount Football Club and Beneavin F.C.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 25405, 4173388, 243648, 8209111, 11438322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 21, 32 ], [ 41, 44 ], [ 50, 60 ], [ 105, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finglas is served by a number of bus routes operated by Dublin Bus and Go-Ahead Ireland. These include the 9, 17A, 40, 40B, 40D, 40E, 83, 83A,140 & 220. The main route serving the area is the number 40 which runs between Charlestown Shopping Centre and Liffey Valley via Dublin city centre. A new route, the 40E, was also introduced from Tyrellstown to provide a direct link to the extended Luas Green Line in Broombridge. Other routes serving the area include the 17A which runs between Kilbarrack to Blanchardstown, the 140 which runs to Rathmines via the city centre and the 83 which runs to Kimmage via Glasnevin and the city centre. It is also served by the 88N Nitelink service. Two Bus Éireann routes also serve Finglas, passing along the main Finglas Road, including the 103 from Duleek/Kilmoon Cross/Ashbourne to the city centre.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 497845, 57885255, 1495471, 3923932, 692927, 5395963, 3628425, 623820, 1064340, 58276927, 12862, 497860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 66 ], [ 71, 87 ], [ 253, 266 ], [ 338, 349 ], [ 391, 395 ], [ 410, 421 ], [ 488, 498 ], [ 502, 516 ], [ 540, 549 ], [ 595, 602 ], [ 607, 616 ], [ 689, 700 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finglas is in the jurisdiction of Dublin City Council, and for local elections it is part of the Finglas-Ballymun local electoral area.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Representation and governance", "target_page_ids": [ 421656, 1430911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 53 ], [ 114, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finglas is part of the Dublin North-West constituency for elections to Dáil Éireann.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Representation and governance", "target_page_ids": [ 1824917, 40038072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 40 ], [ 71, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The civil parish of Finglas is a civil parish in the barony of Castleknock.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Representation and governance", "target_page_ids": [ 48791535, 30113989, 4219233, 28022736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 33, 45 ], [ 53, 59 ], [ 63, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finglas has been the home of a number of public figures including:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dermot Bolger, writer and poet, whose novels The Woman's Daughter and Night Shift are set in Finglas", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 3185824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paul \"Bono\" Hewson, lead singer of U2", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 76772, 52780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 35, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles Bowden, Irish criminal ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 33265936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gerard Byrne (born 1958), Irish artist", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 49191098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Declan Cassidy filmmaker, television producer and author", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 44039938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Patrick Clarke (filmmaker) The opening scene from Beyond the Pale (film) was shot in Erin's Isle GAA Club", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 14674099, 29002296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 50, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christy Dignam, Joe Jewell, and Alan Downey, Aslan musicians", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 5811150, 15454512, 21478972, 1993622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 16, 26 ], [ 32, 43 ], [ 45, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Martin Doherty, volunteer for the Provisional Irish Republican Army", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 17215562, 23299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 34, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Regina Doherty, Fine Gael Senator and former Minister for Social Protection", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 31022538, 11252, 64407223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 16, 25 ], [ 45, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eamon \"The Don\" Dunne, Irish crime boss", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 40890519, 2029109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 29, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dessie Ellis, Sinn Féin TD", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 11346543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Séamus Ennis, Uilleann piper", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 1919737, 92979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 14, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mairead Farrell, radio and television personality", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 18547639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pat Fenlon, Football manager ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 2532849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tony Fenton, Today FM DJ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 7020784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Patrick Finglas (died 1537), Lord Chief Justice of Ireland", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 31421882, 375837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 29, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Fogarty CSSp, Superior General of the Congregation of the Holy Spirit", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 36559824, 5311898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 43, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Niamh Kavanagh, Eurovision Song Contest 1993 winner, and Irish representative for the Eurovision Song Contest 2010", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 2225987, 184953, 23626974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 16, 44 ], [ 86, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dick McKee, volunteer for the Irish Republican Army", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 4536177, 2261091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 30, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Colm Meaney, actor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 178888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brendan O'Carroll, comedian and actor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 5478263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stephen O'Rahilly, Chair of Clinical Biochemistry and Medicine at the University of Cambridge. Endocrinologist and scientist researching obesity and diabetes", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 37120053, 56435, 40017873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 137, 144 ], [ 149, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spiral, a former Big Brother contestant, who wrote, performed and released a song about Finglas", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 3788581, 861172, 6394233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 17, 28 ], [ 75, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "And in sport:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Irish international footballers: Ronnie Whelan, Frank Stapleton, David O'Leary, Mark Kinsella, Stephen Kelly, Alan Moore, and footballers John Keogh, Cliff Byrne, and Derek Brazil.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 578510, 1197041, 1796571, 1109366, 3499990, 2506531, 7211100, 13876138, 7543366, 11994213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 33, 46 ], [ 48, 63 ], [ 65, 78 ], [ 80, 93 ], [ 95, 108 ], [ 110, 120 ], [ 138, 148 ], [ 150, 161 ], [ 167, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All Ireland winning Dublin GAA players: Barney Rock, Jason Sherlock, James McCarthy and Charlie Redmond", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 885732, 2759665, 4548590, 4522333, 32453726, 6811641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 20, 30 ], [ 40, 51 ], [ 53, 67 ], [ 69, 83 ], [ 88, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of towns and villages in Ireland", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38203276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of abbeys and priories in Ireland (County Dublin)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 142612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 55 ] ] } ]

[ "Finglas", "Towns_and_villages_in_Dublin_(city)" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Tantalus ( ) was a Greek mythological figure, most famous for his punishment in Tartarus: he was made to stand in a pool of water beneath a fruit tree with low branches, with the fruit ever eluding his grasp, and the water always receding before he could take a drink. He was also called Atys.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23416994, 57095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 37 ], [ 80, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was the father of Pelops, Niobe and Broteas, and was a son of Zeus and the nymph Plouto. Thus, like other heroes in Greek mythology such as Theseus (his great-great-grandson) and the Dioskouroi, Tantalus had both a hidden, divine parent and a mortal one.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 82813, 78968, 4336285, 34398, 22058, 84716, 31255, 60790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 27 ], [ 29, 34 ], [ 39, 46 ], [ 65, 69 ], [ 78, 83 ], [ 84, 90 ], [ 143, 150 ], [ 186, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Greeks used the proverb \"Tantalean punishment\" (: ) in reference to those who have good things but are not permitted to enjoy them. His name and punishment are also the source of the English word tantalise, referring to an object of desire that is out of reach.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Plato in the Cratylus (395e) interprets () as () [acc. : in the original], \"who has to bear much\" from () \"wretched\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 22954, 2211169, 2251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 13, 21 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The word () is held by some to be inherited from Proto-Indo-European, although R. S. P. Beekes rejects an Indo-European interpretation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 559297, 2339724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 69 ], [ 80, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There may have been a historical Tantalus, possibly the ruler of an Anatolian city named \"Tantalís\", \"the city of Tantalus\", or of a city named \"Sipylus\". Pausanias reports that there was a port under his name and a sepulcher of him \"by no means obscure\", in the same region.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical background", "target_page_ids": [ 854, 416255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 76 ], [ 155, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tantalus is sometimes referred to as \"King of Phrygia\", although his city was located in the western extremity of Anatolia, where Lydia was to emerge as a state before the beginning of the first millennium BC, and not in the traditional heartland of Phrygia, situated more inland. References to his son as \"Pelops the Lydian\" led some scholars to the conclusion that there would be good grounds for believing that he belonged to a primordial house of Lydia, but there is no doubt that he was Greek.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical background", "target_page_ids": [ 21491716, 854, 18039, 18039, 42056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 53 ], [ 114, 122 ], [ 130, 135 ], [ 451, 456 ], [ 492, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other versions name his father as Tmolus, the name of a king of Lydia and, like Sipylus, of another mountain in ancient Lydia. The location of Tantalus' mortal mountain-fathers generally placed him in Lydia; and more seldom in Phrygia or Paphlagonia, all in Asia Minor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical background", "target_page_ids": [ 67222751, 496766, 21491716, 248871, 854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 40 ], [ 56, 69 ], [ 227, 234 ], [ 239, 250 ], [ 259, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The identity of his wife is variously given: generally as Dione the daughter of Atlas; the Pleiad Taygete, daughter of Atlas; Eurythemista, a daughter of the river-god Xanthus; Euryanassa, daughter of Pactolus, another river-god of Anatolia, like the Xanthus; Clytia, the child of Amphidamantes; and Eupryto. Tantalus was also called the father of Dascylus.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical background", "target_page_ids": [ 39955403, 47428, 852638, 83089, 2931899, 81939, 2931887, 693105, 32959019, 2672836, 84499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 63 ], [ 80, 85 ], [ 91, 97 ], [ 98, 105 ], [ 126, 138 ], [ 168, 175 ], [ 177, 187 ], [ 201, 209 ], [ 260, 266 ], [ 281, 294 ], [ 348, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tantalus, through Pelops, was the progenitor of the House of Atreus, which was named after his grandson Atreus. Tantalus was also the great-grandfather of Agamemnon and Menelaus.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical background", "target_page_ids": [ 82813, 80577, 80577, 1544, 46299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 52, 67 ], [ 104, 110 ], [ 155, 164 ], [ 169, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The geographer Strabo states that the wealth of Tantalus was derived from the mines of Phrygia and Mount Sipylus. Near Mount Sipylus are archaeological features that have been associated with Tantalus and his house since Antiquity. Near Mount Yamanlar in İzmir (ancient Smyrna), where the Lake Karagöl (Lake Tantalus) associated with the accounts surrounding him is found, is a monument mentioned by Pausanias: the tholos \"tomb of Tantalus\" (later Christianized as \"Saint Charalambos' tomb\") and another one in Mount Sipylus, and where a \"throne of Pelops\", an altar or bench carved in rock and conjecturally associated with his son is found.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical background", "target_page_ids": [ 52121, 880468, 2255222, 580279, 50562, 416255, 17694086, 621178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 21 ], [ 99, 112 ], [ 237, 251 ], [ 255, 260 ], [ 270, 276 ], [ 400, 409 ], [ 415, 421 ], [ 448, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Based on a similarity between the names Tantalus and Hantili, it has been suggested that the name Tantalus may have derived from that of these two Hittite kings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical background", "target_page_ids": [ 4353374, 13308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 60 ], [ 147, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tantalus became one of the inhabitants of Tartarus, the deepest portion of the Underworld, reserved for the punishment of evildoers; there Odysseus saw him. The association of Tantalus with the underworld is underscored by the names of his mother Plouto (\"riches\", as in gold and other mineral wealth), and grandmother, Chthonia (\"earth\").", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 57095, 9897, 22537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 50 ], [ 122, 126 ], [ 139, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tantalus was initially known for having been welcomed to Zeus' table in Olympus, like Ixion. There, he is said to have abused Zeus' hospitality and stolen ambrosia and nectar to bring it back to his people, and revealed the secrets of the gods.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 34398, 12418604, 83872, 2103537, 1369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 61 ], [ 72, 79 ], [ 86, 91 ], [ 132, 143 ], [ 155, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most famously, Tantalus offered up his son, Pelops, as a sacrifice. He cut Pelops up, boiled him, and served him up in a banquet for gods in order to test their omniscience. The gods became aware of the gruesome nature of the menu, so they did not touch the offering; only Demeter, distraught by the loss of her daughter, Persephone, absentmindedly ate part of the boy's shoulder.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 82813, 8230, 24253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 50 ], [ 273, 280 ], [ 322, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clotho, one of the three Fates, was ordered by Zeus to bring the boy to life again. She collected the parts of the body and boiled them in a sacred cauldron, rebuilding his shoulder with one wrought of ivory made by Hephaestus and presented by Demeter.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 79318, 79317, 251033, 14388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 25, 30 ], [ 148, 156 ], [ 216, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The revived Pelops grew to be an extraordinarily handsome youth. The god Poseidon took him to Mount Olympus to teach him to use chariots. Later, Zeus threw Pelops out of Olympus due to his anger at Tantalus.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 22948, 45748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 81 ], [ 128, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tantalus's punishment for his act was to stand in a pool of water beneath a fruit tree with low branches. Whenever he reached for the fruit, the branches raised his intended meal from his grasp. Whenever he bent down to get a drink, the water receded before he could get any.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Over his head towers a threatening stone (mentioned in Pindar's 8th Isthmian ode, lines 10–12) like the one that Sisyphus is punished to roll up a hill. This fate has cursed him with eternal deprivation of nourishment.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 75864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a different story, Tantalus was blamed for indirectly having stolen the dog made of gold created by Hephaestus (god of metals and smithing) for Rhea to watch over infant Zeus. Tantalus's friend Pandareus stole the dog and gave it to Tantalus for safekeeping. When asked later by Pandareus to return the dog, Tantalus denied that he had it, saying he \"had neither seen nor heard of a golden dog.\" According to Robert Graves in The Greek Myths, this incident is why an enormous stone hangs over Tantalus's head. Others state that it was Tantalus who stole the dog, and gave it to Pandareus for safekeeping.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 14388, 84634, 39345, 1267520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 113 ], [ 197, 206 ], [ 412, 425 ], [ 429, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tantalus was also the founder of the cursed House of Atreus in which variations on these atrocities continued. Misfortunes also occurred as a result of these acts, making the house the subject of many Greek tragedies. Tantalus's grave-sanctuary stood on Sipylus but honours were paid him at Argos, where local tradition claimed to possess his bones. In Lesbos, there was another hero-shrine in the small settlement of Polion and a mountain named after Tantalos.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 80577, 57993, 880468, 70011, 2633994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 59 ], [ 207, 216 ], [ 254, 261 ], [ 291, 296 ], [ 353, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Greek mythology, there are several other characters named Tantalus, minor figures and descendants of the above Tantalus. Broteas is said to have had a son named Tantalus, who ruled over either the city of Pisa in the Peloponnesus or of Lydia in present-day Turkey. This Tantalus was the first husband of Clytemnestra. He was slain by Agamemnon, King of Mycenae, who made Clytemnestra his wife. The third Tantalus was a son of Amphion and Niobe, daughter of the infamous Tantalus. The fourth Tantalus was a son of Thyestes, who was murdered by his uncle Atreus, and fed to his unsuspecting father.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other characters with the same name", "target_page_ids": [ 58907978, 8716525, 4431888, 45749, 18039, 6000418, 1544, 37548, 78973, 60788, 78968, 80586, 80577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 54 ], [ 152, 172 ], [ 208, 212 ], [ 220, 232 ], [ 239, 244 ], [ 307, 319 ], [ 337, 346 ], [ 356, 363 ], [ 422, 425 ], [ 429, 436 ], [ 441, 446 ], [ 516, 524 ], [ 556, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lycaon (king of Arcadia)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6929107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Xenia (Greek), the Greek concept of hospitality, which Tantalus is described as breaking", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1556348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 85577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8. Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 99425, 33104637, 660135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 55, 78 ], [ 96, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1–2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Euripides, The Complete Greek Drama, edited by Whitney J. Oates and Eugene O'Neill, Jr. in two volumes. 2. Orestes, translated by Robert Potter. New York. Random House. 1938. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 9808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Euripides, Euripidis Fabulae. vol. 3. Gilbert Murray. Oxford. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1913. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 143691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996, . \"Tantalus\" p. 431", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 13633, 22349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 143691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " pp 57–61 et passim", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 416255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pindar, Odes translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 79616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pindar, The Odes of Pindar including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More (1859–1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 37802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 37802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Strabo, The Geography of Strabo. Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 52121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Strabo, Geographica edited by A. Meineke. Leipzig: Teubner. 1877. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Suida, Suda Encyclopedia translated by Ross Scaife, David Whitehead, William Hutton, Catharine Roth, Jennifer Benedict, Gregory Hays, Malcolm Heath Sean M. Redmond, Nicholas Fincher, Patrick Rourke, Elizabeth Vandiver, Raphael Finkel, Frederick Williams, Carl Widstrand, Robert Dyer, Joseph L. Rife, Oliver Phillips and many others. Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 78815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] } ]

[ "Children_of_Zeus", "Kings_of_Phrygia", "Kings_in_Greek_mythology", "Condemned_souls_in_Tartarus", "Anatolian_characters_in_Greek_mythology", "Characters_in_Greek_mythology", "Deeds_of_Zeus" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Battle of Trafalgar (21 October 1805) was a naval engagement between the British Royal Navy and the combined fleets of the French and Spanish Navies during the War of the Third Coalition (August–December 1805) of the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 201948, 26061, 383256, 156879, 178661, 45420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 64 ], [ 85, 95 ], [ 127, 133 ], [ 138, 152 ], [ 164, 190 ], [ 221, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As part of Napoleon's plans to invade England, the French and Spanish fleets combined to take control of the English Channel and provide the Grande Armée safe passage. The allied fleet, under the command of the French admiral, Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, sailed from the port of Cádiz in the south of Spain on 18 October 1805. They encountered the British fleet under Lord Nelson, recently assembled to meet this threat, in the Atlantic Ocean along the southwest coast of Spain, off Cape Trafalgar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 69880, 9230, 308084, 652673, 52738, 24874360, 1594259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 109, 124 ], [ 141, 153 ], [ 227, 252 ], [ 278, 283 ], [ 367, 378 ], [ 482, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nelson was outnumbered, with 27 British ships of the line to 33 allied ships including the largest warship in either fleet, the Spanish Santísima Trinidad. To address this imbalance, Nelson sailed his fleet directly at the allied battle line's flank, hoping to break it into pieces. Villeneuve had worried that Nelson might attempt this tactic but, for various reasons, had made no plans in case this occurred. The plan worked almost perfectly; Nelson's columns split the Franco-Spanish fleet in three, isolating the rear half from Villeneuve's flag aboard Bucentaure. The allied vanguard sailed off while it attempted to turn around, giving the British temporary superiority over the remainder of their fleet. The ensuing fierce battle resulted in 22 allied ships being lost, while the British lost none.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 93099, 2565987, 1949761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 57 ], [ 136, 154 ], [ 557, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The tactic exposed the leading ships in the British lines to intense fire from multiple ships as they approached the Franco-Spanish lines. Nelson's own led the front column and was almost knocked out of action. Nelson was shot by a French musketeer and died shortly before the battle ended. Villeneuve was captured along with his flagship Bucentaure. He attended Nelson's funeral while a captive on parole in Britain. The senior Spanish fleet officer, Admiral Federico Gravina, escaped with the remnant of the Franco-Spanish fleet (a third of what it had been in number of ships); he died of wounds sustained during the battle five months later.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3546431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 461, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The victory confirmed the naval supremacy Britain had established during the course of the eighteenth century, and was achieved in part through Nelson's departure from prevailing naval tactical orthodoxy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3595931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1805, the First French Empire, under Napoleon Bonaparte, was the dominant military land power on the European continent, while the British Royal Navy controlled the seas. During the course of the war, the British imposed a naval blockade on France, which affected trade and kept the French from fully mobilising their naval resources. Despite several successful evasions of the blockade by the French navy, it failed to inflict a major defeat upon the British, who were able to attack French interests at home and abroad with relative ease.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 21418258, 69880, 293054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 32 ], [ 40, 58 ], [ 232, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the Third Coalition declared war on France, after the short-lived Peace of Amiens, Napoleon renewed his determination to invade Britain. To do so, he needed to ensure that the Royal Navy would be unable to disrupt the invasion flotilla, which would require control of the English Channel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 178661, 91169, 981096, 9230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 71, 86 ], [ 232, 240 ], [ 277, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main French fleets were at Brest in Brittany and at Toulon on the Mediterranean coast. Other ports on the French Atlantic coast harboured smaller squadrons. France and Spain were allied, so the Spanish fleet based in Cádiz and Ferrol was also available.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 797364, 57912, 50992, 19006, 4085805, 52738, 1041712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 22 ], [ 31, 36 ], [ 56, 62 ], [ 70, 83 ], [ 150, 159 ], [ 221, 226 ], [ 231, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The British possessed an experienced and well-trained corps of naval officers. By contrast, some of the best officers in the French navy had either been executed or had left the service during the early part of the French Revolution.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 11188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 215, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vice-Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve had taken command of the French Mediterranean fleet following the death of Latouche Treville. There had been more competent officers, but they had either been employed elsewhere or had fallen from Napoleon's favour. Villeneuve had shown a distinct lack of enthusiasm for facing Nelson and the Royal Navy after the French defeat at the Battle of the Nile in 1798.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 652673, 1958400, 4606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 38 ], [ 114, 131 ], [ 374, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Napoleon's naval plan in 1805 was for the French and Spanish fleets in the Mediterranean and Cádiz to break through the blockade and join forces in the Caribbean. They would then return, assist the fleet in Brest to emerge from the blockade, and together clear the English Channel of Royal Navy ships, ensuring a safe passage for the invasion barges.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 18956035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early in 1805, Vice Admiral Lord Nelson commanded the British fleet blockading Toulon. Unlike William Cornwallis, who maintained a close blockade off Brest with the Channel Fleet, Nelson adopted a loose blockade in the hope of luring the French out for a major battle, saying; 'to be able to get at the enemy you must let them come out to you, if you cannot get at them. However, Villeneuve's fleet successfully evaded Nelson's when the British were blown off station by storms. Nelson commenced a search of the Mediterranean, supposing that the French intended to make for Egypt, but Villeneuve instead took his fleet through the Strait of Gibraltar, rendezvoused with the Spanish fleet in Cádiz, and sailed as planned for the Caribbean. Once Nelson realised that the French were crossing the Atlantic Ocean, he set off in pursuit. He missed them by just days in the West Indies as a result of false information.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 69475, 50992, 2299052, 293054, 3440089, 8087628, 28181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ], [ 79, 85 ], [ 94, 112 ], [ 131, 145 ], [ 165, 178 ], [ 574, 579 ], [ 631, 650 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having lured the British to the West Indies Villeneuve returned from the Caribbean to Europe, intending to break the blockade at Brest. Nelson, still in fear for Egypt, made to return to the Mediterranean. Luckily the fast sailing corvette taking word of his plans back to the admiralty spotted the French heading further north. On receiving this intelligence Lord Barham was alive to the enemy strategy and immediately ordered Admiral William Cornwallis to combine his squadron with that of Vice Admiral Sir Robert Calder off Ferrol and to stretch out thirty to forty leagues into the Atlantic to block the French from entering the Channel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 9239, 603479, 2299052, 1614777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 92 ], [ 361, 372 ], [ 437, 455 ], [ 510, 523 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Calder intercepted the French resulting in an inconclusive engagement during the Battle of Cape Finisterre in which two of the Spanish ships were captured. Villeneuve abandoned his plan and sailed back to Ferrol in northern Spain. There he received orders from Napoleon to return to Brest according to the main plan.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 1614003, 1041712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 106 ], [ 205, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Napoleon's invasion plans for Britain depended on having a sufficiently large number of ships of the line before Boulogne in France. This would require Villeneuve's force of 33 ships to join Vice-Admiral Ganteaume's force of 21 ships at Brest, along with a squadron of five ships under Captain Allemand, which would have given him a combined force of 59 ships of the line.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 128242, 9910719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 121 ], [ 204, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Villeneuve set sail from Ferrol on 10 August, he was under orders from Napoleon to sail northward toward Brest. Instead, he worried that the British were observing his manoeuvres, so on 11 August, he sailed southward towards Cádiz on the southwestern coast of Spain. With no sign of Villeneuve's fleet, on 25 August, the three French army corps' invasion force near Boulogne broke camp and marched into Germany, where it was later engaged. This ended the immediate threat of invasion.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The same month, Admiral Lord Nelson returned home to Britain after two years of duty at sea. He remained ashore for 25days and was warmly received by his countrymen. Word reached Britain on 2 September about the combined French and Spanish fleet in Cádiz harbour. Nelson had to wait until 15 September before his ship, HMS Victory, was ready to sail.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 29302821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 319, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 15 August, Cornwallis decided to detach 20 ships of the line from the fleet guarding the English Channel to sail southward to engage the enemy forces in Spain. This left the Channel short of large vessels, with only 11 ships of the line present. This detached force formed the nucleus of the British fleet at Trafalgar. This fleet, under the command of Vice-Admiral Calder, reached Cádiz on 15 September. Nelson joined the fleet on 28 September to take command.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The British fleet used frigates (faster, but too fragile for the line of battle), to keep a constant watch on the harbour, while the main force remained out of sight, approximately 50miles (80km) west of the shore. Nelson's hope was to lure the combined Franco-Spanish force out and engage it in a decisive battle. The force watching the harbour was led by Captain Blackwood, commanding HMS Euryalus. His squadron of seven ships comprised five frigates, a schooner, and a brig.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 11464, 2435953, 2305154, 62413, 182976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 30 ], [ 365, 374 ], [ 387, 399 ], [ 456, 464 ], [ 472, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At this point, Nelson's fleet badly needed provisioning. On 2 October, five ships of the line, HMS Queen, Canopus, Spencer, Zealous, Tigre, and the frigate HMS Endymion were dispatched to Gibraltar under Rear-Admiral Sir Thomas Louis for supplies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 1168498, 16749601, 13229388, 11785059, 10795943, 4421338, 7607314, 16674534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 104 ], [ 106, 113 ], [ 115, 122 ], [ 124, 131 ], [ 133, 138 ], [ 156, 168 ], [ 188, 197 ], [ 204, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These ships were later diverted for convoy duty in the Mediterranean, although Nelson had expected them to return. Similarly, HMS Superb under Captain Richard Goodwin Keats had been sent to the dockyard for a re-fit after four years at sea including the chase of Villeneuve and was expected to return to the fleet where Keats was to be Nelson's second, but the ship was not released in time. Other British ships continued to arrive, and by 15 October the fleet was up to full strength for the battle. Nelson also lost Calder's flagship, the 98-gun Prince of Wales, which he sent home as Calder had been recalled by the Admiralty to face a court-martial for his apparent lack of aggression during the engagement off Cape Finisterre on 22 July.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 19006, 1280993, 1897248, 188719, 12836881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 68 ], [ 126, 136 ], [ 151, 172 ], [ 527, 535 ], [ 548, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meanwhile, Villeneuve's fleet in Cádiz was also suffering from a serious supply shortage that could not be easily rectified by the cash-poor French. The blockade maintained by the British fleet had made it difficult for the Franco-Spanish allies to obtain stores, and their ships were ill-equipped. Villeneuve's ships were also more than two thousand men short of the force needed to sail. These were not the only problems faced by the Franco-Spanish fleet. The main French ships of the line had been kept in harbour for years by the British blockade with only brief sorties. The French crews included few experienced sailors, and, as most of the crew had to be taught the elements of seamanship on the few occasions when they got to sea, gunnery was neglected. The hasty voyage across the Atlantic and back used up vital supplies. Villeneuve's supply situation began to improve in October, but news of Nelson's arrival made Villeneuve reluctant to leave port. His captains had held a vote on the matter and decided to stay in harbour.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 16 September, Napoleon gave orders for the French and Spanish ships at Cádiz to put to sea at the first favourable opportunity, join with seven Spanish ships of the line then at Cartagena, go to Naples and land the soldiers they carried to reinforce his troops there, then fight decisively if they met a numerically inferior British fleet.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 38101530, 55880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 190 ], [ 198, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 21 October, Admiral Nelson had 27 ships of the line under his command. Nelson's flagship, HMS Victory, captained by Thomas Masterman Hardy, was one of three 100-gun first-rates in his fleet. He also had four 98-gun second-rates and 20 third-rates. One of the third rates was an 80-gun vessel, and 16 were 74-gun vessels. The remaining three were 64-gun ships, which were being phased out of the Royal Navy at the time of the battle. Nelson also had four frigates of 38 or 36 guns, a 12-gun schooner and a 10-gun cutter.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Fleets", "target_page_ids": [ 29302821, 396812, 186796, 594394, 186774, 62413, 541322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 104 ], [ 119, 141 ], [ 168, 178 ], [ 218, 229 ], [ 238, 248 ], [ 493, 501 ], [ 515, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Against Nelson, Vice-Admiral Villeneuve, sailing on his flagship Bucentaure, fielded 33 ships of the line, including some of the largest in the world at the time. The Spanish contributed four first-rates to the fleet. Three of these ships, one at 130 guns (Santísima Trinidad) and two at 112 guns (Príncipe de Asturias, Santa Ana), were much larger than anything under Nelson's command. The fourth first-rate carried 100 guns. The fleet had six 80-gun third-rates, (four French and two Spanish), and one Spanish 64-gun third-rate. The remaining 22 third-rates were 74-gun vessels, of which 14 were French and eight Spanish. In total, the Spanish contributed 15 ships of the line and the French 18. The fleet also included five 40-gun frigates and two 18-gun brigs, all French.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Fleets", "target_page_ids": [ 2565987, 182976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 257, 275 ], [ 758, 762 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The prevailing tactical orthodoxy at the time involved manoeuvring to approach the enemy fleet in a single line of battle and then engaging broadside in parallel lines. In previous times, fleets had usually engaged in a mixed mêlée of chaotic one-on-one battles. One reason for the development of the line of battle system was to facilitate control of the fleet: if all the ships were in line, signalling in battle became possible. The line also allowed either side to disengage by breaking away in formation; if the attacker chose to continue, their line would be broken as well. This often led to inconclusive battles, or allowed the losing side to minimise its losses; but Nelson wanted a conclusive action, giving his well-trained crews a chance to fight ship to ship.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 594329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nelson's solution to the problem was to cut the opposing line in three. Approaching in two columns, sailing perpendicular to the enemy's line, one towards the centre of the opposing line and one towards the trailing end, his ships would surround the middle third, and force them to fight to the end. Nelson hoped specifically to cut the line just in front of the French flagship, Bucentaure; the isolated ships in front of the break would not be able to see the flagship's signals, which he hoped would take them out of combat while they re-formed. This echoed the tactics used by Admiral Duncan at the Battle of Camperdown and Admiral Jervis at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent, both in 1797.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 3595931, 359360, 803715, 366228, 58074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 565, 572 ], [ 581, 595 ], [ 603, 623 ], [ 628, 642 ], [ 650, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The plan had three principal advantages. First, the British fleet would close with the Franco-Spanish as quickly as possible, preventing their escape. Second, it would quickly bring on a mêlée and frantic battle by breaking the Franco-Spanish line and inducing a series of individual ship-to-ship actions, in which the British knew they were likely to prevail. Nelson knew that the superior seamanship, faster gunnery and better morale of his crews were great advantages. Third, it would bring a decisive concentration on the rear of the Franco-Spanish fleet. The ships in the van of the enemy fleet would have to turn back to support the rear, which would take a long time. Additionally, once the Franco-Spanish line had been broken, their ships would be relatively defenceless against powerful broadsides from the British fleet, and it would take them a long time to reposition to return fire.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 27047430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 577, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main drawback of attacking head-on was that as the leading British ships approached, the Franco-Spanish Combined Fleet would be able to direct raking broadside fire at their bows, to which they would be unable to reply. To lessen the time the fleet was exposed to this danger, Nelson had his ships make all available sail (including stunsails), yet another departure from the norm. He was also well aware that French and Spanish gunners were ill-trained and would have difficulty firing accurately from a moving gun platform. The Combined Fleet was sailing across a heavy swell, causing the ships to roll heavily and exacerbating the problem. Nelson's plan was indeed a gamble, but a carefully calculated one.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 1653864, 158121, 1155057, 2663672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 153 ], [ 154, 163 ], [ 337, 346 ], [ 576, 581 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the period of blockade off the coast of Spain in October, Nelson instructed his captains, over two dinners aboard Victory, on his plan for the approaching battle. In an animated conversation with his favourite captain, Richard Goodwin Keats, who was expected to be his second in the forthcoming battle, Nelson explained a refined battle plan whilst the two were walking in the garden of Merton in August 1805. The order of sailing, in which the fleet was arranged when the enemy was first sighted, was to be the order of the ensuing action so that no time would be wasted in forming two lines. The first, led by his second-in-command Vice-Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood, was to sail into the rear of the enemy line, while the other, led by Nelson, was to sail into the centre and vanguard. In preparation for the battle, Nelson ordered the ships of his fleet to be painted in a distinctive yellow and black pattern (later known as the Nelson Chequer) that would make them easy to distinguish from their opponents.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 967830, 12091809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 654, 674 ], [ 940, 954 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nelson was careful to point out that something had to be left to chance. Nothing is sure in a sea battle, so he left his captains free from all hampering rules by telling them that \"No captain can do very wrong if he places his ship alongside that of the enemy.\" In short, circumstances would dictate the execution, subject to the guiding rule that the enemy's rear was to be cut off and superior force concentrated on that part of the enemy's line.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 37436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Admiral Villeneuve himself expressed his belief that Nelson would use some sort of unorthodox attack, presciently speculating that Nelson would drive right at his line. But his long game of cat and mouse with Nelson had worn him down, and he was suffering from a loss of nerve. Fearing that his inexperienced officers would be unable to maintain formation in more than one group, he chose to keep the single line that became Nelson's target.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 3729003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Combined Fleet of French and Spanish warships anchored in Cádiz under the leadership of Admiral Villeneuve was in disarray. On 16 September 1805 Villeneuve received orders from Napoleon to sail the Combined Fleet from Cádiz to Naples. At first, Villeneuve was optimistic about returning to the Mediterranean, but soon had second thoughts. A war council was held aboard his flagship, Bucentaure, on 8 October. While some of the French captains wished to obey Napoleon's orders, the Spanish captains and other French officers, including Villeneuve, thought it best to remain in Cádiz. Villeneuve changed his mind yet again on 18 October 1805, ordering the Combined Fleet to sail immediately even though there were only very light winds.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 1949761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 387, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sudden change was prompted by a letter Villeneuve had received on 18 October, informing him that Vice-Admiral François Rosily had arrived in Madrid with orders to take command of the Combined Fleet. Stung by the prospect of being disgraced before the fleet, Villeneuve resolved to go to sea before his successor could reach Cádiz. At the same time, he received intelligence that a detachment of six British ships (Admiral Louis' squadron), had docked at Gibraltar, thus weakening the British fleet. This was used as the pretext for sudden change.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 22505664, 41188263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 129 ], [ 145, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The weather, however, suddenly turned calm following a week of gales. This slowed the progress of the fleet leaving the harbour, giving the British plenty of warning. Villeneuve had drawn up plans to form a force of four squadrons, each containing both French and Spanish ships. Following their earlier vote on 8 October to stay put, some captains were reluctant to leave Cádiz, and as a result they failed to follow Villeneuve's orders closely and the fleet straggled out of the harbour in no particular formation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It took most of 20 October for Villeneuve to get his fleet organised; it eventually set sail in three columns for the Straits of Gibraltar to the southeast. That same evening, Achille spotted a force of 18 British ships of the line in pursuit. The fleet began to prepare for battle and during the night, they were ordered into a single line. The following day, Nelson's fleet of 27 ships of the line and four frigates was spotted in pursuit from the northwest with the wind behind it. Villeneuve again ordered his fleet into three columns, but soon changed his mind and restored a single line. The result was a sprawling, uneven formation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 2445948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At 5:40a.m. on 21 October, the British were about 21miles (34km) to the northwest of Cape Trafalgar, with the Franco-Spanish fleet between the British and the Cape. About 6a.m., Nelson gave the order to prepare for battle. At 8a.m., the British frigate Euryalus, which had been keeping watch on the Combined Fleet overnight, observed the British fleet still \"forming the lines\" in which it would attack.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At 8a.m., Villeneuve ordered the fleet to wear together (turn about) and return to Cádiz. This reversed the order of the allied line, placing the rear division under Rear-Admiral Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley in the vanguard. The wind became contrary at this point, often shifting direction. The very light wind rendered manoeuvring virtually impossible for all but the most expert seamen. The inexperienced crews had difficulty with the changing conditions, and it took nearly an hour and a half for Villeneuve's order to be completed. The French and Spanish fleet now formed an uneven, angular crescent, with the slower ships generally to leeward and closer to the shore.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 2415679, 276852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 204 ], [ 637, 644 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 11a.m. Nelson's entire fleet was visible to Villeneuve, drawn up in two parallel columns. The two fleets would be within range of each other within an hour. Villeneuve was concerned at this point about forming up a line, as his ships were unevenly spaced in an irregular formation drawn out nearly five miles (8km) long as Nelson's fleet approached.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As the British drew closer, they could see that the enemy was not sailing in a tight order, but in irregular groups. Nelson could not immediately make out the French flagship as the French and Spanish were not flying command pennants.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nelson was outnumbered and outgunned, the enemy totalling nearly 30,000 men and 2,568 guns to his 17,000 men and 2,148 guns. The Franco-Spanish fleet also had six more ships of the line, and so could more readily combine their fire. There was no way for some of Nelson's ships to avoid being \"doubled on\" or even \"trebled on\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As the two fleets drew closer, anxiety began to build among officers and sailors; one British sailor described the approach thus: \"During this momentous preparation, the human mind had ample time for meditation, for it was evident that the fate of England rested on this battle\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The battle progressed largely according to Nelson's plan. At 11:45, Nelson sent the flag signal, \"England expects that every man will do his duty\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 879180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term \"England\" was widely used at the time to refer to the United Kingdom; the British fleet included significant contingents from Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Unlike the photographic depiction above, this signal would have been shown on the mizzen mast only and would have required 12 lifts.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 917817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 247, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the battle opened, the French and Spanish were in a ragged curved line headed north. As planned, the British fleet was approaching the Franco-Spanish line in two columns. Leading the northern, windward column in Victory was Nelson, while Collingwood in the 100-gun Royal Sovereign led the second, leeward, column. The two British columns approached from the west at nearly a right angle to the allied line. Nelson led his column into a feint toward the van of the Franco-Spanish fleet and then abruptly turned toward the actual point of attack. Collingwood altered the course of his column slightly so that the two lines converged at this line of attack.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 276852, 1286867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 196, 204 ], [ 268, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Just before his column engaged the allied forces, Collingwood said to his officers: \"Now, gentlemen, let us do something today which the world may talk of hereafter.\" Because the winds were very light during the battle, all the ships were moving extremely slowly, and the foremost British ships were under heavy fire from several of the allied ships for almost an hour before their own guns could bear.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At noon, Villeneuve sent the signal \"engage the enemy\", and Fougueux fired her first trial shot at Royal Sovereign. Royal Sovereign had all sails out and, having recently had her bottom cleaned, outran the rest of the British fleet. As she approached the allied line, she came under fire from Fougueux, Indomptable, San Justo, and San Leandro, before breaking the line just astern of Admiral Alava's flagship Santa Ana, into which she fired a devastating double-shotted raking broadside. On board Victory, Nelson pointed to Royal Sovereign and said, \"See how that noble fellow Collingwood carries his ship into action!\" At approximately the same moment, Collingwood remarked to his captain, Edward Rotheram, \"What would Nelson give to be here?\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 2444399, 2445848, 31486255, 1597900, 7904283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 68 ], [ 303, 314 ], [ 409, 418 ], [ 455, 469 ], [ 691, 706 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The second ship in the British lee column, Belleisle, was engaged by L'Aigle, Achille, Neptune, and Fougueux; she was soon completely dismasted, unable to manoeuvre and largely unable to fight, as her sails blinded her batteries, but kept flying her flag for 45minutes until the following British ships came to her rescue.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 2050594, 2416439, 2444258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 52 ], [ 69, 76 ], [ 87, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For 40minutes, Victory was under fire from Héros, Santísima Trinidad, Redoutable, and Neptune; although many shots went astray, others killed and wounded a number of her crew and shot her wheel away, so that she had to be steered from her tiller belowdecks, all before she could respond. At 12:45, Victory cut the enemy line between Villeneuve's flagship Bucentaure and Redoutable; she came close to Bucentaure, firing a devastating raking broadside through Bucentaure stern which killed and wounded many on her gundecks. Villeneuve thought that boarding would take place, and with the Eagle of his ship in hand, told his men, \"I will throw it onto the enemy ship and we will take it back there!\" However Victory engaged the 74-gun Redoutable; Bucentaure was left to the next three ships of the British windward column: Temeraire, Conqueror, and .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 2444466, 2565987, 1946932, 1047037, 1507963, 1513685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 48 ], [ 50, 68 ], [ 70, 80 ], [ 586, 591 ], [ 821, 830 ], [ 832, 841 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A general mêlée ensued. Victory locked masts with the French Redoutable, whose crew, including a strong infantry corps (with three captains and four lieutenants), gathered for an attempt to board and seize Victory. A musket bullet fired from the mizzentop of Redoutable struck Nelson in the left shoulder, passed through his spine at the sixth and seventh thoracic vertebrae, and lodged two inches below his right scapula in the muscles of his back. Nelson exclaimed, \"They finally succeeded, I am dead.\" He was carried below decks.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 185324, 2219513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 217, 223 ], [ 246, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Victorys gunners were called on deck to fight boarders, and she ceased firing. The gunners were forced back below decks by French grenades. As the French were preparing to board Victory, Temeraire, the second ship in the British windward column, approached from the starboard bow of Redoutable and fired on the exposed French crew with a carronade, causing many casualties.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 20353360, 93097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 137 ], [ 338, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At 13:55, the French Captain Lucas of Redoutable, with 99 fit men out of 643 and severely wounded himself, surrendered. The French Bucentaure was isolated by Victory and Temeraire, and then engaged by HMS Neptune, , and Conqueror; similarly, Santísima Trinidad was isolated and overwhelmed, surrendering after three hours.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 6114268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As more and more British ships entered the battle, the ships of the allied centre and rear were gradually overwhelmed. The allied van, after long remaining quiescent, made a futile demonstration and then sailed away. During the combat, Gravina was wounded, while Dionisio Alcalá-Galiano and Cosme Damián Churruca —commanders of the Bahama and San Juan Nepomuceno, respectively— were killed after ordering their ships not to surrender. Gravina died from his wounds months later. The British took 22 vessels of the Franco-Spanish fleet and lost none. Among the captured French ships were L'Aigle, Algésiras, , Bucentaure, Fougueux, Intrépide, Redoutable, and Swiftsure. The Spanish ships taken were Argonauta, Bahama, Monarca, Neptuno, San Agustín, San Ildefonso, San Juan Nepomuceno, Santísima Trinidad, and Santa Ana. Of these, Redoutable sank, and Santísima Trinidad and Argonauta were scuttled by the British. Achille exploded, Intrépide and San Augustín burned, and L'Aigle, Berwick, Fougueux, and Monarca were wrecked in a gale following the battle.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 5408374, 1144559, 2957990, 2416431, 2416274, 6890327, 3296337, 2565987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 286 ], [ 291, 312 ], [ 343, 362 ], [ 595, 604 ], [ 630, 639 ], [ 657, 666 ], [ 734, 745 ], [ 783, 801 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Nelson lay dying, he ordered the fleet to anchor, as a storm was predicted. However, when the storm blew up, many of the severely damaged ships sank or ran aground on the shoals. A few of them were recaptured, some by the French and Spanish prisoners overcoming the small prize crews, others by ships sallying from Cádiz. Surgeon William Beatty heard Nelson murmur, \"Thank God I have done my duty\"; when he returned, Nelson's voice had faded, and his pulse was very weak. He looked up as Beatty took his pulse, then closed his eyes. Nelson's chaplain, Alexander Scott, who remained by Nelson as he died, recorded his last words as \"God and my country.\" It has been suggested by Nelson historian Craig Cabell that Nelson was actually reciting his own prayer as he fell into his death coma, as the words 'God' and 'my country' are closely linked therein. Nelson died at half-past four, three hours after being hit.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 295148, 2570793, 20885558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 180 ], [ 333, 347 ], [ 555, 570 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Towards the end of the battle, and with the combined fleet being overwhelmed, the still relatively un-engaged portion of the van under Rear-Admiral Dumanoir Le Pelley tried to come to the assistance of the collapsing centre. After failing to fight his way through, he decided to break off the engagement, and led four French ships, his flagship the 80-gun Formidable, the 74-gun ships Scipion, Duguay Trouin and Mont Blanc away from the fighting. He headed at first for the Straits of Gibraltar, intending to carry out Villeneuve's original orders and make for Toulon. On 22 October he changed his mind, remembering a powerful British squadron under Rear-Admiral Thomas Louis was patrolling the straits, and headed north, hoping to reach one of the French Atlantic ports. With a storm gathering in strength off the Spanish coast, he sailed westwards to clear Cape St. Vincent, prior to heading north-west, swinging eastwards across the Bay of Biscay, and aiming to reach the French port at Rochefort. These four ships remained at large until their encounter with and attempt to chase a British frigate brought them in range of a British squadron under Sir Richard Strachan, which captured them all on 4 November 1805 at the Battle of Cape Ortegal.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 2137297, 2416185, 2415788, 2416074, 10531901, 49609, 105051, 15796740, 4336292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 356, 366 ], [ 385, 392 ], [ 394, 407 ], [ 412, 422 ], [ 859, 875 ], [ 936, 949 ], [ 990, 999 ], [ 1152, 1172 ], [ 1224, 1246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Only eleven ships escaped to Cádiz, and, of those, only five were considered seaworthy. The seriously wounded Admiral Gravina passed command of the remainder of the fleet over to Commodore Julien Cosmao on 23 October. From shore, the allied commanders could see an opportunity for a rescue mission. Cosmao claimed in his report that the rescue plan was entirely his idea, but Vice-Admiral Escaño recorded a meeting of Spanish and French commodores at which a planned rescue was discussed and agreed upon. Enrique MacDonell and Cosmao were of equal rank and both raised commodore's pennants before hoisting anchor. Both sets of mariners were determined to make an attempt to recapture some of the prizes. Cosmao ordered the rigging of his ship, the 74-gun Pluton, to be repaired and reinforced her crew (which had been depleted by casualties from the battle), with sailors from the French frigate Hermione. Taking advantage of a favourable northwesterly wind, Pluton, the 80-gun Neptune and Indomptable, the Spanish 100-gun Rayo and 74-gun San Francisco de Asís, together with five French frigates and two brigs, sailed out of the harbour towards the British.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 2438382, 31478735, 53260382, 2703277, 23961516, 31495523, 34971143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 202 ], [ 389, 395 ], [ 505, 522 ], [ 755, 761 ], [ 896, 904 ], [ 1023, 1027 ], [ 1039, 1060 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soon after leaving port, the wind shifted to west-southwest, raising a heavy sea with the result that most of the British prizes broke their tow ropes, and drifting far to leeward, were only partially resecured. The combined squadron came in sight at noon, causing Collingwood to summon his most battle-ready ships to meet the threat. In doing so, he ordered them to cast off towing their prizes. He had formed a defensive line of ten ships by three o'clock in the afternoon and approached the Franco-Spanish squadron, covering the remainder of their prizes which stood out to sea. The Franco-Spanish squadron, numerically inferior, chose not to approach within gunshot and then declined to attack. Collingwood also chose not to seek action, and in the confusion of the powerful storm, the French frigates managed to retake two Spanish ships of the line which had been cast off by their British captors, the 112-gun Santa Ana and 80-gun Neptuno, taking them in tow and making for Cádiz. On being taken in tow, the Spanish crews rose up against their British prize crews, putting them to work as prisoners.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 276852, 26739899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 179 ], [ 937, 944 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite this initial success the Franco-Spanish force, hampered by battle damage, struggled in the heavy seas. Neptuno was eventually wrecked off Rota in the gale, while Santa Ana reached port. The French 80-gun ship Indomptable was wrecked on the 24th or 25th off the town of Rota on the northwest point of the bay of Cádiz. At the time Indomptable had 1,200 men on board, but no more than 100 were saved. San Francisco de Asís was driven ashore in Cádiz Bay, near Fort Santa Catalina, although her crew was saved. Rayo, an old three-decker with more than 50 years of service, anchored off Sanlúcar, a few leagues to the northwest of Rota. There, she lost her masts, already damaged in the battle. Heartened by the approach of the squadron, the French crew of the former flagship Bucentaure also rose up and retook the ship from the British prize crew but she was wrecked later on 23 October. Aigle escaped from the British ship HMS Defiance, but was wrecked off the Port of Santa María on 23 October; while the French prisoners on Berwick cut the tow cables, but caused her to founder off Sanlúcar on 22 October. The crew of Algésiras rose up and managed to sail into Cádiz.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 1094653, 10307869, 885424, 1424274, 2416439, 1148704, 1739000, 2416431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 150 ], [ 450, 459 ], [ 591, 599 ], [ 607, 614 ], [ 894, 899 ], [ 930, 942 ], [ 968, 987 ], [ 1127, 1136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Observing that some of the leewardmost of the prizes were escaping towards the Spanish coast, Leviathan asked for and was granted permission by Collingwood to try to retrieve the prizes and bring them to anchor. Leviathan chased Monarca, but on 24 October she came across Rayo, dismasted but still flying Spanish colours, at anchor off the shoals of Sanlúcar. At this point the 74-gun HMS Donegal, en route from Gibraltar under Captain Pulteney Malcolm, was seen approaching from the south on the larboard tack with a moderate breeze from northwest-by-north and steered directly for the Spanish three-decker. At about ten o'clock, just as Monarca had got within little more than a mile of Rayo, Leviathan fired a warning shot wide of Monarca, to oblige her to drop anchor. The shot fell between Monarca and Rayo. The latter, conceiving that it was probably intended for her, hauled down her colours, and was taken by HMS Donegal, who anchored alongside and took off the prisoners. Leviathan resumed her pursuit of Monarca, eventually catching up and forcing her to surrender. On boarding her, her British captors found that she was in a sinking state, and so removed the British prize crew, and nearly all of her original Spanish crew members. The nearly empty Monarca parted her cable and was wrecked during the night. Despite the efforts of her British prize crew, Rayo was driven onshore on 26 October and wrecked, with the loss of 25 men. The remainder of the prize crew were made prisoners by the Spanish.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 45579662, 14320686, 13971413, 28426193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 236 ], [ 385, 396 ], [ 436, 452 ], [ 497, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the aftermath of the storm, Collingwood wrote:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On balance, the allied counter-attack achieved little. In forcing the British to suspend their repairs to defend themselves, it influenced Collingwood's decision to sink or set fire to the most damaged of his remaining prizes. Cosmao retook two Spanish ships of the line, but it cost him one French and two Spanish vessels to do so. Fearing their loss, the British burnt or sank Santísima Trinidad, Argonauta, San Antonio and Intrepide. Only four of the British prizes, the French Swiftsure and the Spanish Bahama, San Ildefonso and San Juan Nepomuceno survived to be taken to Britain. After the end of the battle and storm only nine ships of the line were left in Cádiz.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 2416274, 30594095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 426, 435 ], [ 515, 528 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spanish military garrisons and civilians set out to rescue survivors from the numerous shipwrecks scattered along the Andalusian coast. British prize crews were captured and given good treatment. On 27 October, Collingwood offered the governor of Cádiz to put his Spanish wounded prisoners ashore and set them free. The governor and Gravina offered in exchange to release their British prisoners, who boarded the British fleet. The French would later join this humanitarian agreement.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The disparity in losses has been attributed by some historians less to Nelson's daring tactics than to the difference in fighting readiness of the two fleets. Nelson's fleet was made up of ships of the line which had spent a considerable amount of sea time during the months of blockades of French ports, whilst the French fleet had generally been at anchor in port. However, Villeneuve's fleet had just spent months at sea crossing the Atlantic twice, which supports the proposition that the main difference between the two fleets' combat effectiveness was the morale of the leaders. The daring tactics employed by Nelson were to ensure a strategically decisive result. The results vindicated his naval judgement.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When Rosily arrived in Cádiz, he found only five French ships, rather than the 18 he was expecting. The surviving ships remained bottled up in Cádiz until 1808 when Napoleon invaded Spain. The French ships were then seized by the Spanish forces and put into service against France.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 25537152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "HMS Victory made her way to Gibraltar for repairs, carrying Nelson's body. She put into Rosia Bay, Gibraltar and after emergency repairs were carried out, returned to Britain. Many of the injured crew were taken ashore at Gibraltar and treated in the Naval Hospital. Men who subsequently died from injuries sustained at the battle are buried in or near the Trafalgar Cemetery, at the south end of Main Street, Gibraltar.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 9895191, 1467553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 357, 375 ], [ 397, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One Royal Marine officer was killed on board Victory; Captain Charles Adair. Royal Marine Lieutenant Lewis Buckle Reeve was seriously wounded and laid next to Nelson.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 93985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The battle took place the day after the Battle of Ulm, and Napoleon did not hear about it for weeks—the Grande Armée had left Boulogne to fight Britain's allies before they could combine their armies. He had tight control over the Paris media and kept the defeat a closely guarded secret for over a month, at which point newspapers proclaimed it to have been a tremendous victory. In a counter-propaganda move, a fabricated text declaring the battle a \"spectacular victory\" for the French and Spanish was published in Herald and attributed to Le Moniteur Universel.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 864019, 308084, 15722524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 53 ], [ 104, 116 ], [ 543, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vice-Admiral Villeneuve was taken prisoner aboard his flagship and taken back to Britain. After his parole in 1806, he returned to France, where he was found dead in his inn room during a stop on the way to Paris, with six stab wounds in the chest from a dining knife. It was officially recorded that he had committed suicide.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the British victory over the Franco-Spanish navies, Trafalgar had negligible impact on the remainder of the War of the Third Coalition. Less than two months later, Napoleon decisively defeated the Third Coalition at the Battle of Austerlitz, knocking Austria out of the war and forcing the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. Although Trafalgar meant France could no longer challenge Britain at sea, Napoleon proceeded to establish the Continental System in an attempt to deny Britain trade with the continent. The Napoleonic Wars continued for another ten years after Trafalgar.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 178661, 118372, 13277, 229018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 142 ], [ 228, 248 ], [ 317, 334 ], [ 446, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nelson's body was preserved in a barrel of brandy for the trip home to a hero's funeral.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Following the battle, the Royal Navy was never again seriously challenged by the French fleet in a large-scale engagement. Napoleon had already abandoned his plans of invasion before the battle and they were never revived. The battle did not mean, however, that the French naval challenge to Britain was over. First, as the French control over the continent expanded, Britain had to take active steps with the Battle of Copenhagen in 1807 and elsewhere in 1808 to prevent the ships of smaller European navies from falling into French hands. This effort was largely successful, but did not end the French threat as Napoleon instituted a large-scale shipbuilding programme that had produced a fleet of 80 ships of the line at the time of his fall from power in 1814, with more under construction. In comparison, Britain had 99 ships of the line in active commission in 1814, and this was close to the maximum that could be supported. Given a few more years, the French could have realised their plans to commission 150 ships of the line and again challenge the Royal Navy, compensating for the inferiority of their crews with sheer numbers. For almost 10years after Trafalgar, the Royal Navy maintained a close blockade of French bases and anxiously observed the growth of the French fleet. In the end, Napoleon's Empire was destroyed by land before his ambitious naval buildup could be completed.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Consequences", "target_page_ids": [ 460565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 410, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Royal Navy proceeded to dominate the sea until the Second World War. Although the victory at Trafalgar was typically given as the reason at the time, modern historical analyses suggest that relative economic strength was an important underlying cause of British naval mastery.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Consequences", "target_page_ids": [ 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nelson became – and remains – Britain's greatest naval war hero, and an inspiration to the Royal Navy, yet his unorthodox tactics were seldom emulated by later generations. The first monument to be erected in Britain to commemorate Nelson may be that raised on Glasgow Green in 1806, albeit possibly preceded by a monument at Taynuilt, near Oban in Scotland dated 1805, both also commemorating the many Scots crew and captains at the battle. The Nelson Monument on Glasgow Green was designed by David Hamilton and paid for by public subscription. Around the base are the names of his major victories: Aboukir (1798), Copenhagen (1801) and Trafalgar (1805). The Nelson Monument overlooking Portsmouth was built in 1807–08 with money subscribed by sailors and marines who served at Trafalgar. In 1808, Nelson's Pillar was erected by leading members of the Anglo-Irish aristocracy in Dublin to commemorate Nelson and his achievements (between 10% and 20% of the sailors at Trafalgar had been from Ireland), and remained until it was destroyed in a bombing by \"Old IRA\" members in 1966. Nelson's Monument in Edinburgh was built between 1807 and 1815 in the form of an upturned telescope, and in 1853 a time ball was added which still drops at noon GMT to give a time signal to ships in Leith and the Firth of Forth. In summer this coincides with the one o'clock gun being fired. The Britannia Monument in Great Yarmouth was raised by 1819. Nelson's Column, Montreal began public subscriptions soon after news of the victory at Trafalgar arrived; the column was completed in the autumn of 1809 and still stands in Place Jacques Cartier. A statue of Lord Nelson stood in Bridgetown, Barbados, in what was also once known as Trafalgar Square, from 1813 to 2020.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Consequences", "target_page_ids": [ 1193308, 6577218, 18848063, 1790205, 4606, 150915, 14801135, 23883287, 8504, 2342166, 1080181, 7070301, 816870, 12701, 144749, 144598, 5019090, 98933, 23158912, 1210600, 68203212, 1501417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 261, 274 ], [ 326, 334 ], [ 341, 345 ], [ 496, 510 ], [ 602, 609 ], [ 618, 628 ], [ 658, 700 ], [ 801, 816 ], [ 882, 888 ], [ 1062, 1065 ], [ 1084, 1101 ], [ 1174, 1183 ], [ 1199, 1208 ], [ 1245, 1248 ], [ 1283, 1288 ], [ 1297, 1311 ], [ 1380, 1398 ], [ 1402, 1416 ], [ 1437, 1462 ], [ 1610, 1631 ], [ 1635, 1656 ], [ 1719, 1735 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London's Trafalgar Square was named in honour of Nelson's victory; at the centre of the square there is the Nelson's Column, with a statue of Nelson on top. It was finished in 1843.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Consequences", "target_page_ids": [ 62107, 210610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 25 ], [ 109, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1905, there were events up and down the country to commemorate the centenary, although none were attended by any member of the Royal Family, apparently to avoid upsetting the French, with whom the United Kingdom had recently entered the Entente cordiale. King Edward VII did support the Nelson Centenary Memorial Fund of the British and Foreign Sailors Society, which sold Trafalgar centenary souvenirs marked with the Royal cypher. A gala was held on 21 October at the Royal Albert Hall in aid of the fund, which included a specially commissioned film by Alfred John West entitled Our Navy. The event ended with God Save the King and La Marseillaise The first performance of Sir Henry Wood's Fantasia on British Sea Songs occurred on the same day at a special Promenade Concert.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "100th anniversary", "target_page_ids": [ 188891, 46721, 15045553, 5339439, 179238, 30469778, 12334, 50030, 180714, 5141108, 159359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 240, 256 ], [ 263, 273 ], [ 328, 363 ], [ 422, 434 ], [ 473, 490 ], [ 559, 575 ], [ 616, 633 ], [ 638, 653 ], [ 683, 693 ], [ 696, 725 ], [ 764, 781 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2005 a series of events around the UK, part of the Sea Britain theme, marked the bicentenary of the Battle of Trafalgar. The 200th anniversary of the battle was also commemorated on six occasions in Portsmouth during June and July, at St Paul's Cathedral (where Nelson is entombed), in Trafalgar Square in London in October (T Square 200), and across the UK.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "200th anniversary", "target_page_ids": [ 24207, 102198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 212 ], [ 238, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 28 June, the Queen was involved in the largest Fleet Review in modern times in the Solent, in which 167 ships from 35 nations took part. The Queen inspected the international fleet from the Antarctic patrol ship HMS Endurance. The fleet included six aircraft carriers (modern capital ships): Charles De Gaulle, Illustrious, Invincible, Ocean, Príncipe de Asturias and Saipan. In the evening a symbolic re-enactment of the battle was staged with fireworks and various small ships playing parts in the battle.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "200th anniversary", "target_page_ids": [ 12153654, 2156060, 43229, 247904, 639127, 438979, 247706, 247400, 199109, 648482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 21 ], [ 50, 62 ], [ 86, 92 ], [ 215, 228 ], [ 295, 312 ], [ 314, 325 ], [ 327, 337 ], [ 339, 344 ], [ 346, 366 ], [ 371, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lieutenant John Lapenotière's historic voyage in HMS Pickle bringing the news of the victory from the fleet to Falmouth and thence by post chaise to the Admiralty in London was commemorated by the inauguration of The Trafalgar Way and further highlighted by the New Trafalgar Dispatch celebrations from July to September in which an actor played the part of Lapenotière and re-enacted parts of the historic journey.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "200th anniversary", "target_page_ids": [ 7257148, 1655934, 73311, 2833859, 2988, 4554535, 4554661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ], [ 49, 59 ], [ 111, 119 ], [ 134, 145 ], [ 153, 162 ], [ 213, 230 ], [ 262, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the actual anniversary day, 21 October, naval manoeuvres were conducted in Trafalgar Bay near Cádiz involving a combined fleet from Britain, Spain, and France. Many descendants of people present at the battle, including members of Nelson's family, were at the ceremony.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "200th anniversary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Le Chevalier de Sainte-Hermine (1869), by Alexandre Dumas, is an adventure story in which the main character is alleged to be the one who shot Nelson.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1669902, 157272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ], [ 43, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trafalgar (1873), a Spanish novel about the battle, written by Benito Pérez Galdós and starting point of the historical cycle Episodios Nacionales. It is a fictional account of a boy aboard the Santa Ana.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 898166, 15955138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 83 ], [ 127, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In James Clavell's 1966 novel Tai-Pan, the Scots chieftain of Hong Kong, Dirk Struan, reflects on his experiences as a powder monkey on board HMS Royal Sovereign at Trafalgar.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 16283, 393692, 19677803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 31, 38 ], [ 120, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the unfinished novel Hornblower and the Crisis (1967) in the Horatio Hornblower series by C. S. Forester, Hornblower was to deliver false orders to Villeneuve causing him to send his fleet out of Cádiz and hence fight the battle. In Hornblower and the Atropos (1953), Hornblower is put in charge of Admiral Nelson's funeral in London.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 4784440, 155681, 5769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 50 ], [ 65, 83 ], [ 94, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In Ramage at Trafalgar (1986), by Dudley Pope, Ramage commands the fictitious frigate HMS Calypso, which is attached to Nelson's fleet.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 753017, 954070, 11464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 46 ], [ 48, 54 ], [ 79, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In Sharpe's Trafalgar (2000), by Bernard Cornwell, Sharpe finds himself at the battle aboard the fictitious HMS Pucelle.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3369325, 208551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ], [ 34, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the 2006 novel His Majesty's Dragon, the first of the historical fantasy Temeraire series by Naomi Novik, in which aerial dragon-mounted combat units form major divisions of European militaries during the Napoleonic Wars, Trafalgar is actually a massive feint by Napoleon to distract British forces away from the aerial and seaborne invasion of Britain near Dover. Nelson survives, though he is burned by dragon fire.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 6106468, 5453726, 4734491, 8531, 40419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 39 ], [ 77, 93 ], [ 97, 108 ], [ 126, 132 ], [ 362, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Battle of Trafalgar is a lost 1911 American silent short film directed by J. Searle Dawley and produced by Edison Studios in New York City. Some stills from the production survive and show actor Sydney Booth performing as Nelson on film sets simulating various decks of Victory.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 64196008, 2044294, 26956, 13292289, 1583968, 5653527, 2415054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 30, 34 ], [ 49, 55 ], [ 79, 95 ], [ 112, 126 ], [ 150, 156 ], [ 237, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nelson (also cited Nelson: The Story of England's Immortal Naval Hero) is a silent 1918 British historical film directed by Maurice Elvey and starring Donald Calthrop, Malvina Longfellow and Ivy Close. The screenplay, which includes recreations of the battle, is based on Robert Southey's 1813 biography The Life of Horatio, Lord Viscount Nelson.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 31138323, 1376711, 13825091, 14437294, 12208708, 31827329, 83597, 70509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 97, 112 ], [ 125, 138 ], [ 152, 167 ], [ 169, 187 ], [ 192, 201 ], [ 207, 217 ], [ 273, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nelson is another silent British biographical film that depicts events in the battle. Released in 1926, it features Sir Cedric Hardwicke in the title role.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 31138370, 173445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 117, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " That Hamilton Woman is a 1941 film about Horatio Nelson and Emma, Lady Hamilton and also includes recreations of battle scenes.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3676154, 24874360, 242203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 42, 56 ], [ 61, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Bee Gees's 1971 album is titled Trafalgar", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 149245, 756843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 13 ], [ 37, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bequest to the Nation (released in the US as The Nelson Affair) a 1973 British historical drama film, directed by James Cellan Jones, and starring Glenda Jackson, Peter Finch, and Michael Jayston. The majority of the film revolves around Nelson's shore leave with Lady Hamilton, followed by Nelson's recall to duty and the climatic Battle of Trafalgar.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 27670038, 27670038, 1376711, 1376711, 29407320, 163012, 170975, 1686723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 46, 63 ], [ 80, 90 ], [ 97, 101 ], [ 115, 133 ], [ 148, 162 ], [ 164, 175 ], [ 181, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jonathan Willcocks composed a major choral work, A Great and Glorious Victory, to mark the bicentenary of the battle in October 2005.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 8039737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The BBC marked the bicentenary with Nelson's Trafalgar, a 2005 vivid drama-documentary which took full advantage of the computer-generated effects of the time. Presented by Michael Portillo, the two-disc DVD version runs 76 minutes plus extras. Portillo later revisited the format and the event, presenting the BBC's 2019 drama-documentary The HMS Victory Story.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Admiral over the Oceans\" is a song composed by Swedish Power Metal band, Civil War, detailing the battle from the point of view of a sailor and from Nelson himself.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 183303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Royal Navy ships", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 184125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of ships captured at the Battle of Trafalgar", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33584865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bibliography of 18th-19th century Royal Naval history", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37267823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trafalgar Day", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1027408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Url", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Url", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hannah, P., Keats, A Treasure to the Service, Green Hill, Adelaide, 2021, ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Url", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Attribution:", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Desbrière, Edouard, The Naval Campaign of 1805: Trafalgar, 1907, Paris. English translation by Constance Eastwick, 1933.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cayuela Fernández, José Gregorio, Trafalgar. Hombres y naves entre dos épocas, 2004, Ariel (Barcelona) ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Frasca, Francesco, Il potere marittimo in età moderna, da Lepanto a Trafalgar, 1 st ed. 2008, Lulu Enterprises UK Ltd, , 2 nd ed. 2008, Lulu Enterprises UK Ltd, , 3 rd ed. 2009, Lulu Enterprises UK Ltd, , 4th ed. 2009, Lulu Enterprises UK Ltd, .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hannah, P., A Treasure to the Service, admiral Keats, Green Hill, Adelaide, 2021, ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Harbron, John D., Trafalgar and the Spanish Navy, 1988, London, .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Howarth, David, Trafalgar: The Nelson Touch, 2003, Phoenix Press, .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 6762824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Huskisson, Thomas, Eyewitness to Trafalgar, reprinted in 1985 as a limited edition of 1000; Ellisons' Editions, —the author was half-brother of William Huskisson", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 253865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lambert, Andrew, War at Sea in the Age of Sail, Chapter 8, 2000, London, ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pocock, Tom, Horatio Nelson, Chapter XII, 1987, London, ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pope, Dudley, England Expects (US title Decision at Trafalgar), 1959, Weidenfeld & Nicolson.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Warner, Oliver, Trafalgar. First published 1959 by Batsfordrepublished 1966 by Pan.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nelson's Navy", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Read about French Muster Rolls from the Battle of Trafalgar on The National Archives' website.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Visit HMS Victory at Portsmouth Historic Dockyard", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " HMS Victory Royal Navy Web Site", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nelson's Memorandum – battle plan – in the British Library ", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Interactive guide:Battle of Trafalgar educational presentation by Guardian Unlimited", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 846835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A. J. West's \"Our Navy\": Wreath laying on HMS Victory, October 1905 ", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " BBC Battlefield Academy: Battle of Trafalgar game created by Solaris Media (now Playniac) for the bicentenary.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " BBC video (42 min.) of the re-enactment of the Battle of Trafalgar off Portsmouth on 28 June 2005", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The London Gazette Extraordinary, 6 November 1805 original published dispatches, Naval History: Great Britain, EuroDocs: Primary Historical Documents From Western Europe, Brigham Young University Library. Retrieved 27 July 2006", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Battle_of_Trafalgar", "Battles_of_the_War_of_the_Third_Coalition", "Conflicts_in_1805", "Napoleon's_planned_invasion_of_the_United_Kingdom", "Naval_battles_involving_France", "Naval_battles_involving_Spain", "Naval_battles_involving_the_United_Kingdom", "Naval_battles_of_the_Napoleonic_Wars", "War_of_the_Third_Coalition", "1805_in_Gibraltar", "1805_in_Spain", "19th-century_history_of_the_Royal_Navy", "October_1805_events" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The National Botanic Gardens (Irish: Garraithe Náisiúnta na Lus) is a botanical garden in Glasnevin, 5km north-west of Dublin city centre, Ireland. The 19.5 hectares are situated between Glasnevin Cemetery and the River Tolka where it forms part of the river's floodplain.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 69427, 12862, 8504, 14560, 42180, 4469650, 70117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 86 ], [ 90, 99 ], [ 119, 125 ], [ 139, 146 ], [ 187, 205 ], [ 214, 225 ], [ 261, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The gardens were founded in 1795 by the Dublin Society (later the Royal Dublin Society) and are today in State ownership through the Office of Public Works. They house approximately 20,000 living plants and many millions of dried plant specimens. There are several architecturally notable greenhouses. The Glasnevin site is the headquarters of the National Botanic Gardens of Ireland which has a satellite garden and arboretum at Kilmacurragh in County Wicklow.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1014961, 694224, 338454, 60553015, 33279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 54 ], [ 133, 155 ], [ 418, 427 ], [ 431, 443 ], [ 447, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The gardens participate in national and international initiatives for biodiversity conservation and sustainable development. Director of the Gardens Dr. Matthew Jebb, is also Chairman of PlantNetwork: The Plant Collections Network of Britain and Ireland. It is Ireland's seventh most visited attraction, and the second most visited free attraction.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 45086, 29501, 4856216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 82 ], [ 100, 123 ], [ 153, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poet Thomas Tickell owned a house and small estate in Glasnevin and, in 1795, they were sold to the Irish Parliament and given to the Royal Dublin Society for them to establish Ireland's first botanic gardens. A double line of yew trees, known as \"Addison's Walk\" survives from this period. The original function of the gardens was to advance knowledge of plants for agricultural, medicinal and dyeing purposes. The gardens were the first location in Ireland where the infection responsible for the 1845–1847 Great Famine was identified. Throughout the famine, research to stop the infection was undertaken at the gardens.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 375449, 652301, 1014961, 69427, 229925, 8179, 14726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 19 ], [ 100, 116 ], [ 134, 154 ], [ 193, 208 ], [ 227, 230 ], [ 395, 401 ], [ 509, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Walter Wade and John Underwood, the first Director and Superintendent respectively, executed the layout of the gardens, but, when Wade died in 1825, they declined for some years. From 1834, Director Ninian Nivan brought new life into the gardens, performing some redesign. This programme of change and development continued with the following Directors into the late 1960s.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32831693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The gardens were placed into government care in 1877.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the winter of 1948/9 Ludwig Wittgenstein lived and worked in Ireland. He frequently came to the Palm House to sit and write. There is a plaque commemorating him on the steps he sat on.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 17741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As well as being a tourist destination and an amenity for nearby residents, the gardens – offering free entry – serve as a centre for horticultural research and training, including the breeding of many prized orchids.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Facilities", "target_page_ids": [ 99863, 22719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 38 ], [ 209, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The soil at Glasnevin is strongly alkaline (in horticultural terms) and this restricts the cultivation of calcifuge plants such as rhododendrons to specially prepared areas. Nonetheless, the gardens display a range of outdoor \"habitats\" such as a rockery, herbaceous border, rose garden, bog garden and arboretum. A vegetable garden has also been established.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Facilities", "target_page_ids": [ 11787655, 1919309, 357314, 1118185, 19738024, 147341 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 42 ], [ 106, 115 ], [ 247, 254 ], [ 256, 273 ], [ 275, 286 ], [ 288, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The National Herbarium is also housed at the National Botanic Gardens. The museum collection contains some 20,000 samples of plant products, including fruits, seeds, wood, fibres, plant extracts and artefacts, collected over the garden's two-hundred-year history. The gardens contain noted and historically important collections of orchids. The newly restored Palm House houses many tropical and subtropical plants. In 2002, a new multistorey complex was built; it includes a cafe and a large lecture theatre. The gardens are also responsible for the arboretum at Kilmacurragh, County Wicklow, a centre noted for its conifers and calcifuges. This is located some south of Dublin.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Facilities", "target_page_ids": [ 338454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 551, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A gateway into Glasnevin Cemetery adjacent to the gardens was reopened in recent years.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Facilities", "target_page_ids": [ 42180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The gardens include some glasshouses of architectural importance, such as the Palm House and the Curvilinear Range.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Great Palm House is situated in the southern parts of the gardens, and is connected to the cactus house on its west side, and the orchid house on its east side. The main building measures 65 feet in height, 100 feet in length and 80 feet in width.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Palm House was originally built in 1862 to accommodate the ever increasing collection of plants from tropical areas that demanded more and more protected growing conditions. The construction was overseen by David Moore, the curator of the gardens at the time. The original structure was built of wood, and was unstable, leading to it being blown down by heavy gales in 1883, twenty one years later. Richard Turner, the great Dublin ironmaster, had already supplied an iron house to Belfast Gardens and he persuaded the Royal Dublin Society that such a house would be a better investment than a wooden house, and by 1883 construction had begun on a stronger iron structure. Fabrication of the structure took place in Paisley, Scotland, and shipped to Ireland in sections.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 706208, 319744, 26994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 403, 417 ], [ 720, 727 ], [ 729, 737 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the early 2000s, the Palm House had fallen into a state of disrepair. After more than 100 years, the wrought iron, cast iron and timber construction had seriously deteriorated. Prior to its restoration a large number of panes of glass were breaking each year due to the corrosion and instability of the structure. As part of the restoration the house was completely dismantled into more than 7,000 parts, tagged for repair and restoration off-site. 20 meter tall cast iron columns within the Great Palm House had seriously degraded and were replaced by new cast iron columns created in moulds of the originals. To protect the structure from further corrosion, new modern paint technology was used to develop long-term protection for the Palm House, providing protection from the perpetually tropical internal climate. For Health and Safety reasons, overhead glass was laminated and vertical panes toughened, and specialised form of mastic was used to fix the panes, replacing original linseed oil putty that had contributed to the decay of the building over the century. The Palm House was reopened in 2004 after a lengthy replanting programme following the restoration process.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Curvilinear Range was completed in 1848 by Richard Turner, and was extended in the late 1860s. This structure, has also been restored (using some surplus contemporary structural ironwork from Kew Gardens) and this work attracted the Europa Nostra award for excellence in conservation architecture.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 706208, 25086311, 6719212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 61 ], [ 196, 207 ], [ 237, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is also a third range of glasshouses: the Aquatic House, the Fern House and the original Cactus House. These structures were closed off in the early 2000s, and are currently undergoing restoration. As these glasshouses were specialised in the plants they housed, many specimens such as the Giant Amazonian Water Lily have not been grown in the gardens since the closure of the structures.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 1031639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 296, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Building on the training and education legacy of the gardens, the Teagasc College of Amenity Horticulture is located in the gardens. It runs full- and part time courses training students for the amenity horticulture industry. Training is run in association with the Office of Public Works (OPW), Dublin local authority parks departments, and the Golfing Union of Ireland.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "College of Amenity Horticulture (Teagasc)", "target_page_ids": [ 429204, 15504856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 73 ], [ 346, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Director is the chief officer of the Gardens, with a residence provided on site. Directors have included:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dr Walter Wade, Professor of Botany to the Dublin Society (until 1825)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [ 32831693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Samuel Litton (1825–1834)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ninian Niven (1834–1838)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [ 66175692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dr David Moore (1838–79)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [ 40488452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sir Frederick William Moore (1879–1922)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [ 63243126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "J. W. Besant (1922–44)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dr T. J. Walsh (1944–68)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aidan Brady (1968–1993)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [ 67802697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Donal M. Synnott (1994–2004)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dr Peter Wyse Jackson (2005–2010)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [ 2965672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dr Matthew Jebb (2010– )", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [ 4856216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " National Botanic Gardens Kilmacurragh", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60553015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Irish botanical illustrators", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5978813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Irish plant collectors", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5742411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13524569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Official Website", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " National Botanic Gardens Guide", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ingenious Ireland: three podcast audio tours of the National Botanic Gardens", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Botanical_gardens_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland", "Glasnevin", "Science_and_technology_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland", "Scientific_organisations_based_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland", "Tourist_attractions_in_Dublin_(city)", "Botanical_research_institutes" ]

[ "National Botanical Garden", "National Botanical Garden of Ireland" ]

[ { "plaintext": "A lever is a simple machine consisting of a beam or rigid rod pivoted at a fixed hinge, or fulcrum. A lever is a rigid body capable of rotating on a point on itself. On the basis of the locations of fulcrum, load and effort, the lever is divided into three types. Also, leverage is mechanical advantage gained in a system. It is one of the six simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists. A lever amplifies an input force to provide a greater output force, which is said to provide leverage. The ratio of the output force to the input force is the mechanical advantage of the lever. As such, the lever is a mechanical advantage device, trading off force against movement.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28002, 630099, 254945, 38857, 38857, 28002, 20616, 31846228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 27 ], [ 44, 48 ], [ 81, 86 ], [ 251, 262 ], [ 270, 278 ], [ 344, 358 ], [ 557, 577 ], [ 616, 643 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The word \"lever\" entered English around 1300 from Old French, in which the word was levier. This sprang from the stem of the verb lever, meaning \"to raise\". The verb, in turn, goes back to the Latin levare, itself from the adjective levis, meaning \"light\" (as in \"not heavy\"). The word's primary origin is the Proto-Indo-European stem , meaning \"light\", \"easy\" or \"nimble\", among other things. The PIE stem also gave rise to the English word \"light\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 8569916, 320082, 17730, 559297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 32 ], [ 50, 60 ], [ 193, 198 ], [ 310, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest evidence of the lever mechanism dates back to the ancient Near East circa 5000 BC, when it was first used in a simple balance scale. In ancient Egypt circa 4400 BC, a foot pedal was used for the earliest horizontal frame loom. In Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) circa 3000 BC, the shadouf, a crane-like device that uses a lever mechanism, was invented. In ancient Egypt technology, workmen used the lever to move and uplift obelisks weighing more than 100 tons. This is evident from the recesses in the large blocks and the handling bosses which could not be used for any purpose other than for levers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23537091, 964428, 874, 46595, 20189, 482147, 10236490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 80 ], [ 131, 144 ], [ 149, 162 ], [ 234, 238 ], [ 243, 254 ], [ 288, 295 ], [ 363, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest remaining writings regarding levers date from the 3rd century BC and were provided by the Greek mathematician Archimedes, who famously stated \"Give me a lever long enough and a fulcrum on which to place it, and I shall move the world.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A lever is a beam connected to ground by a hinge, or pivot, called a fulcrum. The ideal lever does not dissipate or store energy, which means there is no friction in the hinge or bending in the beam. In this case, the power into the lever equals the power out, and the ratio of output to input force is given by the ratio of the distances from the fulcrum to the points of application of these forces. This is known as the law of the lever.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Force and levers", "target_page_ids": [ 38857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 423, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mechanical advantage of a lever can be determined by considering the balance of moments or torque, T, about the fulcrum. If the distance traveled is greater, then the output force is lessened.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Force and levers", "target_page_ids": [ 278366, 30400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 91 ], [ 95, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where F1 is the input force to the lever and F2 is the output force. The distances a and b are the perpendicular distances between the forces and the fulcrum.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Force and levers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since the moments of torque must be balanced, . So, .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Force and levers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The mechanical advantage of the lever is the ratio of output force to input force.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Force and levers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This relationship shows that the mechanical advantage can be computed from ratio of the distances from the fulcrum to where the input and output forces are applied to the lever, assuming no losses due to friction, flexibility or wear. This remains true even though the \"horizontal\" distance (perpendicular to the pull of gravity) of both a and b change (diminish) as the lever changes to any position away from the horizontal.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Force and levers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Levers are classified by the relative positions of the fulcrum, effort and resistance (or load). It is common to call the input force the effort and the output force the load or the resistance. This allows the identification of three classes of levers by the relative locations of the fulcrum, the resistance and the effort:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Classification of levers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Class I – Fulcrum between the effort and resistance: The effort is applied on one side of the fulcrum and the resistance (or load) on the other side, for example, a seesaw, a crowbar or a pair of scissors, a balance scale, a claw hammer. Mechanical advantage may be greater than, less than, or equal to 1.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Classification of levers", "target_page_ids": [ 442828, 1950953, 254938, 964428, 1546487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 172 ], [ 176, 183 ], [ 189, 205 ], [ 209, 222 ], [ 226, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Class II – Resistance (or load) between the effort and fulcrum: The effort is applied on one side of the resistance and the fulcrum is located on the other side, e.g. in a wheelbarrow, a nutcracker, a bottle opener or the brake pedal of a car. The load arm is smaller than the effort arm, and the mechanical advantage is always greater than 1. It is also called a force multiplier lever.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Classification of levers", "target_page_ids": [ 252725, 21946, 1182550, 65423, 42345000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 184 ], [ 188, 198 ], [ 202, 215 ], [ 223, 228 ], [ 229, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Class III – Effort between the fulcrum and resistance: The resistance (or load) is on one side of the effort and the fulcrum is located on the other side, for example, a pair of tweezers, a hammer, a pair of tongs, a fishing rod, or the mandible of a human skull. The effort arm is smaller than the load arm. Mechanical advantage is always less than 1. It is also called a speed multiplier lever.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Classification of levers", "target_page_ids": [ 645586, 13802, 362042, 47337, 30681089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 187 ], [ 191, 197 ], [ 209, 214 ], [ 218, 229 ], [ 238, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These cases are described by the mnemonic fre 123 where the f fulcrum is between r and e for the 1st class lever, the r resistance is between f and e for the 2nd class lever, and the e effort is between f and r for the 3rd class lever.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Classification of levers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A compound lever comprises several levers acting in series: the resistance from one lever in a system of levers acts as effort for the next, and thus the applied force is transferred from one lever to the next. Examples of compound levers include scales, nail clippers and piano keys.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Compound lever", "target_page_ids": [ 25837273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The malleus, incus and stapes are small bones in the middle ear, connected as compound levers, that transfer sound waves from the eardrum to the oval window of the cochlea.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Compound lever", "target_page_ids": [ 55793042, 82948, 82957, 55972, 134880, 100095, 134971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ], [ 13, 18 ], [ 23, 29 ], [ 53, 63 ], [ 130, 137 ], [ 145, 156 ], [ 164, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lever is a movable bar that pivots on a fulcrum attached to a fixed point. The lever operates by applying forces at different distances from the fulcrum, or a pivot.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Law of the lever", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As the lever rotates around the fulcrum, points farther from this pivot move faster than points closer to the pivot. Therefore, a force applied to a point farther from the pivot must be less than the force located at a point closer in, because power is the product of force and velocity.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Law of the lever", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If a and b are distances from the fulcrum to points A and B and the force FA applied to A is the input and the force FB applied at B is the output, the ratio of the velocities of points A and B is given by a/b, so we have the ratio of the output force to the input force, or mechanical advantage, is given by:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Law of the lever", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This is the law of the lever, which was proven by Archimedes using geometric reasoning. It shows that if the distance a from the fulcrum to where the input force is applied (point A) is greater than the distance b from fulcrum to where the output force is applied (point B), then the lever amplifies the input force. On the other hand, if the distance a from the fulcrum to the input force is less than the distance b from the fulcrum to the output force, then the lever reduces the input force.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Law of the lever", "target_page_ids": [ 1844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The use of velocity in the static analysis of a lever is an application of the principle of virtual work.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Law of the lever", "target_page_ids": [ 1211986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A lever is modeled as a rigid bar connected to a ground frame by a hinged joint called a fulcrum. The lever is operated by applying an input force FA at a point A located by the coordinate vector rA on the bar. The lever then exerts an output force FB at the point B located by rB. The rotation of the lever about the fulcrum P is defined by the rotation angle θ in radians.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Virtual work and the law of the lever", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Let the coordinate vector of the point P that defines the fulcrum be rP, and introduce the lengths", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Virtual work and the law of the lever", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "which are the distances from the fulcrum to the input point A and to the output point B, respectively.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Virtual work and the law of the lever", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Now introduce the unit vectors eA and eB from the fulcrum to the point A and B, so", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Virtual work and the law of the lever", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The velocity of the points A and B are obtained as", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Virtual work and the law of the lever", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where eA⊥ and eB⊥ are unit vectors perpendicular to eA and eB, respectively.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Virtual work and the law of the lever", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The angle θ is the generalized coordinate that defines the configuration of the lever, and the generalized force associated with this coordinate is given by", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Virtual work and the law of the lever", "target_page_ids": [ 473514, 13471652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 41 ], [ 95, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where FA and FB are components of the forces that are perpendicular to the radial segments PA and PB. The principle of virtual work states that at equilibrium the generalized force is zero, that is", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Virtual work and the law of the lever", "target_page_ids": [ 1211986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus, the ratio of the output force FB to the input force FA is obtained as", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Virtual work and the law of the lever", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "which is the mechanical advantage of the lever.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Virtual work and the law of the lever", "target_page_ids": [ 20616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This equation shows that if the distance a from the fulcrum to the point A where the input force is applied is greater than the distance b from fulcrum to the point B where the output force is applied, then the lever amplifies the input force. If the opposite is true that the distance from the fulcrum to the input point A is less than from the fulcrum to the output point B, then the lever reduces the magnitude of the input force.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Virtual work and the law of the lever", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Balance lever coupling", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 68833696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lever at Diracdelta science and engineering encyclopedia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Simple Lever by Stephen Wolfram, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 52469, 13989702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 34 ], [ 36, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Levers: Simple Machines at EnchantedLearning.com", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Mechanisms_(engineering)", "Simple_machines", "Ancient_inventions", "Egyptian_inventions" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Zwinger (, ) is a palatial complex with gardens in Dresden, Germany. Designed by architect Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann, it is one of the most important buildings of the Baroque period in Germany. Along with the Frauenkirche, the Zwinger is the most famous architectural monument of Dresden. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37410, 11867, 2134873, 3957, 188921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 62 ], [ 64, 71 ], [ 95, 121 ], [ 172, 186 ], [ 214, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name \"Zwinger\" goes back to the name used in the Middle Ages for a fortress part between the outer and inner fortress walls, even though the Zwinger no longer had a function corresponding to the name at the start of construction.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Zwinger was built in 1709 as an orangery and garden as well as a representative festival area. Its richly decorated pavilions and the galleries lined with balustrades, figures and vases testify to the splendor during the reign of Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony and elected King of Poland. In the original conception of the elector, the Zwinger was the forecourt of a new castle that would take up the area between it and the Elbe; therefore, the Zwinger remained undeveloped on the Elbe side (provisionally closed with a wall). The plans for a new castle were abandoned after the death of Augustus the Strong, and with the departure from the Baroque period, the Zwinger initially lost importance. It was only over a century later that the architect Gottfried Semper completed it with the Semper Gallery towards the Elbe.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 247724, 50759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 234, 253 ], [ 437, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Sempergalerie, opened in 1855, was one of the most important German museum projects of the 19th century and made it possible to expand the use of the Zwinger as a museum complex, which had grown under the influence of time since the 18th century. The Bombing of Dresden on February 13 and 14, 1945 hit the Zwinger extensively and led to extensive destruction. Since the reconstruction in the 1950s and 1960s, the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister (Old Masters Picture Gallery), the Dresden Porcelain Collection (Dresdener Porzellansammlung) and the Mathematisch-Physikalischer Salon (Royal Cabinet of Mathematical and Physical Instruments) have opened to the public. The original intended use as an orangery, garden and as a representative festival area has taken a back seat; the latter continues to be cultivated with the performance of music and theater events.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 64692, 3314630, 28715134, 21468602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 255, 273 ], [ 417, 444 ], [ 480, 508 ], [ 547, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Zwinger covers an area on the northwestern edge of the Innere Altstadt (\"inner old town\") that is part of the historic heart of Dresden. It is located in the immediate vicinity of other famous sights, including Dresden Castle and the Semperoper. The Zwinger is bounded by Sophienstraße in the southeast, Postplatz in the south, Ostra-Allee in the southwest, the Am Zwingerteich road in the northwest and Theatre Square (Theaterplatz) in the east. Nearby buildings include the Dresden State Theatre to the southwest, the Haus am Zwinger to the south, the Taschenbergpalais hotel to the southeast, the west wing of the palace with its Green Vault to the east, the Altstädtische Hauptwache to the northeast, the Semper Opera to the north and the former royal stables to the northwest. Within view lie the Catholic Court Church and the Italian Village in Theatre Square, the Wilsdruffer Kubus on Postplatz and the Duchess Garden with the remnants of the former orangery building in the west. The terraced banks of the Elbe river are located 200 metres northeast of the Zwinger.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Current inner city location", "target_page_ids": [ 37410, 5088715, 627987, 26576253, 27435930, 6831438, 3212165, 1101085, 50759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 74 ], [ 216, 230 ], [ 239, 249 ], [ 481, 502 ], [ 559, 576 ], [ 638, 649 ], [ 807, 828 ], [ 962, 970 ], [ 1019, 1023 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name Zwinger goes back to the common medieval German term for that part of a fortification between the outer and inner defensive walls, or \"outer ward\". Archaeological evidence indicates that the construction of the first city wall took place in the last quarter of the 12th century. A documentary entry as civitas in 1216 points to the existence of an enclosed Dresden Fortification at that time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1427, during the Hussite Wars, work began on strengthening the city's defences and they were enhanced by a second – outer – wall. These improvements began near the Wilsdruffer Tor gate. Step by step the old moat had to be filled in and moved. The area between the two walls was generally referred to as the Zwinger and, in the vicinity of the castle, was utilised by the royal court at Dresden for garden purposes. The location of the so-called Zwingergarten from that period is only imprecisely known to be between the fortifications on the western side of the city. Its extent varied in places as a result of subsequent improvements to the fortifications and is depicted differently on the various maps.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 303005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This royal Zwingergarten, a garden used to supply the court, still fulfilled one of its functions, as indicated by the name, as a narrow defensive area between the outer and inner defensive walls. This was no longer the case when work on the present-day Zwinger palace began in the early 18th century, nevertheless the name was transferred to the new building. Admittedly the southwestern parts of the building of the baroque Dresden Zwinger including the Kronentor gate stand on parts of the outer curtain wall that are still visible today; but there is no longer any trace of the inner wall.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Until well into the 16th century, the area of the present-day Zwinger complex was still outside the city fortifications. Close by ran an old stretch of the Weißeritz river that no longer exists, which emptied into the Elbe by the Old Castle. In 1569, major work began on redevelopment and new buildings by the fortifications west of the castle based on plans by master builder, Rochus Quirin, Count of Lynar, who came from Florence. The embankments needed in the area of the river confluence proved to be a major challenge. In spring 1570 the Weißeritz caused severe flood damage at an embankment, which hampered the building project for a short time. Then, in 1572, the rebuilding work by the fortifications came to a temporary halt.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12599765, 5088715, 11525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 165 ], [ 230, 240 ], [ 423, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustus the Strong returned from a grand tour through France and Italy in 168789, just at the moment that Louis XIV moved his court to Versailles. On his return to Dresden, having arranged his election as King of Poland (1697), he wanted something similarly spectacular for himself. The fortifications were no longer needed and provided readily available space for his plans. The original plans, as developed by his court architect Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann before 1711, covered the space of the present complex of palace and garden, and also included as gardens the space down to the Elbe river, upon which the Semperoper and its square were built in the nineteenth century.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 247724, 286864, 18553, 53316, 26288, 2134873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 36, 46 ], [ 107, 116 ], [ 136, 146 ], [ 206, 220 ], [ 433, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Zwinger was designed by Pöppelmann and constructed in stages from 1710 to 1728. Sculpture was provided by Balthasar Permoser. The Zwinger was formally inaugurated in 1719, on the occasion of the electoral prince Frederick August’s marriage to the daughter of the Habsburg emperor, the Archduchess Maria Josepha. At the time, the outer shells of the buildings had already been erected and, with their pavilions and arcaded galleries, formed a striking backdrop to the event. It was not until the completion of their interiors in 1728, however, that they could serve their intended functions as exhibition galleries and library halls.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4724677, 247725, 2927372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 128 ], [ 216, 232 ], [ 301, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The death of Augustus in 1733 put a halt to the construction because the funds were needed elsewhere. The palace area was left open towards the Semperoper square (Theatre Square) and the river. Later the plans were changed to a smaller scale, and in 18471855 the area was closed by the construction of the gallery wing now separating the Zwinger from the Theatre Square. The architect of this building, later named Semper Gallery, was Gottfried Semper.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 33942019, 76252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 415, 429 ], [ 435, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The building was mostly destroyed by the carpet bombing raids of 13–15 February 1945. The art collection had been previously evacuated, however. Reconstruction, supported by the Soviet military administration, began in 1945; parts of the restored complex were opened to the public in 1951. By 1963 the Zwinger had largely been restored to its pre-war state.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 64692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pillnitz Castle – Summer residence of the electors and kings of Saxony", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33322836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Moritzburg Castle – Hunting lodge of the electors and kings of Saxony", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8111686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of castles in Saxony", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12777928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Baroque residences", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15641819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Map of the Zwinger", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Zwinger and its Museums at Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 7134249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Homepage of Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 7134249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Schlösser und Gärten Dresden", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Art_museums_and_galleries_in_Dresden", "Baroque_architecture_in_Dresden", "Houses_completed_in_1728", "Palaces_in_Dresden", "Rebuilt_buildings_and_structures_in_Dresden", "Residences_of_Polish_monarchs", "Royal_residences_in_Saxony", "1728_establishments_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire", "Tourist_attractions_in_Dresden" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Sikorsky MH-60G/HH-60G Pave Hawk is a twin-turboshaft engine helicopter in service with the United States Air Force. It is a derivative of the UH-60 Black Hawk and incorporates the US Air Force PAVE electronic systems program. The HH-60/MH-60 is a member of the Sikorsky S-70 family.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 658871, 8286923, 32090, 37941, 241107, 2038611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 57 ], [ 65, 75 ], [ 96, 119 ], [ 147, 163 ], [ 198, 202 ], [ 266, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The MH-60G Pave Hawk's primary mission is insertion and recovery of special operations personnel, while the HH-60G Pave Hawk's core mission is recovery of personnel under hostile conditions, including combat search and rescue. Both versions conduct day or night operations into hostile environments. Because of its versatility, the HH-60G may also perform peacetime operations such as civil search and rescue, emergency aeromedical evacuation (MEDEVAC), disaster relief, international aid and counter-drug activities.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 426083, 18162463, 146346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 86 ], [ 201, 225 ], [ 420, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1981, the U.S. Air Force chose the UH-60A Black Hawk to replace its HH-3E Jolly Green Giant helicopters. After acquiring some UH-60s, the Air Force began upgrading each with an air refueling probe and additional fuel tanks in the cabin. The machine guns were changed from 7.62mm (0.308in) M60s to .50caliber (12.7mm) XM218s. These helicopters were referred to as \"Credible Hawks\" and entered service in 1987.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and development", "target_page_ids": [ 37941, 10996768, 491485, 246727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 55 ], [ 71, 94 ], [ 292, 296 ], [ 320, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Afterwards, the Credible Hawks and new UH-60As were upgraded and designated MH-60G Pave Hawk. These upgrades were to be done in a two-step process. However, funding allowed only 16 Credible Hawks to receive the second step equipment. These helicopters were allocated to special operations use. The remaining 82 Credible Hawks received the first step upgrade equipment and were used for combat search and rescue. In 1991, these search and rescue Pave Hawks were redesignated HH-60G.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Pave Hawk is a highly modified version of the Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk. It features an upgraded communications and navigation suite that includes an integrated inertial navigation/global positioning/Doppler navigation systems, satellite communications, secure voice, and Have Quick communications. The term PAVE stands for Precision Avionics Vectoring Equipment.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and development", "target_page_ids": [ 265871, 24050869, 11866, 78446, 1105538, 241107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 58 ], [ 165, 184 ], [ 185, 203 ], [ 204, 211 ], [ 276, 286 ], [ 312, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All HH-60Gs have an automatic flight control system, night vision goggles lighting and forward looking infrared system that greatly enhances night low-level operations. Additionally, some Pave Hawks have color weather radar and an engine/rotor blade anti-ice system that gives the HH-60G an all-weather capability. Pave Hawk mission equipment includes a retractable in-flight refueling probe, internal auxiliary fuel tanks, two crew-served (or pilot-controlled) 7.62mm miniguns or .50-caliber machine guns and an 8,000 pound (3,600kg) capacity cargo hook. To improve air transportability and shipboard operations, all HH-60Gs have folding rotor blades.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and development", "target_page_ids": [ 313114, 181389, 25676, 237949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 73 ], [ 87, 111 ], [ 218, 223 ], [ 366, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pave Hawk combat enhancements include a radar warning receiver, infrared jammer and a flare/chaff countermeasure dispensing system. HH-60G rescue equipment includes a hoist capable of lifting a 600-pound (270kg) load from a hover height of 200 feet (60 m), and a personnel locating system. A number of Pave Hawks are equipped with an over-the-horizon tactical data receiver that is capable of receiving near real-time mission update information.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and development", "target_page_ids": [ 37708, 1550386, 536250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 91 ], [ 92, 97 ], [ 98, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1999, the USAF identified a need for a helicopter with improved range, speed, and cabin space. An options analysis was completed in 2002 and funding for 141 aircraft under the \"personnel recovery vehicle\" program began in 2004. In 2005, it was renamed CSAR-X, meaning combat search and rescue. Sikorsky entered the HH-92 Superhawk, Lockheed Martin entered the VH-71 Kestrel, and Boeing entered the HH-47 Chinook. The HH-47 won the competition in November 2006, but the award was cancelled after successful protests from both rival competitors. A Request for Proposals (RFP) was reissued in 2007, but protested again before proposals were received, leading to a second cancellation. In March 2010, the USAF announced a recapitalization plan to return its 99-aircraft inventory to 112 airframes, incrementally replacing aging HH-60Gs; a secondary plan to replace 13 attrition HH-60s, seven of which were lost in combat since 2001, was also initiated. The USAF deferred secondary combat search and rescue requirements calling for a larger helicopter. A UH-60M-based version was offered as a replacement.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and development", "target_page_ids": [ 1687366, 66527, 4838903, 18933266, 38005, 292903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 320, 335 ], [ 337, 352 ], [ 365, 378 ], [ 384, 390 ], [ 403, 416 ], [ 552, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 22 October 2012, the USAF issued an RFP for up to 112 Combat Rescue Helicopters (CRH) to replace the HH-60G with the primary mission of personnel recovery from hostile territory; other missions include civil search and rescue, disaster relief, casualty and medical evacuation. It had to have a combat radius of , a payload of 1,500lb (680kg), and space for up to four stretchers. The AgustaWestland AW101 was one entrant. By December 2012, competitors AgustaWestland, EADS, Boeing, and Bell Helicopter had withdrawn amid claims that the RFP favored Sikorsky and did not reward rival aircraft's capabilities. The USAF argued that the competition was not written to favor Sikorsky, and that the terms were clear as to the capabilities they wanted and could afford. Sikorsky was the only bidder remaining, with subcontractor Lockheed Martin supplying mission equipment and the electronic survivability suite. Sikorsky and the USAF extensively evaluated the proposed CRH-60, a variant of the MH-60 special operations helicopter; the CRH-60 differed from the MH-60 by its greater payload and cabin capacity, wider rotor blades, and better hover capability.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and development", "target_page_ids": [ 14029548, 505833, 510179, 26220236, 18933266, 511185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 297, 310 ], [ 387, 407 ], [ 455, 469 ], [ 471, 475 ], [ 477, 483 ], [ 489, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2013, the initial USAF FY 2015 budget proposal would have cancelled the CRH program due to sequestration budget cuts, instead retaining the HH-60 fleet. Congress allocated over $300 million to the program in FY 2014, with $430 million to be moved from other areas through FY 2019 to finance it. On 26 June 2014, the USAF awarded Sikorsky and Lockheed Martin a $1.3 billion contract for the first four aircraft, with 112 total to be procured for a total of up to $7.9 billion. Five more are to be delivered by 2020 and the order is to be completed by 2029. On 24 November 2014, the Air Force officially designated the UH-60M-derived CRH the HH-60W. It first flew on 17 May 2019. In February 2020, the HH-60W was named the \"Jolly Green II\" by the USAF.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design and development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2015, the U.S. Air Force HH-60G Pave Hawk is operated by the Air Combat Command (ACC), U.S. Air Forces in Europe (USAFE), Pacific Air Forces (PACAF), Air Education and Training Command (AETC), the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) and the Air National Guard (ANG). A number of HH-60Gs are also operated by the Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC) for flight test purposes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [ 32090, 193901, 1030868, 1044264, 1249287, 1253416, 265572, 1250306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 30 ], [ 67, 85 ], [ 93, 118 ], [ 128, 146 ], [ 156, 190 ], [ 203, 228 ], [ 244, 262 ], [ 316, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During Operation Desert Storm, Pave Hawks provided combat search and rescue coverage for coalition Air Forces in western Iraq, Saudi Arabia, coastal Kuwait and the Persian Gulf. They also provided emergency evacuation coverage for U.S. Navy sea, air and land (SEAL) teams penetrating the Kuwaiti coast before the invasion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [ 182000, 24761, 20518076, 38188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 29 ], [ 164, 176 ], [ 231, 240 ], [ 260, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All MH-60Gs were subsequently divested by Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) in 1991. At that time, most MH-60Gs were redesignated as HH-60Gs and transferred to Air Combat Command (ACC) and ACC-gained Air Force Reserve Command and Air National Guard units.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [ 843745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 29 October 1992, a MH-60G Pave Hawk crashed in the Great Salt Lake of Utah about 100 yards north of Antelope Island during a training exercise in inclement weather. Twelve occupants from the Army's 75th Ranger Regiment and the Air Force's 1st Special Operations Air Wing died in the accident. The pilot, Air Force Maj. Stephan J. Laushine, was the only survivor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During Operation Allied Force, the Pave Hawk provided continuous combat search and rescue coverage for NATO air forces, and successfully recovered two U.S. Air Force pilots who were isolated behind enemy lines.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [ 322473, 21133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 29 ], [ 103, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2000, three Pave Hawks deployed to Hoedspruit Air Force Base in South Africa, to support international flood relief operations in Mozambique. The HH-60Gs flew 240 missions in 17 days and delivered more than 160 tons of humanitarian relief supplies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Air Force Pave Hawks from the Pacific theater also took part in a massive humanitarian relief effort in early 2005 in Sri Lanka to help victims of the tsunami. In the fall of 2005, Pave Hawks from various Air Force commands participated in rescue operations of Hurricane Katrina survivors, rescuing thousands of stranded people.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pave Hawks have regularly operated during Operation Iraqi Freedom, Operation New Dawn, and continue to be operated in Operation Enduring Freedom, supporting Army and Marine Corps ground combat operations and standby search and rescue support for U.S. and Coalition fixed-wing combat aircraft supporting those ground operations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [ 5043324, 9311815, 22738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 65 ], [ 67, 85 ], [ 118, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 15 March 2018, a CSAR HH-60G crashed near the Iraqi city of al-Qa'im killing all seven on board. The Air Force is investigating the crash.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operational history", "target_page_ids": [ 1831738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " HH-60A: Prototype for the HH-60D rescue helicopter. A modified UH-60A primarily designed for combat search and rescue. It is equipped with a rescue hoist with a 200ft (60.96 m) cable that has a 600lb (270kg) lift capability, and a retractable in-flight refueling probe.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [ 237949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 244, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " HH-60D Night Hawk: Prototype of combat rescue variant for the US Air Force.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " HH-60E: Proposed search and rescue variant for the US Air Force.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " HH-60G Pave Hawk: Search and rescue helicopter for the US Air Force upgraded from UH-60A Credible Hawk.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " MH-60G Pave Hawk: Special Operations, search and rescue model for the US Air Force. Equipped with long-range fuel tanks, air-to-air refueling capability, FLIR, improved radar. Powered by T-700-GE-700/701 engines.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [ 181389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Maplehawk: Proposed search and rescue version for the Canadian Forces to replace aging CH-113 Labradors. The CF opted for the CH-149 Cormorant instead.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [ 182792, 7773, 505837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 70 ], [ 88, 103 ], [ 127, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " HH-60P Pave Hawk: Combat Search and Rescue variant of UH-60P, in service with Republic of Korea Air Force. Variant includes External Tank System and FLIR for night operations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [ 2606974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " HH-60W Jolly Green II: Combat rescue helicopter variant of the UH-60M for the U.S. Air Force to replace the HH-60G.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Republic of Korea Air Force operates HH-60P helicopters", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 2606974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " United States Air Force ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 32090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "33d Rescue Squadron", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 18363714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 34th Weapons Squadron", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 25956254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 38th Rescue Squadron", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 18382991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "41st Rescue Squadron", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 16976612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "55th Rescue Squadron", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 18477258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "56th Rescue Squadron", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 18396690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "66th Rescue Squadron", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 18433538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "101st Rescue Squadron (New York Air National Guard)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 16336716, 7626533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 23, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "129th Rescue Squadron (California Air National Guard)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 17057238, 5575964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 23, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "210th Rescue Squadron (Alaska Air National Guard)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 16322798, 7040807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 23, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "301st Rescue Squadron (Air Force Reserve Command)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 18479470, 1253416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 23, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "305th Rescue Squadron (Air Force Reserve Command) ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 18623332, 1253416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 23, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "413th Flight Test Squadron (Air Force Materiel Command)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 20962399, 1250306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 28, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "512th Rescue Squadron (Air Education & Training Command)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operators", "target_page_ids": [ 18490852, 1249287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 23, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Notes", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bibliography", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Leoni, Ray D. Black Hawk: The Story of a World Class Helicopter. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2007. .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tomajczyk, Stephen F. Black Hawk. MBI, 2003. .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " USAF HH-60G Pave Hawk fact sheet", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " HH-60 page and MH-60 page on globalsecurity.org", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sikorsky S-70 page on helis.com", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Search_and_rescue_helicopters", "Sikorsky_aircraft", "Sikorsky_S-70", "Twin-turbine_helicopters", "1980s_United_States_helicopters", "United_States_military_helicopters", "1980s_United_States_military_rescue_aircraft", "Aircraft_first_flown_in_1982" ]

[ "HH-60", "HH60", "Pave Hawk", "Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Georg Hackl (often named: Hackl Schorsch, ; born 9 September 1966) is a German former luger who was three time Olympic and World Champion. He is known affectionately as Hackl-Schorsch or as the Speeding Weißwurst a reference to what he looks like in his white bodysuit coming down the luge at fast speeds.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37779, 554138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 90 ], [ 203, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hackl was born in Berchtesgaden, Bavaria. He took up luge as part of his physical education lessons whilst at school, learning to slide at the Königssee track.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 40158, 217324, 15204848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 31 ], [ 73, 91 ], [ 143, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hackl was known for his rivalry with Markus Prock, with Prock being dominant in World Cup competition whilst Hackl consistently achieved success at the Winter Olympics. Although Hackl was not as natural an athlete as Prock, he was noted as being extremely skilled at setting up his sled to suit particular ice conditions on a given day. In addition his coach and former luger Thomas Schwab highlighted Hackl's mental strength as being key to his success.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 9382308, 4366162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 49 ], [ 376, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He won his first Winter Olympic Games luge medal in 1988 in Calgary, when he finished second in the singles event, while placing fourth in the doubles. Four years later, he improved his performance to win the gold, a feat he repeated in 1994 and 1998. In 1998, he won the gold by clocking the fastest time in all four runs, the first in Olympic history in the men's singles to do so (Vera Zozula of the Soviet Union did that feat in the women's singles event at the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, New York). That year he was named as German Sportsman of the Year. Hackl won the silver medal again in the 2002 Games, becoming the first Winter Olympian to win a medal in five consecutive Winter Olympics. Most recently, he placed 7th in the 2006 Winter Olympics.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 37779, 15895358, 11716269, 26779, 113360, 126436, 13373312, 38678, 3489623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 42 ], [ 60, 67 ], [ 384, 395 ], [ 403, 415 ], [ 466, 486 ], [ 490, 501 ], [ 540, 568 ], [ 610, 620 ], [ 745, 765 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hackl has retired from active participation and got involved in coaching after the 2006 Winter Olympics. He is responsible for a group of German lugers nicknamed the \"Sunshine Training Group\", alongside Patric Leitner, with Hackl having responsibility for their sleds. Members of the group include Felix Loch, Natalie Geisenberger, Tobias Wendl and Tobias Arlt, who between them took a clean sweep of the gold medals in luge at the 2014 Winter Olympics.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 4365780, 15430664, 15202035, 15452836, 15452822, 37604609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 217 ], [ 298, 308 ], [ 310, 330 ], [ 332, 344 ], [ 349, 360 ], [ 420, 452 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hackl won a total of 22 medals at the FIL World Luge Championships, including ten golds (Men's singles: 1989, 1990, 1997; Mixed team: 1991, 1993, 1995, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2005), ten silvers (Men's singles: 1991, 1993, 1995, 1996, 2001, 2004, 2005; Men's doubles: 1987, Mixed team: 1996, 1997), and two bronzes (Men's singles: 2000, Mixed team: 1999).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 5127885, 11171846, 11171979, 11209429, 11172117, 11194033, 11209174, 11209760, 11209911, 11210096, 11210322, 11209322, 11210272, 11171723, 11209548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 66 ], [ 104, 108 ], [ 110, 114 ], [ 116, 120 ], [ 134, 138 ], [ 140, 144 ], [ 146, 150 ], [ 152, 156 ], [ 158, 162 ], [ 164, 168 ], [ 170, 174 ], [ 223, 227 ], [ 235, 239 ], [ 262, 266 ], [ 343, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the FIL European Luge Championships, Hackl won twelve medals. This included seven golds (Men's singles: 1988, 1990; Mixed team: 1988, 1992, 1996, 2000, 2002), four silvers (Men's singles: 1994, 2000; Mixed team: 1990, 1994), and one bronze (Men's singles: 1992).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 6569633, 11255296, 11255372, 11255472, 11255745, 11255991, 11272218, 11255597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 38 ], [ 107, 111 ], [ 113, 117 ], [ 137, 141 ], [ 143, 147 ], [ 149, 153 ], [ 155, 159 ], [ 191, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He won the overall Luge World Cup title in men's singles twice (1988–9, 1989–90) and also had his best overall finish of second in men's doubles twice (1986–7, 1987–8).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 16516295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hackl is also a nine-time wok racing world champion.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 508291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was inducted into the International Luge Federation's Hall of Fame in 2013.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 10838898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1999, Hackl married his long-term girlfriend, Margit (née Datzmann).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "List of multiple Olympic gold medalists in one event", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32070692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IOC profile", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1966_births", "Living_people", "German_male_lugers", "German_sports_coaches", "Olympic_lugers_of_Germany", "Olympic_gold_medalists_for_Germany", "Olympic_silver_medalists_for_Germany", "Olympic_silver_medalists_for_West_Germany", "Olympic_medalists_in_luge", "Lugers_at_the_1988_Winter_Olympics", "Lugers_at_the_1992_Winter_Olympics", "Lugers_at_the_1994_Winter_Olympics", "Lugers_at_the_1998_Winter_Olympics", "Lugers_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Lugers_at_the_2006_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_1988_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_1992_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_1994_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_1998_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "People_from_Berchtesgaden", "Sportspeople_from_Bavaria" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Motorola MC68010 processor is a 16/32-bit microprocessor from Motorola, released in 1982 as the successor to the Motorola 68000. It fixes several small flaws in the 68000, and adds a few features.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19553, 20319, 20270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 60 ], [ 66, 74 ], [ 117, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 68010 is pin-compatible with the 68000, but is not 100% software compatible. Some of the differences were:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The MOVE from SR instruction is now privileged (it may only be executed in supervisor mode). This means that the 68010 meets Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements. Because the 68000 offers an unprivileged MOVE from SR, it does not meet them.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 957085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The MOVE from CCR instruction was added to partially compensate for the removal of the user-mode MOVE from SR.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " It can recover from bus faults, and re-run the last instruction, allowing it to implement virtual memory.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The exception stack frame is different.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " It introduced a 22-bit Vector Base Register (VBR) that holds A[31:10] of the 1 KiB-aligned base address for the exception vector table. The 68000 vector table was always based at address zero.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 59231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Loop mode\" which accelerates loops consisting of only two instructions, such as a MOVE and a DBRA. The two-instruction mini-loop opcodes are prefetched and held in the 6-byte instruction cache while subsequent memory read/write cycles are only needed for the data operands for the duration of the loop. It provided for performance improvements averaging 50%, as a result of the elimination of instruction opcodes fetching during the loop.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In practice, the overall speed gain over a 68000 at the same frequency is less than 10%.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 68010 could be used with the 68451 MMU. However, aspects of its design, such as its 1 clock memory access penalty, made this configuration unpopular. Some vendors used their own MMU designs, such as Sun Microsystems in their Sun-2 workstation and Convergent Technologies in the AT&T UNIX PC/3B1.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 44273056, 177112, 182693, 5300, 26980, 3997050, 481241, 24536639, 5162251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 38 ], [ 39, 42 ], [ 90, 95 ], [ 96, 102 ], [ 203, 219 ], [ 229, 234 ], [ 251, 274 ], [ 282, 286 ], [ 287, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 68010 was never as popular as the 68000. However, due to the 68010's small speed boost over the 68000 and its support for virtual memory, it can be found in a number of smaller Unix systems, both with the 68451 MMU (for example in the Torch Triple X), and with a custom MMU (such as the Sun-2 Workstation, AT&T UNIX PC/3B1, Convergent Technologies MiniFrame, NCR Tower XP and HP 9000 Model 310) and various research machines. Most other vendors (such as Apple Computer) stayed with the 68000 until the 68020 was introduced. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 21347364, 16864178, 3997050, 68181, 24536639, 5162251, 481241, 83220, 952894, 20302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 185 ], [ 239, 253 ], [ 291, 296 ], [ 297, 308 ], [ 310, 314 ], [ 315, 326 ], [ 328, 351 ], [ 363, 366 ], [ 380, 387 ], [ 506, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Atari Games used the 68010 in some of their arcade boards such as the Atari System 1. Some owners of Amiga and Atari ST computers and Sega Genesis game consoles replaced their system's 68000 CPU with a 68010 to gain a small speed boost.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 304833, 19142141, 1980, 2141, 2639573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 70, 84 ], [ 101, 106 ], [ 111, 119 ], [ 134, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Motorola MC68012 processor is a 16/32-bit microprocessor from the early 1980s. It is an 84-pin PGA version of the Motorola 68010. The memory space was extended to 2GB, and a read-modify-write cycle (RMC) pin, indicating that an indivisible read-modify-write cycle in progress, was added, in order to help the design of multiprocessor systems with virtual memory. All other processors had to hold off memory accesses until the cycle was complete. All other features of the MC68010 were preserved.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Motorola 68012", "target_page_ids": [ 19553, 233017, 12570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 60 ], [ 99, 102 ], [ 168, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The expansion of the memory space caused an issue for any programs that used the high byte of an address to store data, a programming trick that was successful with those processors that only have a 24-bit address bus (68000 and 68010). A similar problem affected the 68020.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Motorola 68012", "target_page_ids": [ 20302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 268, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 68010 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "68k_microprocessors", "32-bit_microprocessors" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Theodor Zwinger the Elder (2 August 1533 – 10 March 1588) was a Swiss physician and Renaissance humanist scholar. He made significant contributions to the emerging genres of reference and travel literature. He was the first distinguished representative of a prominent Basel academic family.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26748, 290237, 59301865, 1393859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 69 ], [ 84, 104 ], [ 105, 112 ], [ 188, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zwinger was the son of Leonhard Zwinger, a furrier who had become a citizen of Basel in 1526. His mother was Christina Herbster, the sister of Johannes Oporinus (Herbster) the famed humanist printer. After Zwinger's father's death, Christina married the noted humanist Conrad Lycosthenes (Wolffhart).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 4911, 1427517, 12618219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 84 ], [ 143, 160 ], [ 269, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zwinger studied at the Universities of Basel, Lyon, and Paris before taking a doctorate in medicine at the University of Padua with Bassiano Landi, the successor of Johannes Baptista Montanus. In Paris he studied with the iconoclastic philosopher Petrus Ramus. He joined the faculty of the University of Basel as a member of the consilium facultatis medicae from 1559. At Basel he held successively chairs in Greek (1565), Ethics (1571), and finally theoretical medicine (1580). While originally hostile to Paracelsus, in his later career he took an interest in Paracelsian medical theory for which he experienced some hostility. He associated with Paracelsians such as Thomas Moffet, Petrus Severinus and Claude Aubery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 427614, 715165, 84692, 378253, 20096418, 311650, 152487, 3049487, 2245783, 3238351, 9876405, 67021854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 44 ], [ 46, 50 ], [ 56, 61 ], [ 107, 126 ], [ 165, 191 ], [ 247, 259 ], [ 507, 517 ], [ 562, 573 ], [ 574, 588 ], [ 670, 683 ], [ 685, 701 ], [ 706, 719 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zwinger was the editor of the early encyclopedia Theatrum Humanae Vitae (editions 1565, 1571, 1586, 1604). The work is considered \"perhaps the most comprehensive collection of knowledge to be compiled by a single individual in the early modern period.\" He was able to draw on the knowledge base of his stepfather Conrad Lycosthenes in compiling the Theatrum Humanae Vitae.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A Catholicized version of the Theatrum entitled the Magnum theatrum vitae humanae (1631) by Lawrence Beyerlinck was one of the largest printed commonplace books of the early modern era. These two works \"may fairly be described as the early modern ancestors of the great dictionnaire raisonné of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, the Encyclopédie of Diderot.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 6458879, 492321, 30758, 101919, 8199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 111 ], [ 143, 159 ], [ 318, 331 ], [ 337, 349 ], [ 353, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zwinger's son, Jakob Zwinger, briefly served as his successor as editor of the Theatrum. His descendant Theodor Zwinger the Younger (1597–1654) was a prominent preacher and theology professor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lycosthenes, Conrad; Zwinger, Theodor. Theatrum vitæ humanæ, Basel, 1565, 1571, 1586, 1596 et 1604, 5vol. totalling 4376 pages (on line: the 1586 edition) — an early encyclopedia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 12618219, 9253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 166, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Morum philosophia poetica ex Veterum utriusque linguæ poetarum thesauris cognoscendæ veritatis et exercendæ virtutis, Basel, 1575 : vol. 1 (books 1 to 4) ; vol. 2 (books 5 to 18) — [Poetical philosophy]", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Methodus apodemica in eorum gratiam, qui cum fructu in quocunq[ue] tandem vitæ genere peregrinari cupiunt, Basel, 1577 — an early example of travel literature", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Almási, Gábor (2009). The uses of Humanism : Johannes Sambucus (1531–1584), Andreas Dudith (1533–1589), and the Republic of Letters in East Central Europe, Brill, 387p., passim — Excerpts", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 14148468, 2526913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 63 ], [ 77, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Carlos Gilly: Zwischen Erfahrung und Spekulation: Theodor Zwinger und die religiöse und kulturelle Krise seiner Zeit. In: Basler Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Altertumskunde 77 (1977), S. 57–137; 79 (1979), S. 125–233 (Digitalisate: ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Latin biography by Melchior Adam, 1620", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Works of Theodor Zwinger at the Munich Digitization Center", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 31078199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Works by Theodor Zwinger in Internet Archive", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1533_births", "1588_deaths", "16th-century_Swiss_physicians", "People_from_Basel-Stadt", "University_of_Basel_faculty" ]

[ "Theodor Zwinger the Elder" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Bill of Rights 1689 is an Act of Parliament seen as a crucial landmark in English constitutional law that sets out certain basic civil rights and clarifies who would be next to inherit the Crown. It received the Royal Assent on 16 December 1689 and is a restatement in statutory form of the Declaration of Right presented by the Convention Parliament to William III and Mary II in February 1689, inviting them to become joint sovereigns of England.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 145166, 17702739, 37071, 357357, 153067, 26783, 4174921, 28485158, 47387, 20709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 47 ], [ 78, 104 ], [ 133, 145 ], [ 189, 198 ], [ 216, 228 ], [ 273, 287 ], [ 295, 315 ], [ 333, 354 ], [ 358, 369 ], [ 374, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Largely based on the ideas of political theorist John Locke, the Bill sets out certain constitutional requirements of the Crown to seek the consent of the people as represented in Parliament. As well as setting limits on the powers of the monarch, it established the rights of Parliament, including regular parliaments, free elections, and freedom of speech. It also listed individual rights, including the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment and the right not to pay taxes levied without the approval of Parliament. Finally, it described and condemned several misdeeds of James II of England.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16143, 357357, 378033, 19012, 21401843, 318416, 5243711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 59 ], [ 118, 127 ], [ 180, 190 ], [ 239, 246 ], [ 340, 357 ], [ 422, 450 ], [ 581, 589 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United Kingdom, the Bill is considered a basic document of the uncodified British constitution, along with Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 and the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949. A separate but similar document, the Claim of Right Act 1689, applies in Scotland. The Bill was one of the models used to draft the 1789 United States Bill of Rights, the 1948 United Nations Declaration of Human Rights and the 1950 European Convention on Human Rights. Along with the Act of Settlement 1701, it remains in effect within all Commonwealth realms, as amended by the 2011 Perth Agreement.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 31717, 23987465, 20958, 163168, 1123587, 68510, 1750983, 26994, 9119240, 31899, 9830, 2070, 205142, 33605744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ], [ 81, 101 ], [ 114, 125 ], [ 131, 148 ], [ 154, 176 ], [ 185, 214 ], [ 253, 276 ], [ 289, 297 ], [ 353, 381 ], [ 392, 434 ], [ 448, 483 ], [ 500, 522 ], [ 556, 574 ], [ 600, 615 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 17thcentury, there was renewed interest in Magna Carta. The Parliament of England passed the Petition of Right in 1628 which established certain liberties for subjects. The English Civil War (1642–1651) was fought between the King and an oligarchic but elected Parliament, during which the notion of long-term political parties took form with the New Model Army Grandee and humble, leveller-influenced figures debating a new constitution in the Putney Debates of 1647. Parliament was largely cowed by the executive during the Protectorate (1653–1659) and most of the twenty-five years of Charles II's English Restoration from 1660. However, it, with the advantage of the growth in printed pamphlets and support of the City of London, was able to temper some of the executive excess, intrigue and largesse of the government, especially the Cabal ministry who signed a Secret Treaty of Dover that allied England to France in a prospective war against oft-allies the Netherlands. It had already passed the Habeas Corpus Act in 1679, which strengthened the convention that forbade detention lacking sufficient cause or evidence.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 20958, 163168, 9709, 30558, 1080070, 161945, 70804, 6883, 998121, 213574, 21148, 1123587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 65 ], [ 104, 121 ], [ 184, 201 ], [ 393, 401 ], [ 456, 470 ], [ 533, 549 ], [ 612, 631 ], [ 729, 743 ], [ 850, 864 ], [ 878, 900 ], [ 975, 986 ], [ 1014, 1031 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Objecting to the policies of King James II of England (JamesVII of Scotland and JamesII of Ireland), a group of English Parliamentarians invited the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange) to overthrow the King. William's successful invasion with a Dutch fleet and army led to James fleeing to France. In December1688, peers of the realm appointed William as provisional governor. It was widely acknowledged that such action was constitutional, if the monarch were incapacitated, and they summoned an assembly of many members of parliament. This assembly called for an English Convention Parliament to be elected, which convened on 22January 1689.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 47063, 5243711, 52626, 70855, 47387, 71920, 28485158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 33 ], [ 34, 53 ], [ 149, 154 ], [ 155, 166 ], [ 167, 178 ], [ 182, 195 ], [ 596, 625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The proposal to draw up a statement of rights and liberties and James's violation of them was first made on 29January 1689 in the House of Commons, with members arguing that the House \"cannot answer it to the nation or Prince of Orange till we declare what are the rights invaded\" and that William \"cannot take it ill if we make conditions to secure ourselves for the future\" in order to \"do justice to those who sent us hither\". On 2February a committee specially convened reported to the Commons 23Heads of Grievances, which the Commons approved and added some of their own. However, on 4February the Commons decided to instruct the committee to differentiate between \"such of the general heads, as are introductory of new laws, from those that are declaratory of ancient rights\". On 7February the Commons approved this revised Declaration of Right, and on 8February instructed the committee to put into a single text the Declaration (with the heads which were \"introductory of new laws\" removed), the resolution of 28January and the Lords' proposal for a revised oath of allegiance. It passed the Commons without division.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 24913928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 13February the clerk of the House of Lords read the Declaration of Right, and the Marquess of Halifax, in the name of all the estates of the realm, asked William and Mary to accept the throne. William replied for his wife and himself: \"We thankfully accept what you have offered us\". They then went in procession to the Great Gate at Whitehall. In a ceremony in the Banqueting House, Garter King of Arms proclaimed them King and Queen of England, France, and Ireland, whereupon they adjourned to the Chapel Royal, with the Bishop of London preaching the sermon. They were crowned on 11April, swearing an oath to uphold the laws made by Parliament. The Coronation Oath Act 1688 had provided a new coronation oath, whereby the monarchs were to \"solemnly promise and swear to govern the people of this kingdom of England, and the dominions thereunto belonging, according to the statutes in parliament agreed on, and the laws and customs of the same\". They were also to maintain the laws of God, the true profession of the Gospel, and the Protestant Reformed faith established by law. This replaced an oath which had deferred more to the monarch. The previous oath required the monarch to rule based on \"the laws and customs ... granted by the Kings of England\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 43378709, 8613053, 33008786, 990744, 699337, 6992491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 323, 333 ], [ 369, 385 ], [ 387, 406 ], [ 503, 515 ], [ 526, 542 ], [ 655, 679 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Declaration of Right was enacted in an Act of Parliament, the Bill of Rights 1689, which received the Royal Assent in December1689. The Act asserted \"certain ancient rights and liberties\" by declaring that:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [ 153067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the pretended power of suspending the laws and dispensing with laws by regal authority without consent of Parliament is illegal;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the commission for ecclesiastical causes is illegal;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [ 40906431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " levying taxes without grant of Parliament is illegal;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " it is the right of the subjects to petition the king, and prosecutions for such petitioning are illegal;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [ 340219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " keeping a standing army in time of peace, unless it be with consent of Parliament, is against law;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [ 1750278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Protestants may have arms for their defence suitable to their conditions and as allowed by law;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [ 219243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " election of members of Parliament ought to be free;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the freedom of speech and debates or proceedings in Parliament ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of Parliament;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [ 21401843, 738084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 22 ], [ 80, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " excessive bail ought not to be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [ 19077114, 318416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 75, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " jurors in trials for high treason ought to be freeholders;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " promises of fines and forfeitures before conviction are illegal and void;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " for redress of all grievances, and for the amending, strengthening and preserving of the laws, Parliaments ought to be held frequently.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Act declared James's flight from England following the Glorious Revolution to be an abdication of the throne. It listed twelve of James's policies by which James designed to \"endeavour to subvert and extirpate the protestant religion, and the laws and liberties of this kingdom\". These were:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [ 12466, 18951402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 78 ], [ 88, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " by assuming and exercising a power of dispensing with and suspending of laws and the execution of laws without consent of Parliament;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " by prosecuting the Seven Bishops; by establishing the court of commissioners for ecclesiastical causes;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [ 1599293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " by levying taxes for the use of the Crown by pretence of prerogative as if the same was granted by Parliament;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " by raising and keeping a standing army within this kingdom in time of peace without consent of Parliament;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " by causing Protestants to be disarmed at the same time when papists were both armed and employed contrary to law;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " by violating the freedom of election of members to serve in Parliament;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " by prosecutions in the Court of King's Bench for matters and causes cognizable only in Parliament, and by divers (diverse) other arbitrary and illegal courses;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " by employing unqualified persons on juries in trials, and jurors in trials for high treason which were not freeholders;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " by imposing excessive bail on persons committed in criminal cases against the laws made for the liberty of the subjects;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " by imposing excessive fines and illegal and cruel punishments;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " by making several grants and promises made of fines and forfeitures before any conviction or judgment against the persons upon whom the same were to be levied;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " all which are utterly and directly contrary to the known laws and statutes and freedom of this realm.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a prelude to the Act of Settlement to come twelve years later, the Bill of Rights barred Roman Catholics from the throne of England as \"it hath been found by experience that it is inconsistent with the safety and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a papist prince\"; thus William III and Mary II were named as the successors of James II and that the throne would pass from them first to Mary's heirs, then to her sister, Princess Anne of Denmark and her heirs (and, thereafter, to any heirs of William by a later marriage).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions of the Act", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 47387, 20709, 46684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 107 ], [ 292, 303 ], [ 308, 315 ], [ 441, 465 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bill of Rights was later supplemented by the Act of Settlement 1701 (which was agreed to by the Parliament of Scotland as part of the Treaty of Union). The Act of Settlement altered the line of succession to the throne laid out in the Bill of Rights. However, both the Bill of Rights and the Claim of Right contributed a great deal to the establishment of the concept of parliamentary sovereignty and the curtailment of the powers of the monarch. These have been held to have established the constitutional monarchy, and (along with the penal laws) settled much of the political and religious turmoil that had convulsed Scotland, England and Ireland in the 17thcentury.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Augmentation and effect", "target_page_ids": [ 2070, 2012548, 3176284, 1750983, 43650443, 5649, 175212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 71 ], [ 100, 122 ], [ 138, 153 ], [ 296, 310 ], [ 375, 400 ], [ 496, 519 ], [ 541, 551 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bill of Rights (1689) reinforced the Petition of Right (1628) and the Habeas Corpus Act (1679) by codifying certain rights and liberties. Described by William Blackstone as Fundamental Laws of England, the rights expressed in these Acts became associated with the idea of the rights of Englishmen. The Bill of Rights directly influenced the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights, which in turn influenced the Declaration of Independence.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Augmentation and effect", "target_page_ids": [ 163168, 1123587, 221256, 585250, 6875096, 225550, 31874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 58 ], [ 74, 98 ], [ 155, 173 ], [ 177, 204 ], [ 280, 300 ], [ 350, 380 ], [ 411, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although not a comprehensive statement of civil and political liberties, the Bill of Rights stands as one of the landmark documents in the development of civil liberties in the United Kingdom and a model for later, more general, statements of rights; these include the United States Bill of Rights, the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the European Convention on Human Rights. For example, as with the Bill of Rights 1689, the US Constitution prohibits excessive bail and \"cruel and unusual punishment\". Similarly, \"cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment\" is banned under Article 5 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Article3 of the European Convention on Human Rights.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Augmentation and effect", "target_page_ids": [ 17950979, 9119240, 8217, 31899, 9830, 31644, 318416, 65561651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 191 ], [ 269, 297 ], [ 310, 361 ], [ 367, 419 ], [ 429, 464 ], [ 516, 531 ], [ 562, 590 ], [ 612, 642 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bill of Rights remains in statute and continues to be cited in legal proceedings in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms, particularly Article9 on parliamentary freedom of speech. Following the Perth Agreement in 2011, legislation amending the Bill of Rights and the Act of Settlement 1701 came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26March 2015 which changed the laws of succession to the British throne.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legal status", "target_page_ids": [ 205142, 738084, 33605744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 135 ], [ 163, 194 ], [ 210, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Part of the Bill of Rights remains in statute in the Republic of Ireland.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legal status", "target_page_ids": [ 14560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bill of Rights applies in England and Wales; it was enacted in the Kingdom of England which at the time included Wales. Scotland has its own legislation, the Claim of Right Act 1689, passed before the Act of Union between England and Scotland. There are doubts as to whether, or to what extent, the Bill of Rights applies in Northern Ireland, reflecting Ireland.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legal status", "target_page_ids": [ 275187, 407950, 26994, 1750983, 21265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 47 ], [ 71, 89 ], [ 124, 132 ], [ 162, 185 ], [ 329, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The requirement that jurors be freeholders in cases of high treason was abolished in England and Wales by the Juries Act 1825, and in Northern Ireland (to the extent it applied) by the Statute Law Revision Act 1950.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legal status", "target_page_ids": [ 61528283, 34552885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 125 ], [ 185, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Natural justice, the right to a fair trial, is in constitutional law held to temper unfair exploitation of parliamentary privilege. On 21July 1995 a libel case, Neil Hamilton, MP v The Guardian, collapsed as the High Court ruled that the Bill of Rights' total bar on bringing into question anything said or done in the House, prevented The Guardian from obtaining a fair hearing. Hamilton could otherwise have carte blanche to allege any background or meaning to his words, and no contradicting direct evidence, inference, extra submission or cross-examination of his words could take place due to the tight strictures of the Bill of Rights. Equally the highest court decided that absent a 1996 statutory provision, the Bill of Rights's entrenched Parliamentary Privilege would have prevented a fair trial but to Hamilton in the 2001 defamation action of Hamilton v Al-Fayed which went through the two tiers of appeal to like effect. Section 13 of the Defamation Act 1996 was then enacted and permits MPs to waive their parliamentary privilege and thus cite and have examined their own speeches if relevant to litigation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legal status", "target_page_ids": [ 439598, 28661, 158224, 19344515, 660608, 33856261, 98066, 738084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 149, 154 ], [ 161, 174 ], [ 181, 193 ], [ 366, 378 ], [ 954, 973 ], [ 1003, 1005 ], [ 1022, 1045 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum in 2016, the Bill of Rights was cited by the Supreme Court in the Miller case, in which the court ruled that triggering EU exit must first be authorised by an act of Parliament. It was cited again by the Supreme Court in its 2019 ruling that the prorogation of parliament was unlawful. The Court disagreed with the Government's assertion that prorogation could not be questioned under the Bill of Rights 1689 as a \"proceeding of Parliament\"; it ruled that the opposite assertion, that prorogation was imposed upon and not debatable by Parliament, and could bring protected parliamentary activity under the Bill of Rights to an end unlawfully.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legal status", "target_page_ids": [ 37729052, 52179334, 61803555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 65 ], [ 132, 143 ], [ 291, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The application of the Bill of Rights to the Kingdom of Ireland was uncertain. While the English Parliament sometimes passed acts relating to Ireland, the Irish Patriot Party regarded this as illegitimate, and others felt that English acts only extended to Ireland when explicitly stated to do so, which was not the case for the Bill of Rights. The Crown of Ireland Act 1542 meant the Bill's changes to the royal succession extended to Ireland. Bills modelled on the Bill of Rights were introduced in the Parliament of Ireland in 1695 and 1697 but not enacted. After the Acts of Union 1800, provisions relating to the rights of Parliament implicitly extended to Ireland, but provisions relating to the rights of the individual were a grey area. Some jurists regarded the bill not as positive law but as declaratory of the common law, and as such applicable to Ireland.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legal status", "target_page_ids": [ 168432, 18288311, 8955852, 377411, 652301, 160466, 1690294, 5560419, 5254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 63 ], [ 155, 174 ], [ 349, 374 ], [ 445, 449 ], [ 505, 526 ], [ 571, 589 ], [ 783, 795 ], [ 803, 814 ], [ 822, 832 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1922 Constitution of the Irish Free State and 1937 Constitution of Ireland carry over laws in force in the former United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland to the extent they were not repugnant to those constitutions. The Bill of Rights was not referred to in subsequent Irish legislation until the Statute Law Revision Act 2007, which retained it, changed its short title to \"Bill of Rights 1688\" and repealed most of section 1 (the preamble) as being religiously discriminatory:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legal status", "target_page_ids": [ 165060, 152513, 152256, 31562078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 45 ], [ 55, 78 ], [ 118, 161 ], [ 305, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " all words down to \"Upon which Letters Elections having been accordingly made\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legal status", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Article 7 (allowing Protestants to bear arms)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legal status", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " all words from \"And they doe Claime Demand and Insist\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legal status", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Houses of the Oireachtas (Inquiries, Privileges and Procedures) Act 2013 repealed Article 9 on \"freedom of speech and debates or proceedings in Parliament\" as part of a consolidation of the law on parliamentary privilege.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legal status", "target_page_ids": [ 738084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 201, 224 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bill of Rights is incorporated into Australian law. The ninth article, regarding parliamentary freedom of speech, was inherited by Federal Parliament in 1901 under section 49 of the Australian Constitution. It was incorporated into the Parliamentary Privileges Act 1987 which \"preserves the application of the traditional expression of this privilege, but spells out in some detail just what may be covered by the term 'proceedings in Parliament'\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legal status", "target_page_ids": [ 302298, 18579518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 153 ], [ 186, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Canada, the Bill of Rights remains in statute, although it has been largely superseded by domestic constitutional legislation. The ninth article on parliamentary freedom of speech remains in active use.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legal status", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Bill of Rights is part of the laws of New Zealand. The Act was invoked in the 1976 case of Fitzgerald v Muldoon and Others, which centred on the purporting of newly appointed Prime Minister Robert Muldoon that he would advise the Governor-General to abolish a superannuation scheme established by the New Zealand Superannuation Act, 1974, without new legislation. Muldoon felt that the dissolution would be immediate and he would later introduce a bill in parliament to retroactively make the abolition legal. This claim was challenged in court and the Chief Justice declared that Muldoon's actions were illegal as they had violated Article1 of the Bill of Rights, which provides \"that the pretended power of dispensing with laws or the execution of laws by regal authority ... is illegal.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legal status", "target_page_ids": [ 46336554, 308842, 55929, 43613, 356035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 126 ], [ 194, 208 ], [ 234, 250 ], [ 264, 278 ], [ 557, 570 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two special designs of commemorative two pound coins were issued in the United Kingdom in 1989 to celebrate the tercentenary of the Glorious Revolution. One referred to the Bill of Rights and the other to the Claim of Right. Both depict the Royal Cypher of William and Mary and the mace of the House of Commons, one also shows a representation of the St Edward's Crown and the other the Crown of Scotland.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Modern recognition", "target_page_ids": [ 200386, 477069, 5339439, 187092, 13828, 401198, 2276403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 52 ], [ 112, 124 ], [ 241, 253 ], [ 282, 286 ], [ 294, 310 ], [ 351, 368 ], [ 387, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May2011, the Bill of Rights was inscribed in UNESCO's UK Memory of the World Register recognizing that:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Modern recognition", "target_page_ids": [ 21786641, 31976552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 54 ], [ 57, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As part of the Parliament in the Making programme, the Bill of Rights was on display at the Houses of Parliament in February2015 and at the British Library from March to September2015.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Modern recognition", "target_page_ids": [ 45151378, 24170, 18934361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 39 ], [ 92, 112 ], [ 140, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " UK constitutional law", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17702739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crown and Parliament Recognition Act 1689", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4442588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Financial Revolution", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 45141429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of liberalism", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26441648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Toleration Act 1689", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32549834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Absence of King William Act 1689", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37130918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Text of the Bill of Rights Yale Law School Law Library", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " holds the original document", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Constitution_of_Canada", "Constitutional_laws_of_England", "Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom", "Succession_to_the_British_crown", "Succession_to_the_Canadian_Crown", "Acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England", "Acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_still_in_force", "1689_in_law", "1689_in_England", "Political_charters", "History_of_human_rights", "Christianity_and_law_in_the_17th_century", "Glorious_Revolution", "Mary_II_of_England", "Civil_rights_and_liberties_legislation", "Civil_rights_and_liberties_in_the_United_Kingdom", "Constitution_of_New_Zealand", "Succession_acts", "William_III_of_England", "1689_in_politics" ]

[ "Bill of Rights 1688", "1689 Bill of Rights", "1688 Bill of Rights" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Flax, also known as common flax or linseed, is a flowering plant, Linum usitatissimum, in the family Linaceae. It is cultivated as a food and fiber crop in regions of the world with temperate climates. Textiles made from flax are known in Western countries as linen and are traditionally used for bed sheets, underclothes, and table linen. Its oil is known as linseed oil. In addition to referring to the plant, the word \"flax\" may refer to the unspun fibers of the flax plant. The plant species is known only as a cultivated plant and appears to have been domesticated just once from the wild species Linum bienne, called pale flax. The plants \"flax\" in New Zealand are, by contrast, members of the genus Phormium.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18967, 1269444, 519887, 50051, 56212, 295711, 621213, 36770901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 64 ], [ 101, 109 ], [ 142, 152 ], [ 182, 199 ], [ 260, 265 ], [ 360, 371 ], [ 602, 614 ], [ 706, 714 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several other species in the genus Linum are similar in appearance to L. usitatissimum, cultivated flax, including some that have similar blue flowers, and others with white, yellow, or red flowers. Some of these are perennial plants, unlike L. usitatissimum, which is an annual plant.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 733199, 777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 217, 226 ], [ 272, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cultivated flax plants grow to tall, with slender stems. The leaves are glaucous green, slender lanceolate, 20–40mm long, and 3mm broad.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 18973622, 12590557, 1079412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 68 ], [ 73, 81 ], [ 97, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The flowers are pure pale blue, 15–25mm in diameter, with five petals. The fruit is a round, dry capsule 5–9mm in diameter, containing several glossy brown seeds shaped like an apple pip, 4–7mm long.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 4576465, 10843, 310441, 37694, 18978754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 75, 80 ], [ 97, 104 ], [ 156, 160 ], [ 177, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest evidence of humans using wild flax as a textile comes from the present-day Republic of Georgia, where spun, dyed, and knotted wild flax fibers found in Dzudzuana Cave date to the Upper Paleolithic, 30,000 years ago. Humans first domesticated flax in the Fertile Crescent region. Evidence exists of a domesticated oilseed flax with increased seed-size from Tell Ramad in Syria and flax fabric fragments from Çatalhöyük in Turkey by circa 9,000 years ago. Use of the crop steadily spread, reaching as far as Switzerland and Germany by 5,000 years ago. In China and India, domesticated flax was cultivated at least 5,000 years ago.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 51892, 48768, 1158651, 39715, 30888188, 7515849, 56212, 5765, 11125639, 26748, 11867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 60 ], [ 88, 107 ], [ 192, 209 ], [ 267, 283 ], [ 369, 379 ], [ 383, 388 ], [ 393, 404 ], [ 420, 430 ], [ 434, 440 ], [ 519, 530 ], [ 535, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flax was cultivated extensively in ancient Egypt, where the temple walls had paintings of flowering flax, and mummies were embalmed using linen. Egyptian priests wore only linen, as flax was considered a symbol of purity. Phoenicians traded Egyptian linen throughout the Mediterranean and the Romans used it for their sails. As the Roman Empire declined, so did flax production. But with laws designed to publicize the hygiene of linen textiles and the health of linseed oil, Charlemagne revived the crop in the eighth century AD. Eventually, Flanders became the major center of the European linen industry in the Middle Ages. In North America, colonists introduced flax, and it flourished there, but by the early 20th century, cheap cotton and rising farm wages had caused production of flax to become concentrated in northern Russia, which came to provide 90% of the world's output. Since then, flax has lost its importance as a commercial crop, due to the easy availability of more durable fibres.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 874, 34076091, 19006, 521555, 43354034, 25507, 147020, 5314, 10878, 18836, 36806, 323990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 48 ], [ 222, 233 ], [ 271, 284 ], [ 293, 299 ], [ 318, 322 ], [ 332, 344 ], [ 420, 427 ], [ 477, 488 ], [ 544, 552 ], [ 615, 626 ], [ 735, 741 ], [ 932, 947 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flax is grown for its seeds, which can be ground into a meal or turned into linseed oil, a product used as a nutritional supplement and as an ingredient in many wood-finishing products. Flax is also grown as an ornamental plant in gardens. Moreover, flax fibers are used to make linen. The specific epithet in its species name, usitatissimum, means \"most useful\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 295711, 104444, 2741999, 216428, 56212, 39736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 87 ], [ 109, 131 ], [ 161, 175 ], [ 211, 227 ], [ 279, 284 ], [ 290, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flax fibers taken from the stem of the plant are two to three times as strong as cotton fibers. Additionally, flax fibers are naturally smooth and straight. Europe and North America both depended on flax for plant-based cloth until the 19th century, when cotton overtook flax as the most common plant for making rag-based paper. Flax is grown on the Canadian prairies for linseed oil, which is used as a drying oil in paints and varnishes and in products such as linoleum and printing inks.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 12684798, 66549, 671039, 15292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 312, 327 ], [ 359, 366 ], [ 463, 471 ], [ 476, 488 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linseed meal, the by-product of producing linseed oil from flax seeds, is used as livestock fodder.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 25160767, 634526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 91 ], [ 92, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flax seeds occur in two basic varieties/colors: brown or yellow (golden linseeds). Most types of these basic varieties have similar nutritional characteristics and equal numbers of short-chain omega-3 fatty acids. Yellow flax seeds, called solin (trade name \"Linola\"), have a similar oil profile to brown flax seeds and both are very high in omega-3s (alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), specifically).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 21525, 22594, 230404, 1911660, 153316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 143 ], [ 193, 211 ], [ 247, 257 ], [ 259, 265 ], [ 352, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flax seeds produce a vegetable oil known as flax seed oil or linseed oil, which is one of the oldest commercial oils. It is an edible oil obtained by expeller pressing and sometimes followed by solvent extraction. Solvent-processed flax seed oil has been used for many centuries as a drying oil in painting and varnishing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 192331, 295711, 47862666, 1880117, 2393984, 752713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 34 ], [ 61, 72 ], [ 127, 137 ], [ 150, 167 ], [ 194, 212 ], [ 284, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although brown flax seed varieties may be consumed as readily as the yellow ones, and have been for thousands of years, these varieties are more commonly used in paints, for fiber, and for cattle feed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A 100-gram portion of ground flax seed supplies about of food energy, 41g of fat, 28g of fiber, and 20g of protein. Whole flax seeds are chemically stable, but ground flax seed meal, because of oxidation, may go rancid when left exposed to air at room temperature in as little as a week. Refrigeration and storage in sealed containers will keep ground flax seed meal for a longer period before it turns rancid. Under conditions similar to those found in commercial bakeries, trained sensory panelists could not detect differences between bread made with freshly ground flax seed and bread made with flax seed that had been milled four months earlier and stored at room temperature. If packed immediately without exposure to air and light, milled flax seed is stable against excessive oxidation when stored for nine months at room temperature, and under warehouse conditions, for 20 months at ambient temperatures.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 182303, 66313, 198711, 1095698, 549146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 69 ], [ 195, 204 ], [ 213, 219 ], [ 624, 630 ], [ 854, 863 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three phenolic glucosides—secoisolariciresinol diglucoside, p-coumaric acid glucoside, and ferulic acid glucoside—are present in commercial breads containing flax seed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 362892, 435043, 1249583, 4240902, 2630110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 14 ], [ 15, 24 ], [ 26, 58 ], [ 60, 75 ], [ 91, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After crushing the seeds to extract linseed oil, the resultant linseed meal is a protein-rich feed for ruminants, rabbits, and fish. It is also often used as feed for swine and poultry, and has also been used in horse concentrate and dog food. The high omega-3 fatty acid (ALA) content of linseed meal \"softens\" milk, eggs or meat, which means it causes a higher unsaturated fat content and thus lowers its storage time. The high omega-3 content also has a further disadvantage, because this fatty acid oxidises and goes rancid quickly, which shortens the storage time. Linola was developed in Australia and introduced in the 1990s with less omega-3, specifically to serve as fodder. Another disadvantage of the meal and seed is that it contains a vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) antagonist, and may require this vitamin be supplemented, especially in chickens, and furthermore linseeds contain 2–7% of mucilage (fibre), which may be beneficial in humans and cattle, but cannot be digested by non-ruminants and can be detrimental to young animals, unless possibly treated with enzymes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 23634, 14193930, 246806, 26573, 2391490, 23197, 236573, 153316, 11042, 66313, 198711, 1911660, 634526, 54110, 1205637, 37402, 18952193, 9257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 88 ], [ 94, 98 ], [ 103, 111 ], [ 114, 120 ], [ 167, 172 ], [ 177, 184 ], [ 234, 242 ], [ 273, 276 ], [ 363, 378 ], [ 503, 510 ], [ 521, 527 ], [ 570, 576 ], [ 676, 682 ], [ 748, 758 ], [ 760, 770 ], [ 844, 851 ], [ 895, 903 ], [ 1069, 1075 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linseed meal is added to cattle feed as a protein supplement. It can only be added at low percentages due to the high fat content, which is unhealthy for ruminants. Compared to oilseed meal from crucifers it measures as having lower nutrient values, however, good results are obtained in cattle, perhaps due to the mucilage, which may aid in slowing digestion and thus allowing more time to absorb nutrients. One study found that feeding flax seeds may increase omega-3 content in beef, while another found no differences. It might also act as a substitute for tallow in increasing marbling. In the US, flax-based feed for ruminants is often somewhat more expensive than other feeds on a nutrient basis. Sheep feeding on low quality forage are able to eat a large amount of linseed meal, up to 40% in one test, with positive consequences. It has been fed as supplement to water buffaloes in India, and provided a better diet than forage alone, but not as good as when substituted with soy meal. It is considered an inferior protein supplement for swine because of its fibre, the vitamin antagonist, the high omega-3 content and its low lysine content, and can only be used in small amounts in the feed. Although it may increase the omega-3 content in eggs and meat, it is also an inferior and potentially toxic feed for poultry, although it can be used in small amounts. The meal is an adequate and traditional source of protein for rabbits at 8–10%. Its use in fish feeds is limited.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1059768, 104444, 3794, 36968, 212396, 4444306, 17158563, 246828, 58708, 62784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ], [ 50, 60 ], [ 195, 204 ], [ 481, 485 ], [ 561, 567 ], [ 582, 590 ], [ 704, 709 ], [ 733, 739 ], [ 872, 887 ], [ 985, 988 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raw, immature linseeds contain an amount of cyanogenic compounds and can be dangerous for monogastric animals such as horses or rabbits. Boiling removes the danger. This is not an issue in meal cake due to the processing temperature during oil extraction.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 5910, 1207755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 54 ], [ 90, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flax straw left over from the harvesting of oilseed is not very nutritious; it is tough and indigestible, and is not recommended to use as ruminant fodder, although it may be used as bedding or baled as windbreaks.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 46594, 758445, 795651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 10 ], [ 194, 199 ], [ 203, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flax fiber is extracted from the bast beneath the surface of the stem of the flax plant. Flax fiber is soft, lustrous, and flexible; bundles of fiber have the appearance of blonde hair, hence the description \"flaxen\" hair. It is stronger than cotton fiber, but less elastic. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2845506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The use of flax fibers dates back tens of millennia; linen, a refined textile made from flax fibers, was worn widely by Sumerian priests more than 4,000 years ago. Industrial-scale flax fiber processing existed in antiquity. A Bronze Age factory dedicated to flax processing was discovered in Euonymeia, Greece.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 56212, 50521, 4620, 45079928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 58 ], [ 120, 125 ], [ 227, 237 ], [ 293, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The best grades are used for fabrics such as damasks, lace, and sheeting. Coarser grades are used for the manufacturing of twine and rope, and historically, for canvas and webbing equipment. Flax fiber is a raw material used in the high-quality paper industry for the use of printed banknotes, laboratory paper (blotting and filter), rolling paper for cigarettes, and tea bags.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1252036, 89303, 1259351, 1810027, 334990, 72903, 363639, 208286, 4098193, 182839, 598673, 38327, 214968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 51 ], [ 54, 58 ], [ 64, 72 ], [ 123, 128 ], [ 133, 137 ], [ 161, 167 ], [ 172, 189 ], [ 283, 291 ], [ 312, 320 ], [ 325, 331 ], [ 334, 347 ], [ 352, 361 ], [ 368, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flax mills for spinning flaxen yarn were invented by John Kendrew and Thomas Porthouse of Darlington, England, in 1787. New methods of processing flax have led to renewed interest in the use of flax as an industrial fiber.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 9246748, 51971, 9247239, 160564, 9316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 31, 35 ], [ 53, 65 ], [ 90, 100 ], [ 102, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flax seeds are 7% water, 18% protein, 29% carbohydrates, and 42% fat (table). In as a reference amount, flax seeds provide 534 kilocalories and contain high levels (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several B vitamins, and dietary minerals. Flax seeds are especially rich in thiamine, magnesium, and phosphorus (DVs above 90%) (table).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Nutrition", "target_page_ids": [ 6531493, 5932, 11042, 6423, 267488, 66554, 457926, 235195, 30500, 18909, 23318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 36 ], [ 42, 54 ], [ 65, 68 ], [ 128, 139 ], [ 185, 196 ], [ 214, 227 ], [ 237, 247 ], [ 253, 269 ], [ 305, 313 ], [ 315, 324 ], [ 330, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a percentage of total fat, flax seeds contain 54% omega-3 fatty acids (mostly ALA), 18% omega-9 fatty acids (oleic acid), and 6% omega-6 fatty acids (linoleic acid); the seeds contain 9% saturated fat, including 5% as palmitic acid. Flax seed oil contains 53% 18:3 omega-3 fatty acids (mostly ALA) and 13% 18:2 omega-6 fatty acids.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Nutrition", "target_page_ids": [ 11042, 153316, 3110439, 661100, 681218, 880497, 264746, 542488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 28 ], [ 81, 84 ], [ 91, 110 ], [ 112, 122 ], [ 132, 151 ], [ 153, 166 ], [ 190, 203 ], [ 221, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A meta-analysis showed that consumption of more than 30g of flax-seed daily for more than 12weeks reduced body weight, body mass index (BMI), and waist circumference for persons with a BMI greater than 27. Another meta-analysis showed that consumption of flax seeds for more than 12weeks produced small reductions in systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure. A third showed that consuming flax seed or its derivatives may reduce total and LDL-cholesterol in the blood, with greater benefits in women and people with high cholesterol. A fourth showed a small reduction in c-reactive protein (a marker of inflammation) only in persons with a body mass index greater than 30.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Nutrition", "target_page_ids": [ 62329, 4788, 242360, 610617, 51521, 6437, 307809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 15 ], [ 119, 134 ], [ 317, 340 ], [ 345, 369 ], [ 451, 466 ], [ 533, 544 ], [ 583, 601 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linseed oil, also known as flaxseed oil or flax oil (in its edible form), is a colourless to yellowish oil obtained from the dried, ripened seeds of the flax plant.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Nutrition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Flax seed and its oil are generally recognized as safe for human consumption. Like many common foods, flax contains small amounts of cyanogenic glycoside, which is nontoxic when consumed in typical amounts, but may be toxic when consumed in large quantities as with staple foods such as cassava. Typical concentrations (for example, 0.48% in a sample of defatted dehusked flax seed meal) can be removed by special processing.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Nutrition", "target_page_ids": [ 811905, 518902, 47850038, 56465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 54 ], [ 144, 153 ], [ 266, 277 ], [ 287, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The soils most suitable for flax, besides the alluvial kind, are deep loams containing a large proportion of organic matter. Flax is often found growing just above the waterline in cranberry bogs. Heavy clays are unsuitable, as are soils of a gravelly or dry sandy nature. Farming flax requires few fertilizers or pesticides. Within eight weeks of sowing, the plant can reach in height, reaching within 50 days.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 37738, 183243, 1164768, 1246718, 7025, 36980, 167120, 18994037, 37401, 48340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ], [ 46, 54 ], [ 70, 74 ], [ 109, 123 ], [ 181, 190 ], [ 203, 207 ], [ 243, 249 ], [ 259, 263 ], [ 299, 309 ], [ 314, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2020, world production of flax (linseed) was 3.4 million tonnes, led by Kazakhstan with 31% of the total. Other major producers were Russia, Canada, and China (table).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 31185, 16642, 25391, 5042916, 5405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 65 ], [ 75, 85 ], [ 136, 142 ], [ 144, 150 ], [ 156, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flax is harvested for fiber production after about 100 days, or a month after the plants flower and two weeks after the seed capsules form. The bases of the plants begin to turn yellow. If the plants are still green, the seed will not be useful, and the fiber will be underdeveloped. The fiber degrades once the plants turn brown.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Harvesting", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Flax grown for seed is allowed to mature until the seed capsules are yellow and just starting to split; it is then harvested in various ways. A combine harvester may either cut only the heads of the plants, or the whole plant. These are then dried to extract the seed. The amount of weeds in the straw affects its marketability, and this, coupled with market prices, determines whether the farmer chooses to harvest the flax straw. If the flax straw is not harvested, typically, it is burned, since the stalks are quite tough and decompose slowly (i.e., not in a single season). Formed into windrows from the harvesting process, the straw often clogs up tillage and planting equipment. Flax straw that is not of sufficient quality for fiber uses can be baled to build shelters for farm animals, or sold as biofuel, or removed from the field in the spring.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Harvesting", "target_page_ids": [ 247388, 1264450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 161 ], [ 591, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two ways are used to harvest flax fiber, one involving mechanized equipment (combines), and a second method, more manual and targeting maximum fiber length.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Harvesting", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Flax for fiber production is usually harvested by a specialized flax harvester. Usually built on the same machine base as a combine, but instead of the cutting head it has a flax puller. The flax plant turned over and is gripped by rubber belts roughly 20–25cm (8–10inches) above ground, to avoid getting grasses and weeds in the flax. The rubber belts then pull the whole plant out of the ground with the roots so the whole length of the plant fiber can be used. The plants then pass over the machine and is placed on the field crosswise to the harvesters direction of travel. The plants are left in the field for field retting.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Harvesting", "target_page_ids": [ 1844252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 621, 628 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mature plant can also be cut with mowing equipment, similar to hay harvesting, and raked into windrows. When dried sufficiently, a combine then harvests the seeds similar to wheat or oat harvesting.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Harvesting", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The plant is pulled up with the roots (not cut), so as to increase the fiber length. After this, the flax is allowed to dry, the seeds are removed, and it is then retted. Dependent upon climatic conditions, characteristics of the sown flax and fields, the flax remains on the ground between two weeks and two months for retting. As a result of alternating rain and the sun, an enzymatic action degrades the pectins which bind fibers to the straw. The farmers turn over the straw during retting to evenly rett the stalks. When the straw is retted and sufficiently dry, it is rolled up. It is then stored by farmers before extracting the fibers.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Harvesting", "target_page_ids": [ 1844252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Threshing is the process of removing the seeds from the rest of the plant. Separating the usable flax fibers from other components requires pulling the stems through a hackle and/or beating the plants to break them.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Processing", "target_page_ids": [ 1121399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flax processing is divided into two parts: the first part is generally done by the farmer, to bring the flax fiber into a fit state for general or common purposes. This can be performed by three machines: one for threshing out the seed, one for breaking and separating the straw (stem) from the fiber, and one for further separating the broken straw and matter from the fiber.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Processing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The second part of the process brings the flax into a state for the very finest purposes, such as lace, cambric, damask, and very fine linen. This second part is performed by a refining machine.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Processing", "target_page_ids": [ 89303, 1771110, 1252036, 56212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 102 ], [ 104, 111 ], [ 113, 119 ], [ 135, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before the flax fibers can be spun into linen, they must be separated from the rest of the stalk. The first step in this process is retting, which is the process of rotting away the inner stalk, leaving the outer parts intact. At this point, straw, or coarse outer stem (cortex and epidermis), is still remaining. To remove this, the flax is \"broken\", the straw is broken up into small, short bits, while the actual fiber is left unharmed. Scutching scrapes the outer straw from the fiber. The stems are then pulled through \"hackles\", which act like combs to remove the straw and some shorter fibers out of the long fiber.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Preparation for spinning", "target_page_ids": [ 1844252, 1884746, 2959657, 24095331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 139 ], [ 271, 277 ], [ 282, 291 ], [ 440, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several methods are used for retting flax. It can be retted in a pond, stream, field, or tank. When the retting is complete, the bundles of flax feel soft and slimy, and quite a few fibers are standing out from the stalks. When wrapped around a finger, the inner woody part springs away from the fibers. Pond retting is the fastest. It consists of placing the flax in a pool of water which will not evaporate. It generally takes place in a shallow pool which will warm up dramatically in the sun; the process may take from a few days to a few weeks. Pond-retted flax is traditionally considered of lower quality, possibly because the product can become dirty, and is easily over-retted, damaging the fiber. This form of retting also produces quite an odor. Stream retting is similar to pool retting, but the flax is submerged in bundles in a stream or river. This generally takes two or three weeks longer than pond retting, but the end product is less likely to be dirty, does not smell as bad, and because the water is cooler, is less likely to be over-retted. Both pond and stream retting were traditionally used less because they pollute the waters used for the process.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Preparation for spinning", "target_page_ids": [ 1844252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In field retting, the flax is laid out in a large field, and dew is allowed to collect on it. This process normally takes a month or more, but is generally considered to provide the highest quality flax fibers, and it produces the least pollution.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Preparation for spinning", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Retting can also be done in a plastic trash can or any type of water-tight container of wood, concrete, earthenware, or plastic. Metal containers will not work, as an acid is produced when retting, and it would corrode the metal. If the water temperature is kept at , the retting process under these conditions takes 4 or 5 days. If the water is any colder, it takes longer. Scum collects at the top, and an odor is given off the same as in pond retting. 'Enzymatic' retting of flax has been researched as a technique to engineer fibers with specific properties.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Preparation for spinning", "target_page_ids": [ 155443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dressing the flax is the process of removing the straw from the fibers. Dressing consists of three steps: breaking, scutching, and heckling. The breaking breaks up the straw. Some of the straw is scraped from the fibers in the scutching process, and finally, the fiber is pulled through heckles to remove the last bits of straw.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Preparation for spinning", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Breaking breaks up the straw into short segments. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Preparation for spinning", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scutching removes some of the straw from the fiber.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Preparation for spinning", "target_page_ids": [ 24095331, 46594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 30, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heckling is pulling the fiber through various sizes of heckling combs or heckles. A heckle is a bed of \"nails\"—sharp, long-tapered, tempered, polished steel pins driven into wooden blocks at regular spacing. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Preparation for spinning", "target_page_ids": [ 24095133, 24095133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 55, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2009, Canadian flax exports reportedly had been contaminated by a deregistered genetically modified cultivar called 'Triffid' that had food and feed safety approval in Canada and the U.S. Canadian growers and the Flax Council of Canada raised concerns about the marketability of this cultivar in Europe where a zero tolerance policy exists regarding unapproved genetically modified organisms. Consequently, Triffid was deregistered in 2010 and never grown commercially in Canada or the U.S. Triffid stores were destroyed, but future exports and further tests at the University of Saskatchewan proved that Triffid persisted in at least two Canadian flax varieties, possibly affecting future crops. Canadian flax seed cultivars were reconstituted with Triffid-free seed used to plant the 2014 crop. Laboratories are certified to test for the presence of Triffid at a level of one seed in 10,000.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Genetically modified flax contamination", "target_page_ids": [ 12383, 295909, 12339, 267686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 112 ], [ 324, 338 ], [ 374, 403 ], [ 579, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flax is an emblem of Northern Ireland and displayed by the Northern Ireland Assembly. In a coronet, it appeared on the reverse of the British one-pound coin to represent Northern Ireland on coins minted in 1986, 1991, and 2014. Flax also represents Northern Ireland on the badge of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and on various logos associated with it.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Symbolic images", "target_page_ids": [ 21265, 321991, 200442, 1727595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 37 ], [ 59, 84 ], [ 134, 156 ], [ 286, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Common flax is the national flower of Belarus.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Symbolic images", "target_page_ids": [ 3457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early versions of the Sleeping Beauty tale, such as \"Sun, Moon, and Talia\" by Giambattista Basile, the princess pricks her finger, not on a spindle, but on a sliver of flax, which later is sucked out by her children conceived as she sleeps.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Symbolic images", "target_page_ids": [ 194085, 14024759, 859175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 40 ], [ 56, 76 ], [ 81, 100 ] ] } ]

[ "Flax", "Linum", "Fiber_plants", "Crops_originating_from_Asia", "Flora_of_Western_Asia", "Crops", "Biodegradable_materials", "Demulcents", "Painting_materials", "Plants_described_in_1753", "Articles_containing_video_clips", "Founder_crops" ]

[ "common flax", "flax", "fibre flax" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Greyhound racing is an organized, competitive sport in which greyhounds are raced around a track. There are two forms of greyhound racing, track racing (normally around an oval track) and coursing; the latter is now banned in most countries. Track racing uses an artificial lure (usually a form of windsock) that travels ahead of the greyhounds on a rail until the greyhounds cross the finish line. As with horse racing, greyhound races often allow the public to bet on the outcome.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12938, 1519416, 50857, 11921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 70 ], [ 188, 196 ], [ 386, 397 ], [ 463, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many countries, greyhound racing is purely amateur and solely for enjoyment. In other countries, particularly Australia, Ireland, the United Kingdom, and the United States, greyhound racing is similar to horse racing in that it is part of the gambling industry.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 74711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Animal rights and animal welfare groups have been critical of the welfare of greyhounds in the commercial racing industry for many years which has contributed to the reforms of the industries in recent years. A greyhound adoption movement spearheaded by kennel owners has arisen to assist retired racing dogs in finding homes as pets, with an estimated adoption rate of over 95% in the United States.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 174438, 1109898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 73 ], [ 211, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern greyhound racing has its origins in coursing. The first recorded attempt at racing greyhounds on a straight track was made beside the Welsh Harp reservoir, Hendon, England, in 1876, but this experiment did not develop. The industry emerged in its recognizable modern form, featuring circular or oval tracks, with the invention of the mechanical, or artificial, hare in 1912 by an American, Owen Patrick Smith. O.P. Smith had altruistic aims for the industry to stop the killing of the jack rabbits and see \"greyhound racing as we see horse racing\". In 1919, Smith opened the first professional dog-racing track with stands in Emeryville, California. The Emeryville arena was torn down in February 1920 to make way for the construction of a modern racetrack using the mechanical lure, described in the press as the \"automatic rabbit.\" The first race at the new park was on Saturday, May 29, 1920.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 845038, 2994324, 94090, 107334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 51 ], [ 141, 151 ], [ 163, 178 ], [ 633, 655 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The certificates system led the way to parimutuel betting, as quarry and on-course gambling, in the United States during the 1930s.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 24188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The oval track and mechanical hare were introduced to Britain, in 1926, by another American, Charles Munn, in association with Major Lyne-Dixson, a Canadian, who was a key figure in coursing. Finding other supporters proved rather difficult, however, and with the General Strike of 1926 looming, the two men scoured the country in an attempt to find others who would join them. Eventually they met Brigadier-General Critchley, who introduced them to Sir William Gentle. Between them they raised £22,000, and like the American 'International Greyhound Racing Association' (or the I.G.R.A.), they launched the Greyhound Racing Association holding the first British meeting at Manchester's Belle Vue Stadium. The industry was successful in cities and towns throughout the UK – by the end of 1927, there were forty tracks operating.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9335589, 15078150, 15041322, 20206, 12305007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 398, 425 ], [ 454, 468 ], [ 608, 636 ], [ 674, 684 ], [ 687, 704 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Middle-class reformers were outraged, and the working-class delighted, with the emergence in the late-1920s of Greyhound racing as an entertaining new sport and betting opportunity. At first it seemed modern, glamorous, and American, but the middle class lost interest when working-class audiences took over. The working class appreciated the nearby urban locations of the tracks and the evening times of the meetings. Betting has always been a key ingredient of greyhound racing, both through on-course bookmakers and the totalisator, first introduced in 1930. Like horse racing, it is popular to bet on the greyhound races as a form of parimutuel betting.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 301922, 74711, 24188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 524, 535 ], [ 568, 580 ], [ 639, 657 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Greyhound racing enjoyed its highest United Kingdom attendances just after the Second World War—for example, attendances during 1946 were estimated to be around 75 million based on an annual totalisator turnover of £196,431,430. The industry experienced a decline beginning in the early 1960s, after the 1960 UK Betting and Gaming Act permitted off-course cash betting. Sponsorship, limited television coverage, and the later abolition of on-course betting tax have partially offset this decline. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 44038359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 95 ], [ 309, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commercial greyhound racing is characterized by several criteria (varying depending on country) and can include legalized gambling, the existence of a regulatory structure, the physical presence of racetracks, whether the host state or subdivision shares in any gambling proceeds, fees charged by host locations, the use of professional racing kennels, the number of dogs participating in races, the existence of an official racing code, and membership in a greyhound racing federation or trade association.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Today", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to the seven countries where commercial greyhound racing exists, in at least twenty-one countries dog racing occurs, but has not yet reached a commercial stage.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Today", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The medical care of a racing greyhound is primarily the responsibility of the trainer while in training. All tracks in the United Kingdom have to have a veterinary surgeon and veterinary room facilities on site during racing. The greyhounds require annual vaccination against distemper, infectious canine hepatitis, parvovirus, leptospirosis, and a vaccination to minimize outbreaks of diseases such as kennel cough. All greyhounds in the UK must pass a pre-race veterinary inspection before being allowed to take part in that race.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medical care", "target_page_ids": [ 97839, 3849073, 125158, 649760, 1475001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 276, 285 ], [ 287, 314 ], [ 316, 326 ], [ 328, 341 ], [ 404, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The racing industry (in several countries) actively works to prevent the spread of doping cases. Attempts are being made to recover urine samples from all greyhounds in a race, not just the winners. Greyhounds from which samples cannot be obtained for a certain number of consecutive races are subject to being ruled off the track in some countries. Violators are subject to criminal penalties and loss of their racing licenses by state gaming commissions and a permanent ban from the National Greyhound Association. The trainer of the greyhound is at all times the \"absolute insurer\" of the condition of the animal. The trainer is responsible for any positive test regardless of how the banned substance has entered the greyhound's system.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medical care", "target_page_ids": [ 860860, 21303781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 89 ], [ 485, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Generally, a greyhound's career will end between the ages of four and six – after the dog can no longer race, or possibly when it is no longer competitive. The best dogs are kept for breeding and there are industry-associated adoption groups and rescue groups that work to obtain retired racing greyhounds and place them as pets. In the United Kingdom, the Greyhound Board of Great Britain (GBGB) has introduced measures to locate where racing greyhounds reside after they have retired from racing and as from 2017 records have been available to the public.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Retirement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Several organizations, such as British Greyhounds Retired Database, Greyhound Rescue West of England, Birmingham Greyhound Protection, GAGAH, Adopt-a-Greyhound and Greyhound Pets of America, and the Greyhound Trust try to ensure that as many of the dogs as possible are adopted. Some of these groups also advocate better treatment of the dogs while at the track and/or the end of racing for profit. In recent years the racing industry has made significant progress in establishing programs for the adoption of retired racers. In addition to actively cooperating with private adoption groups throughout the country, many race tracks have established their own adoption programs at various tracks.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Retirement", "target_page_ids": [ 37684729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Greyhounds Australasia was formed in 1937 (as the Australian and New Zealand Greyhound Association) and consists of governing bodies in Australian states and New Zealand, which regulate greyhound welfare and living conditions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Greyhound racing is a popular industry in Ireland with the majority of tracks falling under the control of Rásaíocht Con Éireann (GRI) which is a commercial semi-state body and reports to the Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine. The vast majority of greyhounds racing in the UK are imported from Irish breeders (estimated 90%). ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 18476063, 3238894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 128 ], [ 192, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the greyhound industry Northern Irish tracks are considered to be in the category of Irish greyhound racing and the results are published by the IGB. They do not come under the control of the Greyhound Board of Great Britain.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 36422123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Racing in New Zealand is governed by the New Zealand Racing Board (NZRB) in accordance with the Racing Act 2003.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Greyhound racing in Great Britain is regulated by the Greyhound Board of Great Britain and accredited by United Kingdom Accreditation Service.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 36422123, 25188348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 86 ], [ 105, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, greyhound racing is governed by state or local law. Greyhound care is regulated by the National Association of State Racing Commissions and the American Greyhound Council (AGC). The AGC is jointly run by the National Greyhound Association.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 21303781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 230, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is one greyhound racing track in Mexico, the Caliente Greyhound Track in Tijuana, as well as one greyhound racing track in Vietnam at the Lam Son Stadium in Vung Tau, Vietnam. Additionally, there formerly was one greyhound track in Macau, China at the Canidrome, Macau which conducted greyhound racing for about 90 years, but discontinued in 2018.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 7720387, 101739, 925661, 19068, 497300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 75 ], [ 79, 86 ], [ 163, 171 ], [ 238, 243 ], [ 258, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coursing", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 845038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Greyhound jockey", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14245279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] } ]

[ "Greyhound_racing" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Bessarabia () is a historical region in Eastern Europe, bounded by the Dniester river on the east and the Prut river on the west. About two thirds of Bessarabia lies within modern-day Moldova, with the Ukrainian Budjak region covering the southern coastal region and part of the Ukrainian Chernivtsi Oblast covering a small area in the north.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17627929, 37403, 376633, 30876764, 19260, 1138646, 357148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 36 ], [ 40, 54 ], [ 71, 79 ], [ 106, 110 ], [ 184, 191 ], [ 212, 218 ], [ 289, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812), and the ensuing Peace of Bucharest, the eastern parts of the Principality of Moldavia, an Ottoman vassal, along with some areas formerly under direct Ottoman rule, were ceded to Imperial Russia. The acquisition was among the Empire's last territorial acquisitions in Europe. The newly acquired territories were organised as the Bessarabia Governorate of the Russian Empire, adopting a name previously used for the southern plains between the Dniester and the Danube rivers. Following the Crimean War, in 1856, the southern areas of Bessarabia were returned to Moldavian rule; Russian rule was restored over the whole of the region in 1878, when Romania, the result of Moldavia's union with Wallachia, was pressured into exchanging those territories for the Dobruja.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 561861, 1290080, 46007, 22278, 293401, 20611504, 15492117, 21209639, 46763, 3190559, 22871737, 46026, 255578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 53 ], [ 71, 89 ], [ 116, 140 ], [ 145, 152 ], [ 153, 159 ], [ 233, 248 ], [ 383, 405 ], [ 514, 520 ], [ 543, 554 ], [ 569, 597 ], [ 700, 707 ], [ 745, 754 ], [ 812, 819 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1917, in the wake of the Russian Revolution, the area constituted itself as the Moldavian Democratic Republic, an autonomous republic part of a proposed federative Russian state. Bolshevik agitation in late 1917 and early 1918 resulted in the intervention of the Romanian Army, ostensibly to pacify the region. Soon after, the parliamentary assembly declared independence, and then union with the Kingdom of Romania. However, the legality of these acts was disputed, most prominently by the Soviet Union, which regarded the area as a territory occupied by Romania.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25762, 1342971, 616184, 4927, 2105749, 15168417, 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 46 ], [ 83, 112 ], [ 156, 180 ], [ 182, 191 ], [ 266, 279 ], [ 385, 418 ], [ 494, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1940, after securing the assent of Nazi Germany through the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union pressured Romania, under threat of war, into withdrawing from Bessarabia, allowing the Red Army to enter and the Soviet Union to annex the region. The area was formally integrated into the Soviet Union: the core joined parts of the Moldavian ASSR to form the Moldavian SSR, while territories inhabited by Slavic majorities in the north and the south of Bessarabia were transferred to the Ukrainian SSR. Axis-aligned Romania recaptured the region in 1941 with the success of Operation München during the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, but lost it in 1944 as the tide of war turned. In 1947, the Soviet-Romanian border along the Prut was internationally recognised by the Paris Treaty that ended World War II.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20950, 25682, 6886136, 1816958, 376728, 29440, 376732, 43507, 21874221, 22618, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 86 ], [ 192, 200 ], [ 234, 250 ], [ 337, 351 ], [ 364, 377 ], [ 410, 414 ], [ 493, 506 ], [ 508, 512 ], [ 579, 596 ], [ 608, 641 ], [ 803, 815 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the process of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Moldavian and Ukrainian SSRs proclaimed their independence in 1991, becoming the modern states of Moldova and Ukraine while preserving the existing partition of Bessarabia. Following a short war in the early 1990s, the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic was proclaimed in the Transnistria, extending its authority also over the municipality of Bender on the right bank of Dniester river. Part of the Gagauz-inhabited areas in southern Bessarabia was organised in 1994 as an autonomous region within Moldova.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40494892, 31750, 376581, 3659647, 449688, 461911, 389634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 57 ], [ 173, 180 ], [ 282, 315 ], [ 338, 350 ], [ 406, 412 ], [ 462, 468 ], [ 536, 553 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the traditional explanation, the name Bessarabia (Basarabia in Romanian) derives from the Wallachian Basarab dynasty, who allegedly ruled over the southern part of the area in the 14th century. However, some scholars question this, claiming that:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and usage of the name", "target_page_ids": [ 25534, 46026, 3400285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 84 ], [ 103, 112 ], [ 114, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the name was initially an exonym applied by Western cartographers", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and usage of the name", "target_page_ids": [ 1323496, 33800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 33 ], [ 45, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " it was first used in local sources only in the late 17th century;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and usage of the name", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the idea that it referred to Moldavian regions near the Black Sea was explicitly rejected as a cartographic confusion by the early Moldavian chronicler Miron Costin, and;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and usage of the name", "target_page_ids": [ 3386, 3231772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 66 ], [ 153, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the confusion may have been caused by medieval Western cartographers, misinterpreting contemporaneous Polish references to Wallachia as Bessarabia as referring to a separate land between Wallachia and Moldavia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and usage of the name", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Dimitrie Cantemir, the name Bessarabia originally applied only to the part of the territory south of the Upper Trajanic Wall, i.e. an area only slightly bigger than present-day Budjak.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and usage of the name", "target_page_ids": [ 183081, 18329295, 1138646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 30 ], [ 118, 137 ], [ 190, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The region is bounded by the Dniester to the north and east, the Prut to the west, and the lower River Danube and Black Sea to the south. It has an area of . The area is mostly hilly plains and flat steppes. It is very fertile and has lignite deposits and stone quarries. People living in the area grow sugar beet, sunflower, wheat, maize, tobacco, wine grapes, and fruit. They raise sheep and cattle. The main industry in the region is agricultural processing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 30876764, 21209639, 3386, 54048, 42808, 50245, 57622, 36858, 20656228, 30942, 450096, 10843, 17158563, 26051975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 69 ], [ 97, 109 ], [ 114, 123 ], [ 199, 206 ], [ 235, 242 ], [ 303, 313 ], [ 315, 324 ], [ 326, 331 ], [ 333, 338 ], [ 340, 347 ], [ 349, 360 ], [ 366, 371 ], [ 384, 389 ], [ 394, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main cities are Chișinău (former capital of the Russian Bessarabia Governorate, now capital of Moldova), and Izmail and Bilhorod-Dnistrovs'kyi (historically called Cetatea Albă and Akkerman; both now within Ukraine). Other towns of administrative or historical importance include: Khotyn, Reni, and Kilia (all now in Ukraine); and Lipcani, Briceni, Soroca, Bălți, Orhei, Ungheni, Bender/Tighina, and Cahul (all now in Moldova).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 56635, 2067091, 873549, 1436319, 2048482, 2629167, 973861, 979456, 538134, 530436, 544978, 2744035, 449688, 727040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 28 ], [ 113, 119 ], [ 124, 146 ], [ 285, 291 ], [ 293, 297 ], [ 303, 308 ], [ 335, 342 ], [ 344, 351 ], [ 353, 359 ], [ 361, 366 ], [ 368, 373 ], [ 375, 382 ], [ 384, 398 ], [ 404, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 14th century, the newly established Principality of Moldavia encompassed what later became known as Bessarabia. Afterward, this territory was directly or indirectly, partly or wholly controlled by: the Ottoman Empire (as suzerain of Moldavia, with direct rule only in Budjak and Khotyn), the Russian Empire, Romania, the USSR. Since 1991, most of the territory forms the core of Moldova, with smaller parts in Ukraine.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 46007, 22278, 1436319, 20611504, 25445, 26779, 19260, 31750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 72 ], [ 214, 228 ], [ 291, 297 ], [ 304, 318 ], [ 320, 327 ], [ 333, 337 ], [ 391, 398 ], [ 422, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "People have inhabited the territory of Bessarabia for thousands of years. Cucuteni–Trypillia culture flourished between the 6th and 3rd millennium BC.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1586060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Antiquity the region was inhabited by Thracians, as well as for shorter periods by Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, and Celts, specifically by tribes such as the Costoboci, Carpi, Britogali, Tyragetae, and Bastarnae. In the 6th century BC, Greek settlers established the colony of Tyras along the Black Sea coast and traded with the locals. Celts also settled in the southern parts of Bessarabia, their main city being Aliobrix.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 252905, 188824, 79583, 55092, 140466, 6546, 2452182, 921001, 16745008, 4342, 66540, 2976604, 3386, 11761096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 41, 50 ], [ 86, 96 ], [ 98, 107 ], [ 109, 119 ], [ 125, 130 ], [ 167, 176 ], [ 178, 183 ], [ 196, 205 ], [ 211, 220 ], [ 245, 250 ], [ 286, 291 ], [ 302, 311 ], [ 424, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first polity that is believed to have included the whole of Bessarabia was the Dacian polity of Burebista in the 1st century BC. After his death, the polity was divided into smaller pieces, and the central parts were unified in the Dacian kingdom of Decebalus in the 1st century AD. This kingdom was defeated by the Roman Empire in 106. Southern Bessarabia was included in the empire even before that, in 57 AD, as part of the Roman province Moesia Inferior, but it was secured only when the Dacian Kingdom was defeated in 106. The Romans built defensive earthen walls in Southern Bessarabia (e.g. Lower Trajan Wall) to defend the Scythia Minor province against invasions. Except for the Black Sea shore in the south, Bessarabia remained outside direct Roman control; the myriad of tribes there are called by modern historians Free Dacians. The 2nd to the 5th centuries also saw the development of the Chernyakhov culture.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 45745, 252772, 167861, 25507, 75870, 4006745, 71565700, 1565536, 1780150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 88 ], [ 100, 109 ], [ 254, 263 ], [ 320, 332 ], [ 446, 461 ], [ 602, 619 ], [ 635, 648 ], [ 831, 843 ], [ 906, 925 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 270, the Roman authorities began to withdraw their forces south of the Danube, especially from the Roman Dacia, due to the invading Goths and Carpi. The Goths, a Germanic tribe, poured into the Roman Empire from the lower Dniepr River, through the southern part of Bessarabia (Budjak steppe), which due to its geographic position and characteristics (mainly steppe), was swept by various nomadic tribes for many centuries. In 378, the area was overrun by the Huns.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 33823669, 12641, 380138, 1138646, 54048, 13519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 113 ], [ 135, 140 ], [ 225, 237 ], [ 280, 293 ], [ 361, 367 ], [ 462, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the 3rd century until the 11th century, the region was invaded numerous times in turn by different tribes: Goths, Huns, Avars, Bulgars, Magyars, Pechenegs, Cumans and Mongols. The territory of Bessarabia was encompassed in dozens of ephemeral kingdoms which were disbanded when another wave of migrants arrived. Those centuries were characterized by a terrible state of insecurity and mass movement of these tribes. The period was later known as the Dark Ages of Europe, or age of migrations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12641, 13519, 48525, 44737, 17106358, 682784, 922690, 18984, 118474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 117 ], [ 119, 123 ], [ 125, 130 ], [ 132, 139 ], [ 141, 148 ], [ 150, 159 ], [ 161, 167 ], [ 172, 179 ], [ 455, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 561, the Avars captured Bessarabia and executed the local ruler Mesamer. Following the Avars, Slavs arrived in the region and established settlements. Then, in 582, Onogur Bulgars settled in southeastern Bessarabia and northern Dobruja, from which they moved to Moesia Inferior (allegedly under pressure from the Khazars), and formed the nascent region of Bulgaria. With the rise of the Khazars' state in the east, the invasions began to diminish and it was possible to create larger states. According to some opinions, the southern part of Bessarabia remained under the influence of the First Bulgarian Empire until the end of the 9th century.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1142195, 255578, 16635, 2843775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 174 ], [ 231, 238 ], [ 316, 323 ], [ 591, 613 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between the 8th and 10th centuries, the southern part of Bessarabia was inhabited by people from the Balkan-Danubian culture (the culture of the First Bulgarian Empire). Between the 9th and 13th centuries, Bessarabia is mentioned in Slav chronicles as part of Bolohoveni (north) and Brodnici (south) voivodeships, believed to be Vlach principalities of the early Middle Ages.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40309945, 2062166, 321954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 124 ], [ 283, 291 ], [ 329, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The last large-scale invasions were those of the Mongols of 1241, 1290, and 1343. Sehr al-Jedid (near Orhei), an important settlement of the Golden Horde, dates from this period. They led to a retreat of a big part of the population to the mountainous areas in Eastern Carpathians and to Transylvania. The population east of Prut became especially low at the time of the Tatar invasions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 544978, 147911, 2184631, 30853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 107 ], [ 141, 153 ], [ 261, 280 ], [ 288, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Late Middle Age, chronicles mention a Tigheci \"republic\", predating the establishment of the Principality of Moldavia, situated near the modern town of Cahul in the southwest of Bessarabia, preserving its autonomy even during the later Principality even into the 18th century. Genovese merchants rebuilt or established a number of forts along the Dniester (notably Moncastro) and Danube (including Kyliya/Chilia-Licostomo).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 24587370, 46007, 727040, 559961, 873549, 2629167, 3389572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 52 ], [ 100, 124 ], [ 159, 164 ], [ 284, 292 ], [ 372, 381 ], [ 405, 418 ], [ 419, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the 1360s the region was gradually included in the principality of Moldavia, which by 1392 established control over the fortresses of Akkerman and Chilia, its eastern border becoming the River Dniester. Based on the name of the region, some authors consider that in the latter part of the 14th century the southern part of the region was under the rule of Wallachia (the ruling dynasty of Wallachia during that period was called Basarab). In the 15th century, the entire region was a part of the principality of Moldavia. Stephen the Great ruled between 1457 and 1504, a period of nearly 50 years during which he won 32 battles defending his country against virtually all his neighbours (mainly the Ottomans and the Tatars, but also the Hungarians and the Poles) while losing only two. During this period, after each victory, he raised a monastery or a church close to the battlefield honoring Christianity. Many of these battlefields and churches, as well as old fortresses, are situated in Bessarabia (mainly along Dniester).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 77322, 46007, 873549, 2629167, 376633, 46026, 3400285, 264208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 69 ], [ 73, 81 ], [ 140, 148 ], [ 153, 159 ], [ 193, 207 ], [ 362, 371 ], [ 435, 442 ], [ 528, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1484, the Turks invaded and captured Chilia and Cetatea Albă (Akkerman in Turkish), and annexed the shoreline southern part of Bessarabia, which was then divided into two sanjaks (districts) of the Ottoman Empire. In 1538, the Ottomans annexed more Bessarabian land in the south as far as Tighina, while the central and northern Bessarabia remained part of the Principality of Moldavia (which became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire). Between 1711 and 1812, the Russian Empire occupied the region five times during its wars against the Ottoman and Austrian Empires.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 463858, 449688, 268717, 20611504, 22278, 266894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 180 ], [ 292, 299 ], [ 405, 411 ], [ 463, 477 ], [ 537, 544 ], [ 549, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the Treaty of Bucharest of May 28, 1812—concluding the Russo-Turkish War of 1806-1812—the Ottoman Empire ceded the land between the Pruth and the Dniester, including both Moldavian and Turkish territories, to the Russian Empire. That entire region was then called Bessarabia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1290080, 561861, 22278, 20611504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 26 ], [ 58, 88 ], [ 93, 107 ], [ 216, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1814, the first German settlers arrived and mainly settled in the southern parts, and Bessarabian Bulgarians began settling in the region too, founding towns such as Bolhrad. Between 1812 and 1846, the Bulgarian and Gagauz population migrated to the Russian Empire via the River Danube, after living many years under oppressive Ottoman rule, and settled in southern Bessarabia. Turkic-speaking tribes of the Nogai horde also inhabited the Budjak Region (in Turkish Bucak) of southern Bessarabia from the 16th to 18th centuries but were totally driven out prior to 1812.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3379062, 2068310, 151876, 461911, 21209639, 1826795, 1138646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 111 ], [ 169, 176 ], [ 205, 214 ], [ 219, 225 ], [ 276, 288 ], [ 411, 422 ], [ 442, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Administratively, Bessarabia became an oblast of the Russian Empire in 1818, and a guberniya in 1873.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 185396, 560969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 45 ], [ 83, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the Treaty of Adrianople that concluded the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829 the entire Danube Delta was added to the Bessarabian oblast. According to Vasile Stoica, emissary of the Romanian government to the United States, in 1834, the Moldovan language was banned from schools and government facilities, despite 80% of the population speaking the language. This would eventually lead to the banning of Moldovan in churches, media, and books. According to the same author, those who protested the banning of Moldovan could be sent to Siberia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1684184, 554211, 98615, 226999, 29639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 27 ], [ 47, 77 ], [ 89, 101 ], [ 238, 255 ], [ 536, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the end of the Crimean War, in 1856, by the Treaty of Paris, Southern Bessarabia (organised as the Cahul and Ismail counties, with the Bolgrad county split from the latter in 1864) was returned to Moldavia, causing the Russian Empire to lose access to the Danube river.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 46763, 191966, 3190559, 21209639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ], [ 47, 62 ], [ 64, 83 ], [ 259, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1859, Moldavia and Wallachia united to form the Romanian United Principalities (Romania), which included the southern part of Bessarabia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 46007, 46026, 22871737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 17 ], [ 22, 31 ], [ 51, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The railway Chișinău-Iași was opened on June 1, 1875, in preparation for the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) and the Eiffel Bridge was opened on , just three days before the outbreak of the war. The Romanian War of Independence was fought in 1877–78, with the help of the Russian Empire as an ally. Northern Dobruja was awarded to Romania for its role in the 1877–78 Russo-Turkish War, and as compensation for the transfer of Southern Bessarabia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 56635, 215076, 275092, 27284529, 1366093, 229277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 20 ], [ 21, 25 ], [ 77, 106 ], [ 115, 128 ], [ 197, 225 ], [ 297, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Kishinev pogrom took place in the capital of Bessarabia on April 6, 1903, after local newspapers published articles inciting the public to act against Jews; 47 or 49 Jews were killed, 92 severely wounded and 700 houses destroyed. The anti-Semitic newspaper Бессарабец (Bessarabetz, meaning \"Bessarabian\"), published by Pavel Krushevan, insinuated that local Jews killed a Russian boy. Another newspaper, Свет (Lat. Svet, meaning \"World\" or Russian for \"Light\"), used the age-old blood libel against the Jews (alleging that the boy had been killed to use his blood in preparation of matzos).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 871425, 25955086, 1078, 4941, 20923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 155, 158 ], [ 238, 250 ], [ 483, 494 ], [ 586, 591 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the 1905 Russian Revolution, a Moldavian nationalist movement started to develop in Bessarabia. In the chaos brought by the Russian revolution of October 1917, a National Council (Sfatul Țării) was established in Bessarabia, with 120 members elected from Bessarabia by some political and professional organizations and 10 elected from Transnistria (the left bank of Dniester where Moldovans accounted for less than a third and the majority of the population was Ukrainian. See Demographics of Transdniestria).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 48738, 22661, 8922890, 376581, 2232012, 145144, 1816958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 33 ], [ 130, 164 ], [ 186, 198 ], [ 341, 353 ], [ 387, 396 ], [ 468, 477 ], [ 483, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Rumcherod Committee (Central Executive Committee of the Soviets of Romanian Front, Black Sea Fleet and Odessa Military District) proclaimed itself the supreme power in Bessarabia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3031279, 3031279, 625864, 4900822, 1281036, 55545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ], [ 25, 52 ], [ 60, 67 ], [ 71, 85 ], [ 87, 102 ], [ 107, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the pretext of securing supply lines against raids by Bolsheviks and armed bandits, members of the Moldavian legislative council Sfatul Țării and the Entente Powers requested military assistance from Romania, and the Romanian Army crossed the republic's border on ; following several skirmishes with Moldovan and Bolshevik troops, the occupation of the whole region was completed in early March. The occupation of Bessarabia by the Romanians was not universally welcomed, and the members of the Bessarabian government denied that the Romanian troops had ever been invited to occupy the republic.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 290941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Ukraine issued its Fourth Universal, breaking ties with Bolshevik Russia and proclaiming a sovereign Ukrainian state, Sfatul Țării declared Bessarabia's independence on January 24, 1918, as the Moldavian Democratic Republic.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6805713, 1342971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 41 ], [ 200, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On March 5 [O.S. 20 February] 1918, in a secret agreement signed along the Treaty of Buftea, the German Empire allowed Romania to annex Bessarabia in exchange for free passage of German troops toward Ukraine. The county councils of Bălți, Soroca and Orhei were the earliest to ask for unification of the Moldavian Democratic Republic with the Kingdom of Romania, and on April 9 [O.S. March 27] 1918, in the presence of the Romanian Army, The Country Council, called \"Sfatul Țării\", voted in favour of the union, with the following conditions:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 62062999, 12674, 530436, 538134, 544978, 297151, 8922890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 91 ], [ 97, 110 ], [ 232, 237 ], [ 239, 245 ], [ 250, 255 ], [ 343, 361 ], [ 442, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Country Council would undertake an agrarian reform, which the Romanian Government would accept.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bessarabia would remain autonomous, with its own diet, the Country Council, elected democratically", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Country Council would vote for local budgets, control the councils of the zemstva and cities, and appoint the local administration", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 399667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Conscription would be done on a territorial basis", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Local laws and the form of administration could be changed only with the approval of local representatives", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The rights of minorities had to be respected", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two Bessarabian representatives would be part of the Romanian government", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bessarabia would send to the Romanian Parliament a number of representatives equal to the proportion of its population", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " All elections must involve a direct, equal, secret, and universal vote", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Freedom of speech and of belief must be guaranteed in the constitution", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " All individuals who had committed felonies for political reasons during the revolution would be amnestied.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "86 deputies voted in support, three voted against and 36 abstained. The Romanian prime minister at the time, Alexandru Marghiloman, would later admit that the union was decided in Bucharest and Iași, the seats of the Romanian government.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1214891, 36877, 215076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 130 ], [ 180, 189 ], [ 194, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first condition, the agrarian reform, was debated and approved in November 1918. The Country Council also decided to remove the other conditions and made unification with Romania unconditional. The legality of this vote was considered highly debatable since the meeting had not been publicly announced, there was no quorum (only 44 of the 125 members took part in it, mostly Moldavian conservatives), and then the Country Council voted for its self-dissolution, preventing the protests of the Moldavians and minorities members who had not participated in the parliamentary session from being taken into account.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the autumn of 1919, elections for the Romanian Constituent Assembly were held in Bessarabia; 90 deputies and 35 senators were chosen. On December 20, 1919, these men voted, along with the representatives of Romania's other regions, to ratify the unification acts that had been approved by the Country Council and the National Congresses in Transylvania and Bukovina.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The union was recognized by France, the United Kingdom, Italy, and Japan in the Treaty of Paris of 1920. However, the treaty never came into force, as Japan did not ratify it. The United States refused to sign the treaty on the grounds that Russia was not represented at the Conference. The US also considered Bessarabia a territory under Romanian occupation, rather than Romanian territory, despite existing political and economic relations between the US and Romania. Soviet Russia (and later, the USSR) did not recognize the union, and by 1924, after its demands for a regional plebiscite were declined by Romania for the second time, declared Bessarabia to be Soviet territory under foreign occupation. On all Soviet maps, Bessarabia was highlighted as a territory not belonging to Romania.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 191931, 3434750, 25391, 51582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 103 ], [ 180, 193 ], [ 241, 247 ], [ 581, 591 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Provisional Workers' & Peasants' Government of Bessarabia was founded on May 5, 1919, in exile at Odessa, by the Bolsheviks.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 55545, 4927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 106 ], [ 115, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On May 11, 1919, the Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed as an autonomous part of Russian SFSR, but was abolished by the military forces of Poland and France in September 1919 (see Polish–Soviet War). After the victory of Bolshevist Russia in the Russian Civil War, the Ukrainian SSR was created in 1922, and in 1924 the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was established on a strip of Ukrainian land on the west bank of Dniester where Moldovans and Romanians accounted for less than a third and the relative majority of the population was Ukrainian. (See Demographics of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3180747, 24795561, 22936, 5843419, 353000, 24795561, 26295, 376732, 1816958, 145144, 1816958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 58 ], [ 99, 111 ], [ 157, 163 ], [ 168, 174 ], [ 198, 215 ], [ 239, 256 ], [ 264, 281 ], [ 287, 300 ], [ 338, 384 ], [ 569, 578 ], [ 585, 651 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Svetlana Suveică considers that historical discourse regarding interwar Bessarabia was heavily influenced by the political association of the authors, and sought mainly to argue for or against the legality of Romanian rule in Bessarabia. The impact of the various reforms on the progress of the province was mostly ignored.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Romanian historiography, for the most part, consistently sought to demonstrate the legitimacy of the regime established after the Union of Bessarabia with Romania. During the interwar period, Romanian historians countered Soviet historians' description of it as the establishment of an \"occupation regime\". The agrarian reform, considered one of the most radical in Europe (an idea also supported by Western historians), was appreciated as having a positive role, emphasizing the national emancipation of the Romanian peasantry, while the modernization of agriculture was presented as a complex phenomenon, which also required further mechanism to support the new owner. However, agriculture was ignored by the state, and the new owners were greatly affected by the lack of credit, Romanian authors of the time suggested various ways this situation could have been overcome. Ultimately, as the state failed to create an adequate agricultural policy, by the end of the 1920 authors were hoping progress could be made through private initiative. Romanian authors also paid particular attention to the unification of administrative legislation, norms, and principles of administrative law, as well as their application in Romanian practice. The institute of the zemstvo was regarded by some of them as the most democratic form of government, and its dissolution by the Romanian authorities was deplored; authors such as Onisifor Ghibu expressed a critical view on the relation between Romanian administrative personnel from outside Bessarabia and the locals, as well as the general structure of the administrative corps.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8491076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1417, 1431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Communist period, Romanian historians initially treated the reforms applied after World War I mainly from social class perspectives. Starting with the 1960s, the first studies that mentioned the existence of a \"Bessarabian historical problem\" appeared. From the second half of the 1970s, studies on the agrarian reform considered that while this led to a \"natural and rational distribution of agricultural property\", it also led to fragmentation of agricultural land. This made the practice of intensive agriculture difficult, since peasants had reduced opportunity to purchase agricultural equipment. Towards the end of the Communist period, the two interwar concepts of development and modernization were re-embraced.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 297157, 37669149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ], [ 222, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the fall of Communism, Romanian historiography treated Bessarabia mainly in the context of Romanian nation-building, seen as the main issue affecting Greater Romania; authors focused mainly on issues related to the general and specific context of Bessarabia after the Union, the state's efforts for social-political and economic integration, and cultural development of Bessarabia. The internal and external factors that determined the specifics of the province's integration into the Romanian common framework are also of interest. Romanian authors mainly blamed the lasting effects of Russian domination and the destabilizing role of Soviet Russia (USSR) for the malfunctioning of the Romanian administration, with some also pointing to the difficult and non-uniform character of the integration generated by the non-uniform character of the development of the provinces until 1918, of a different degree of their adaptability to the new conditions. The modernization interwar period is also seen as the third phase of a continuous process, begun in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and brutally interrupted by the establishment of Communism. In this context, some authors consider the comparative studies of the interwar and post-Communist periods in different fields as particularly current.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 930692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soviet historiography considered the changes that took place in interwar Bessarabia expressed were directed either towards strengthening the political, economical, and social position of the bourgeoisie, to the detriment of the peasantry, or towards creating a favourable position for the Romanian population, to the detriment of the national minorities; Soviet authors thus reportedly rejected the notion that any modernization and progress took place in the region during Romanian rule. The transformations that took place on different levels of the Bessarabian society at that time were treated from a social class and/or ethnopolitical positions; Svetlana Suveică states \"the writings from the Soviet period, directly determined by the interference of politics in historical science, alternated the ideas regarding the \"Moldovan\" nation and the national identity, with severe condemnations of the Romanian interwar period\". In Suveică's opinion, the conception of Soviet historiography was based on distorted facts that would serve as \"indisputable arguments\" for the establishment of an illegal \"occupation\" regime. According to Wim P. van Meurs \"the legitimation of the political regime has been the main function of (the Soviet) historiography and such a legitimation has usually been based on a number of historical myths\". The discussion of the social-economic and politico-administrative situation in the region was also closely related to the Romanian-Soviet conflictual relations of the 1960s and 1970s, during which both communist countries treated the Bessarabian problem for political purposes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The presence of the ideological factor in writing the history of Bessarabia was manifested itself not only at the central level, but also at the level of the historiography of Soviet Moldavia. It was not until the second half of the '80s that the Moldovan historiography raised the issue of the Soviet political and ideological pressures.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 376728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Moldovan historiography, largely marked by the public identity discourse, deals with the problems of the interwar Bessarabian history, depending on the context. On the one hand, the supporters of the idea of Moldovan statehood reject the option of modernization and progress of Bessarabia after the Union with Romania while, on the other hand, the historians who, starting from the idea of the Romanian character of Bessarabia, and using new sources, \"contribute to the in-depth knowledge of the integrating and modernizing processes that marked the history of the (Bessarabian) land in the interwar period\". This ongoing controversy highlights the two antagonistic geopolitical tendencies present in the contemporary Moldovan historiography: the pro-East current versus the pro-West current.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40494892, 18994109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 41 ], [ 94, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Western historiography pointed out that the reforms at the beginning of Romania's rule were mainly directed at easing the social tensions existing across Eastern Europe and were, therefore, similar to the ones taking place elsewhere in the region. In the case of the agrarian reform, G. Clenton Logio states that the Romanians were pressed into legislating it, as expropriation had begun before the Union and there was the danger that Bessarabians would undo this act; he notes that no planning took place regarding the effects of the reform and the problems of the peasantry were ignored, transforming the latter in \"a numerous and profitable mass of clients for the banks\". According to the analysis Western authors, the reform only changed the distribution of the land, and not agricultural policies; as a result of the economical and social policies of the Romanian governments, small and medium-sized farms remained unprofitable, while the large farms not affected by the reform also lost their economic role. Western authors also criticized the administrative corps of Bessarabia - \"an unstable and corrupt stratum\" - observing that transfer of administrative personnel from Romania to Bessarabia was regarded as a severe punishment, and the clerks affected generally sought personal enrichment; the local administration was also considered rigid and unwilling to reform. In general, Western historiography analyzed the modernization of Bessarabia in a general Romanian context in relation to the previous Russian period, as well as the uneven and not so fast modernization process, determined by both internal and external factors.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Vladimir Solonar and Vladimir Bruter, Bessarabia under Romanian rule experienced low population growth due to high mortality (highest in Romania and one of the highest in Europe) as well as emigration; Bessarabia was also characterized by economic stagnation and high unemployment. Access to social services declined after the abolition of the zemstvos in the early 1920s, as these had previously provided local autonomy in managing education and public health. In the late 1930s, the Bessarabian population had among the highest incidences of several major infectious diseases and some of the highest mortality rates from these diseases.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 399667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 357, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Dan Dungaciu, the only European modernization process of Bessarabia was carried out during the Romanian interwar period, despite the all unfavorable domestic and international conditions (post-war recession, actions backed by the Soviet Union, worldwide Great Depression). Gheorghe Duca considers that, in terms of science, economy, art, political and social life, Bessarabia made considerable progress in the interwar period.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 27867955, 1303606, 7925349, 19283335, 25585456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 25 ], [ 201, 219 ], [ 221, 255 ], [ 267, 283 ], [ 286, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nicolae Enciu appreciates that, through the political, social-economic, and cultural modernization, the interwar period meant a progress of the Romanian society, with beneficial effects in all its historical regions. At the same time, the interwar period also experienced failures, being too short to be able to produce radical transformations, in order to reduce the economic and social polarization.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Wim P. van Meurs, after 1918 Bessarabia remained for a long time in a state of emergency, under a military administration, due to border incidents and agitation among the peasantry and the minorities. Strict censorship was imposed in order to restrain Bolshevik propaganda. Three major revolts or Soviet raids took place in the province during the first decade of Romanian rule. In January 1919, local peasants, with support from across the Dniester, rebelled against the Romanian army in the area of Hotin. A similar uprising took place later that year in Tighina. While in the first case Soviet participation is not documented, the latter was probably a Soviet raid, though van Meurs indicates it was most likely a local initiative not coordinated with the central government in Moscow. The longest-lasting rebellion took place for several weeks in 1924 in the area of Tatarbunary when the local population was instigated by agitators from the Soviet Union and proclaimed a Bessarabian Soviet Republic. In all cases, the rebellions were brutally suppressed by the Romanian army, which at times fielded artillery against the rebels.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 298608, 2666958, 1436319, 51512300, 449688, 7925349, 2676648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 101 ], [ 464, 498 ], [ 514, 519 ], [ 521, 539 ], [ 570, 577 ], [ 806, 831 ], [ 884, 895 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Anatol Petrencu, during the most of the Romanian period, Bessarabia benefited by democracy, with a multiparty and a modern electoral system, based on the 1923 Constitution and laws. In November 1919, Romania elected the first post-war parliament based on the proportional representation of the mandates according to the number of the population. As of mid 1919, the population of Bessarabia was estimated at around 2 million. With a voter turnout of 72.2%, the Bessarabians elected and sent to the Romanian Parliament 90 deputies and 37 senators.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 27054009, 7959, 11882187, 4462971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ], [ 94, 103 ], [ 167, 184 ], [ 511, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Charles King, in Romania \"the budding democracy [...] was soon crushed beneath the weight of corruption, court intrigues, and right-wing reaction\". The same author notes that corrupt and heavy-handed Romanian administrators were especially prevalent in the region, and the Siguranța, the Romanian secret police, conducted extensive surveillance among the minorities and regarded Transnistrian refugees and Bessarabian students as potential Bolshevik agents. This resulted in \"a sense among locals that Bessarabia had been occupied by Romania rather than united with\". Russians, in particular, were regarded as \"Bolsheviks in disguise\", with their churches and libraries closed down or Romanianized.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3524811, 33638842, 376581, 2854130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 25 ], [ 286, 295 ], [ 392, 404 ], [ 698, 710 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the beginning of World War I, around 80% of the population worked in agriculture. While the Sfatul Țării envisioned distributing land freely to the peasants, Romanian pressure resulted in a significant modification of the plans, bringing the reform more in line with similar ones taking place in the Old Kingdom and Transylvania. While more radical than elsewhere, as it provided lower payments, lower limits for land exempt from expropriation and larger plots, the Romanian land reform also reverted some of the ad-hoc land distribution that had taken place during the Russian Revolution, raising discontent among the peasantry. Thus, of the 1.5 million dessiatin (40% of the agricultural land) held by the large landowners in 1917, more than one third (38.6%) was distributed to peasants, another third was restored to its previous owners, while the rest became state property and was to a large degree later awarded to officers of the Romanian army, officials and clergy. A significant number of plots were awarded to Romanians immigrants from Wallachia and Western Moldavia, while Romanian offices who married Bessarabian women were eligible to receive 100 hectares. Though the reform set the lot at 6 hectares, more than two-thirds of the peasant households received less than 5 hectares each, and, as of 1931, 367.8 thousand peasant families were still landless. The average size of the peasant household further dropped after the land reform due to land division among heirs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 929505, 17392070, 13129612, 46026, 48098688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 31 ], [ 303, 314 ], [ 469, 489 ], [ 658, 667 ], [ 1050, 1059 ], [ 1064, 1080 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Alla Skvortsova, while the reform stimulated the development of commodity farming in the countryside and expanded the market for industrial products, it failed to produce the expected results. The peasants had to pay for the land they received during the following 20 years, there was little to no state support provided for them to acquire technical equipment required for the development of successful farms and credit was only accessible to the more prosperous among them and therefore insignificant overall. The region also lacked qualified specialists and lagged behind in infrastructure, as the government had few resources and other priorities. The main factors which impeded the creation of a prosperous peasant class were the payments for land redemption, peasant debts, and taxes, lack of access to the traditional Russian market, difficulties to break into the Romanian and European agricultural market and frequent droughts (1921, 1924, 1925, 1927–28 and 1935). Winemaking, one of the mainstays of the local economy, was particularly affected by the external policy of the Romanian state: the most favoured nation status awarded to France brought inexpensive French wine to the local market, access to the Soviet market was blocked, while exports to the traditional markets in Poland were hindered by the trade war started in 1926.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 381424, 22936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1118, 1138 ], [ 1302, 1308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Alla Skvortsova, the peasant situation was further aggravated by the Great Depression in Romania, with prices for agricultural products dropping catastrophically and not recovering until the end of the decade. While only 2.8% of the national agricultural credit was directed by the National Bank of Romania towards Bessarabia in 1936, by 1940 70% of the peasants were in debt to the large landowners and moneylenders. In order to pay debts, many of the poorer peasants had to sell their livestock and even their land. Failure to pay the redemption payments for 2.5 years also resulted in the land reverting to state property; thus, by 1938, in the district of Soroca only a quarter of the peasant households had retained their allotment. By 1939 farms of up to 5 hectares throughout the region had lost a seventh of their land, while farms with more than 10 hectares had increased their land by 26%. According to a study of the new Soviet administration, in June 1940 7.3% of the peasant households in the Bessarabian regions of the Moldavian SSR were completely landless, 38.15% had up to 3 hectares (an average of 1.7 hectares per lot) and 22.4% had 3 to 5 hectares (an average of 2.6 hectares per one household), i.e. more than two-thirds of the peasant households were farm laborers and poor peasants. Better off was the middle peasantry, which owned 5 to 10 hectares, and constituted 22.73% of peasant farms. The rest, constituting 9.4% of the farms, owned more than 10 hectares each, but held under their control 36% of peasant land, i.e. more than all small farms taken together. The 818 large landowners held an average of 100 hectares each, while institutional owners (the state, churches, and monasteries) held another 59 thousand hectares. About 54% of peasant households had no livestock, about two-thirds had no horse, a little more than a sixth had one horse each, and only 13.2% had two or more working horses. In the whole of Bessarabian region of the Moldavian SSR there were at the beginning of Soviet administration only 219 obsolete tractors, mostly owned by larger farms and used primarily as threshing engines. With little serviceable equestrian equipment, tillage, sowing, and harvesting of all crops were mostly carried out manually. Throughout the interwar era, Bessarabia witnessed several negative phenomena: further social stratification in the countryside, deepening poverty, lowering yields, worsening of the structure of crops grown, reduction of the total agricultural production. The number of cattle fell by 26% between 1926 and 1938, the number of sheep by 5%, the number of pigs by 14%. Average grain yield also decreased from 1920/1925 to 1935/1939 from 850kg per hectare to 800kg. The area used in wine-making grew by 15,000 hectares between 1930 and 1938. However, wine quality dropped, as slightly over 80% of the vineyards were planted with lower quality grape varieties. According to V.I. Tsaranov, adding to the lack of land, small plots, poor crop yields, unemployment was also high among rural residents, with around 550 thousand recorded in June 1940.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 67168679, 1242530, 538134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 109 ], [ 295, 319 ], [ 673, 679 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Alla Skvortsova, the Romanian government, either directly or through the banking system, encouraged the development of industry in the areas of prewar Romania, while hindering the process in new territories. As a consequence, even Bessarabian entrepreneurs preferred to invest their capital in those areas instead of using it within the region. Local industry faced fierce competition from larger Romanian companies, which had access to preferential rail tariffs, limited credit to local entrepreneurs, and flooded the local market with cheaper industrial goods produced in Romania or imported from abroad. Nevertheless, some new small-scale industrial enterprises were established in the 1920s, using primarily local raw materials and producing for the local market. The total engine power rose from 7.8 thousand hp in 1925 to 12.2 thousand in 1929. Although the number of industrial enterprises more than doubled after 1918, small semi-handicraft production prevailed, seldom using hired labor: in 1930 there were an average of only 2.4 employees per enterprise. During the 22 years of Romanian rule, only one large enterprise was built in Bessarabia: the Bălți sugar plant.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14019, 530436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 827, 829 ], [ 1171, 1176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Alla Skvortsova, not all new enterprises survived for long, and the Great Depression had a particularly strong impact on the region, many of the companies going bankrupt or closing in 1929–1933. Governmental policy, influenced by the banking system and the industrial cartels, prevented a rebound, the industry of the Old Kingdom again receiving preferential treatment. The main factors that affected the development of Bessarabia in the 1930s were severe credit restrictions, increases in transport tariffs and customs restrictions, and special tax policies. The tax burden was notably high, with enterprises required to fully provide the assigned tax agent with housing, heating, lighting, and office space. Bessarabia was reduced mostly to a supplier of raw materials and a market for industrial goods of Romanian or foreign origin. By the end of the 1930s, the only industrial sectors that managed to rebound were the food and woodworking industries, the rest witnessing either stagnation or a decrease compared to pre-Depression levels. Most industrial facilities in the food industry worked significantly below their installed capacity even in prosperous years such as 1937. Several large factories, such as the Basarabeasca, Cetatea Albă, Florești and Tighina, railway workshops, the Cetatea Albă and Chișinău textile and knitwear factories and the Cetatea Albă canning factory and distillery were dismantled and relocated to the Old Kingdom by 1938. Between 1929 and 1937, fixed capital in the industry dropped by 10%, and the number of industrial workers in Bessarabia dropped from 5,400 in 1925 to 3,500 in 1937, while their overall number in Romania had increased by almost 27% during the same period. Between 1926 and 1937 the share of the food industry in the total production of large manufacturing industries increased from 77.1% to 92.4%, with sharp decreases observed in sectors with higher added value, such as the metalworking, textile and leather processing industries. Even so, the food industry failed to fulfill local needs; most industries heavily relied on manual labor and primitive technologies. Electricity production in Chișinău, Bessarabia's center and Romania's second-largest city, recorded in 1925 at 4.47 million kWh, only increased by 6.7% during the following decade, lagging far behind other Romanian cities: 572.3% in Galați, 238.2% in Bucharest, and over 101% in Iași. By the end of the 1930s, only one in seven Bessarabians had access to electricity, compared to one in four among the general Romanian population.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2785628, 873549, 18063681, 449688, 256639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1231, 1243 ], [ 1245, 1257 ], [ 1259, 1267 ], [ 1272, 1279 ], [ 2369, 2375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Romanian administration carried out many projects aimed at improving the infrastructure of the province to introduce European gauge and reorient it towards Romania. The total length of the railway lines in Bessarabia increased only by 78km (from 1140 in 1918 to 1218 in 1940). Local businessmen remained dissatisfied with the pace of the construction of new railways (the Chișinău-Căinari was the only one built anew) and the closure of a number of lines. Road infrastructure was also improved, as new highways and bridges over the Prut were built, while part of the existing roads were repaired and paved, increasing the length of highways from 150 to 754km. However, most other roads remained impassable during rainy periods. Shipping on the Dniester was closed, and was never established on the Prut. In the 1930s, new airports were built, telephone lines were laid out, and radio transmitters were installed; nevertheless, the region still lagged behind Transylvania and the Old Kingdom.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23461341, 30853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 385, 392 ], [ 962, 974 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Alla Skvortsova, overall, the share of Bessarabian enterprises in the Romanian industry fell between 1919 and 1937 from 9% to 5.7%, while the number of enterprises employing at least 20 employees dropping from 262 to 196. The share of investments in Bessarabian industry also fell from 0.3% in 1923 to 0.1% in 1936. Sociologist T. Al. Știrbu observed, commenting on the Romanian government's apparent long-term economical plans, that \"Bessarabia can only be considered as a reserve of labor and cheap bread for the industry of the rest of the country\". In a 1938 review, the Bessarabian Federation of Chambers of Commerce noted that \"the decline in industrial production in Bessarabia hinders the rational processing of local raw materials, thereby turning our province into a colony for industry in the rest of the country\". According to V.I. Tsaranov, throughout the period, industrial workers in the region faced long working hours (up to fourteen per day), lack of proper safety measures, unsanitary conditions, the perspective of unemployment and a general decrease in the standard of living: the real wage of a Chișinău worker dropped 60% between 1913 and 1937.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1919, Bessarabia became the Romanian region with the highest illiteracy rate. Although the Romanian/Moldovan population was the largest, no Romanian language school operated in Bessarabia before 1918. As a result, among them, only 10.5% of men and 1.77% of women were literate. By 1930, although Bessarabia continued to be the region with the most illiterate people in Romania, the number of literates doubled, to 38,1% of the total population. In the 1920-1938 period, the number of primary schools increased from 1,747 to 2,718, and the number of students from 136,172 to 346,747. In 1940, there were also 24 gymnasiums and middle schools and 26 high schools. Despite a large number of minorities (over 870,000 Russians, Ukrainians, and Jews), education in minority languages was curtailed: private schools were allowed to function after 1925 only if the instruction was in Romanian and, by 1938, there were no state- ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "sponsored Russian or Ukrainian schools and only one each in private hands. In 1939, after the German and Soviet attacks on Poland, the government reverted on its earlier policy and decided to reintroduce minority language classes in state schools and allow a greater degree of cultural expression for the Slavic minorities, in an effort to improve its image among the local population.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 42685705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also, in the interwar period, the foundations were laid for the first higher education institutions in Bessarabia. In 1926, the Faculty of Theology was established in Chișinău, followed by the National Conservatory in 1928, and the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences in 1933. The two faculties were sections of the University of Iași, in pre-war Romania.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 28391590, 24472860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 232, 264 ], [ 313, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Soviet Union did not recognize the incorporation of Bessarabia into Romania and throughout the entire interwar period engaged in attempts to undermine Romania and diplomatic disputes with the government in Bucharest over this territory. The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was signed on August 23, 1939. By Article 4 of the secret Annex to the Treaty, Nazi Germany recognized Bessarabia as belonging to the Soviet \"sphere of interest\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 900011, 20950, 240727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 121 ], [ 245, 268 ], [ 411, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the spring of 1940, Western Europe was overrun by Germany. With world attention focused on those events, on June 26, 1940, the USSR issued a 24-hour ultimatum to Romania, demanding immediate cession of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina under threat of war. Romania was given four days to evacuate its troops and officials. The two provinces had an area of , and were inhabited by about 3.75 million people, half of them Romanians, according to official Romanian sources. Two days later, Romania yielded and began evacuation. During the evacuation, from June 28 to July 3, groups of local Communists and Soviet sympathizers attacked the retreating forces and civilians who chose to leave. Many members of the minorities (Jews, ethnic Ukrainians and others) joined in these attacks. The Romanian Army was also attacked by the Soviet Army, which entered Bessarabia before the Romanian administration finished retreating. The casualties reported by the Romanian Army during those seven days consisted of 356 officers and 42,876 soldiers dead or missing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 198432, 224692, 25955086, 145144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 161 ], [ 220, 237 ], [ 722, 725 ], [ 728, 745 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On August 2, the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic was established on most of the territory of Bessarabia, merged with the western parts of the former Moldavian ASSR. Bessarabia was divided between the Moldavian SSR (65% of the territory and 80% of the population) and the Ukrainian SSR. Bessarabia's northern and southern districts (now Budjak and parts of the Chernivtsi oblast) were allotted to Ukraine, while some territories (4,000km2) on the left (eastern) bank of Dniester (present Transnistria), previously part of Ukraine, were allotted to Moldavia. Following the Soviet takeover, many Bessarabians, who were accused of supporting the deposed Romanian administration, were executed or deported to Siberia and Kazakhstan.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 376728, 1816958, 376732, 1138646, 357148, 376581, 29639, 16642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 52 ], [ 153, 167 ], [ 275, 288 ], [ 340, 346 ], [ 364, 381 ], [ 491, 503 ], [ 708, 715 ], [ 720, 730 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between September and November 1940, the ethnic Germans of Bessarabia were offered resettlement to Germany, following a German-Soviet agreement. Fearing Soviet oppression, almost all Germans (93,000) agreed. Most of them were resettled to the newly annexed Polish territories.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5463034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On June 22, 1941 the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union commenced with Operation Barbarossa. Between June 22 and July 26, 1941, Romanian troops recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina with the help of Wehrmacht. The Soviets employed scorched earth tactics during their forced retreat from Bessarabia, destroying the infrastructure and transporting movable goods to Russia by railway. At the end of July, after a year of Soviet rule, the region was once again under Romanian control, being organized as the Bessarabia Governorate.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 43507, 22618, 21376046, 164406, 70054383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 25 ], [ 70, 90 ], [ 203, 212 ], [ 235, 249 ], [ 508, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the military operation was still in progress, there were cases of Romanian troops \"taking revenge\" on Jews in Bessarabia, in the form of pogroms on civilians and murder of Jewish POWs, resulting in several thousand dead. The supposed cause for murdering Jews was that in 1940 some Jews welcomed the Soviet takeover as liberation. At the same time the notorious SS Einsatzgruppe D, operating in the area of the German 11th Army, committed summary executions of Jews under the pretext that they were spies, saboteurs, Communists, or under no pretext whatsoever.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 140704, 25008, 27040, 510764, 9578384, 1227309, 29462, 9209651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 146 ], [ 182, 186 ], [ 364, 366 ], [ 367, 382 ], [ 413, 429 ], [ 441, 458 ], [ 508, 517 ], [ 519, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The political solution of the \"Jewish Question\" was apparently seen by the Romanian dictator Marshal Ion Antonescu more in expulsion rather than extermination. That portion of the Jewish population of Bessarabia and Bukovina which did not flee before the retreat of the Soviet troops (147,000) was initially gathered into ghettos or Nazi concentration camps, and then deported during 1941–1942 in death marches into Romanian-occupied Transnistria, where the \"Final Solution\" was applied.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3096764, 8409, 37261, 92903, 514725, 301789, 3659647, 10160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 46 ], [ 84, 92 ], [ 101, 114 ], [ 322, 329 ], [ 333, 357 ], [ 397, 408 ], [ 416, 446 ], [ 459, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After three years of relative peace, the German-Soviet front returned in 1944 to the land border on the Dniester. On August 20, 1944, a c. 3,400,000-strong Red Army began a major summer offensive codenamed Second Jassy–Kishinev offensive. The Soviet armies overran Bessarabia in a two-pronged offensive within five days. In pocket battles at Chișinău and Sărata the German 6th Army of 650,000 men, newly reformed after the Battle of Stalingrad, was obliterated. Simultaneously with the success of the Russian attack, Romania broke the military alliance with the Axis and changed sides. On August 23, 1944, Marshal Ion Antonescu was arrested by King Michael, and later handed over to the Soviets.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 376633, 25682, 4215601, 56635, 2068322, 872148, 4284, 10635094, 158558, 37256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 112 ], [ 156, 164 ], [ 206, 237 ], [ 342, 350 ], [ 355, 361 ], [ 366, 381 ], [ 424, 444 ], [ 572, 585 ], [ 645, 649 ], [ 650, 657 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Soviet Union regained the region in 1944, and the Red Army occupied Romania. By 1947, the Soviets had imposed a communist government in Bucharest, which was friendly and obedient towards Moscow. The Soviet occupation of Romania lasted until 1958. The Romanian communist regime did not openly raise the matter of Bessarabia or Northern Bukovina in its diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. At least 100,000 people died in a post-war famine in Moldavia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 297157, 3386576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 136 ], [ 203, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1969 and 1971, a clandestine National Patriotic Front was established by several young intellectuals in Chișinău, totaling over 100 members, vowing to fight for the establishment of a Moldavian Democratic Republic, its secession from the Soviet Union and union with Romania.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In December 1971, following an informative note from , the President of the Council of State Security of the Romanian Socialist Republic, to Yuri Andropov, the chief of KGB, three of the leaders of the National Patriotic Front, Alexandru Usatiuc-Bulgar, Gheorghe Ghimpu and Valeriu Graur, as well as a fourth person, Alexandru Soltoianu, the leader of a similar clandestine movement in northern Bukovina (Bucovina), were arrested and later sentenced to long prison terms.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 50122, 24440389, 24439351, 11133729, 24440403, 24439476, 224692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 154 ], [ 202, 226 ], [ 228, 252 ], [ 254, 269 ], [ 274, 287 ], [ 317, 336 ], [ 395, 403 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the weakening of the Soviet Union, in February 1988, the first non-sanctioned demonstrations were held in Chișinău. At first pro-Perestroika, they soon turned anti-government and demanded official status for the Romanian (Moldavian) language instead of the Russian language. On August 31, 1989, following a 600,000-strong demonstration in Chișinău four days earlier, Romanian (Moldavian) became the official language of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. However, this was not implemented for many years. In 1990, the first free elections were held for Parliament, with the opposition Popular Front winning them. A government led by Mircea Druc, one of the leaders of the Popular Front, was formed. The Moldavian SSR became SSR Moldova, and later the Republic of Moldova. The Republic of Moldova became independent on August 31, 1991; it took over unchanged the boundaries of the Moldavian SSR.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 56635, 24143, 8689762, 8672632, 19260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 119 ], [ 134, 145 ], [ 596, 609 ], [ 644, 655 ], [ 787, 806 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Bessarabian historian Ștefan Ciobanu and Moldovan philologist Viorica Răileanu, in 1810, the Moldavian population was approximately 95%. During the 19th century, as a result of the Russian policy of colonization and Russification, the Moldavian population decreased to (depending on data sources) 47.6% (in 1897), 52% or 75% for 1900 (Krusevan), 53.9% (1907), 70% (1912, Laskov), or 65–67% (1918, J. Kaba).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 27124457, 511201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 49 ], [ 229, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Russian Census of 1817, which recorded 96,526 families and 482,630 inhabitants, did not register ethnic data except for recent refugees (primarily Bulgarians) and certain ethno-social categories (Jews, Armenians and Greeks). Official records indicated 3,826 Jewish families (4.2%), 1,200 Lipovan families (1.5%), 640 Greek families (0.7%), 530 Armenian families (0.6%), 482 Bulgarian and Gagauz families (0.5%). In the 20th century, Romanian historian Ion Nistor extrapolated the number of Moldavians at 83,848 families (86%) and Ruthenians at 6,000 families (6.5%). The estimate was based on the assumption that Ruthenes constituted up to a third of the population of the Khotyn county, and the rest of the recorded population was exclusively Moldavian. An alternative estimate for the same year indicates 76.4% Moldavians, 8.7% Ukrainians, 5.1% Bulgarians and Gaguzes, 4.5% Jews and 2% Russians. An 1818 statistic of three counties in southern Bessarabia (Akkerman, Izmail and Bender) that had witnessed strong emigration of the Muslim population and immigration from other regions, including Ottoman lands south of the Danube, recorded a total population of 113,835. There are conflicting figures regarding the national distribution (first figure cited by Poștarencu, second by Ungureanu): 48.64/37% Moldavians, 7.07/8.9% Russians, 15.65/17.9% Ukrainians, 17.02/21.5% Bulgarians and 11.62/14.7% others. Still in 1818, statistics for the Khotyn county in northern Bessarabia indicated 47.5% Moldavians and 42.6% Ukrainians.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 271488, 4781717, 1436319, 873549, 2067091, 449688, 1436319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 292, 299 ], [ 456, 466 ], [ 677, 683 ], [ 962, 970 ], [ 972, 978 ], [ 983, 989 ], [ 1444, 1450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Moldovan historian Ion Gumenâi records the population of Bessarabia in 1828 as 517,135, and states that 376,910 were Moldavians (72.88%), 52,000 Ruthenians (10.05%), 30,929 Jews (5.9%), 8,846 Germans (1.71%), 7,947 Russians (1.53%), 5,974 Lipovans (1.15%), 2,384 Poles (0.46%), 2,000 Greeks (0.38%), 2,000 Armenians (0.38%), and 27,445 (5.3%) settlers in the south of Bessarabia.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first statistic to record ethnic groups throughout Bessarabia was an incomplete administrative census made in 1843–1844 at the request of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The following proportions were recorded, in a total of 692,777 inhabitants: 59.4% Moldavians, 17.2% Ukrainians, 9.3% Bulgarians, 7.1% Jews, and 2.2% Russians. In the case of some urban centres, figures were not reported for all ethnic groups. Furthermore, the size of the total populations differs from other official reports of the same period, which put the population of Bessarabia at 774,492 or 793,103.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 374556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Church records gathered around 1850–1855 put the total population at 841,523, with the following composition: 51.4% Moldavians, 4.2% Russians, 21.3% Ukrainians, 10% Bulgarians, 7.2% Jews and 5.7% others. On the other hand, official data for 1855 record a total population of 980,031, excluding the population on the territory under the authority of the Special Administration of the town of Izmail.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Ion Nistor, the population of Bessarabia in 1856 was composed of 736,000 Moldavians (74%), 119,000 Ukrainians (12%), 79,000 Jews (8%), 47,000 Bulgarians and Gagauz (5%), 24,000 Germans (2.4%), 11,000 Romani (1.1%), 6,000 Russians (0.6%), adding to a total of 990,274 inhabitants. Historian Constantin Ungureanu provides significantly different figures for the same year: 676,100 Moldavians (68.2%), 126,000 Ukrainians (12.7%), 78,800 Jews (7.9%), 48,200 Bulgarians and Gaguz (4.9%), 24,200 (2.4%) Germans and 20,000 Russians (2%) for a total of 991,900.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 26152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Russian data, 1889 (Total: 1,628,867 inhabitants)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Russian census in 1897 had a total of 1,935,412 inhabitants. By language:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 920,919 Moldavians (47.6%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 379,698 Ukrainians (19.6%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 228,168 Jews (11.8%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 155,774 Russians (8%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 103,225 Bulgarians (5.3%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 60,026 Germans (3.1%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 55,790 Turks (Gagauzes) (2.9%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, some scholars believed in regard to the 1897 census that \"[...] the census enumerator generally has instructions to count everyone who understands the state language as being of that nationality, no matter what his everyday speech may be\". Thus a number of Moldavians might have been registered as Russians.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to N. Durnovo, the population of Bessarabia in 1900 was (1,935,000 inhabitants):", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Romanian estimates in 1919 (1922) gave a total populations of 2,631,000 inhabitants: ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1,685,000 Moldavians (64.0%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 254,000 Ukrainians (9.7%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 287,000 Jews (10.2%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 75,000 Russians (2.8%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 147,000 Bulgarians (5.6%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 79,000 Germans (3.0%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 59,000 Lipovans and Cossacks (2.2%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 67,000 Others (2.5%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the 1930 Romanian census, the total population of Bessarabia was 2,864,662 inhabitants:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 18517065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The data of the Romanian census of 1939 was not completely processed before the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia. However, estimates had the total population rise to approximately 3.2 million.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 6886136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The census of 1941, during the Romanian wartime administration (Total: 2,733,563 inhabitants):", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1,793,493 Moldavians (65.6%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 449,540 Ukrainians (16.4%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 177,647 Bulgarians (6.5%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 164,410 Russians (6.0%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 115,683 Gagauz (4.2%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 9,086 Poles (0.3%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 6,882 Jews (0.3%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2,058 Germans (0.1%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 14,794 Others (0.6%)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1979 Soviet census for the Moldavian SSR (including Transnistria, but without northern and southern Bessarabia, now both part of Ukraine): 63.9% identified themselves as Moldovans and 0.04% as Romanians. For the Soviet census of 1989 (conducted in the Moldavian SSR), 64.5% declared themselves as Moldovans and 0.06% Romanians. In the Moldovan census of 2014 (not including Transnistria), 75% declared themselves Moldovans and 7% Romanians.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 376728, 2232012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 47 ], [ 177, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1911: There were 165 loan societies, 117 savings banks, 43 professional savings and loan societies, and eight Zemstvo loan offices; all these had total assets of about 10,000,000 rubles. There were also 89 government savings banks, with deposits of about 9,000,000 rubles.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 399667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1918: There was only of railway; the main lines converged on Russia and were broad gauge. Rolling stock and right of way were in bad shape. There were about 400 locomotives, with only about 100 fit for use. There were 290 passenger coaches and 33 more out for repair. Finally, out of 4530 freight cars and 187 tank cars, only 1389 and 103 were usable. The Romanians reduced the gauge to a standard , so that cars could be run to the rest of Europe. Also, there were only a few inefficient boat bridges. Romanian highway engineers decided to build ten bridges: Cuzlău, Țuțora, Lipcani, Șerpenița, Ștefănești–Brăniște, Cahul-Oancea, Bădărăi-Moara Domnească, Sărata, Bumbala-Leova, Badragi and Fălciu (Fălciu is a locality in Romania. Its correspondent in Bessarabia is Cantemir.) Of these, only four were ever finished: Cuzlău, Fălciu, Lipcani, and Sărata.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 3111308, 4830756, 973861, 9306951, 727040, 18578155, 9306777, 17031015, 2068322, 5064586, 17045870, 1693108, 1256603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 562, 568 ], [ 570, 576 ], [ 578, 585 ], [ 598, 608 ], [ 619, 624 ], [ 625, 631 ], [ 633, 640 ], [ 641, 656 ], [ 658, 664 ], [ 674, 679 ], [ 681, 688 ], [ 693, 699 ], [ 769, 777 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thilemann, Alfred. Steppenwind: Erzahlungen aus dem Leben der Bessarabien deutschen (The Wind from the Steppe: Stories of the Life of the Bessarabian Germans). Stuttgart, West Germany: ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Charles Upson Clark. 1927. \"Bessarabia: Russia and Roumania on the Black Sea\". (An electronic version of the book). ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jews in Bessarabia on the eve of WWII", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Massacres, deportations & death marches from Bessarabia, from July 1941", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bessarabia – Homeland of a German minority", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Igor Casu, (2000) \"Politica națională\" în Moldova Sovietică, 1944–1989, Chisinau, 214 p.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Игор Кашу, (2014) У истоков советизации Бессарабии. Выявление \"классового врага\", конфискация имущества и трудовая мобилизация, 1940–1941. Сборник документов. Chisinau,CARTIER 458 p.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Андрей Кушко, Виктор Таки, Олег Гром (2012) Бессарабия в составе Российской империи (1812—1917). Москва, Новое Литературное обозрение, 400 с. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Igor Casu, (2014) Dușmanul de clasă. Represiuni politice, violența și rezistența in R(A)SS Moldoveneasca, 1924–1956, Chișinău, Cartier, 394p. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Bessarabia", "Moldavia", "Divided_regions", "Historical_regions_in_Moldova", "Historical_regions_in_Ukraine" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Raoult's law ( law) is a relation of physical chemistry, with implications in thermodynamics. Proposed by French chemist François-Marie Raoult in 1887, it states that the partial pressure of each component of an ideal mixture of liquids is equal to the vapor pressure of the pure component (liquid or solid) multiplied by its mole fraction in the mixture. In consequence, the relative lowering of vapor pressure of a dilute solution of nonvolatile solute is equal to the mole fraction of solute in the solution.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23635, 29952, 2535929, 731401, 20306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 55 ], [ 78, 92 ], [ 121, 142 ], [ 212, 225 ], [ 326, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mathematically, Raoult's law for a single component in an ideal solution is stated as ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the partial pressure of the component in the gaseous mixture above the solution, is the equilibrium vapor pressure of the pure component , and is the mole fraction of the component in the liquid or solid solution.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 43972, 40197, 20306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 30 ], [ 100, 126 ], [ 163, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Where two volatile liquids A and B are mixed with each other to form a solution, the vapor phase consists of both components of the solution. Once the components in the solution have reached equilibrium, the total vapor pressure of the solution can be determined by combining Raoult's law with Dalton's law of partial pressures to give", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7817474, 66570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 191, 202 ], [ 294, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In other words, the vapor pressure of the solution is the mole-weighted mean of the individual vapour pressures:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If a non-volatile solute B (zero vapor pressure, does not evaporate) is dissolved into a solvent A to form an ideal solution, the vapor pressure of the solution will be lower than that of the solvent. In an ideal solution of a nonvolatile solute, the decrease in vapor pressure is directly proportional to the mole fraction of solute:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the solute associates or dissociates in the solution, the expression of the law includes the van 't Hoff factor as a correction factor. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 730824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raoult's law is a phenomenological relation that assumes ideal behavior based on the simple microscopic assumption that intermolecular forces between unlike molecules are equal to those between similar molecules, and that their molar volumes are the same: the conditions of an ideal solution. This is analogous to the ideal gas law, which is a limiting law valid when the interactive forces between molecules approach zero, for example as the concentration approaches zero. Raoult's law is instead valid if the physical properties of the components are identical. The more similar the components are, the more their behavior approaches that described by Raoult's law. For example, if the two components differ only in isotopic content, then Raoult's law is essentially exact.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principles", "target_page_ids": [ 731401, 59881, 19600416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 277, 291 ], [ 318, 331 ], [ 718, 726 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Comparing measured vapor pressures to predicted values from Raoult's law provides information about the true relative strength of intermolecular forces. If the vapor pressure is less than predicted (a negative deviation), fewer molecules of each component than expected have left the solution in the presence of the other component, indicating that the forces between unlike molecules are stronger. The converse is true for positive deviations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principles", "target_page_ids": [ 15417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For a solution of two liquids A and B, Raoult's law predicts that if no other gases are present, then the total vapor pressure above the solution is equal to the weighted sum of the \"pure\" vapor pressures and of the two components. Thus the total pressure above the solution of A and B would be", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since the sum of the mole fractions is equal to one, ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This is a linear function of the mole fraction , as shown in the graph.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Principles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Raoult's law was first observed empirically and led François-Marie Raoult to postulate that the vapor pressure above an ideal mixture of liquids is equal to the sum of the vapor pressures of each component multiplied by its mole fraction. Taking compliance with Raoult's Law as a defining characteristic of ideality in a solution, it is possible to deduce that the chemical potential of each component of the liquid is given by", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Thermodynamic considerations", "target_page_ids": [ 2535929, 731401, 20306, 731401, 218628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 73 ], [ 120, 144 ], [ 224, 237 ], [ 350, 356 ], [ 366, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is the chemical potential and is the mole fraction of component in the pure state. From this equation, other thermodynamic properties of an ideal solution may be determined. If the assumption that the vapor follows the ideal gas law is added, Raoult's law may be derived as follows.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Thermodynamic considerations", "target_page_ids": [ 731401, 59881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 164 ], [ 230, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the system is ideal, then, at equilibrium, the chemical potential of each component must be the same in the liquid and gas states. That is,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Thermodynamic considerations", "target_page_ids": [ 5306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Substituting the formula for chemical potential gives", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Thermodynamic considerations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "as the gas-phase mole fraction depends on its fugacity, , as a fraction of the pressure in the reference state, .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Thermodynamic considerations", "target_page_ids": [ 1185498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The corresponding equation when the system consists purely of component in equilibrium with its vapor is", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Thermodynamic considerations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Subtracting these equations and re-arranging leads to the result", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Thermodynamic considerations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For the ideal gas, pressure and fugacity are equal, so introducing simple pressures to this result yields Raoult's law:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Thermodynamic considerations", "target_page_ids": [ 23619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An ideal solution would follow Raoult's law, but most solutions deviate from ideality. Interactions between gas molecules are typically quite small, especially if the vapor pressures are low. However, the interactions in a liquid are very strong. For a solution to be ideal, the interactions between unlike molecules must be of the same magnitude as those between like molecules. This approximation is only true when the different species are almost chemically identical. One can see that from considering the Gibbs free energy change of mixing:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Thermodynamic considerations", "target_page_ids": [ 3021875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 510, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This is always negative, so mixing is spontaneous. However, the expression is, apart from a factor , equal to the entropy of mixing. This leaves no room at all for an enthalpy effect and implies that must be equal to zero, and this can only be true if the interactions between the molecules are indifferent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Thermodynamic considerations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It can be shown using the Gibbs–Duhem equation that if Raoult's law holds over the entire concentration range in a binary solution then, for the second component, the same must also hold.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Thermodynamic considerations", "target_page_ids": [ 8891344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If deviations from the ideal are not too large, Raoult's law is still valid in a narrow concentration range when approaching for the majority phase (the solvent). The solute also shows a linear limiting law, but with a different coefficient. This relationship is known as Henry's law.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Thermodynamic considerations", "target_page_ids": [ 238199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The presence of these limited linear regimes has been experimentally verified in a great number of cases, though large deviations occur in a variety of cases. Consequently, both its pedagogical value and utility have been questioned at the introductory college level. In a perfectly ideal system, where ideal liquid and ideal vapor are assumed, a very useful equation emerges if Raoult's law is combined with Dalton's Law:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Thermodynamic considerations", "target_page_ids": [ 66570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 410, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is the mole fraction of component in the solution, and is its mole fraction in the gas phase. This equation shows that, for an ideal solution where each pure component has a different vapor pressure, the gas phase is enriched in the component with the higher vapor pressure when pure, and the solution is enriched in the component with the lower pure vapor pressure. This phenomenon is the basis for distillation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Thermodynamic considerations", "target_page_ids": [ 20306, 20306, 8301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 27 ], [ 71, 84 ], [ 409, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In elementary applications, Raoult's law is generally valid when the liquid phase is either nearly pure or a mixture of similar substances. Raoult's law may be adapted to non-ideal solutions by incorporating two factors that account for the interactions between molecules of different substances. The first factor is a correction for gas non-ideality, or deviations from the ideal-gas law. It is called the fugacity coefficient (). The second, the activity coefficient , is a correction for interactions in the liquid phase between the different molecules.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Thermodynamic considerations", "target_page_ids": [ 59881, 1185498, 1449031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 377, 390 ], [ 409, 429 ], [ 450, 470 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This modified or extended Raoult's law is then written as", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Thermodynamic considerations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In many pairs of liquids, there is no uniformity of attractive forces, i.e., the adhesive (between dissimilar molecules) and cohesive forces (between similar molecules) are not uniform between the two liquids. Therefore they deviate from Raoult's law, which applies only to ideal solutions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Real solutions", "target_page_ids": [ 835157, 2237309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 89 ], [ 125, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the adhesion is stronger than the cohesion, fewer liquid particles turn into vapor thereby lowering the vapor pressure and leading to negative deviation in the graph.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Real solutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For example, the system of chloroform (CHCl3) and acetone (CH3COCH3) has a negative deviation from Raoult's law, indicating an attractive interaction between the two components that have been described as a hydrogen bond. The system HCl–water has a large enough negative deviation to form a minimum in the vapor pressure curve known as a (negative) azeotrope, corresponding to a mixture that evaporates without change of composition. When these two components are mixed, the reaction is exothermic as ion-dipole intermolecular forces of attraction are formed between the resulting ions (H3O+ and Cl–) and the polar water molecules so that ΔHmix is negative.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Real solutions", "target_page_ids": [ 82933, 1795597, 13609, 56778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 37 ], [ 50, 57 ], [ 207, 220 ], [ 349, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the adhesion is weaker than cohesion, which is quite common, the liquid particles escape the solution more easily that increases the vapor pressure and leads to a positive deviation. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Real solutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the deviation is large, then the vapor pressure curve shows a maximum at a particular composition and forms a positive azeotrope (low-boiling mixture). Some mixtures in which this happens are (1) ethanol and water, (2) benzene and methanol, (3) carbon disulfide and acetone, (4) chloroform and ethanol, and (5) glycine and water. When these pairs of components are mixed, the process is endothermic as weaker intermolecular interactions are formed so that ΔmixH is positive.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Real solutions", "target_page_ids": [ 10048, 33306, 18582186, 19712, 241809, 1795597, 82933, 11835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 206 ], [ 211, 216 ], [ 222, 229 ], [ 234, 242 ], [ 248, 264 ], [ 269, 276 ], [ 282, 292 ], [ 314, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antoine equation", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19833982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Atomic theory", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azeotrope", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 56778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dühring's rule", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19047741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henry's law", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 238199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Köhler theory", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19907384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Solubility", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 59497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chapter 24, D. A. McQuarrie, J. D. Simon Physical Chemistry: A Molecular Approach. University Science Books. (1997)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "E. B. Smith Basic Chemical Thermodynamics. Clarendon Press. Oxford (1993)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Physical_chemistry", "Equilibrium_chemistry", "Engineering_thermodynamics", "Solutions" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Raphael was an Italian Renaissance painter.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 44525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael or Raphaël may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael (band), a Japanese rock band active 1997–2001", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 3888034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael (opera), an 1894 opera by Anton Arensky", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 36596088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael (musician), American musician and composer of ambient music", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 29907134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael (singer), Spanish singer", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 16993228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphaël Haroche, French singer known by the mononym Raphaël ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 2895298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Raphaels, an alternative country music band", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 10369622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael (given name), a name of Hebrew origin", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Names", "target_page_ids": [ 31000659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael (surname)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Names", "target_page_ids": [ 45481198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael (footballer) (born 1985), full name Raphael Tessaro Schettino, Brazilian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Names", "target_page_ids": [ 11138459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael (archangel), an archangel in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 303741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael I of Constantinople, Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from 1475 to 1476", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 3207615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael II of Constantinople, Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from 1603 to 1607", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 26326126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael of Brooklyn (1860–1915), saint in the Christian Orthodox tradition", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 26292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael I Bidawid, patriarch of the Chaldean Catholic Church in 1989–2003", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 14412525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael (crater), a crater on Mercury", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 16640741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphaël (JavaScript library), cross-browser JavaScript library that draws Vector graphics for web sites", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 21902547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael (Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles), one of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 538068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael, or The Debauched One, a 1971 French drama film", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 22384133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphaels Bank, a UK-based bank", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 8250731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael, codename of the HTC Touch Pro", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 17874456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Acronicta raphael, a moth of the family Noctuidae", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25110388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rafael (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6028393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raffle", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1047873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael Cartoons, seven large cartoons for tapestries, belonging to the British Royal Collection", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 379058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael catfish (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11357271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael House, the first shelter for homeless families in San Francisco, California, founded in 1971", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7740094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raphael Rooms, four reception rooms, the public part of the papal apartments in the Palace of the Vatican", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1462635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Saint Raphael (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3622604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Saint-Raphaël (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3622604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "Riccardo Gabriele Patrese (born 17 April 1954) is an Italian former racing driver, who raced in Formula One from to . For 19 years, he held the record for the most Grand Prix starts.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1022, 10854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 81 ], [ 96, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He became the first Formula One driver to achieve 200 Grand Prix starts when he appeared at the 1990 British Grand Prix, and the first to achieve 250 starts at the 1993 German Grand Prix. Patrese entered 257 Formula One World Championship Grands Prix and started 256 races. As of the end of the season he is the ninth-most experienced F1 driver in history. He was runner-up to Nigel Mansell in the 1992 Formula One World Championship, and third in and . He won six Formula One races, with a record gap of over six years between two of these – the 1983 South African Grand Prix and 1990 San Marino Grand Prix.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1123080, 1123172, 13599687, 228615, 1137704, 1122868, 1123073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 119 ], [ 164, 186 ], [ 313, 356 ], [ 378, 391 ], [ 399, 434 ], [ 549, 578 ], [ 583, 609 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Patrese also competed at the World Sportscar Championship for the Lancia factory team, finishing runner-up in 1982 and collecting eight wins.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3469386, 252690, 7011102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 57 ], [ 66, 72 ], [ 110, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born in Padua, Veneto, Patrese started driving karts at age 9. Growing up near the Italian Alps, he was also selected for the Italian national ski team as a teenager, and was in addition a competitive swimmer. In 1974, he won the Karting World Championship at the Estoril circuit, finishing ahead of second-placed teammate and fellow future F1 driver Eddie Cheever. He received an offer to drive in Formula Italia the following year, finishing second in the championship to another future F1 racer, Bruno Giacomelli. In 1976, he moved up to Formula 3, winning both the Italian and European Formula 3 championships. The following year he moved to Formula 2 before making his Formula One debut midway through the year.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 50240, 43780, 854522, 1374113, 728022, 1219697, 13433995, 53471479, 550495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 13 ], [ 15, 21 ], [ 230, 256 ], [ 264, 279 ], [ 351, 364 ], [ 499, 515 ], [ 569, 576 ], [ 581, 599 ], [ 646, 655 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He made his debut at the 1977 Monaco Grand Prix with the Shadow racing team sponsored by Italian businessman Franco Ambrosio, replacing Renzo Zorzi. He took his first point at the Japanese Grand Prix later that year. Later that year team-leader Jackie Oliver and sponsor Ambrosio left Shadow to form the Arrows team. Patrese and Shadow teammate Alan Jones both received offers from the Williams team for 1978: whilst Jones joined Williams, Patrese linked up with Arrows, alongside Rolf Stommelen. Shadow subsequently took Arrows to court, arguing that Arrows had stolen the design of the Shadow DN9 that Arrows and were essentially running a DN9 under a different name. The court agreed, forcing Arrows to design and construct a totally new car, the Arrows A1, which became the first of the Arrows F1 bloodline.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 1122695, 1347025, 1016405, 1122714, 1226463, 800001, 255129, 34104, 1226556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 47 ], [ 57, 63 ], [ 136, 147 ], [ 180, 199 ], [ 245, 258 ], [ 304, 310 ], [ 345, 355 ], [ 386, 394 ], [ 481, 495 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1978 Patrese very nearly won Arrows' second race, the South African Grand Prix, until engine failure forced him to retire 15 laps from the end. He subsequently took second at the Swedish Grand Prix behind Niki Lauda's Brabham BT46B \"fan car\", in its only appearance before being withdrawn. However, his driving style was perceived by some established drivers, such as Ronnie Peterson and James Hunt, as being over-aggressive. Later that year, at the Italian Grand Prix, Patrese's reputation for aggressive driving was blamed for a first lap major incident. In part, one of the causes suggested was a premature start by the Monza race director, leading to cars at the rear of the field catching up to those in the midfield that had been fully stopped when the green signal was given. This being said, Patrese, Peterson, and 8 others were involved in a 10-car pile-up before turn one, causing a stoppage of the race. Peterson, whose injuries from the chain reaction wreck were not in and of themselves life-threatening, died from an embolism the day after the Grand Prix.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 1140082, 1122721, 1122726, 40486, 4345872, 387446, 287740, 168801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 7 ], [ 57, 81 ], [ 182, 200 ], [ 208, 218 ], [ 221, 234 ], [ 371, 386 ], [ 391, 401 ], [ 1034, 1042 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the next race, the United States Grand Prix, five top drivers - Hunt, Lauda, Mario Andretti, Emerson Fittipaldi and Jody Scheckter - declared that unless Patrese was banned from the race that they would withdraw. The race organizers agreed to this: although Patrese later stated that he obtained a ruling from a local judge in Watkins Glen stating that the ban was a violation of his right to work, Arrows decided to withdraw his entry due to pressure from the organizers and the FIA. He returned to competition at the following race, the Canadian Grand Prix, where he finished fourth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 1262457, 271425, 241678, 243054, 127164, 783318, 1122741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 46 ], [ 80, 94 ], [ 96, 114 ], [ 119, 133 ], [ 330, 342 ], [ 387, 400 ], [ 542, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For years after the crash which caused Peterson's death, Hunt (along with other drivers) blamed Patrese for starting the accident, and viewers of Hunt's commentaries of Formula One races from 1980 to 1993 on BBC Television were regularly treated to bitter diatribes against Patrese when the Italian appeared on screen. Hunt believed that it was Patrese's muscling past that caused the McLaren driven by Hunt and the Lotus driven by Peterson to touch, but Patrese argued that he was already well ahead of the pair before the accident took place. Patrese, together with race director Gianni Restilli, stood trial in Italian criminal court on manslaughter charges for Peterson's death. Both were cleared of wrongdoing on 28 October 1981.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 352308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two of Patrese's most notable performances during his Arrows years were at the United States Grand Prix West in Long Beach, where he finished second in 1980 and took pole position in the following year: he led the latter race before being forced to retire by a blocked fuel filter.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 943652, 967558, 1262242, 1262246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 108 ], [ 112, 122 ], [ 152, 156 ], [ 183, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1982 Patrese moved to Brabham and gained his maiden win at that year's Monaco Grand Prix in rather sensational circumstances. Patrese took the lead when Alain Prost crashed out, only to spin in dampening conditions on the next lap. This left him third behind Didier Pironi and Andrea de Cesaris, who both stopped on the final lap – Pironi with an electrical fault and de Cesaris out of fuel. Later that season he also led the Austrian Grand Prix but retired due to an engine failure. Patrese finished the season tenth, just ahead of his teammate Nelson Piquet. 1983 proved to be a more difficult season. Patrese crashed out late in the race while leading at San Marino - to the cheers of the tifosi, as his shunt meant that he handed the race win to Ferrari driver Patrick Tambay. He also took pole on home ground at the Italian Grand Prix, before his engine blew up in the early stages of the race: in a 2010 interview he said he suspected that his engine had been left in its qualifying trim, rendering it extremely powerful but fragile, as he had not been offered a new contract for the following year, and had been reluctant to sacrifice his chances of winning his home Grand Prix for teammate Nelson Piquet, who was fighting for the World Championship. Despite scoring a second win at the South African Grand Prix, Patrese only finished ninth while Piquet claimed his second Drivers' Championship title. It would be seven years before he made another visit to the top step of the podium.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 1140076, 4996, 1122823, 36917, 1219767, 342999, 1122831, 204645, 1140074, 2586191, 173009, 1223181, 1122865, 204645, 1122868, 926962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 7 ], [ 25, 32 ], [ 74, 91 ], [ 156, 167 ], [ 262, 275 ], [ 280, 297 ], [ 429, 448 ], [ 549, 562 ], [ 564, 568 ], [ 695, 701 ], [ 753, 760 ], [ 768, 782 ], [ 824, 842 ], [ 1201, 1214 ], [ 1297, 1321 ], [ 1488, 1494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A move to Alfa Romeo in delivered two lacklustre seasons resulting in eight world championship points and a single visit to the podium at the 1984 Italian Grand Prix. Patrese and teammate, American Eddie Cheever, were hampered by cars with Alfa Romeo 890T V8 turbo engines that proved too thirsty for the amount of fuel they were allowed to carry (220 litres). Often both drivers drove good races to be in the points, only to run out of fuel two or three laps from the finish dropping them out of the points. Indeed, Patrese's 3rd place at Monza in 1984 (to date the final podium finish for Alfa Romeo in F1) came at the expense of Cheever who was robbed of a podium finish when his car ran out of fuel 6 laps from the finish.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 10905708, 1122900, 13147596, 952083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ], [ 143, 166 ], [ 257, 259 ], [ 541, 546 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The pair were also hampered by their cars. 's Alfa Romeo 184T proved fast in qualifying, but fuel restrictions saw them well off the pace in most races. The 1985 car, the 185T proved to be even less competitive to the point that halfway through the season the team replaced it with an updated version of the 184T (dubbed the 184TB). Although the updated car did prove faster, results were not forthcoming. In an interview in 2000, Patrese described the 185T as \"the worst car I ever drove\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 10040530, 10031530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 61 ], [ 171, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 1985 Monaco Grand Prix, Patrese's former teammate Nelson Piquet began his 14th lap and was attempting to lap Patrese as they crossed the start/finish line. The cars made contact, and Patrese went into a spin while Piquet lost his suspension. Patrese then bounced off the wall and back into Piquet, and both drivers were out of the race.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 1122915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1986 Patrese returned to Brabham alongside fellow Italian Elio de Angelis, but by now the team was a spent force and would never again take a driver to victory in a grand prix. Two more winless seasons followed despite the team's BMW engine being considered at the time to be the most powerful on the grid. Despite the trials of uncompetitive machinery, Patrese never publicly criticised the team and earned respect throughout the sport for his professionalism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 1140067, 37543516, 1048978, 239002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 7 ], [ 46, 60 ], [ 61, 76 ], [ 233, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Toward the end of the 1987 season, Patrese was given the chance to revitalise what seemed to be a declining career when the Williams driver Nigel Mansell was injured whilst qualifying for the Japanese Grand Prix. With the help of Brabham owner and Formula One boss Bernie Ecclestone, Patrese tested the Williams FW11B at Imola, where he set a time that was half a second quicker than Ayrton Senna's pole at that year's San Marino Grand Prix, and was drafted in to replace Mansell for the season's finale in Australia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 1139093, 34104, 228615, 1122995, 411352, 5217528, 146638, 1122978, 1122998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 33 ], [ 124, 132 ], [ 140, 153 ], [ 192, 211 ], [ 265, 282 ], [ 303, 317 ], [ 384, 396 ], [ 407, 440 ], [ 507, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Patrese had already been signed by Williams management to be Nelson Piquet's replacement for the season as the 1987 and triple World Champion was off to Lotus to replace Ayrton Senna who had signed with McLaren (Honda were staying with Lotus for 1988 but Williams had lost their Honda engines to McLaren). However, 1988 saw Williams struggling with an uncompetitive car powered by non-turbocharged Judd V8 engines. Patrese and Mansell were also hampered in the first half of the season by the Williams FW12's reactive suspension not working properly. It wasn't until the British Grand Prix at Silverstone that Williams dumped the reactive suspension for a more conventional one and the FW12s became competitive.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 204645, 2599977, 146638, 20994, 30886, 2808933, 22816158, 1123009, 522676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 74 ], [ 154, 159 ], [ 171, 183 ], [ 204, 211 ], [ 386, 398 ], [ 399, 403 ], [ 494, 507 ], [ 572, 590 ], [ 594, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 1988 Spanish Grand Prix, Patrese was fined US$10,000 for 'brake testing' the Tyrrell of F1 rookie Julian Bailey during qualifying which caused the Tyrrell 017 to launch its front wheels in the air when Bailey ran into the back of the Williams. One unnamed driver allegedly said of the incident \"They should fine him his bloody retainer. There are enough accidental shunts in this business without someone deliberately causing one\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 1123018, 18717338, 342015, 1235920, 28632660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 30 ], [ 50, 53 ], [ 84, 91 ], [ 105, 118 ], [ 154, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was not until and the arrival of the V10 Renault engines that Patrese and his new teammate Thierry Boutsen were able to challenge for race wins. In his record-breaking 176th Grands Prix, Patrese led the first race of the year in Brazil (the first time he led a Grand Prix since 1983) including setting a new lap record of the Autódromo Internacional Nelson Piquet before stopping with an engine failure. In what would prove to be his best season since 1983, he achieved an impressive 3rd place in the Drivers' Championship, taking no wins but securing 6 podium finishes, including 4 second places, as well as claiming pole position in Hungary, a race he confidently led under constant pressure from reigning World Champion Ayrton Senna in his McLaren-Honda V10 until lap 54 when a holed radiator forced his retirement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 199962, 240378, 1114709, 1123021, 1358562, 1123053, 5306336, 3204171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 44 ], [ 45, 52 ], [ 95, 110 ], [ 233, 239 ], [ 330, 367 ], [ 639, 646 ], [ 747, 754 ], [ 755, 760 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In , Patrese finally won his third Grand Prix at the 1990 San Marino Grand Prix, though the competitiveness of the Renault powered FW13B with what many felt were two \"number two\" drivers waned in the second half of the year as McLaren, Ferrari and later Benetton with their Ford V8 engines took the ascendancy and he finished the Drivers' Championship in 7th place.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 1123073, 22816334, 445741, 164104, 13147596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 79 ], [ 131, 136 ], [ 254, 262 ], [ 274, 278 ], [ 279, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Nigel Mansell returned to Williams after two seasons with Ferrari and, together with Patrese, the team became genuine contenders for both the Drivers' and Constructors' Championships. Two wins in Mexico and Portugal gave Patrese his most competitive F1 season thus far and a respectable third place behind Championship contenders Mansell and Senna. In addition he took four pole positions across the season. Patrese also out qualified Mansell at every race until the halfway point of the season at Silverstone for the British Grand Prix, and provided much support for the Englishman's title chase at races such as Italy and Portugal.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 173009, 1123106, 1123116, 1123110, 1123115, 1123116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 69 ], [ 200, 206 ], [ 211, 219 ], [ 522, 540 ], [ 618, 623 ], [ 628, 636 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Williams dominated F1 in and Patrese continued to deliver in his role of second driver to Nigel Mansell, moving out of the way for Mansell while leading comfortably at that year's French Grand Prix. Again Patrese handled the delicate situation about team orders diplomatically, repeatedly offering a \"No comment\" to questions about the team orders that had been imposed on him at the red flag period of the French race. Patrese took a single win at the Japanese Grand Prix and had eight other podium finishes, including six second-place results. After his retirement Patrese stated that Mansell had the edge over him that season because of Mansell's greater upper body strength, as the car's steering was heavy due to the amount of downforce it generated combined with the absence of power steering, whilst Patrese's skill in low speed corners was negated by the car's traction control system.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 1123142, 1123149, 1677488, 420966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 198 ], [ 454, 473 ], [ 785, 799 ], [ 870, 893 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With Alain Prost, Ayrton Senna and Nigel Mansell all desperately trying to sign for Williams, Patrese's position looked to be under threat and he signed for the Benetton team before the end of the year. His teammate for would be young German driver Michael Schumacher. Ironically, only Prost was able to agree terms with Williams for 1993 (Mansell went on to race in the American-based Champ Car series while Prost had a clause in his contract, signed in early 1992, that prevented Senna from being his teammate). This would have left a seat free for Patrese had he remained with the team. Although Williams offered Patrese the opportunity to stay with the team after Mansell announced his retirement from F1 at the Italian Grand Prix, he felt he could not go back on his word to Benetton. The number two seat at Williams went to the team's test driver Damon Hill, the son of the and World Champion Graham Hill.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 36917, 20396, 1689989, 1123147, 78249, 246186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ], [ 251, 269 ], [ 388, 397 ], [ 718, 736 ], [ 855, 865 ], [ 903, 914 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Williams continued to dominate F1 in 1993, Patrese found it difficult to get along with team manager Flavio Briatore, sensing that the team's concentration was on his new teammate Michael Schumacher. Patrese would also describe the Benetton B193 with its Ford HBA8 V8 as a step down in quality compared to the much more sophisticated Williams cars he had been driving for the previous five years. After scoring 56 points and finishing 2nd in the World Championship in 1992, Patrese scored 20 points to finish 5th in 1993 with a best finish of 2nd in Hungary in what was to prove to be his final season in Formula One. Before the end of the season Briatore informed Patrese that he was \"free to seek an alternate drive\". Ligier made Patrese an offer for 1994 but seeing as a further step down in his career, he decided against it.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 1137703, 614426, 20396, 26201117, 1123173, 164082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 47 ], [ 107, 122 ], [ 186, 204 ], [ 238, 251 ], [ 556, 563 ], [ 726, 732 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As most top teams already had drivers signed for 1994, Patrese opted for retirement and brought what was then the longest F1 career in history to a conclusion. Patrese was invited to rejoin Williams in 1994 to fill the seat of Ayrton Senna after his fatal accident at Imola, but ultimately decided against returning to Formula One. In the second half of 1996, as thanks for his years of service to Williams, the team invited Patrese to test their latest car, the FW18, at Silverstone, with the Italian reportedly setting a time that would have placed him on the second row of the grid for that year's British Grand Prix.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 1137702, 7640807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 53 ], [ 463, 467 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After this, Patrese competed in the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1997. He drove a Nissan R390 GT1 for the Nissan factory team; the car was third fastest in qualifying but was forced to retire with gearbox problems. After retiring from racing, he took up show jumping, following in the footsteps of his daughters who have competed in the sport internationally. He won an Italian national amateur title before retiring from equestrianism in 2014. Outside of competition, he is a keen collector of model railways, in particular those manufactured by Märklin.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 1401596, 5363651, 36871, 20542, 433438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 55 ], [ 76, 91 ], [ 248, 260 ], [ 489, 502 ], [ 541, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2005 he returned to racing in the inaugural season of the Grand Prix Masters formula for retired F1 drivers. He finished third behind his former teammate Nigel Mansell and Emerson Fittipaldi in the sole 2005 race at Kyalami, South Africa. His 2006 season was less successful with a 10th-place finish at Losail in Qatar and a 6th at Silverstone.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 3018189, 241678, 1336190, 5586342, 8238258, 522676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 79 ], [ 175, 193 ], [ 219, 226 ], [ 306, 312 ], [ 316, 321 ], [ 335, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Patrese's record of 257 Grand Prix entries, set in a period when a typical F1 season was limited to 16 races, stood for 15 years, surviving the Schumacher era when Michael Schumacher retired on 250 race entries. Rubens Barrichello finally surpassed Patrese's total, recording his 258th Grand Prix entry at the 2008 Turkish Grand Prix. As part of the \"handover\", Patrese tested a Honda RA107 at Jerez on 9 September (Barrichello was driving for Honda at the time). Schumacher subsequently came out of retirement and became the second driver to surpass Patrese's former record.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 13599687, 252989, 14233589, 3204171, 8984576, 1416541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 16 ], [ 212, 230 ], [ 310, 333 ], [ 380, 385 ], [ 386, 391 ], [ 395, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2018 it was announced that Patrese would come out of retirement to compete at the Spa 24 Hours that month, competing in the pro-am category in a JAS Motorsport-run Honda NSX GT3 with Loic Depailler (the son of former F1 driver Patrick Depailler), Bertrand Baguette and Esteban Guerrieri.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formula One career", "target_page_ids": [ 1253168, 37396485, 49205905, 1226335, 11472551, 6979362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 102 ], [ 153, 167 ], [ 172, 185 ], [ 235, 252 ], [ 255, 272 ], [ 277, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Racing record", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position / Races in italics indicate fastest lap)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Racing record", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Racing record", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Racing record", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(key) Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Racing record", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Riccardo Patrese Website", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Riccardo Patrese: The Italian Hero", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1954_births", "Living_people", "Sportspeople_from_Padua", "Italian_racing_drivers", "Italian_Formula_One_drivers", "Alfa_Romeo_Formula_One_drivers", "Arrows_Formula_One_drivers", "Benetton_Formula_One_drivers", "Brabham_Formula_One_drivers", "Shadow_Formula_One_drivers", "Williams_Formula_One_drivers", "Formula_One_race_winners", "European_Formula_Two_Championship_drivers", "FIA_European_Formula_3_Championship_drivers", "Grand_Prix_Masters_drivers", "24_Hours_of_Le_Mans_drivers", "Karting_World_Championship_drivers", "World_Sportscar_Championship_drivers", "Nismo_drivers", "BMW_M_drivers" ]

[ "Riccardo Gabriele Patrese" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The data values of standard electrode potentials (E°) are given in the table below, in volts relative to the standard hydrogen electrode, and are for the following conditions:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 566959, 32567, 578150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 47 ], [ 87, 91 ], [ 109, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A temperature of .", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An effective concentration of 1mol/L for each aqueous species or a species in a mercury amalgam (an alloy of mercury with another metal).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 183324, 19074264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 89, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A partial pressure of 101.325 kPa (absolute) (1 atm, 1.01325 bar) for each gaseous reagent. This pressure is used because most literature data are still given for this value (1atm) rather than for the current standard of 100 kPa (1 bar) presently considered in the standard state.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1185498, 66014, 582780, 362631, 240224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ], [ 31, 34 ], [ 49, 52 ], [ 62, 65 ], [ 266, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " An activity of unity for each pure solid, pure liquid, or for water (solvent). The relation in electrode potential of metals in saltwater (as electrolyte) is given in the galvanic series.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 183324, 38415, 48336, 1753667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 96, 115 ], [ 143, 154 ], [ 172, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Although many of the half cells are written for multiple-electron transfers, the tabulated potentials are for a single-electron transfer. All of the reactions should be divided by the stoichiometric coefficient for the electron to get the corresponding corrected reaction equation. For example, the equation Fe + 2 Fe(s) (–0.44 V) means that it requires 2 × 0.44 eV = 0.88 eV of energy to be absorbed (hence the minus sign) in order to create one neutral atom of Fe(s) from one Fe ion and two electrons, or 0.44 eV per electron, which is 0.44 J/C of electrons, which is 0.44 V.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 380, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " After dividing by the number of electrons, the standard potential E° is related to the standard Gibbs free energy of formation ΔGf° by: where F is the Faraday constant. For example, in the equation Fe + 2 Fe(s) (–0.44 V) , the Gibbs energy required to create one neutral atom of Fe(s) from one Fe ion and two electrons is 2 × 0.44 eV = 0.88 eV, or 84 895 J/mol of electrons, which is just the Gibbs energy of formation of an Fe ion, since the energies of formation of and Fe(s) are both zero.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26437521, 58648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 127 ], [ 153, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Nernst equation will then give potentials at concentrations, pressures, and temperatures other than standard.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 75873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Note that the table may lack consistency due to data from different sources. For example:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "{|", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ||+ |||| Cu(s) || ( = +0.520 V)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|Cu ||+ 2|||| Cu(s) || ( = +0.337 V)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|Cu ||+ |||| || ( = +0.159 V)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Calculating the potential using Gibbs free energy ( = 2 – ) gives the potential for as 0.154 V, not the experimental value of 0.159 V.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 238181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "__TOC__", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Legend: (s) solid; (l) liquid; (g) gas; (aq) aqueous (default for all charged species); (Hg) amalgam; bold water electrolysis equations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Table of standard electrode potentials", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Standard apparent reduction potentials in biochemistry at pH 7", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 581417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Standard state", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 240224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] } ]

[ "Electrochemistry", "Electrochemical_potentials", "Chemistry-related_lists" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Panettone (, ; ) is an Italian type of sweet bread originally from Milan, usually prepared and enjoyed for Christmas and New Year in Western, Southern, and Southeastern Europe as well as in South America, Eritrea, Australia, the United States and Canada.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 45111767, 36511, 6237, 21637, 33800, 410666, 888364, 26769, 17238590, 4689264, 3434750, 5042916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 51 ], [ 68, 73 ], [ 108, 117 ], [ 122, 130 ], [ 134, 141 ], [ 143, 151 ], [ 157, 176 ], [ 191, 204 ], [ 206, 213 ], [ 215, 224 ], [ 230, 243 ], [ 248, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It has a cupola shape, which extends from a cylindrical base and is usually about 12–15cm high for a panettone weighing 1kg. Other bases may be used, such as an octagon, or a frustum with a star section shape more common to pandoro. It is made during a long process that involves curing the dough, which is acidic, similar to sourdough. The proofing process alone takes several days, giving the cake its distinctive fluffy characteristics. It contains candied orange, citron, and lemon zest, as well as raisins, which are added dry and not soaked. Many other variations are available such as plain or with chocolate. It is served in wedge shapes, vertically cut, accompanied with sweet hot beverages or a sweet wine, such as Asti or Moscato d'Asti. In some regions of Italy, it is served with crema al mascarpone, a cream made by combining eggs, mascarpone, and a sweet liquer.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6298, 859283, 314575, 89405, 349527, 189345, 6203320, 4430416, 32961, 2361260, 8047188, 309047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 15 ], [ 44, 55 ], [ 161, 168 ], [ 175, 182 ], [ 224, 231 ], [ 326, 335 ], [ 341, 349 ], [ 486, 490 ], [ 711, 715 ], [ 725, 729 ], [ 733, 747 ], [ 846, 856 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Efforts are underway to obtain Protected Designation of Origin and Denominazione di origine controllata status for this product, but these have not yet been successful. Former Italian Agriculture Minister Paolo De Castro was known to be looking at ways to protect genuine Italian cakes from growing competition in South America, and exploring whether action could be taken at the World Trade Organization.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 67867254, 393473, 5181573, 33873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 62 ], [ 67, 103 ], [ 205, 220 ], [ 380, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Italy, historical accounts of panettone invariably state that it originated in Milan. The word panettone derives from panetto, a small loaf cake. The augmentative suffix -one changes the meaning to \"large cake\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The beginnings of this cake appear to date from the Roman Empire, when ancient Romans sweetened a type of leavened cake with honey.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 25507, 36969, 14361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 64 ], [ 106, 114 ], [ 125, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is possibly mentioned in a contemporary recipe book written by Italian Bartolomeo Scappi, personal chef to popes and emperors during the time of Charles V. The oldest and most certain attestation of the panettone is found in a register of expenses of the Borromeo college of Pavia in 1599: on 23 December of that year in the list of courses provided for lunch Christmas costs also appear for 5 pounds of butter, 2 of raisins and 3 ounces of spices given to the baker to make 13 \"loaves\" to be given to college students on Christmas Day. The first recorded association of panettone with Christmas can be found in the Italian writings of the 18th century illuminist Pietro Verri. He refers to it as pan de ton ('luxury bread').", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 8645561, 61502, 10111, 70716, 13459904, 44934, 8295950, 2561589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 91 ], [ 110, 115 ], [ 120, 128 ], [ 148, 157 ], [ 258, 274 ], [ 278, 283 ], [ 656, 666 ], [ 667, 679 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 20th century, two enterprising Milanese bakers began to produce panettone in large quantities for the rest of Italy. In 1919, Angelo Motta started producing his eponymous brand of cakes. It was also Motta who revolutionised the traditional panettone by giving it its tall domed shape by making the dough rise three times, for almost 20 hours, before cooking, giving it its now-familiar light texture. The recipe was adapted shortly after by another baker, Gioacchino Alemagna, around 1925, who also gave his name to a popular brand that still exists today. The stiff competition between the two that then ensued led to industrial production of the cake. Nestlé took over the brands together in the late 1990s, but Bauli, an Italian bakery company based in Verona, has since acquired Motta and Alemagna from Nestlé.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 30129675, 160227, 263991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 151 ], [ 667, 673 ], [ 769, 775 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the end of World War II, panettone was cheap enough for anyone and soon became the country's leading Christmas sweet. Lombard immigrants to Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Brazil also brought their love of panettone, and panettone is enjoyed for Christmas with hot cocoa or liquor during the holiday season, which became a mainstream tradition in those countries. In some places, it replaces the king cake.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 4599312, 540333, 471952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 139 ], [ 296, 305 ], [ 431, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Panettone is widely available in South America, including in Argentina, Brazil, Chile (see: Pan de Pascua), Ecuador, Colombia, Uruguay, Venezuela, Bolivia, Paraguay and Peru. It is known in Spanish as panetón or pan dulce, and as panetone in Brazilian Portuguese. Peru's Antonio D'Onofrio, son of immigrants hailing from Caserta, Italy, spawned his own brand using a modified form of the Alemagna formula (e.g., candied papaya is used instead of candied citron and lemon, as these fruits are not available in Peru), which he licensed along with the packaging style. This brand is now also owned by Nestlé and exported throughout South America. Panettone is popular within Italian communities in the U.S., Canada, Australia, and the UK.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 14002876, 2861948, 160227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 105 ], [ 321, 328 ], [ 598, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Italian food manufacturing companies and bakeries produce 117 million panettone and pandoro cakes every Christmas, collectively worth €579 million. There is an event held in Milan since 2013 that awards the Best Traditional Panettone of Italy. In 2016, the prize was awarded to Giuseppe Zippo, from Salento.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 349527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Babka – Eastern European holiday sweet bread", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 61989932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bolo-rei", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 471952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Christmas pudding", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 403936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Colomba Pasquale – traditional Italian Easter bread (Easter Dove)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6444033, 9325, 6444033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 40, 46 ], [ 54, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cozonac", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5404591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dutch letter – a Dutch pastry known as a banketstaaf traditionally eaten during Sinterklaas or Christmas", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47430185, 520006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 81, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fruitcake", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 634071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Julekake", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 64755391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kerststol – a Dutch Christmas yeast bread with an almond paste filling", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21194681, 3215241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 51, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " King cake", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 471952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roscón", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37063907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kulich – Russian Easter yeast bread/cake", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5063912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pan de Pascua – Chilean Christmas bread", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14002876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pandoro – a similar Christmas bread from nearby Verona", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 349527, 263991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 49, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paska (bread) – Ukrainian Orthodox Easter yeast/cheese bread/cake", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4774581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pinca – Croatian Easter bread/cake", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6696688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saffron cake – bread/cake from Cornwall, UK", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4372990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stollen", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1148726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tsoureki – a similar Greek holiday sweet bread", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4547920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] } ]

[ "Italian_breads", "Italian_desserts", "Culture_in_Milan", "Cuisine_of_Lombardy", "Christmas_food", "Christmas_in_Italy", "Sweet_breads", "Brioches", "Yeast_cakes" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Via Monte Napoleone, also spelled Via Montenapoleone, is an upscale shopping street in Milan, Italy, and Europe's third most expensive street (2019). It is famous for its ready-to-wear fashion and jewelry shops, and for being the most important street of the Milan fashion district known as the Quadrilatero della moda, where many well-known fashion designers have high-end boutiques. The most exclusive Italian shoemakers maintain boutiques on this street.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 858665, 36511, 14532, 9239, 232670, 11657, 15739, 25523754, 10799117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 76 ], [ 87, 92 ], [ 94, 99 ], [ 105, 111 ], [ 171, 184 ], [ 185, 192 ], [ 197, 204 ], [ 295, 318 ], [ 342, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2009, architect Fabio Novembre designed a months-long art installation, titled Per fare un albero, ‘To make a tree’ in conjunction with the city of Milan's Department of Design, Events and Fashion and Fiat featuring 20 full-size fiberglass planter replicas of the company's 500C cabriolet along Via Monte Napoleone.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21060258, 5802146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 33 ], [ 278, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2002, the Street Association started a media project including the Radio and the Portal, in order to relaunch the Made in Italy brand. Sponsored by the Department of Fashion, Tourism and Major Events of the Municipality of Milan, Italy Fashion System, and Assomoda, today it is the first instrument of revival and information on Made in Italy worldwide.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 42214122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The street traces the Roman city walls erected by Emperor Maximian. In 1783, a financial institution known as the Monte Camerale di Santa Teresa opened there in Palazzo Marliani, with the function of managing the public debt. In 1786 the street itself was named after the monte. The bank was closed in 1796 but re-opened in 1804, when Milan was capital of the Napoleonic Italian Republic, as the Monte Napoleone: from this the street derived its current name. During the first part of the 19th century the street was almost entirely rebuilt in the Neoclassical manner with palaces inhabited by the highest of the aristocracy. Notable buildings from this period are the Palazzo Melzi di Cusano, the Palazzo Gavazzi, the Casa Carcassola Grandi, and the Palazzetto Taverna. The much earlier Palazzo Marliani however, regarded as one of the finest houses to survive from the era of the Sforza, was preserved until its destruction during the Allied bombing campaign of 1943.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 75088, 1523668, 2682331, 27914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 66 ], [ 371, 387 ], [ 548, 560 ], [ 882, 888 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After World War II, Via Monte Napoleone became one of the leading streets in international fashion, somewhat equivalent to Paris' Rue du Faubourg-Saint-Honoré, Rome's Via Condotti, London's Bond Street and Oxford Street, Los Angeles' Rodeo Drive, Florence's Via de' Tornabuoni, Berlin's Kurfürstendamm and New York's Fifth Avenue.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 22989, 1626242, 25458, 16083300, 17867, 438077, 229195, 18110, 1305457, 11525, 23366607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 18 ], [ 123, 128 ], [ 130, 158 ], [ 160, 164 ], [ 167, 179 ], [ 181, 187 ], [ 190, 201 ], [ 206, 219 ], [ 221, 232 ], [ 234, 245 ], [ 247, 255 ], [ 258, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Caffè Cova, founded in 1817 and one of the city's oldest cafés and confectioners, relocated to Via Monte Napoleone in 1950 from its original premises next to the Teatro alla Scala.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26694771, 370815, 39116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 57, 61 ], [ 162, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of upscale shopping districts", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3565364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] } ]

[ "Jewellery_districts", "Culture_in_Milan", "Tourist_attractions_in_Milan", "Shopping_districts_and_streets_in_Italy", "Streets_in_Milan" ]

[ "via Montenapoleone" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Palermo ( , ; , locally also or ) is a city in southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Metropolitan City of Palermo, the city's surrounding metropolitan province. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700years old. Palermo is in the northwest of the island of Sicily, by the Gulf of Palermo in the Tyrrhenian Sea.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 897351, 181337, 1636026, 27619, 47643670, 31549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 63 ], [ 69, 76 ], [ 89, 106 ], [ 110, 116 ], [ 125, 153 ], [ 444, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city was founded in 734BC by the Phoenicians as (\"flower\"). Palermo then became a possession of Carthage. Two Greek colonies were established, known collectively as ; the Carthaginians used this name on their coins after the 5th centuryBC. As , the town became part of the Roman Republic and Empire for over a thousand years. From 831 to 1072 the city was under Arab rule in the Emirate of Sicily when the city became the capital of Sicily for the first time. During this time the city was known as .", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 34076091, 6555, 66540, 21608552, 25816, 25507, 8329857, 4025585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 46 ], [ 101, 109 ], [ 115, 120 ], [ 121, 129 ], [ 278, 292 ], [ 297, 303 ], [ 367, 376 ], [ 384, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the Norman conquest, Palermo became the capital of a new kingdom, the Kingdom of Sicily, that lasted from 1130 to 1816.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11065190, 641373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 29 ], [ 80, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The population of Palermo urban area is estimated by Eurostat to be 855,285, while its metropolitan area is the fifth most populated in Italy with around 1.2million people. In the central area, the city has a population of around 676,000 people. The inhabitants are known as Palermitani or, poetically, panormiti. The languages spoken by its inhabitants are the Italian language and the Palermitano dialect of the Sicilian language.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7095302, 679519, 267974, 14708, 467199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 36 ], [ 53, 61 ], [ 87, 104 ], [ 362, 378 ], [ 414, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Palermo is Sicily's cultural, economic and tourism capital. It is a city rich in history, culture, art, music and food. Numerous tourists are attracted to the city for its appealing Mediterranean climate, its renowned gastronomy and restaurants, its Romanesque, Gothic, Baroque and Art Nouveau churches, palaces and buildings, and its nightlife and music. Palermo is the main Sicilian industrial and commercial center: the main industrial sectors include tourism, services, commerce and agriculture. Palermo currently has an international airport, and a significant underground economy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19159508, 6639133, 29789, 10772350, 19159508, 752, 18839, 10646, 19006, 1071756, 26437, 52686, 54044, 3957, 59551, 6325, 23931, 45995, 951578, 18839, 14553, 39208, 29789, 181586, 39208, 627, 333233, 18618063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 28 ], [ 30, 38 ], [ 43, 50 ], [ 81, 88 ], [ 90, 97 ], [ 99, 102 ], [ 104, 109 ], [ 114, 118 ], [ 182, 195 ], [ 218, 228 ], [ 233, 243 ], [ 250, 260 ], [ 262, 268 ], [ 270, 277 ], [ 282, 293 ], [ 294, 302 ], [ 304, 310 ], [ 316, 324 ], [ 335, 344 ], [ 349, 354 ], [ 385, 395 ], [ 400, 410 ], [ 455, 462 ], [ 464, 472 ], [ 474, 482 ], [ 487, 498 ], [ 525, 546 ], [ 566, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In fact, for cultural, artistic and economic reasons, Palermo was one of the largest cities in the Mediterranean and in Europe and is now among the top tourist destinations in both Italy and Europe. It is the main seat of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalù and Monreale. The city is also going through careful redevelopment, preparing to become one of the major cities of the Euro-Mediterranean area.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19006, 9239, 21786641, 44940, 47953643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 112 ], [ 120, 126 ], [ 226, 232 ], [ 233, 252 ], [ 253, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roman Catholicism is highly important in Palermitan culture. The Patron Saint of Palermo is Santa Rosalia whose Feast Day is celebrated on 15 July. The area attracts significant numbers of tourists each year and is widely known for its colourful fruit, vegetable and fish markets at the heart of Palermo, known as Vucciria, Ballarò and Capo.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 29789, 9801859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 189, 197 ], [ 272, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Palermo lies in a basin, formed by the Papireto, Kemonia and Oreto rivers. The basin was named the Conca d'Oro (the Golden Basin) by the Arabs in the 9th century. The city is surrounded by a mountain range which is named after the city itself. These mountains face the Tyrrhenian Sea. Palermo is home to a natural port and offers excellent views to the sea, especially from Monte Pellegrino.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 2185, 31549, 13475, 14914030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 142 ], [ 269, 283 ], [ 306, 318 ], [ 374, 390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Palermo experiences a hot-summer subtropical Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa) with moderate seasonality. Summers are very long, hot and dry due to the domination of subtropical high pressure system, while winters are mild and changeable, with rainy weather due to the polar front. Temperatures in autumn and spring are typically warm. Palermo is one of the warmest cities in Europe (mainly due to its warm nights), with an average annual air temperature of ; it is one of the warmest cities in Italy. It receives approximately 2,530 hours of sunshine per year. Snow is a rare occurrence having snowed about a dozen times since 1945. Since the 1940s to nowadays there have been at least five times when considerable snowfall has occurred. In 1949 and in 1956, when the minimum temperature went down to , the city was blanketed by some centimetres of snow. Snowfalls also occurred in 1981, 1986, 1999 and 2014. The average annual temperature of the sea is above ; from in February to in August. In the period from November to May, the average sea temperature exceeds and in the period from June to October, the average sea temperature exceeds .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 349628, 484254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 66 ], [ 68, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Palermo is surrounded by mountains, which form a cirque around the city. Some districts of the city are divided by the mountains themselves. Historically, it was relatively difficult to reach the inner part of Sicily from the city because of the mounts. The tallest peak of the range is La Pizzuta, about high. However, historically, the most important mount is Monte Pellegrino, which is geographically separated from the rest of the range by a plain. The mount lies right in front of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Monte Pellegrino's cliff was described in the 19th century by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, as \"the most beautiful promontory in the world\", in his essay \"Italian Journey\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 14914030, 31549, 19242322, 2624583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 363, 379 ], [ 491, 505 ], [ 569, 595 ], [ 660, 675 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today both the Papireto river and the Kemonia are covered up by buildings. However, the shape of the former watercourses can still be recognised today, because the streets that were built on them follow their shapes. Today the only waterway not drained yet is the Oreto river that divides the downtown of the city from the western uptown and the industrial districts. In the basins there were, though, many seasonal torrents that helped formed swampy plains, reclaimed during history; a good example of which can be found in the borough of Mondello.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 25749761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 540, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shown above are the thirty five quarters of Palermo: these thirty five neighbourhoods or \"quartiere\" as they are known, are further divided into eight governmental community boards.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 2211431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Palermo has a large architectural heritage and is notable for its many Norman buildings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 848130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Palazzo dei Normanni (the Norman Palace), a notable example of Norman architecture, this palace houses the Cappella Palatina.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 3994373, 848130, 4162626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 64, 83 ], [ 108, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zisa (1160) and Cuba, magnificent castles/houses historically used by the kings of Palermo for hunting. The Zisa today houses the Islamic museum. The Cuba was once encircled by water.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 3872785, 3343820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 17, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Palazzo Natoli", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 46835320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Palazzo Chiaramonte", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 30703189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Palazzo Abatellis: Built at the end of the 15th century for the prefect of the city, Francesco Abatellis. It is a massive though elegant construction, in typical Catalan Gothic style, with Renaissance influences. The Gallery houses an Eleonora of Aragon bust by Francesco Laurana (1471) and the Malvagna Triptych ( 1510), by Jan Gossaert and an Annunziata by Antonello da Messina.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 25544700, 54044, 25532, 3772048, 854380, 254609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 163, 177 ], [ 190, 201 ], [ 263, 280 ], [ 326, 338 ], [ 360, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antonino Salinas Regional Archeological Museum: museum includes numerous remains from Etruscan, Carthaginian, Roman and Hellenistic civilisations. It houses all the decorative remains from the Sicilian temples of Segesta and Selinunte.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 37305055, 37353, 6555, 521555, 455379, 44770, 44922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 47 ], [ 87, 95 ], [ 97, 109 ], [ 111, 116 ], [ 121, 132 ], [ 214, 221 ], [ 226, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Palazzina Cinese royal residence of the House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies and location of the Ethnographic Museum of Sicily.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 52730909, 8665876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 41, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Palermo Cathedral: the long history of the cathedral led to an accumulation of different architectural styles, the latest being the 18th century.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 4965991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cappella Palatina, 12th century chapel of the Palazzo dei Normanni, has outstanding mosaics in both Western and the Eastern traditions and a roof by Saracen craftsmen.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 4162626, 3994373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 47, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " San Giovanni dei Lebbrosi", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 43687185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " San Giovanni degli Eremiti: 12th-century church, near Palazzo dei Normanni, notable for bright red domes, a remnant of Arab influence in Sicily. In his Diary of an Idle Woman in Sicily, F. Elliot described it as \"...totally oriental... it would fit well in Baghdad or Damascus\". The bell tower is an example of Norman architecture.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 12067654, 4492, 8914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 258, 265 ], [ 269, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chiesa della Martorana: Also known as Santa Maria dell'Ammiraglio (St Mary of the Admiral), church annexed to the next-door church of San Cataldo and overlooks Piazza Bellini in central Palermo. Original layout was a compact cross-in-square (\"Greek cross plan\"), a common south Italian and Sicilian variant of the middle Byzantine period church style. Three eastern apses adjoin directly to the naos, instead of being separated by an additional bay, as was usual in eastern Byzantine architecture. The bell tower, lavishly decorated, still serves as the main entrance to the church. The interior decoration is elaborate, and includes Byzantine mosaics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 4966692, 3343566, 12593205, 474695, 465979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 135, 146 ], [ 226, 241 ], [ 367, 371 ], [ 396, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " San Cataldo: Church on central Piazza Bellini, another example of Norman architecture.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 3343566, 848130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 67, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Santa Maria della Gancia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 44125433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Santa Caterina: Church located on Piazza Bellini, behind Piazza Pretoria, built between 1566–1596.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 50637340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Santa Maria della Catena: Built between 1490 and 1520. Designed by Matteo Carnilivari: The name derives from chains that were once attached to one of the walls.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 25544865, 67220929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 68, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " San Domenico: Located near Via Roma, now “Pantheon of illustrious Sicilians”.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 50532419, 1070829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 67, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " San Giuseppe dei Teatini: Located near the Quattro Canti, it is an example of Sicilian Baroque.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 3351574, 9122910, 2372757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 44, 57 ], [ 79, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oratorio di San Lorenzo Working in stucco, Rococo sculptor Giacomo Serpotta and his family decorated the church (1690/98–1706) with such a profusion of statuary, and an abundance of putti, the walls appear alive. In October 1969, two thieves removed Caravaggio's Nativity with St. Francis and St. Lawrence from its frame. It has never been recovered.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 52911202, 8744198, 2725673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 60, 76 ], [ 264, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oratorio del Rosario: Completed by Giacomo Serpotta in (1710–17)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Santa Teresa alla Kalsa, derives its name from Al-Khalisa, an Arabic term meaning elected, was constructed between 1686 and 1706 over the former Emir's residence, is one of the best examples of Sicilian Baroque. It has a single, airy nave, with stucco decorations from the early 18th century.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 52902820, 10240953, 178427, 2372757, 697519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 48, 58 ], [ 146, 150 ], [ 195, 211 ], [ 246, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Santa Maria dello Spasimo was built in 1506 and later turned into a hospital. This church inspired Raphael to paint his famous Sicilia's Spasimo, now in the Museo del Prado. The church today is a fascinating open-air auditorium, which occasionally houses exhibitions and musical shows.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 30869094, 44525, 3096041, 230962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 100, 107 ], [ 128, 145 ], [ 158, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Church of the Gesù (Church of Jesus): Located in the city centre, the church was built in 1564 in the late-Renaissance style by the Jesuits. It was built over a pre-existing convent of Basilian monks. Alterations in 1591 were completed in a Sicilian Baroque. The church was heavily damaged after the 1943 bombings, which destroyed most of the frescos. The interior has a Latin cross plan with a nave and two aisles, and has a particularly rich decoration of marbles, intarsia and stuccoes, especially in St Anne's Chapel. At the right is the Casa Professa, with a 1685 portal and a precious 18th century cloister. The building has been home to the Municipal Library since 1775.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 31340240, 1942888, 11144, 27484195, 143102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 186, 199 ], [ 344, 350 ], [ 372, 383 ], [ 505, 514 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " San Francesco di Assisi: church built between 1255 and 1277 in what was once the market district of the city, at the site of two pre-existing churches and was largely renovated in the 15th, 16th, 18th and 19th centuries, the last after an earthquake. After the 1943 bombings, the church was restored to its Medieval appearance, which now includes part of the original building such as part of the right side, the apses and the Gothic portal in the façade. The interior has a typical Gothic flavour, with a nave and two aisles separated by two rows of cylindrical pilasters. Some of the chapels are in Renaissance style, as well as the late 16th century side portals. The church includes precious sculptures by Antonio, Giacomo Gagini and Francesco Laurana. Of note are also statues built by Giacomo Serpotta in 1723.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 50541084, 10106, 41524, 2811027, 26283447, 3772048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 240, 250 ], [ 602, 619 ], [ 711, 718 ], [ 720, 734 ], [ 739, 756 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Church of the Magione: Officially known as the church of the Holy Trinity. This church was built in the Norman style in 1191 by Matteo d'Ajello, who donated it to the Cistercian monks.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 30511, 50409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 74 ], [ 168, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Quattro Canti is a small square at the crossing of the ancient main roads (now: Corso Vittorio Emanuele and Via Maqueda) dividing the town into its quarters (mandamenti). The buildings at the corner have diagonal baroque façades so the square has an almost octagonal form.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 9122910, 69818, 7955471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 87, 104 ], [ 159, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Piazza Pretoria was planned in the 16th century near the Quattro Canti as the site of a fountain by Francesco Camilliani, the Fontana Pretoria.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 40392151, 2899219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 101, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The monument to Charles V on Piazza Bologni, erected in 1631.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 62698224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Palermo has at least two rings of city walls, many pieces of which still survive. The first ring surrounded the ancient core of the Phoenician city – the so-called Palaeopolis (in the area east of Porta Nuova) and the Neapolis. Via Vittorio Emanuele was the main road east–west through this early walled city. The eastern edge of the walled city was on Via Roma and the ancient port in the vicinity of Piazza Marina. The wall circuit was approximately Porto Nuovo, Corso Alberti, Piazza Peranni, Via Isodoro, Via Candela, Via Venezia, Via Roma, Piazza Paninni, Via Biscottari, Via Del Bastione, Palazzo dei Normanni and back to Porto Nuovo.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 139114, 3994373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 43 ], [ 595, 615 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the medieval period the walled city was expanded. Via Vittorio Emanuele continued to be the main road east–west through the walled city. The west gate was still Porta Nuova, the walls continued to Corso Alberti, to Piazza Vittorio Emanuele Orlando where it turned east along Via Volturno to Piazza Verdi and along the line of Via Cavour. At this northeast corner there was a defence, Castello a Mare, to protect the port at La Cala. A huge chain was used to block La Cala with the other end at Santa Maria della Catena (St Mary of the Chain). The sea-side wall was along the western side of Foro Italico Umberto. The wall turns west along the northern side of Via Abramo Lincoln, continues along Corso Tukory. The wall turns north approximately on Via Benedetto, to Palazzo dei Normanni and back to Porta Nuova.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 35140869, 25544865, 3994373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 387, 402 ], [ 497, 521 ], [ 769, 789 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several gates in the city wall survive. Images of the wall can be seen here.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Up until the beginning of 20th century there were hundreds of small opera theatres known as magazzeni in the city of Palermo.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Teatro Massimo (\"Greatest Theatre\") was opened in 1897. It is the biggest in Italy (), and one of the largest of Europe (the third after the Paris Opera and the Vienna State Opera), renowned for its perfect acoustics. Enrico Caruso sang in a performance of La Gioconda during the opening season, returning for Rigoletto at the very end of his career. Closed for renovation from 1974 until 1997, it is now restored and has an active schedule.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 1908672, 3453075, 379066, 67892, 1924249, 65957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 19 ], [ 146, 157 ], [ 166, 184 ], [ 223, 236 ], [ 262, 273 ], [ 315, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Teatro Politeama was built between 1867 and 1874.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 50712262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The cathedral has a heliometer (solar observatory) dating to 1690, one of a number built in Italy in the 17th and 18th centuries. The device itself is quite simple: a tiny hole in one of the minor domes acts as pinhole camera, projecting an image of the sun onto the floor at solar noon (12:00 in winter, 13:00 in summer). There is a bronze line, la Meridiana, on the floor, running precisely north–south. The ends of the line mark the positions as at the summer and winter solstices; signs of the zodiac show the various other dates throughout the year.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 2192622, 81609, 209005, 629026, 28483, 34411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ], [ 211, 225 ], [ 276, 286 ], [ 347, 359 ], [ 474, 482 ], [ 485, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The purpose of the instrument was to standardise the measurement of time and the calendar. The convention in Sicily had been that the (24‑hour) day was measured from the moment of dawn, which of course meant that no two locations had the same time and, more importantly, did not have the same time as in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. It was also important to know when the vernal equinox occurred, to provide the correct date for Easter.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 19595664, 23306251, 73188, 25458, 10100, 9325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 72 ], [ 81, 89 ], [ 304, 324 ], [ 328, 332 ], [ 373, 387 ], [ 430, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Orto botanico di Palermo (Palermo Botanical Garden), founded in 1785, is the largest in Italy with a surface of .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 4120352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One site of interest is the Capuchin Catacombs, with many mummified corpses in varying degrees of preservation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 101369, 1262167, 20224, 12974846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 36 ], [ 37, 46 ], [ 58, 67 ], [ 68, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Close to the city is the Monte Pellegrino, offering a panorama of the city, its surrounding mountains and the sea.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 14914030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another good panoramic viewpoint is the promontory of Monte Gallo (), near Mondello Beach.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Moreton Bay fig of >30 m girth and of 32m height can be found on the Piazza Marina. This Ficus macrophylla is most probably the thickest tree in Europe.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 340936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the boulevard Via Roma is the Palazzo delle Poste an official Italian government building created during the Mussolini era in the stripped classicism architectural style. It was designed by the rationalist and later fascist government architect, Angiolo Mazzoni. Perhaps its most famous feature is the five mural cycle in the Futurist style painted by the artist Benedetta Cappa titled \"Sintesi delle Comunicazioni\" (Synthesis of Communication).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 52858592, 61803986, 1161298, 44587749, 12803363, 2318916, 1286661, 42548344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 25 ], [ 33, 52 ], [ 112, 125 ], [ 133, 152 ], [ 197, 208 ], [ 249, 264 ], [ 330, 338 ], [ 367, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "UNESCO World Heritage Sites include the Palazzo Reale with the Cappella Palatina, the Chiesa di San Giovanni degli Eremiti, the Chiesa di Santa Maria dell’Ammiraglio, the Chiesa di San Cataldo, the Cattedrale di Palermo, the Palazzo della Zisa and the Ponte dell’Ammiraglio, adding to the list that makes Italy the country with most UNESCO world heritage sites.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Landmarks", "target_page_ids": [ 44940, 3994373, 4162626, 12067654, 4966692, 3343566, 4965991, 3872785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ], [ 40, 53 ], [ 63, 80 ], [ 86, 122 ], [ 128, 165 ], [ 171, 192 ], [ 198, 219 ], [ 225, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, there were 1.2million people living in the greater Palermo area, 655,875 of which resided in the City boundaries, of whom 47.4% were male and 52.6% were female. People under age 15 totalled 15.6% compared to pensioners who composed 17.2% of the population. This compares with the Italian average of 14.1% people under 15 years and 20.2% pensioners. The average age of a Palermo resident is 40.4 compared to the Italian average of 42.8. In the ten years between 2001 and 2010, the population of Palermo declined by 4.5%, while the population of Italy, as a whole, grew by 6.0%. The reason for Palermo's decline is a population flight to the suburbs, and to Northern Italy. The current birth rate of Palermo is 10.2 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.3 births.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 2155325, 515898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 665, 679 ], [ 693, 703 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", 97.79% of the population was of Italian descent. The largest immigrant group came from South Asia (mostly from Bangladesh and Sri Lanka): 0.80%, other European countries (mostly from Albania, Romania, Serbia, North Macedonia and Ukraine): 0.3%, and North Africa (mostly from Tunisia): 0.28%.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 385155, 21566765, 3454, 26750, 738, 25445, 29265, 23564616, 31750, 30188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 41 ], [ 89, 99 ], [ 113, 123 ], [ 128, 137 ], [ 185, 192 ], [ 194, 201 ], [ 203, 209 ], [ 211, 226 ], [ 231, 238 ], [ 277, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Evidence of human settlement in the area now known as Palermo goes back to at least the Mesolithic period, perhaps around 8000 BC, where a group of cave drawings at nearby Addaura from that period have been found. The original inhabitants were Sicani people who, according to Thucydides, arrived from the Iberian Peninsula (perhaps Catalonia).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 45775, 20568, 40186, 37531327, 1694778, 30864, 14883, 6822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ], [ 88, 98 ], [ 122, 129 ], [ 172, 179 ], [ 245, 251 ], [ 277, 287 ], [ 306, 323 ], [ 333, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 734BC the Phoenicians, maritime traders from northern Canaan, built a small settlement on the natural harbor of Palermo, which became known as (, ). It became one of the three main Phoenician colonies of Sicily, along with Motya and Soluntum. However, the remains of the Phoenician presence in the city are few and mostly preserved in the very populated center of the downtown area, making any excavation efforts costly and logistically difficult. The site chosen by the Phoenicians made it easy to connect the port to the mountains with two roads that today have become Via Cappuccini and Corso Pisani. These roads helped the Phoenicians in trading with the populations that lived beyond the mountains that surround the gulf.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 34076091, 50250, 2246245, 3083929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 22 ], [ 57, 63 ], [ 227, 232 ], [ 237, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first settlement is known as (), meaning \"Old City\", in order to distinguish it from a second settlement built during the 5th century BC, called () or \"New City\". Neapolis was erected towards the east and along with it, monumental walls around the whole settlement were built to prevent attacks from foreign threats. Some part of this structure can still be seen in the Cassaro district. This district was named after the walls themselves; the word Cassaro deriving from the Arab al-qaṣr (castle, stronghold, see also alcázar). Along the walls there were few doors to access and exit the city, suggesting that trade even toward the inner part of the island occurred frequently. Moreover, according to some studies, it may be possible that there were some walls that divided the old city from the new one too. The colony developed around a central street (decumanus), cut perpendicularly by minor streets. This street today has become Corso Vittorio Emanuele.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 345950, 23859544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 524, 531 ], [ 861, 870 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carthage was Palermo's major trading partner under the Phoenicians and the city enjoyed a prolonged peace during this period. Palermo came into contact with the Ancient Greeks between the 6th and the 5th centuries BC which preceded the Sicilian Wars, a conflict fought between the Greeks of Syracuse and the Phoenicians of Carthage for control over the island of Sicily. During this war the Greeks named the settlement (, ), 'wide haven' due to its large anchorage, from which the present name of the city developed. The Phoenicians began using the Greek name on the city's coinage from the 5th centuryBC. It was from Palermo that Hamilcar I's fleet (which was defeated at the Battle of Himera) was launched. In 409BC the city was looted by Hermocrates of Syracuse. The Sicilian Wars ended in 265BC when Syracuse allied with the Romans of Italy and pushed the Carthaginians off of the island during the First Punic War. In 276BC, during the Pyrrhic War, Panormos briefly became a Greek colony after being conquered by Pyrrhus of Epirus, but returned to Phoenician Carthage in 275BC. In 254BC Panormos was besieged and conquered by the Romans in the first battle of Panormus (the Latin name). Carthage attempted to reconquer Panormus in 251BC but failed.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6555, 66540, 7199620, 28441, 66540, 20490095, 6000444, 28441, 11427, 1393860, 197745, 3109105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 161, 175 ], [ 236, 249 ], [ 291, 299 ], [ 391, 397 ], [ 632, 642 ], [ 742, 753 ], [ 757, 765 ], [ 904, 919 ], [ 942, 953 ], [ 1019, 1036 ], [ 1202, 1233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the Roman Empire was falling apart, Palermo fell under the control of several Germanic tribes. The first were the Vandals in 440AD under the rule of their king Geiseric. The Vandals had occupied all the Roman provinces in North Africa by 455 establishing themselves as a significant force. They acquired Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily shortly afterwards. However, they soon lost these newly acquired possessions to the Ostrogoths. The Ostrogothic conquest under Theodoric the Great began in 488; Theodoric supported Roman culture and government unlike the Germanic Goths. The Gothic War took place between the Ostrogoths and the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire. Sicily was the first part of Italy to be taken under control of General Belisarius who was commissioned by Eastern Emperor. Justinian I solidified his rule in the following years.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25507, 12446, 46516, 26257742, 5714828, 29376, 27619, 22428, 31222, 214974, 2487220, 16972981, 23476714, 4016, 16209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ], [ 81, 96 ], [ 117, 124 ], [ 163, 171 ], [ 307, 314 ], [ 316, 324 ], [ 329, 335 ], [ 436, 447 ], [ 463, 482 ], [ 517, 530 ], [ 577, 587 ], [ 670, 686 ], [ 752, 770 ], [ 795, 810 ], [ 812, 823 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Arabs took control of the island in 904, and the Emirate of Sicily was established. Muslim rule on the island lasted for about 120years . Palermo (Bal'harm during Arab rule) displaced Syracuse as the capital of Sicily. It was said to have then begun to compete with Córdoba and Cairo in terms of importance and splendor. For more than a hundred years Palermo was the capital of a flourishing emirate. The Arabs also introduced many agricultural crops which remain a mainstay of Sicilian cuisine.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2185, 4025585, 19541, 28441, 53669, 6293, 275589, 13837507, 44808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ], [ 53, 70 ], [ 88, 94 ], [ 188, 196 ], [ 270, 277 ], [ 282, 287 ], [ 396, 403 ], [ 421, 455 ], [ 483, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After dynastic quarrels however, there was a Norman conquest in 1072. Normans conquered Palermo after a long siege. Indeed, the feat proved difficult because the Normans had never besieged such a populous city with such powerful walls. After 5 months siege, Normans built numerous stairs and war machines and finally conquered the city. The family who returned the city to Christianity were called the Hautevilles, including Robert Guiscard and his army, who is regarded as a hero by the natives. It was under his nephew Roger II of Sicily that Norman holdings in Sicily and the southern part of the Italian Peninsula were promoted from the County of Sicily into the Kingdom of Sicily. The kingdom's capital was Palermo, with the King's Court held at the Palazzo dei Normanni. Much construction was undertaken during this period, such as the building of Palermo Cathedral. The Kingdom of Sicily became one of the wealthiest states in Europe.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11065190, 5211, 5168102, 157902, 79075, 378368, 16654624, 641373, 3994373, 4965991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 60 ], [ 373, 385 ], [ 402, 413 ], [ 425, 440 ], [ 522, 540 ], [ 601, 618 ], [ 642, 658 ], [ 668, 685 ], [ 756, 776 ], [ 855, 872 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thanks to the marriage between Constance, Queen of Sicily, and Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor, Palermo and the whole Sicily was inherited by their son Frederick II, who became King of Sicily in 1198 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1220. Palermo was the preferred city of the Emperor Frederick II. Muslims of Palermo emigrated or were expelled during Frederick's rule. After an interval of Angevin rule (1266–1282), Sicily came under control of the Aragon and Barcelona dynasties. By 1330, Palermo's population had declined to 51,000.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 204331, 27485318, 68974, 68974, 10518745, 824490, 3409591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 57 ], [ 63, 91 ], [ 149, 161 ], [ 275, 287 ], [ 381, 388 ], [ 440, 446 ], [ 451, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1479 until 1713 Palermo was ruled by the Kingdom of Spain, and again between 1717 and 1718. Palermo was also under Savoy control between 1713 and 1717 and 1718–1720 as a result of the Treaty of Utrecht. It was ruled by Austria between 1720 and 1734.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26667, 27885, 180936, 26964606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 62 ], [ 120, 125 ], [ 189, 206 ], [ 224, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), Sicily was handed over to the House of Savoy, but by 1734 it was in Bourbon possession. Charles III chose Palermo for his coronation as King of Sicily. Charles had new houses built for the growing population, while trade and industry grew as well. However, Palermo had become just another provincial city as the Royal Court resided in Naples. Charles' son Ferdinand, though disliked by the population, took refuge in Palermo after the French Revolution in 1798. His son Alberto died on the way to Palermo and is buried in the city.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 180936, 69842, 44705, 149441, 79105, 173245, 11188, 26247496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 66, 80 ], [ 104, 111 ], [ 124, 135 ], [ 172, 186 ], [ 392, 401 ], [ 471, 488 ], [ 506, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was founded, the original capital city was Palermo (1816) but a year later moved to Naples.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21486505, 55880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 36 ], [ 121, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1820 to 1848 Sicily was shaken by upheavals, which culminated on 12 January 1848, with a popular insurrection, the first one in Europe that year, led by Giuseppe La Masa. A parliament and constitution were proclaimed. The first president was Ruggero Settimo. The Bourbons reconquered Palermo in 1849, and it remained under their rule until the Expedition of the Thousand, led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, conquered the city after the Siege of Palermo in May 1860. After the plebiscite later that year Palermo, along with the rest of Sicily, became part of the new Kingdom of Italy (1861).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4632208, 1840514, 21486576, 69991686, 51582, 9804204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 247, 262 ], [ 349, 375 ], [ 384, 402 ], [ 433, 449 ], [ 473, 483 ], [ 563, 579 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The majority of Sicilians preferred independence to annexation to the Savoy kingdom; in 1866, Palermo became the seat of a week-long popular rebellion, which was finally crushed after martial law was declared. The Italian government blamed anarchists and the Church, specifically the Archbishop of Palermo, for the rebellion and began enacting anti-Sicilian and anti-clerical policies. A new cultural, economic and industrial growth was spurred by several families, like the Florio, the Ducrot, the Rutelli, the Sandron, the Whitaker, the Utveggio, and others. In the early twentieth century, Palermo expanded outside the old city walls, mostly to the north along the new boulevards Via Roma, Via Dante, Via Notarbartolo, and Viale della Libertà. These roads would soon boast a huge number of villas in the Art Nouveau style. Many of these were designed by the architect Ernesto Basile. The Grand Hotel Villa Igiea, designed by Ernesto Basile for the Florio family, is a good example of Palermitan Art Nouveau. The huge Teatro Massimo was designed in the same period by Giovan Battista Filippo Basile, Ernesto's father, and built by the Rutelli & Machì building firm of the industrial and old Rutelli Italian family in Palermo, and was opened in 1897.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1070829, 50477, 12, 1905707, 1741013, 59551, 23878652, 70356157, 1905707, 1908672, 38616725, 1741013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 25 ], [ 184, 195 ], [ 240, 249 ], [ 475, 481 ], [ 499, 506 ], [ 807, 818 ], [ 871, 885 ], [ 903, 914 ], [ 951, 957 ], [ 1020, 1034 ], [ 1070, 1100 ], [ 1193, 1200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Second World War, Palermo was heavily bombed by the Allied air forces in 1942 and 1943, until its capture during the Allied invasion of Sicily on 22 July 1943. The harbour (main objective of the air attacks) and the surrounding quarters were effectively destroyed, as was a considerable part of the city, with heavy civilian casualties. When American troops entered Palermo in 1943 they were greeted with \"a thunderous welcome by what seemed the entire population demonstrating their feelings about Fascist rule.\" The two captured Italian generals claimed that they were happy because in their view \"the Sicilians were not human beings but animals\". Anti-Sicilian prejudice was part of the fascist regime's world view, being promoted by pro-fascist newspapers, particularly in the north of Italy.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 253934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ], [ 128, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1946 the city was declared the seat of the Regional Parliament, as capital of a Special Status Region (1947) whose seat is in the Palazzo dei Normanni.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 28917950, 3994373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 65 ], [ 133, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A theme in the city's modern age has been the struggle against the Sicilian Mafia, Red Brigades and outlaws such as Salvatore Giuliano, who controlled the neighbouring area of Montelepre. The Italian state effectively has had to share control of the territory, economically and administratively, with the Mafia.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 893141, 41249202, 297023, 4958260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 81 ], [ 83, 95 ], [ 116, 134 ], [ 176, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"Sack of Palermo\" was one of the dramatic consequences of this problem. This popular term refers to the speculative building practices that resulted in the destruction of a great number of historical buildings and green areas in favour of poor buildings, mainly between the 1950s and the 1980s. The reduced importance of agriculture in the Sicilian economy has led to a massive migration to the cities, especially Palermo, which swelled in size, leading to rapid expansion towards the north. The regulatory plans for expansion was largely ignored in the boom. New parts of town appeared almost out of nowhere, but without parks, schools, public buildings, proper roads and the other amenities that characterise a modern city.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13537010, 63088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 20 ], [ 108, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Cosa Nostra has traditionally been the most powerful group in Palermo. A CNN article in July 2019 indicated that Sicilian Mafia activity in Palermo was particularly notorious in one area: the town of Passo Rigano. \"According to Italian police, the Mafia not only engages in extortion there, but also has a large role in the town's legal economy – with its involvement in business such as wholesale food supplies, online betting and gambling.\" The police investigation at the time also confirmed strong links between the Palermo area mafia and American organized crime, particularly the Gambino crime family. According to La Repubblica, \"Off they go, through the streets of Passo di Rigano, Boccadifalco, Torretta and at the same time, Brooklyn, Staten Island, New Jersey. Because from Sicily to the US, the old mafia has returned\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 62028, 893141, 485171, 1763882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 80 ], [ 117, 131 ], [ 591, 611 ], [ 626, 639 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The patron saint of Palermo is Saint Rosalia, who is widely revered.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 45302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 14 July, people in Palermo celebrate the annual Festino, the most important religious event of the year. The Festino is a procession that goes through the main street of Palermo to commemorate the miracle attributed to Saint Rosalia who, it is believed, freed the city from the Black Death in 1624. Her remains were discovered in a cave on Monte Pellegrino, and her remains were carried around the city three times, banishing the plague. There is a sanctuary marking the spot where her remains were found which can be reached via a scenic bus ride from the city.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 4501, 73213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 281, 292 ], [ 452, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before 1624 Palermo had four patron saints, one for each of the four major parts of the city. They were Saint Agatha, Saint Christina, Saint Nympha and Saint Olivia.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 68055, 557462, 24417114, 5439604, 2898028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 41 ], [ 104, 116 ], [ 118, 133 ], [ 135, 147 ], [ 152, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Saint Lucy is also honoured with a celebration on December 13th, during which the inhabitants of Palermo do not eat anything made with flour, but boil wheat in its natural state and use it to prepare a special dish called cuccìa. This commemorates the saving of the city from famine due to a miracle attributed to Saint Lucy; A ship full of grain mysteriously arrived in the city's harbour and the hungry population wasted no time in making flour but ate the grain as it arrived.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 294501, 1531214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 222, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Saint Benedict the Moor is the heavenly protector of the city of Palermo.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 4787097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ancient patron of the city was the Genius of Palermo, genius loci and numen protector of the place, that became the secular patron of the modern Palermo.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 28688408, 456180, 2347090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 56 ], [ 58, 69 ], [ 74, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Palermo hosts a professional football team, Palermo Football Club, commonly referred to as simply Palermo, who currently compete in Serie C, having been excluded from Serie B after the 2018–2019 season.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 520651, 1137140, 517788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 65 ], [ 132, 139 ], [ 167, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the bankruptcy occurred in the summer of 2019, a new club was formed by the company Hera Hora Srl.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Targa Florio was an open road endurance car race held near Palermo. Founded in 1906, it used to be one of the oldest sports car racing events until it was discontinued in 1977 due to safety concerns but has since run as a rallying event. Palermo was home to the grand depart of the 2008 Giro d'Italia. The initial stage was a TTT (Team Time Trial).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 772092, 52244, 246777, 1804632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 121, 138 ], [ 291, 304 ], [ 336, 351 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Internazionali Femminili di Palermo is an annual ladies professional tennis event held in the city, which is part of the WTA Tour.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 6479996, 1398173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 39 ], [ 125, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Sicily's administrative capital, Palermo is a centre for much of the region's finance, tourism and commerce. The city currently hosts an international airport, and Palermo's economic growth over the years has brought the opening of many new businesses. The economy mainly relies on tourism and services, but also has commerce, shipbuilding and agriculture. The city, however, still has high unemployment levels, high corruption and a significant black market empire (Palermo being the home of the Sicilian Mafia).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy and infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 333233, 69415, 181586, 18618063, 893141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 161 ], [ 177, 192 ], [ 297, 305 ], [ 449, 461 ], [ 500, 514 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Palermo has a local railway called the Palermo metropolitan railway service.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy and infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 22442181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Palermo's public bus system is operated by AMAT which covers a net area of . About 90 different routes reach every part of the city.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy and infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Palermo has a public tram system finalized in 2015 and operated by AMAT. There are 4 lines:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy and infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 30733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roccella — Central Station", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy and infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Borgo Nuovo — Notarbartolo Station", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy and infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " CEP — Notarbartolo Station", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy and infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Corso Calatafimi — Notarbartolo Station", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy and infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The local coach company, AST, with its coaches totalling 35 lines, links Palermo to all of the main cities in Sicily.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy and infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Palermo, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 63 min. 14.% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 23 min, while 48% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 4.4km, while 3% travel for over 12km in a single direction.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy and infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Palermo is a key intersection on the Sicilian road network, being the junction between the eastern A19 motorway to Trapani, the southeastern A29 to airport and Mazara del Vallo and the southwestern A19 to Catania and A20 to Messina. Palermo is one of the main cities on European route E90. The three main national roads starting from Palermo are the SS113, SS121, SS186 and the SS624.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy and infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 22120114, 2411002, 44778, 20234751, 333233, 45742, 22120114, 44776, 22120827, 59705, 8339155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 102 ], [ 103, 111 ], [ 115, 122 ], [ 141, 144 ], [ 148, 155 ], [ 160, 176 ], [ 198, 201 ], [ 205, 212 ], [ 217, 220 ], [ 224, 231 ], [ 270, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Palermo International Airport, known as Falcone-Borsellino Airport (formerly Punta Raisi Airport), is located west of Palermo. It is dedicated to Giovanni Falcone and Paolo Borsellino, two anti-mafia judges killed by the Mafia in the early 1990s.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy and infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 333233, 44796, 628364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ], [ 147, 163 ], [ 168, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The airport's rail facility, known as Punta Raisi railway station, can be reached from Palermo Centrale, Palermo Notarbartolo and Palermo Francia railway stations.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy and infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 30993109, 24408274, 31042931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 65 ], [ 87, 103 ], [ 105, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Palermo-Boccadifalco Airport is the second airport of the city.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy and infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 22407101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The port of Palermo, founded by the Phoenicians over 2,700years ago, is, together with the port of Messina, the main port of Sicily. From here ferries link Palermo to Cagliari, Genoa, Livorno, Naples, Tunis and other cities and carry a total of almost 2million passengers annually. It is also an important port for cruise ships. Traffic includes also almost of cargo and 80,000 TEUs yearly. The port also has links to minor Sicilian islands such as Ustica and the Aeolian Islands (via Cefalù in summer). Inside the Port of Palermo there is a section known as \"tourist marina\" for sailing yachts and catamarans.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy and infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 46624977, 34076091, 46624971, 50771, 44950, 47332321, 246305, 55880, 57659, 373474, 214117, 44889, 19556033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 36, 47 ], [ 91, 106 ], [ 143, 150 ], [ 167, 175 ], [ 177, 182 ], [ 184, 191 ], [ 193, 199 ], [ 201, 206 ], [ 379, 382 ], [ 450, 456 ], [ 465, 480 ], [ 486, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main railway station of Palermo is Palermo Centrale which links to the other cities of Sicily, including Agrigento, Trapani and Catania, and through Messina and the strait to the rest of Italy. The railways also connect to the Palermo airport with departures every thirty minutes.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy and infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 24408274, 45105, 44778, 44776, 59705, 79564, 333233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 55 ], [ 109, 118 ], [ 120, 127 ], [ 132, 139 ], [ 153, 160 ], [ 169, 175 ], [ 231, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The local university is the University of Palermo, the island's second oldest university. It was officially founded in 1806, although historical records indicate that medicine and law have been taught there since the late 15th century. The Orto botanico di Palermo (Palermo botanical gardens) is home to the university's Department of Botany and is also open to visitors.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 2115477, 4120352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 49 ], [ 240, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Palermo is twinned with:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1155299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bizerte, Tunisia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 522075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bukavu, DR of the Congo", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 448570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chengdu, China", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 170375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Düsseldorf, Germany", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 65711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Grand-Bassam, Ivory Coast", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1005177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hanoi, Vietnam", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 56667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Khan Yunis, Palestine", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 101330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Miami, United States", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 53846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Monterey, United States", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 40444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Montpellier, France", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 73369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ottawa, Canada", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 22219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Palermo, Argentina", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1118047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Palermo, Colombia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 10711767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pistoia, Italy", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 183875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Samara, Russia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 72796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Santiago de Cuba, Cuba", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 235003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sestu, Italy", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 5668753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tbilisi, Georgia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 42298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timișoara, Romania", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 60817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Valletta, Malta", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 57664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yaroslavl, Russia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 184665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Emerico Amari (1810–1870), politician", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 8708006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eleonora Abbagnato (born 1978), ballet dancer", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 41522927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Simonetta Agnello Hornby (born 1945), writer", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 40256883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aldo Baglio (born 1958), actor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 17178090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pietro Ballo (born 1952), tenor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 19381216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mario Balotelli (born 1990), footballer", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 8394247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mario Bardi (1922–1998), painter", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 47301840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ernesto Basile (1857–1932), architect", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 23878652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Letizia Battaglia (1935–2022), photographer, photojournalist, and politician", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 13405282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alfredo Bordonali (born 1919), football player", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 27015566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paolo Borsellino (1940–1992), judge", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 628364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lando Buzzanca (born 1935), actor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 4120945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stanislao Cannizzaro (1826–1910), chemist", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 940309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bruno Caruso (1927–2018), painter, illustrator, graphic designer and political activist", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 60602586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marco Cecchinato (born 1992), tennis player", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 39435918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Max Crivello (born 1958), illustrator and painter", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 12723542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Giovanni Falcone (1939–1992), judge", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 44796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Franco Franchi (1928–1992), actor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 535143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Libero Grassi (1924–1991), businessman", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 8074520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pietro Grasso (born 1945), magistrate and President of the Senate", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 38832523, 52779364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 43, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ciccio Ingrassia (1922–2003), actor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 2952343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beniamino Iraci (born 1989), professional football player", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 27272017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ugo La Malfa (1903–1979), politician", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 7569495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rosalia Lombardo (1918–1920), known as the Sleeping Beauty", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 2121842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Louise of Orléans (1812–1850), Queen of The Belgians", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 5309509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies (1806–1878), Queen of Spain", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 392872, 26667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ], [ 59, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Filippo Mancuso (1922–2011), magistrate and Italian Minister of Justice", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 3092547, 3057694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 45, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sergio Mattarella (born 1941), president of Italy", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 13947321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Giovanni Meli (1740–1815), poet and playwright", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 7529532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Silvio Micali (born 1954), computer scientist", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 1385119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gabriele Minì (born 2005), racing driver", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 66243888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vittorio Emanuele Orlando (1860–1952), Prime Minister of Italy", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 7625929, 273741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 40, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Giovanni Pernice (born 1990), professional dancer on Strictly Come Dancing", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 48323876, 975325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 54, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sophia Petrillo (born 1905), character on The Golden Girls and native to Palermo", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 802020, 217200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 43, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amelia Pinto (1876–1946), opera singer", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 60941577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antonio Rinaldi (architect) (1709–1794)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 1494318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Giuni Russo (1951 -2004), singer", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 21941592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alfredo Salafia (1869–1933), embalmer and taxidermist", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 41498111, 213976, 179240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 30, 38 ], [ 43, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pietro Scaglione (1906–1971), magistrate", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 23945803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Salvatore Schillaci (born 1964), footballer", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 987976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Enzo Sellerio (1924–2012), photographer, publisher, and collector", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 4451421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Giacomo Serpotta (1656–1732), sculptor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 8744198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Giuseppe Serpotta (1653–1719), sculptor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 8744286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì (1839–1908), Prime Minister of Italy", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 788797, 273741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ], [ 51, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa (1896–1957), writer", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 232185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Delia Vaccarello (1960–2019), journalist and activist for LGBT rights", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 62528971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fulco di Verdura (1898–1978), duke and jeweller", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 24180145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vincenzo Florio (1883–1959), entrepreneur, heir of the rich Florio economic dynasty, founder of the Targa Florio", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 6310141, 772092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 102, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tommaso Buscetta (1928–2000), member and notable pentito of the Sicilian Mafia", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 72701, 44802, 893141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 50, 57 ], [ 65, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "People awarded the honorary citizenship of Palermo are:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 13879446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hugo Falcandus", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 178684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of mayors of Palermo", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3207383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Outline of Palermo", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 55599886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Circolo Matematico di Palermo", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32146789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nef, Anneliese. A Companion to Medieval Palermo: The History of a Mediterranean City from 600 to 1500 (Brill, 2013).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tronzo, William. \"The Artistic Culture of Twelfth-Century Sicily, with a Focus on Palermo.\" in Sicily and the Mediterranean (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2015) pp. 61–76.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tourist Information Centre", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Palermo Tourist Board", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Palermo Coupon", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Things to do in Palermo", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Palermo capitale italiana della cultura 2018 ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Palermo", "Coastal_towns_in_Sicily", "Mediterranean_port_cities_and_towns_in_Italy", "Municipalities_of_the_Metropolitan_City_of_Palermo", "Capitals_of_former_nations", "Phoenician_colonies_in_Sicily", "Populated_places_established_in_the_8th_century_BC" ]

[ "Palermo, Italy" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Georgy Konstantinovich Zhukov (; 1 December 1896– 18 June 1974) was a Soviet general and Marshal of the Soviet Union. He also served as Chief of the General Staff, Minister of Defence, and was a member of the Presidium of the Communist Party (later Politburo). During World War II, Zhukov oversaw some of the Red Army's most decisive victories.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 148537, 608253, 13271754, 3695933, 41585771, 32927, 25682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 84 ], [ 89, 116 ], [ 136, 162 ], [ 164, 183 ], [ 209, 241 ], [ 268, 280 ], [ 309, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born to a poor peasant family from central Russia, Zhukov was conscripted into the Imperial Russian Army and fought in World War I. He served in the Red Army during the Russian Civil War. Gradually rising through the ranks, by 1939 Zhukov had been given command of an army group and won a decisive battle over Japanese forces at Khalkhin Gol, for which he won the first of his four Hero of the Soviet Union awards. In February 1941, Zhukov was appointed as chief of the Red Army's General Staff.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17918596, 4764461, 26295, 301934, 400853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 104 ], [ 119, 130 ], [ 169, 186 ], [ 329, 341 ], [ 382, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union, Zhukov lost his position as chief of the general staff. Subsequently, he organized the defense of Leningrad, Moscow, and Stalingrad. He participated in planning several major offensives, including the Battle of Kursk, and Operation Bagration. In 1945, Zhukov commanded the 1st Belorussian Front; he took part in the Vistula–Oder Offensive, and the Battle of Berlin, which resulted in the defeat of Nazi Germany, and the end of the war in Europe. In recognition of Zhukov's role in the war, he was chosen to accept the German Instrument of Surrender, and inspect the Moscow Victory Parade of 1945.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22618, 326944, 573888, 4284, 33102, 476582, 1359006, 1634994, 291145, 360422, 215257, 1373357, 4397551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 49 ], [ 149, 158 ], [ 160, 166 ], [ 172, 182 ], [ 252, 267 ], [ 273, 292 ], [ 324, 345 ], [ 367, 389 ], [ 399, 415 ], [ 439, 461 ], [ 471, 495 ], [ 569, 599 ], [ 617, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the war, Zhukov's success and popularity caused Joseph Stalin to see him as a potential threat. Stalin stripped him of his positions and relegated him to military commands of little strategic significance. After Stalin's death in 1953, Zhukov supported Nikita Khrushchev's bid for Soviet leadership. In 1955, he was appointed as Defence Minister and made a member of the Presidium. In 1957 Zhukov lost favour again and was forced to retire. He never returned to a position of influence, and died in 1974.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 15641, 42558, 41585771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 67 ], [ 259, 276 ], [ 377, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zhukov was born into a poverty-stricken peasant family of Russian ethnicity in Strelkovka, Maloyaroslavsky, Kaluga Governorate in western Russia. His father Konstantin, who had been orphaned at the age of two and then adopted by Anuska Zhukova, was a cobbler. His mother Ustin'ya was a peasant laborer. Zhukov was said to resemble his mother, and he believed he inherited his physical strength from her; Ustin'ya was reportedly able to accomplish demanding tasks such as carrying 200-pound sacks of grain over long distances. In an era when most members of Russia's poor and working classes completed only two years of schooling, Zhukov completed the three-year primary education course at his hometown school. He was then apprenticed to his mother's brother Mikhail as a furrier in Moscow.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 59510, 7452175, 2351775, 41626248, 2427310, 19004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 65 ], [ 79, 89 ], [ 91, 106 ], [ 108, 126 ], [ 772, 779 ], [ 783, 789 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While working for his uncle, Zhukov supplemented his education by reading with his cousin Alexander on a wide range of topics, including the Russian language, German language, science, geography, and mathematics. In addition, he enrolled in a night school, where he completed courses as the work in his uncle's shop permitted. He completed his apprenticeship in 1914 and established his own fur business, which included three young employees under his leadership.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1915, Zhukov was conscripted into the Imperial Russian Army, where he served in the 10th Dragoon Novgorod Regiment, and was wounded in action against the Germans at Kharkiv. During World War I, Zhukov was awarded the Cross of St. George twice, and promoted to the non-commissioned officer ranks in recognition of his bravery in battle.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 17918596, 2788558, 4764461, 1078168, 166680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 62 ], [ 168, 175 ], [ 184, 195 ], [ 220, 239 ], [ 267, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He joined the Bolshevik Party after the 1917 October Revolution; in party circles his background of poverty became a significant asset. After recovering from a serious case of typhus, he fought in the Russian Civil War, serving in the Second Cavalry Brigade, commanded by Semyon Timoshenko, which was later absorbed into the 1st Cavalry Army, led by Semyon Budyonny. He completed a cavalry training course for officers in 1920 and received his commission as an officer. He received the Order of the Red Banner for his part in subduing the Tambov Rebellion in 1921.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 7271, 22661, 46177, 26295, 290687, 6235807, 609983, 394539, 467568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 29 ], [ 45, 63 ], [ 176, 182 ], [ 201, 218 ], [ 272, 289 ], [ 325, 341 ], [ 350, 365 ], [ 486, 509 ], [ 539, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zhukov quickly advanced through the ranks as the commander of a cavalry troop and squadron, and deputy commander of a cavalry regiment. At the end of May 1923, he was appointed commander of the 39th Cavalry Regiment. In 1924, he entered the Higher School of Cavalry, from which he graduated the next year, returning afterward to command the same regiment. He attended the Frunze Military Academy beginning in 1929, and graduated in 1930.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 38053248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 372, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 1930, Zhukov became commander of the 2nd Cavalry Brigade of the 7th Cavalry Division. In February 1931, he was appointed as the Assistant Inspector of Cavalry for the Red Army.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In May 1933, Zhukov was appointed commander of the 4th Cavalry Division. His career was accelerated by the Great Purge, when thousands of officers were arrested and shot, but those associated with the First Cavalry Army were protected. In 1937, Zhukov became commander of first the 3rd Cavalry Corps, and later the 6th Cavalry Corps. In 1938, he became deputy cavalry commander of the Belorussian Military District.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 137840, 53831017, 53831059, 10420514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 118 ], [ 282, 299 ], [ 315, 332 ], [ 385, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1938, Zhukov was directed to command the First Soviet Mongolian Army Group, and saw action against Japan's Kwantung Army on the border between the Mongolian People's Republic and the Japanese-controlled state of Manchukuo. The Soviet–Japanese border conflicts lasted from 1938 to 1939. What began as a border skirmish rapidly escalated into a full-scale war, with the Japanese pushing forward with an estimated 80,000troops, 180tanks and 450aircraft.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 33553929, 325708, 55273, 7618453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 123 ], [ 150, 177 ], [ 215, 224 ], [ 230, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These events led to the strategically decisive battle of Khalkhin Gol. Zhukov requested major reinforcements, and on 20 August 1939, his Soviet offensive commenced. After a massive artillery barrage, nearly 500BT-5 and BT-7 tanks advanced, supported by over 500fighters and bombers. This was the Soviet Air Force's first fighter-bomber operation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 301934, 199469, 199473, 229933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 69 ], [ 210, 214 ], [ 219, 223 ], [ 296, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The offensive first appeared to be a typical conventional frontal attack. However, two tank brigades were initially held back and then ordered to advance around on both flanks, supported by motorized artillery, infantry, and other tanks. This daring and successful maneuver encircled the Japanese 6th Army and captured the enemy's vulnerable rear supply areas. By 31 August, the Japanese had been cleared from the disputed border, leaving the Soviets clearly victorious.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 16000097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 288, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This campaign had significance beyond the immediate tactical and local outcome. Zhukov demonstrated and tested the techniques later used against the Germans in the Eastern Front of the Second World War. His innovations included the deployment of underwater bridges, and improving the cohesion and battle-effectiveness of inexperienced units by adding a few experienced, battle-hardened troops to bolster morale and overall training.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 519489, 18037563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 201 ], [ 246, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Evaluation of the problems inherent in the performance of the BT tanks led to the replacement of their fire-prone petrol (gasoline) engines with diesel engines. This battle provided valuable practical knowledge that was essential to the Soviet success in development of the T-34 medium tank used in World War II. After this campaign, veterans were transferred to untested units, to better spread the benefits of their battle experience.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 8540, 186204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 158 ], [ 274, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For his victory, Zhukov was declared a Hero of the Soviet Union. However, the campaign—and especially Zhukov's pioneering use of tanks—remained little known outside the Soviet Union. Zhukov considered Khalkhin Gol to be invaluable preparation for conducting operations during the Second World War. In May 1940, Zhukov became an army general, making him one of the eight high-ranking Red Army officers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 400853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the autumn of 1940, Zhukov started preparing plans for the military exercise concerning the defence of the Western border of the Soviet Union. It had been pushed further to the west after the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland and the Baltic republics. In his memoirs, Zhukov reports that in this exercise, he commanded the Western or Blue forces—the supposed invasion troops—and his opponent was Colonel General Dmitry Pavlov, the commander of the Eastern or Red forces–the supposed Soviet troops. He noted that Blue had 60divisions, while Red had 50divisions. Zhukov describes the exercise as being similar to events that later took place during the German invasion.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 1225714, 4983571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 79 ], [ 417, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Russian historian Bobylev noted that the details of the exercises were reported differently by the various participants who published memoirs. He said that there were two exercises; one from 2 to 6 January 1941, for the North-West direction; another from 8 to 11 January, for the South-West direction. During the first, Western forces attacked Eastern forces on 15July, but the Eastern forces counterattacked and, by 1 August, reached the original border.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the time, the Eastern forces had a numerical advantage: 51infantry divisions against 41; 8,811tanks against 3,512– with the exception of anti-tank guns. Bobylev describes how by the end of the exercise, the Eastern forces did not manage to surround and destroy the Western forces. In their turn, the Western forces threatened to surround the Eastern forces. The same historian reported that the second game was won by the Easterners, meaning that on the whole, both games were won by the side commanded by Zhukov. However, he noted that the games had a serious disadvantage since they did not consider an initial attack by Western forces, but only an attack by Eastern forces from the initial border.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Marshal Aleksandr Vasilevsky, the war-game defeat of Pavlov's Red Troops against Zhukov was not widely known. The victory of Zhukov's Red Troops was widely publicized, which created a popular illusion of easy success for a preemptive offensive. On 1February 1941, Zhukov became chief of the Red Army's General Staff. He was also elected a candidate member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union In February 1941, and was appointed a Deputy People's Commissar for Defence in March.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 624386, 1400838, 41585785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 41 ], [ 315, 328 ], [ 376, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 2 February 1941, as the chief of the general staff, and Deputy Minister of Defense, Zhukov was said to take part in drawing up the \"Strategic plan for deployment of the forces of the Soviet Union in the event of war with Germany and its allies.\" The plan was completed no later than 15 May 1941, according to a dated document found in the Soviet archives after they were declassified in the 1990s. Some researchers, such as Victor Suvorov, have theorized that on 14 May, Soviet People's Commissar of Defense Semyon Timoshenko and General Zhukov presented these plans to Stalin for a preemptive attack against Germany through Southern Poland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 521423, 290687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 429, 443 ], [ 513, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soviet forces would occupy the Vistula Border and continue to Katowice or even Berlin—should the main German armies retreat—or the Baltic coast, should German forces not retreat and be forced to protect Poland and East Prussia. The attacking Soviets were supposed to reach Siedlce, Dęblin, and then capture Warsaw before penetrating toward the southwest and imposing final defeat at Lublin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 25594515, 42185, 3354, 68743, 386697, 1472929, 32908, 74594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 38 ], [ 62, 70 ], [ 79, 85 ], [ 214, 226 ], [ 273, 280 ], [ 282, 288 ], [ 307, 313 ], [ 383, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historians do not have the original documents that could verify the existence of such a plan, and there is no evidence that Stalin accepted it. In a transcript of an interview on 26 May 1965, Zhukov said that Stalin did not approve the plan. But Zhukov did not clarify whether execution was attempted. , no other approved plan for a Soviet attack had been found.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 10 June 1941, Zhukov sent a message to the Military Council of the Kiev Special Military District, after someone, most likely the commander of the Kiev district, Mikhail Kirponos, had ordered troops on the border to occupy forward positions. Zhukov ordered: \"Such action could provoke the Germans into armed confrontation fraught with all sorts of consequences. Revoke this order immediately and report who, specifically, gave such an unauthorised order.\" On 11 June, he sent a telegram saying that his immediate superior, Timoshenko, had ordered that they were to report back by 16 June confirming that the troops had been withdrawn from their forward positions.\" According to the historian David E. Murphy, \"the action by Timoshenko and Zhukov must have been initiated at the request of Stalin.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 1834519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "David Glantz and Jonathan House, American scholars of the Red Army, argue that \"the Soviet Union was not ready for war in June 1941, nor did it intend, as some have contended, to launch a preventative war.\" Gerhard Weinberg, a scholar of Nazi foreign policy, supports their view, arguing that Adolf Hitler's decision to launch Operation Barbarossa was not because of a sense of urgent foreboding, but rather from a \"purposeful determination\" and he had started his planning for the invasion well in advance of the summer of 1941", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 3414532, 52062725, 4865824, 2731583, 22618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 17, 31 ], [ 207, 223 ], [ 293, 305 ], [ 327, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 22 June 1941, Germany launched Operation Barbarossa, an invasion of the Soviet Union. On the same day, Zhukov responded by signing the \"Directive of Peoples' Commissariat of Defence No. 3\", which ordered an all-out counteroffensive by Red Army forces. He commanded the troops to \"encircle and destroy [the] enemy grouping near Suwałki and to seize the Suwałki region by the evening of 24 June\" and \"to encircle and destroy the enemy grouping invading in [the] Vladimir-Volynia and Brody direction\" and even \"to seize the Lublin region by the evening of 24 June\". Despite numerical superiority, this manoeuvre failed and disorganized Red Army units were destroyed by the Wehrmacht. Zhukov subsequently claimed that he was forced by Joseph Stalin to sign the directive, supposedly written by Aleksandr Vasilevsky, despite the reservations that he raised.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Eastern Front of World War II", "target_page_ids": [ 22618, 386994, 74594, 15641, 624386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 54 ], [ 330, 337 ], [ 524, 530 ], [ 734, 747 ], [ 793, 813 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Stalin arrived unannounced at command headquarters on 29 June, demanding to know why he was not being told what was happening at the front, Zhukov courageously told him: \"Comrade Stalin, our duty is first of all to help the front commanders and only then to inform you.\" But when he had to admit that they lost contact with the front commanders in Belarus, Stalin lost his temper and called him \"useless\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Eastern Front of World War II", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 29 July, Zhukov was removed from his post of chief of the general staff. In his memoirs he gives his suggested abandoning of Kiev to avoid an encirclement as a reason for it. On the next day the decision was made official and he was appointed the commander of the Reserve Front. There he oversaw the Yelnya Offensive, delivering the Red Army's first victory over the Germans. On 10 September, Zhukov was made the commander of the Leningrad Front. There he oversaw the defense of the city.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Eastern Front of World War II", "target_page_ids": [ 585629, 1860361, 1712937, 8261247, 326944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 132 ], [ 267, 280 ], [ 303, 319 ], [ 433, 448 ], [ 471, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 6 October, Zhukov was appointed the representative of Stavka for the Reserve and Western Fronts. On 10 October, those fronts were merged into the Western Front under Zhukov's command. This front then participated in the Battle of Moscow and several Battles of Rzhev.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Eastern Front of World War II", "target_page_ids": [ 255100, 1860361, 1414484, 573888, 1397862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 63 ], [ 72, 79 ], [ 84, 98 ], [ 223, 239 ], [ 252, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In late August 1942, Zhukov was made deputy commander in chief and sent to the southwestern front to take charge of the defence of Stalingrad. He and Vasilevsky later planned the Stalingrad counteroffensive. In November, Zhukov was sent to coordinate the Western Front and the Kalinin Front during Operation Mars. In January 1943, he—together with Kliment Voroshilov—coordinated the actions of the Leningrad and Volkhov Fronts and the Baltic Fleet in Operation Iskra. On January 18, 1943, Zhukov was promoted to Marshal of the Soviet Union.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Eastern Front of World War II", "target_page_ids": [ 4284, 262120, 8328281, 7213145, 17289, 8261247, 8244811, 1634766, 4409843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 141 ], [ 179, 206 ], [ 277, 290 ], [ 298, 312 ], [ 348, 366 ], [ 398, 407 ], [ 412, 425 ], [ 435, 447 ], [ 451, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zhukov was a Stavka coordinator at the battle of Kursk in July 1943. He was considered the main architect of the Soviet victory together with Vasilevsky. According to Zhukov's memoirs, he played a central role in the planning of the battle and the hugely successful offensive that followed. Commander of the Central Front Konstantin Rokossovsky, said, however, that the planning and decisions for the Battle of Kursk were made without Zhukov, that he only arrived just before the battle, made no decisions and left soon afterward, and that Zhukov exaggerated his role. A sense of the nature of the beginning of Rokossovsky's famous World War II rivalry with Zhukov can be gathered from reading Rokossovsky's comments in an official report on Zhukov's character:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Eastern Front of World War II", "target_page_ids": [ 255100, 33102, 890263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 19 ], [ 39, 54 ], [ 322, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Has a strong will. Decisive and firm. Often demonstrates initiative and skillfully applies it. Disciplined. Demanding and persistent in his demands. A somewhat ungracious and not sufficiently sympathetic person. Rather stubborn. Painfully proud. In professional terms well trained. Broadly experienced as a military leader... Absolutely cannot be used in staff or teaching jobs because constitutionally he hates them.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Eastern Front of World War II", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From 12 February 1944, Zhukov coordinated the actions of the 1st Ukrainian and 2nd Ukrainian Fronts. On 1 March, Zhukov was appointed the commander of the 1st Ukrainian Front until early May following the ambush of Nikolai Vatutin, its commander, by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army near Ostroh. During the Soviet offensive Operation Bagration, Zhukov coordinated the 1st Belorussian and 2nd Belorussian Fronts, later the 1st Ukrainian Front as well. On 23 August, Zhukov was sent to the 3rd Ukrainian Front to prepare for the advance into Bulgaria.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Eastern Front of World War II", "target_page_ids": [ 3469763, 4439826, 754133, 1045217, 874193, 476582, 1359006, 1359004, 4845128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 74 ], [ 79, 92 ], [ 215, 230 ], [ 254, 278 ], [ 284, 290 ], [ 320, 339 ], [ 364, 379 ], [ 384, 399 ], [ 484, 503 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 16 November, he became commander of the 1st Belorussian Front which took part in the Vistula–Oder Offensive and the battle of Berlin. He called on his troops to \"remember our brothers and sisters, our mothers and fathers, our wives and children tortured to death by [the] Germans... We shall exact a brutal revenge for everything.\" More than 20million Soviet soldiers and civilians died as a result of the war. In a reprise of atrocities committed by German soldiers against Soviet civilians in the eastward advance into Soviet territory during Operation Barbarossa, the westward march by Soviet forces was marked by brutality towards German civilians, which included looting, burning and systematic rapes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Eastern Front of World War II", "target_page_ids": [ 1634994, 291145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 110 ], [ 119, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zhukov was chosen to personally accept the German Instrument of Surrender in Berlin.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Eastern Front of World War II", "target_page_ids": [ 1373357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the German capitulation, Zhukov became the first commander of the Soviet occupation zone. On 10 June 1945, he returned to Moscow to prepare for the Moscow Victory Parade of 1945. On 24 June, Stalin appointed him commander in chief of the parade. After the ceremony, on the night of 24 June, Zhukov went to Berlin to resume his command.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war service", "target_page_ids": [ 694818, 4397551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 94 ], [ 154, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 1945, Zhukov signed three resolutions to improve living standards in the Soviet occupation zone:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 11 May: resolution 063 – provision of food", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 12 May: resolution 064 – restoration of the public services sector", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 13 May: resolution 080 – provision of milk supplies for children", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Zhukov requested the Soviet government to transport urgently to Berlin 96,000tons of grain, 60,000tons of potatoes, 50,000cattle, and thousands of tons of other foodstuffs, such as sugar and animal fat. He issued strict orders that his subordinates were to \"hate Nazism but respect the German people\", and to make all possible efforts to restore and maintain a stable living standard for the German population.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From 16 July to 2 August, Zhukov participated in the Potsdam Conference with the fellow representatives of the Allied governments. As one of the four commanders of the Allied occupational forces, Zhukov established good relationships with his new colleagues, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery, and Marshal Jean de Lattre, and the four frequently exchanged views about such matters as the sentencing, trials, and judgments of war criminals, geopolitical relationships between the Allied states, and how to defeat Japan and rebuild Germany.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war service", "target_page_ids": [ 24298, 8182, 3873, 481473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 71 ], [ 267, 287 ], [ 303, 321 ], [ 335, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eisenhower developed a good relationship with Zhukov, and it proved beneficial in resolving differences in post-war occupational issues. Eisenhower's successor, General Lucius D. Clay, also praised the Zhukov–Eisenhower friendship, and commented: \"The Soviet–America relationship should have developed well if Eisenhower and Zhukov had continued to work together.\" Zhukov and Eisenhower went on to tour the Soviet Union together in the immediate aftermath of the victory over Germany. During this tour Eisenhower introduced Zhukov to Coca-Cola. As Coca-Cola was regarded in the Soviet Union as a symbol of American imperialism, Zhukov was apparently reluctant to be photographed or reported as consuming such a product. Zhukov asked if the beverage could be made colourless to resemble vodka. A European subsidiary of the Coca-Cola Export Corporation delivered an initial 50 cases of White Coke to Marshal Zhukov.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war service", "target_page_ids": [ 923048, 6690, 26779, 215140, 37116856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 183 ], [ 534, 543 ], [ 578, 590 ], [ 606, 626 ], [ 884, 894 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zhukov was not only the supreme military commander of the Soviet occupation zone, but became its military governor on 10 June 1945. He was replaced with Vasily Sokolovsky on 10 April 1946. After an unpleasant session of the main military council — in which Zhukov was accused of egoism, disrespect to his peers and of political unreliability and hostility to the Party Central Committee — he was stripped of his position as commander in chief of the Soviet Army.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war service", "target_page_ids": [ 694818, 988517, 13824438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 80 ], [ 153, 170 ], [ 450, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was assigned command of the Odessa Military District, far from Moscow and lacking in strategic significance and troops. He arrived there on 13 June 1946. Zhukov suffered a heart attack in January 1948, spending a month in the hospital. In February 1948, he was given another secondary posting, this time command of the Urals Military District. Peter G. Tsouras described the move from Odessa to the Urals as a relegation from a \"second-rate\" to a \"fifth-rate\" assignment.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war service", "target_page_ids": [ 13146615, 7435120, 4270958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 55 ], [ 322, 345 ], [ 347, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout this time, security chief Lavrentiy Beria was supposedly trying to topple Zhukov. Two of Zhukov's subordinates, Marshal of Aviation Alexander Novikov and Lieutenant-General Konstantin Telegin, were arrested and tortured in Lefortovo Prison at the end of 1945. After Stalin's death it was claimed that Novikov was allegedly forced by Beria into a \"confession\" which implicated Zhukov in a conspiracy. In reality, Novikov may have been encouraged to point the finger at Zhukov because he saw Zhukov's membership at the investigation commission of the Aviators Affair – a purge of the Soviet aircraft industry following accusations that, during the war, the fighter planes had been of poor quality – in which Novikov was implicated, as instrumental to his downfall. Regardless, in a conference, all generals except GRU director Filipp Golikov defended Zhukov against accusation of misspending. During this time, Zhukov was accused of unauthorized looting of goods confiscated by the Germans, and of Bonapartism.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war service", "target_page_ids": [ 18390, 6144797, 29165557, 8792550, 75084, 261749, 3169995, 1022309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 52 ], [ 143, 160 ], [ 184, 202 ], [ 234, 250 ], [ 593, 608 ], [ 823, 826 ], [ 836, 850 ], [ 1007, 1018 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1946, seven rail carriages with furniture that Zhukov was taking to the Soviet Union from Germany were impounded. In 1948, his apartments and house in Moscow were searched and many valuables looted from Germany were found. In his investigation Beria concluded that Zhukov had in his possession 17golden rings, three gemstones, the faces of 15golden necklaces, more than of cloth, 323pieces of fur, 44carpets taken from German palaces, 55paintings and 20guns.\" Zhukov admitted in a memorandum to Zhdanov: \"I felt very guilty. I shouldn't have collected those useless junks and put them into some warehouse, assuming nobody needs them any more. I swear as a Bolshevik that I would avoid such errors and follies thereafter. Surely I still and will wholeheartedly serve the Motherland, the Party, and the Great Comrade Stalin.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When learning of Zhukov's \"misfortunes\"—and despite not understanding all the problems—Eisenhower expressed his sympathy for his \"comrade-in-arms\". In February 1953, Stalin relieved Zhukov of his post as Commander of the Urals Military District, recalling Zhukov to Moscow. It was thought Zhukov's expertise was needed in the Korean War; however, in practice, Zhukov received no orders from Stalin after arriving in Moscow. On 5 March 1953, at 09:50, Stalin died of a stroke. Following Stalin's passing, Zhukov's life entered a new phase.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war service", "target_page_ids": [ 16772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 326, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the war, Zhukov was one of only a few people who understood Stalin's personality. As the chief of staff and deputy supreme commander, Zhukov had hundreds of meetings with Stalin, both private and during Stavka conferences. Consequently, Zhukov understood Stalin's personality and methods well. According to Zhukov, Stalin was a bold and secretive person, but he was also hot-tempered and skeptical. Zhukov was able to gauge Stalin's mood: for example, when Stalin drew deeply on his tobacco pipe, it was a sign of a good mood. Conversely, if Stalin failed to light his pipe once it was out of tobacco, it was a sign of imminent rage. His outstanding knowledge of Stalin's personality was an asset that allowed him to deal with Stalin's outbursts in a way other Soviet generals could not.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war service", "target_page_ids": [ 255100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both Zhukov and Stalin were hot-tempered, and both made concessions necessary to sustain their relationship. While Zhukov viewed his relationship with Stalin as one of a subordinate–senior, Stalin was in awe and possibly jealous of Zhukov. Both were military commanders, but Stalin's experience was limited to a previous generation of non-mechanized warfare. By contrast, Zhukov was highly influential in the development of contemporary combined operations of highly mechanized armies. The differences in their outlooks were the cause of many tempestuous disagreements between the two of them at Stavka meetings. Nonetheless, Zhukov was less competent than Stalin as a politician, highlighted by Zhukov's many failures in politics. Stalin's unwillingness to value Zhukov beyond the marshal's military talents was one of the reasons why Zhukov was recalled from Berlin.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Significant to their relationship as well was Zhukov's bluntness towards his superior. Stalin was dismissive of the fawning of many of his entourage and openly criticized it. Many people around Stalin—including Beria, Yezhov, and Mekhlis—felt obliged to flatter Stalin to remain on his good side. Zhukov remained obstinate and argumentative, and did not hesitate to publicly contradict Stalin to the point of risking his career and life. Their heated argument about whether to abandon Kiev due to the Germans' rapid advance in summer of 1941 was typical of Zhukov's approach. Zhukov's ability to remain skeptical and unwavering at giving into pressure did garner him the respect of Stalin.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After Stalin's death, Zhukov returned to favor, becoming Deputy Defence Minister in 1953. He then had an opportunity to avenge himself on Beria. With Stalin's sudden death, the Soviet Union fell into a leadership crisis. Georgy Malenkov temporarily became First Secretary. Malenkov and his allies attempted to purge Stalin's influence and personality cult; however, Malenkov himself did not have the courage to do this alone. Moreover, Lavrentiy Beria remained dangerous. The politicians sought reinforcement from the powerful and prestigious military men. In this matter, Nikita Khrushchev chose Zhukov because the two had forged a good relationship, and, in addition, during World War II, Zhukov had twice saved Khrushchev from false accusations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "After Stalin", "target_page_ids": [ 38584473, 18390, 42558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 236 ], [ 436, 451 ], [ 573, 590 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 26 June 1953, a special meeting of the Soviet Politburo was held by Malenkov. Beria came to the meeting with an uneasy feeling because it was called hastily—indeed, Zhukov had ordered General Kirill Moskalenko to secretly prepare a special force and permitted the force to use two of Zhukov's and Defence Minister Nikolai Bulganin's special cars (which had tinted windows) in order safely to infiltrate the Kremlin. Zhukov also ordered him to replace the MVD Guard with the guard of the Moscow Military District.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "After Stalin", "target_page_ids": [ 24752, 1023862, 38584604, 381075, 29045528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 58 ], [ 195, 212 ], [ 317, 333 ], [ 410, 417 ], [ 458, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finally, Khrushchev suggested expelling Beria from the Communist Party and bringing him before a military court. Moskalenko's special forces obeyed.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "After Stalin", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Zhukov was a member of the military tribunal during the Beria trial, which was headed by Marshal Ivan Konev. On 18 December 1953, the Military Court sentenced Beria to death. During the burial of Beria, Konev commented: \"The day this man was born deserves to be damned!\" Then Zhukov said: \"I considered it as my duty to contribute my little part in this matter.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "After Stalin", "target_page_ids": [ 193300, 864824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 44 ], [ 97, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Bulganin became premier in 1955, he appointed Zhukov as Defence Minister. Zhukov participated in many political activities. He successfully opposed the re-establishment of the Commissar system, because the Party and political leaders were not professional military, and thus the highest power should fall to the army commanders. Until 1955, Zhukov had both sent and received letters from Eisenhower. Both leaders agreed that the two superpowers should coexist peacefully. In July 1955, Zhukov—together with Khrushchev, Bulganin, Vyacheslav Molotov and Andrei Gromyko—participated in a Summit Conference at Geneva after the USSR signed the Austrian State Treaty and withdrew its army from the country.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "After Stalin", "target_page_ids": [ 488615, 71490, 375567, 12521, 733522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 190 ], [ 534, 552 ], [ 557, 571 ], [ 611, 617 ], [ 644, 665 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zhukov followed orders from the then Prime Minister Georgy Malenkov and Communist Party leader Khrushchev during the invasion of Hungary following the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Along with the majority of members of the Presidium, he urged Khrushchev to send troops to support the Hungarian authorities and to secure the Austrian border. Zhukov and most of the Presidium were not, however, eager to see a full-scale intervention in Hungary. Zhukov even recommended the withdrawal of Soviet troops when it seemed that they might have to take extreme measures to suppress the revolution.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "After Stalin", "target_page_ids": [ 38584473, 351949, 41585771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 67 ], [ 151, 179 ], [ 223, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mood in the Presidium changed again when Hungary's new Prime Minister, Imre Nagy, began to talk about Hungarian withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. That led the Soviets to attack the revolutionaries and to replace Nagy with János Kádár. In the same years, when the UK, France, and Israel invaded Egypt during the Suez crisis, Zhukov expressed support for Egypt's right of self-defence. In October 1957, Zhukov visited Yugoslavia and Albania aboard the Kuibyshev, attempting to repair the Tito–Stalin split of 1948. During the voyage, Kuibyshev encountered units of the U.S. Sixth Fleet and \"passing honours\" were exchanged between the vessels.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "After Stalin", "target_page_ids": [ 62022, 33622, 441860, 58568, 3357206, 303049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 84 ], [ 136, 147 ], [ 225, 236 ], [ 314, 325 ], [ 490, 507 ], [ 571, 587 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On his 60th birthday, in 1956, Zhukov received his fourth Hero of the Soviet Union title– making him the first person to receive the honour four times. The only other four-time recipient was Leonid Brezhnev, who never rose above modest military rank and received all of his four Hero of the Soviet Union medals for his birthday as part of his overall cult of personality and love for medals, titles, and decorations. Despite his general lack of political ability, Zhukov became the highest-ranking military professional who was also a member of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party. He further became a symbol of national strength, the most widely-esteemed Soviet military hero of World War II. Zhukov's prestige was even higher than the police and security agencies of the USSR, and thus rekindled concerns among political leaders.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "After Stalin", "target_page_ids": [ 400853, 50151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 82 ], [ 191, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Going even further than Khrushchev, Zhukov demanded that the political agencies in the Red Army report to him before the Party. He demanded an official condemnation of Stalin's crimes during the Great Purge. He also supported the political vindication and rehabilitation for Mikhail Tukhachevsky, Grigoriy Shtern, Vasily Blyukher, Alexander Yegorov and many others. In response his opponents accused him of being a Reformist and Bonapartist. Such enviousness and hostility proved to be the key factor that led to his later downfall.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "After Stalin", "target_page_ids": [ 137840, 467462, 24367253, 611315, 609806, 1022309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 206 ], [ 275, 295 ], [ 297, 312 ], [ 314, 329 ], [ 331, 348 ], [ 429, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The relationship between Zhukov and Khrushchev reached its peak during the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in 1956. After becoming the First Secretary of the Party, Khrushchev moved against Stalin's legacy and criticised his personality cult in a speech, \"On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences.\" To complete such startling acts, Khrushchev needed the approval—or at least the acquiescence—of the military, headed by Minister of Defense Zhukov.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "After Stalin", "target_page_ids": [ 43143815, 39903039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 131 ], [ 288, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the plenary session of the Central Committee of the CPSU held in June 1957 Zhukov supported Khrushchev against the \"Anti-Party Group\", that had a majority in the Presidium and voted to replace Khrushchev as First Secretary with Bulganin. At that plenum, Zhukov stated: \"The Army is against this resolution and not even a tank will leave its position without my order!\" In the same session the \"Anti-Party Group\" was condemned and Zhukov was made a member of the Presidium.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "After Stalin", "target_page_ids": [ 2272961, 41585785, 768225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ], [ 30, 59 ], [ 119, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His second fall was more sudden and public even than his first. On 4 October 1957, he left on an official visit to Yugoslavia, and Albania. He returned to Moscow on 26 October, straight to a meeting of the Presidium, during which he was removed from that body. On 2 November, the Central Committee convened to hear Zhukov being accused of 'non-party behaviour', conducting an 'adventurist foreign policy', and sponsoring his own personality cult. He was expelled from the Central Committee and sent into forced retirement at age 62. The same issue of the Krasnaya Zvezda that announced Zhukov's return also reported that he had been relieved of his duties. According to many researchers, Soviet politicians—including Khrushchev himself—had a deep-seated fear of \"powerful people.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "After Stalin", "target_page_ids": [ 645615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 555, 570 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After being forced out of the government, Zhukov stayed away from politics. Many people—including former subordinates—frequently paid him visits, joined him on hunting excursions, and waxed nostalgic. In September 1959, while visiting the United States, Khrushchev told President Eisenhower that the retired Marshal Zhukov \"liked fishing.\" Zhukov was actually a keen aquarist. In response, Eisenhower sent Zhukov a set of fishing tackle. Zhukov respected this gift so much that he is said to have exclusively used Eisenhower's fishing tackle for the remainder of his life.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Retirement", "target_page_ids": [ 990022, 6209845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 367, 375 ], [ 422, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Khrushchev was deposed in October 1964, Brezhnev restored Zhukov to favor—though not to power—in a move to use Zhukov's popularity to strengthen his political position. Zhukov's name was put in the public eye yet again when Brezhnev lionised Zhukov in a speech commemorating the Great Patriotic War. On 9 May 1965, Zhukov was invited to sit on the tribune of the Lenin Mausoleum and given the honour of reviewing the parade of military forces in Red Square.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Retirement", "target_page_ids": [ 66931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 452, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zhukov had begun writing his memoirs, Memories and Recollections, in 1958. He now worked intensively on them, which together with steadily deteriorating health, served to worsen his heart disease. It would take another decade until publication after Zhukov clashed constantly with Mikhail Suslov, the Communist Party's Chief Ideologue and Second in Command in charge of Censorship, who demanded many revisions and removals, particularly his criticisms of Stalin, Voroshilov, Budyonny and Molotov. After Brezhnev came to power, Suslov made further demands to exaggerate Colonel Brezhnev's role in WWII by glorifying the little known and strategically unimportant Battles of Malaya Zemlya and Novorossiysk as a decisive turning point in the Eastern Front, both of which Zhukov refused to do. In December 1967, Zhukov had a serious stroke. He was hospitalised until June 1968, and continued to receive medical and rehabilitative treatment at home under the care of his second wife, Galina Semyonova, a former officer in the Medical Corps. The stroke left him paralysed on his left side, his speech became slurred and he could only walk with assistance.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Retirement", "target_page_ids": [ 512662, 399581, 8943520, 1190336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 195 ], [ 281, 295 ], [ 673, 686 ], [ 691, 703 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His memoirs were published in 1969 and became a best-seller. Within several months of the date of publication of his memoirs, Zhukov had received more than 10,000 letters from readers that offered comments, expressed gratitude, gave advice, or lavished praise. Supposedly, the Communist Party invited Zhukov to participate in the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1971, but the invitation was rescinded.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Retirement", "target_page_ids": [ 44203103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 330, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 18 June 1974, Zhukov died after another stroke. His body was cremated and his ashes were buried at the Kremlin Wall Necropolis alongside fellow generals and marshals of the Soviet Union.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 1312086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1995, an equestrian statue of Zhukov was erected in front of the State Historical Museum.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 806516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Father", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Konstantin Artemyevich Zhukov (1851–1921); a shoemaker", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mother", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ustinina Artemievna Zhukova (1866–1944); farmer from a poor family", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Siblings", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1. Maria Kostantinovna Zhukova (1894-1954)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2. Alexei Konstantinovich Zhukov (born 1901); died prematurely", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Spouse", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1. Alexandra Dievna Zuikova (1900–1967); common-law wife since 1920; married in 1953; divorced in 1965; died after a stroke", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2. Galina Alexandrovna Semyonova (1926–1973); married in 1965; medical corps officer, at Burdenko hospital; specialized in therapeutics; died of breast cancer", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 3942571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Children", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1. Era Zhukova (born 1928); by Alexandra Dievna Zukova", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2. Margarita Zhukova (1929–2010); by Maria Nikolaevna Volokhova (1897–1983)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 56911806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 3. Ella Zhukova (1937–2010); by Alexandra Dievna Zukova", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 4. Maria Zhukova (born 1957); by Galina Alexandrovna Semyonova", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first monument to Georgy Zhukov was erected in Mongolia, in memory of the Battle of Khalkin Gol. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, this monument was one of the few that did not suffer from anti-Soviet backlash in former Communist states. There is a statue of Zhukov on horseback as he appeared at the 1945 victory parade on Manezhnaya Square at the entrance of the Kremlin in Moscow. Another statue of Zhukov in Moscow is located on Prospekt Marshala Zhukova. A statue of Zhukov is located in the town of Irbit, in the Sverdlovsk Oblast. Other statues of Zhukov are found in Omsk, Irkutsk and Yekaterinburg.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 19271, 301934, 40494892, 215623, 5217412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 59 ], [ 78, 99 ], [ 111, 142 ], [ 233, 248 ], [ 337, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A minor planet, 2132 Zhukov, discovered in 1975, by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh, is named in his honour. In 1996, Russia adopted the Order of Zhukov and the Zhukov Medal to commemorate the 100th anniversary of his birthday.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 17001425, 621216, 619625, 23901924, 31605342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 14 ], [ 16, 27 ], [ 70, 87 ], [ 141, 156 ], [ 165, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nobel laureate Joseph Brodsky's poem On the Death of Zhukov (\"Na smert' Zhukova\", 1974) is regarded by critics as one of the best poems on the war written by an author of the post-war generation. The poem is a stylization of The Bullfinch, Derzhavin's elegy on the death of Generalissimo Suvorov in 1800. Brodsky draws a parallel between the careers of these two famous commanders. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn re-interpreted Zhukov's memoirs in the short story Times of Crisis.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 262593, 183094, 339963, 1625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 29 ], [ 240, 249 ], [ 274, 295 ], [ 382, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his book of recollections, Zhukov was critical of the role the Soviet leadership played during the war. The first edition of was published during Brezhnev's premiership only on the conditions that criticism of Stalin was removed, and that Zhukov add a (fictional) episode of a visit to Leonid Brezhnev, politruk on the Southern Front, to consult on military strategy.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 488594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 307, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1989, parts of previously unpublished chapters from Zhukov's memoir were published by Pravda, which his daughter said had been hidden in a safe until they could be published. The excerpts included criticism of the 1937–1939 purges for annihilating \"[M]any thousands of outstanding party workers\" and stated that Stalin had played no role in directing the war effort, although he often issued orders devised by the general staff as if they were his own.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Appraisals of Zhukov's career vary. For example, historian Konstantin Zaleski claimed that Zhukov exaggerated his own role in World War II. Marshal Konstantin Rokossovsky said that the planning and decisions for the Battle of Kursk were made without Zhukov, that he only arrived just before the battle, made no decisions and left soon after.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 890263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zhukov also received many positive comments, mostly from his Army companions, from the modern Russian Army, and from his Allied contemporaries. General of the Army Eisenhower stated that, because of Zhukov's achievements fighting the Nazis, the United Nations owed him much more than any other military leader in the world. \"The war in Europe ended with victory and nobody could have done that better than Marshal Zhukov – we owed him that credit. He is a modest person, and so we can't undervalue his position in our mind. When we can come back to our Motherland, there must be another type of Order in Russia, an Order named after Zhukov, which is awarded to everybody who can learn the bravery, the far vision, and the decisiveness of this soldier.\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Marshal of the Soviet Union Aleksandr Vasilevsky commented that Zhukov is one of the most outstanding and brilliant military commanders of the Soviet military forces. Major General Sir Francis de Guingand, chief of staff of Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery, described Zhukov as a friendly person. John Gunther, who met Zhukov many times after the war, said that Zhukov was more friendly and honest than any of the other Soviet leaders.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 3873, 362879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 256 ], [ 297, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Eisenhower—son of Dwight Eisenhower—claimed that Zhukov was really ebullient and was a friend of his. Albert Axell in his work \"Marshal Zhukov, the one who beat Hitler\" claimed that Zhukov was a military genius like Alexander the Great and Napoleon. Axell also commented that Zhukov was a loyal communist and a patriot. At the end of his work about Zhukov, Otto Chaney concluded: \"But Zhukov belongs to all of us. In the darkest period of World War II his fortitude and determination eventually triumphed. For Russians and people everywhere he remains an enduring symbol of victory on the battlefield.\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 783, 69880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 240 ], [ 245, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Russia, Zhukov is often credited for his \"prophetic\" words spoken to Konstantin Rokossovsky in Berlin in 1945: \"We have liberated them, and they will never forgive us for that\".", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Zhukov has been portrayed by the following actors:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fedor Blazhevich in The Vow and The Fall of Berlin", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 33010153, 29062573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 28 ], [ 33, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mikhail Ulyanov in Stalingrad, Battle of Moscow, and Take Aim", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2545857, 29677455, 29672995, 29079479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 20, 30 ], [ 32, 48 ], [ 54, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vladimir Menshov in The General and Liquidation", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 17288036, 57061593, 15591569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 21, 32 ], [ 37, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Valeriy Grishko in White Tiger", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 37082648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jason Isaacs in The Death of Stalin", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 416641, 50525028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 17, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Next Generation producers named an Ambassador-class starship after Zhukov, which was mentioned or made an appearance on several episodes of the series.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Zhukov was the recipient of many decorations. Most notably he was awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union four times. Aside from Zhukov, only Leonid Brezhnev was a four-time recipient (the latter's were self-awarded).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Decorations", "target_page_ids": [ 50151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zhukov was one of only three recipients to receive the Order of Victory twice. He was also awarded high honours from many other countries. A partial listing is presented below.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Decorations", "target_page_ids": [ 1303091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (in English, edited & commentary by Harrison E. Salisbury)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1716860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reminiscences and Reflections, two-volume English-language translation of Zhukov's memoirs by Progress Publishers, 1985: Volume 1, Volume 2", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 4517228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Georgy Zhukov Newsreels at Net-Film Newsreels and Documentary Films Archive", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Georgy Zhukov – WWII Marshal of the Soviet Union", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1896_births", "1974_deaths", "People_from_Zhukovsky_District,_Kaluga_Oblast", "People_from_Maloyaroslavetsky_Uyezd", "Russian_Orthodox_Christians_from_Russia", "Bolsheviks", "Politburo_of_the_Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union_members", "Soviet_Ministers_of_Defence", "First_convocation_members_of_the_Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union", "Second_convocation_members_of_the_Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union", "Third_convocation_members_of_the_Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union", "Fourth_convocation_members_of_the_Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union", "Marshals_of_the_Soviet_Union", "Russian_memoirists", "20th-century_memoirists", "Frunze_Military_Academy_alumni", "Russian_military_personnel_of_World_War_I", "Soviet_military_personnel_of_the_Russian_Civil_War", "Soviet_military_personnel_of_World_War_II", "Russian_people_of_World_War_II", "Heroes_of_the_Soviet_Union", "Recipients_of_the_Order_of_Lenin", "Recipients_of_the_Order_of_the_Red_Banner", "Recipients_of_the_Order_of_Suvorov,_1st_class", "Recipients_of_the_Order_of_Victory", "Recipients_of_the_Marshal's_Star", "Recipients_of_the_Croix_de_Guerre_1939–1945_(France)", "Recipients_of_the_Cross_of_St._George", "Recipients_of_the_Czechoslovak_War_Cross", "Recipients_of_the_Military_Order_of_the_White_Lion", "Recipients_of_the_Order_of_Polonia_Restituta_(1944–1989)", "Recipients_of_the_Order_of_the_Cross_of_Grunwald,_1st_class", "Recipients_of_the_Virtuti_Militari_(1943–1989)", "Chief_Commanders_of_the_Legion_of_Merit", "Commanders_with_Star_of_the_Order_of_Polonia_Restituta", "Grand_Croix_of_the_Légion_d'honneur", "Grand_Crosses_of_the_Order_of_the_White_Lion", "Grand_Crosses_of_the_Virtuti_Militari", "Honorary_Knights_Grand_Cross_of_the_Order_of_the_Bath", "Burials_at_the_Kremlin_Wall_Necropolis" ]

[ "Georgy Konstantinovich Zhukov" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Sigismund of Luxembourg (15 February 1368 – 9 December 1437) was a monarch who reigned as King of Hungary and Croatia from 1387, King of Germany from 1410, King of Bohemia from 1419, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1433 until his death in 1437, as well as prince-elector of Brandenburg (1378–1388 and 1411–1415). He was the last male member of the House of Luxembourg.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19012, 324235, 755314, 302609, 223907, 50853, 14056, 8206970, 2646925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 74 ], [ 90, 105 ], [ 110, 117 ], [ 129, 144 ], [ 156, 171 ], [ 187, 205 ], [ 252, 266 ], [ 270, 281 ], [ 344, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund was born in Nuremberg, the son of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor and his fourth wife Elizabeth of Pomerania. He married Queen Mary of Hungary in 1385 and was crowned King of Hungary soon after. He fought to restore and maintain authority to the throne. Mary died in 1395, leaving Sigismund the sole ruler of Hungary.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21287, 38895, 5958282, 20677, 324235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 31 ], [ 44, 74 ], [ 95, 117 ], [ 130, 151 ], [ 176, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1396, Sigismund led the Crusade of Nicopolis, but was decisively defeated by the Ottoman Empire. Afterwards, he founded the Order of the Dragon to fight the Turks and secured the thrones of Croatia, Germany and Bohemia. Sigismund was one of the driving forces behind the Council of Constance (1414–1418) that ended the Papal Schism, but which also led to the Hussite Wars that dominated the later period of his life. In 1433, Sigismund was crowned Holy Roman Emperor and ruled until his death in 1437.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1061749, 22278, 471142, 2088822, 755314, 302609, 1625048, 7661, 543939, 303005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 47 ], [ 84, 98 ], [ 127, 146 ], [ 160, 165 ], [ 193, 200 ], [ 202, 209 ], [ 214, 221 ], [ 274, 294 ], [ 322, 334 ], [ 362, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historian Thomas Brady Jr. remarks that Sigismund \"possessed a breadth of vision and a sense of grandeur unseen in a German monarch since the thirteenth century\". He realized the need to carry out reforms of the Empire and the Church at the same time. But external difficulties, self-inflicted mistakes and the extinction of the Luxembourg male line made this vision unfulfilled. Later, the Habsburgs would inherit this mission and imperial reform was carried out successfully under the reigns of Frederick III and especially his son Maximilian I, although perhaps at the expense of the reform of the Church, partly because Maximilian was not particularly focused on the matter.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11472, 39070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 497, 510 ], [ 534, 546 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In recent years, scholarly interest (especially from East-Central Europe) in the person and reign of Sigismund – the ruler who had gained and led an imperial association almost reaching the size of the later Habsburg Empire – as well as cultural developments associated with his era has grown greatly. The setbacks which have been seen as his major failures (like dealing with the Hussite movement) are now generally considered by most scholars to be the results of the lack of financial resources and other heavy constraints, rather than personal failings.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16800883, 71231387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 72 ], [ 77, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born in Nuremberg, Sigismund was the son of the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles IV, and of his fourth and final wife, Elizabeth of Pomerania, who was the granddaughter of King Casimir III of Poland and the great-granddaughter of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Gediminas. He was named after Saint Sigismund of Burgundy, the favourite saint of Sigismund's father. From Sigismund's childhood he was nicknamed the \"ginger fox\" (liška ryšavá) in the Crown of Bohemia, on account of his hair colour.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 21287, 50853, 38895, 5958282, 26288, 7362, 670646, 38268805, 333455, 1618997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 17 ], [ 48, 66 ], [ 68, 78 ], [ 114, 136 ], [ 167, 171 ], [ 172, 193 ], [ 229, 252 ], [ 254, 263 ], [ 284, 311 ], [ 439, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "King Louis the Great of Hungary and Poland always had a good and close relationship with Emperor Charles IV, and Sigismund was betrothed to Louis' eldest daughter, Mary, in 1374, when he was six years old and Mary but an infant. The marital project aimed to augment the lands held by the House of Luxembourg. Upon his father's death in 1378, young Sigismund became Margrave of Brandenburg and was sent to the Hungarian court, where he soon learned the Hungarian language and way of life, and became entirely devoted to his adopted country. King Louis named him as his heir and appointed him his successor as King of Hungary.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 38740, 39386, 20677, 2646925, 2290530, 324235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 42 ], [ 127, 136 ], [ 164, 168 ], [ 288, 307 ], [ 365, 388 ], [ 608, 623 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1381, the then 13-year-old Sigismund was sent to Kraków by his eldest half-brother and guardian Wenceslaus, King of Germany and Bohemia, to learn Polish and to become acquainted with the land and its people. King Wenceslaus also gave him Neumark to facilitate communication between Brandenburg and Poland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 16815, 38826, 22975, 511494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 58 ], [ 99, 138 ], [ 149, 155 ], [ 241, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Mary was accepted as monarch of Hungary, Sigismund vied for the crown of Poland as well. However, the Poles were unwilling to submit to a German sovereign, nor did they want to be tied to Hungary. The disagreement between Polish landlords of Lesser Poland on one side and landlords of Greater Poland on the other, regarding the choice of the future monarch of Poland, finally ended in choosing the Lithuanian side. The support of the lords of Greater Poland was however not enough to give Prince Sigismund the Polish crown. Instead, the landlords of Lesser Poland gave it to Mary's younger sister Jadwiga, who married Jogaila of Lithuania.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 18671, 45367947, 16419, 42586, 380252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 261 ], [ 291, 305 ], [ 603, 610 ], [ 624, 631 ], [ 635, 644 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the death of her father in 1382, his betrothed, Mary, became queen of Hungary and Sigismund married her in 1385 in Zólyom (today Zvolen). The next year, he was accepted as Mary's future co-ruler by the Treaty of Győr. However, Mary was captured, together with her mother, Elizabeth of Bosnia, who had acted as regent, in 1387 by the rebellious House of Horvat, Bishop Paul Horvat of Mačva, his brother John Horvat and younger brother Ladislav. Sigismund's mother-in-law was strangled, while Mary was liberated.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 349033, 39150719, 5693937, 36236863, 964247, 36236637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 138 ], [ 205, 219 ], [ 275, 294 ], [ 371, 382 ], [ 386, 391 ], [ 405, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having secured the support of the nobility, Sigismund was crowned King of Hungary at Székesfehérvár on 31 March 1387. Having raised money by pledging Brandenburg to his cousin Jobst, Margrave of Moravia (1388), he was engaged for the next nine years in a ceaseless struggle for the possession of this unstable throne. The central power was finally weakened to such an extent that only Sigismund's alliance with the powerful Czillei-Garai League could ensure his position on the throne. It was not for entirely selfless reasons that one of the leagues of barons helped him to power: Sigismund had to pay for the support of the lords by transferring a sizeable part of the royal properties. (For some years, the baron's council governed the country in the name of the Holy Crown). The restoration of the authority of the central administration took decades of work. The bulk of the nation headed by the House of Garai was with him; but in the southern provinces between the Sava and the Drava, the Horvathys with the support of King Tvrtko I of Bosnia, Mary's maternal uncle, proclaimed as their king Ladislaus of Naples, son of the murdered Charles II of Hungary. Not until 1395 did Nicholas II Garai succeed in suppressing them. Mary died heavily pregnant in 1395.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 324235, 847836, 8206970, 38204, 598066, 998529, 587845, 149344, 461806, 541959, 204989, 12629706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 81 ], [ 85, 99 ], [ 150, 161 ], [ 176, 202 ], [ 766, 776 ], [ 901, 915 ], [ 972, 976 ], [ 985, 990 ], [ 1031, 1049 ], [ 1099, 1118 ], [ 1140, 1161 ], [ 1182, 1199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To ease the pressure from Hungarian nobles, Sigismund tried to employ foreign advisors, which was not popular, and he had to promise not to give land and nominations to anyone other than Hungarian nobles. However, this was not applied to Stibor of Stiboricz, who was Sigismund's closest friend and advisor. On a number of occasions, Sigismund was imprisoned by nobles, but with help of the armies of Garai and Stibor of Stiboricz, he would regain power.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 17382621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1396, Sigismund led the combined armies of Christendom against the Turks, who had taken advantage of the temporary helplessness of Hungary to extend their dominion to the banks of the Danube. This crusade, preached by Pope Boniface IX, was very popular in Hungary. The nobles flocked in their thousands to the royal standard, and were reinforced by volunteers from nearly every part of Europe. The most important contingent being that of the French led by John the Fearless, son of Philip II, Duke of Burgundy. Sigismund set out with 90,000 men and a flotilla of 70 galleys. After capturing Vidin, he camped with his Hungarian armies before the fortress of Nicopolis. Sultan Bayezid I raised the siege of Constantinople and, at the head of 140,000 men, completely defeated the Christian forces in the Battle of Nicopolis fought between the 25 and 28 September 1396. Sigismund returned by sea and through the realm of Zeta, where he ordained a local Montenegrin lord Đurađ II with the islands of Hvar and Korčula for resistance against the Turks; the islands were returned to Sigismund after Đurađ's death in April 1403.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 21209639, 24061, 2687967, 628938, 69489, 296911, 1349734, 4241, 5211, 1061749, 32622926, 592964, 4523623, 1471792, 538103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 193 ], [ 221, 237 ], [ 445, 451 ], [ 459, 476 ], [ 485, 512 ], [ 594, 599 ], [ 660, 669 ], [ 678, 687 ], [ 780, 789 ], [ 804, 823 ], [ 920, 924 ], [ 952, 963 ], [ 969, 977 ], [ 998, 1002 ], [ 1007, 1014 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The disaster at Nicopolis angered several Hungarian lords, leading to instability in the kingdom. Deprived of his authority in Hungary, Sigismund then turned his attention to securing the succession in Germany and Bohemia, and was recognized by his childless half-brother Wenceslaus IV as Vicar-General of the whole Empire. However, he was unable to support Wenceslaus when he was deposed in 1400, and Rupert of Germany, Elector Palatine, was elected German king in his stead.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 3190225, 1625048, 38826, 38830, 302609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 209 ], [ 214, 221 ], [ 272, 285 ], [ 402, 419 ], [ 451, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On his return to Hungary in 1401, Sigismund was imprisoned once and deposed twice. In 1401, Sigismund helped an uprising against Wenceslaus IV, during the course of which the Bohemian king was taken prisoner, and Sigismund ruled Bohemia for nineteen months. He released Wenceslaus in 1403. In the meantime, a group of Hungarian noblemen swore loyalty to the last Anjou monarch, Ladislaus of Naples, putting their hands on the relic of Saint Ladislas of Hungary in Nagyvárad (today Oradea). Ladislaus was the son of the murdered Charles II of Hungary, and thus a distant relative of the long dead King Louis I of Hungary. Ladislaus captured Zara (today Zadar) in 1403, but soon stopped any military advance. This struggle in turn led to a war with the Republic of Venice, as Ladislaus had sold the Dalmatian cities to the Venetians for 100,000 ducats before leaving for his own land. In the following years Sigismund acted indirectly to thwart Ladislaus' attempts to conquer central Italy, by allying with the Italian cities resisting him and by applying diplomatic pressure on him.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 38826, 1625048, 541959, 204989, 38740, 292128, 613492, 47286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 142 ], [ 175, 182 ], [ 378, 397 ], [ 528, 549 ], [ 601, 619 ], [ 652, 657 ], [ 751, 769 ], [ 797, 805 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to his frequent absences attending to business in the other countries over which he ruled, he was obliged to consult Diets in Hungary with more frequency than his predecessors and institute the office of Palatine as chief administrator while he was away.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1404, Sigismund introduced the Placetum Regium. According to this decree, Papal bulls could not be pronounced in Hungary without the consent of the king.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 210043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his long reign, the royal castle of Buda became probably the largest Gothic palace of the late Middle Ages.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 18836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In about 1406, Sigismund married Mary's cousin Barbara of Celje, daughter of Count Hermann II of Celje. Hermann's mother Catherine (of the House of Kotromanic) and Mary's mother Queen Elisabeth of Bosnia were sisters, or at least cousins who were adoptive sisters. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 916272, 1597261, 23908124, 3342469, 5693937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 63 ], [ 83, 102 ], [ 121, 130 ], [ 148, 158 ], [ 184, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund managed to establish control in Slavonia. He did not hesitate to use violent methods (see Bloody Sabor of Križevci), but from the river Sava to the south his control was weak. Sigismund personally led an army of almost 50,000 \"crusaders\" against the Bosnians, culminating with the Battle of Dobor in 1408, a massacre of about 200 noble families.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 149274, 24375474, 30872924, 28978421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 50 ], [ 100, 124 ], [ 260, 268 ], [ 340, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Threatened by Ottoman expansion, king Sigismund managed to strengthen the security of southern Hungarian borders by entering into a defensive alliance with despot Stefan Lazarević of Serbia. In 1403, Hungarian possessions in northwestern regions of Serbia (city of Belgrade and the Banate of Macsó), were given to despot Stefan, who pledged his allegiance to king Sigismund, remaining the king's loyal vassal until death in 1427. Stefan's successor George Branković of Serbia also pledged his allegiance to Sigismund, returning Belgrade to the king. By maintaining close relations with Serbian rulers, Sigismund succeeded in securing southern borders of his realm.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1542969, 2768125, 55904, 37008202, 268717, 2036239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 179 ], [ 183, 189 ], [ 265, 273 ], [ 282, 297 ], [ 402, 408 ], [ 449, 465 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund founded his personal order of knights, the Order of the Dragon, after the victory at Dobor. The main goal of the order was fighting the Ottoman Empire. Members of the order were mostly his political allies and supporters. The main members of the order were Sigismund's close allies Nicholas II Garay, Hermann II of Celje, Stibor of Stiboricz, and Pippo Spano. The most important European monarchs became members of the order. He encouraged international trade by abolishing internal duties, regulating tariffs on foreign goods and standardizing weights and measures throughout the country.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 471142, 22278, 12629706, 1597261, 17382621, 797065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 72 ], [ 146, 160 ], [ 292, 309 ], [ 311, 330 ], [ 332, 351 ], [ 357, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the death of King Rupert of Germany in 1410, Sigismund – ignoring the claims of his half-brother Wenceslaus – was elected as successor by three of the electors on 20 September 1410, but he was opposed by his cousin Jobst of Moravia, who had been elected by four electors in a different election on 1 October. Jobst's death 18 January 1411 removed this conflict and Sigismund was again elected king on 21 July 1411. His coronation was deferred until 8 November 1414, when it took place at Aachen.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 38830, 14056, 38204, 226191, 1520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 41 ], [ 157, 164 ], [ 221, 237 ], [ 425, 435 ], [ 494, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On a number of occasions, and in 1410 in particular, Sigismund allied himself with the Teutonic Knights against Władysław II of Poland. In return for 300.000 ducats he would attack Poland from the south after the truce on St. John's Day, 24 June expired. Sigismund ordered his most loyal friend Stibor of Stiboricz to set up the attack on Poland. Stibor of Stiboricz was of Polish origin and from the main line of the powerful Clan of Ostoja that had also been against choosing Jagiello as King of Poland. With the support of Sigismund, Stibor become one of the most influential men in late medieval Europe, holding titles as Duke of Transylvania and owning about 25% of modern-day Slovakia, including 31 castles of which 15 were situated around the 406km long Váh river with surrounding land that was given to him by Sigismund. In the diplomatic struggle to prevent war between Poland-Lithuania, which was supported by the Muscovites, and the Teutonic Knights, Sigismund used Stibor's fine diplomacy to gain financially. The Polish side appointed several negotiators and most of them were also from the Clan of Ostoja, distant relations of the Stibors. However, those \"family meetings\" could not prevent the war and an alliance of twenty-two western states formed an army against Poland in the Battle of Grunwald in July 1410. Stibor attacked then Nowy Sącz and burned it to the ground, but after that he returned with his army back to the Beckov Castle. After the Polish-Lithuanian victory in the Battle of Grunwald, the Teutonic knights had to pay a huge sum of silver to Poland as reparation and again, through diplomacy of his friend Stibor, Sigismund was able to borrow all this silver from King Władysław II of Poland on good conditions. In the light of facts about the diplomatic work of Stibor and the Clan of Ostoja that was following the politics of King Sigismund, one can question whether Sigismund actually joined the anti-Polish alliance.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 30776, 42586, 393169, 17382621, 26066384, 58255, 30853, 26830, 349040, 26066384, 26194781, 386853, 15315408, 26194781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 103 ], [ 112, 124 ], [ 181, 187 ], [ 295, 314 ], [ 427, 441 ], [ 626, 630 ], [ 634, 646 ], [ 682, 690 ], [ 761, 764 ], [ 1104, 1118 ], [ 1295, 1313 ], [ 1349, 1358 ], [ 1441, 1454 ], [ 1499, 1517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1412 to 1423, Sigismund campaigned against the Republic of Venice in Italy. The king took advantage of the difficulties of Antipope John XXIII to obtain a promise that a council should be called in Constance in 1414 to settle the Western Schism. He took a leading part in the deliberations of this assembly, and during the sittings travelled to France, England, and Burgundy in a vain attempt to secure the abdication of the three rival popes. The council ended in 1418, having resolved the Schism and — of great consequence to Sigismund's future career — having the Czech religious reformer, Jan Hus, burned at the stake for heresy in July 1415. The complicity of Sigismund in the death of Hus is a matter of controversy. He had granted Hus a safe conduct and protested against his imprisonment; and Hus was burned during Sigismund's absence.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 613492, 14532, 2238, 7661, 543939, 2687967, 407950, 2875095, 151873, 16028, 97645, 20611083, 4286849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 70 ], [ 74, 79 ], [ 128, 147 ], [ 175, 212 ], [ 235, 249 ], [ 350, 356 ], [ 358, 365 ], [ 371, 379 ], [ 572, 577 ], [ 598, 605 ], [ 607, 626 ], [ 631, 637 ], [ 749, 761 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When at one point during the council a cardinal corrected Sigismund's Latin, Sigismund replied Ego sum rex Romanus et super grammaticam (\"I am king of the Romans and above grammar\").", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thomas Carlyle nicknamed Sigismund \"Super Grammaticam\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 128422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His main acts during these years were an alliance with England against France, and a failed attempt, owing to the hostility of the princes, to secure peace in Germany by a league of the towns. Also, Sigismund awarded Brandenburg (which he had recovered after Jobst's death) to Frederick of Hohenzollern, burgrave of Nuremberg, in 1415. This step made the Hohenzollern family one of the most important in Germany.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 39363, 21287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 277, 302 ], [ 316, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund began to shift his alliance from France to England after the French defeat at the Battle of Agincourt. The signing of the Treaty of Canterbury on 15 August 1416 culminated diplomatic efforts between Henry V of England and Sigismund and resulted in a defensive and offensive alliance against France. This, in turn, led the way to the resolution of the papal schism. The close relationship that developed between Henry V and the Emperor resulted in Sigismund being inducted into the Order of the Garter.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 4615, 17132626, 45597, 543939, 73259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 111 ], [ 132, 152 ], [ 209, 227 ], [ 361, 373 ], [ 491, 510 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1419, the death of Wenceslaus IV left Sigismund titular King of Bohemia, but he had to wait for seventeen years before the Czech Estates would acknowledge him. Although the two dignities of King of the Romans and King of Bohemia added considerably to his importance, and indeed made him the nominal temporal head of Christendom, they conferred no increase of power and financially embarrassed him. It was only as King of Hungary that he had succeeded in establishing his authority and in doing anything for the order and good government of the land. Entrusting the government of Bohemia to Sofia of Bavaria, the widow of Wenceslaus, he hastened into Hungary.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 38826, 223907, 151873, 393404, 5211, 324235, 4364223, 879716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ], [ 59, 74 ], [ 126, 131 ], [ 132, 139 ], [ 319, 330 ], [ 416, 431 ], [ 593, 609 ], [ 653, 660 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bohemians, who distrusted him as the betrayer of Hus, were soon in arms; and the flame was fanned when Sigismund declared his intention of prosecuting the war against heretics. Three campaigns against the Hussites ended in disaster although the army of his most loyal ally Stibor of Stiboricz and later his son Stibor of Beckov could hold the Hussite side away from the borders of the Kingdom. The Turks were again attacking Hungary. The king, unable to obtain support from the German princes, was powerless in Bohemia. His attempts at the diet of Nuremberg in 1422 to raise a mercenary army were foiled by the resistance of the towns; and in 1424 the electors, among whom was Sigismund's former ally, Frederick I of Hohenzollern, sought to strengthen their own authority at the expense of the king. Although the scheme failed, the danger to Germany from the Hussites led to the Union of Bingen, which virtually deprived Sigismund of the leadership of the war and the headship of Germany.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 16028, 14291, 17382621, 21287, 39363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 56 ], [ 209, 217 ], [ 277, 296 ], [ 552, 561 ], [ 706, 733 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1428, Sigismund led another campaign against the Turks, but again with few results. In 1431, he went to Milan where on 25 November he received the Iron Crown as King of Italy; after which he remained for some time at Siena, negotiating for his coronation as emperor and for the recognition of the Council of Basel by Pope Eugenius IV. He was crowned emperor in Rome on 31 May 1433, and after obtaining his demands from the Pope returned to Bohemia, where he was recognized as king in 1436, though his power was little more than nominal. Shortly after he was crowned, Pope Eugenius began attempts to create a new anti-Ottoman alliance. This was sparked by an Albanian revolt against the Ottomans, which had begun in 1432. In 1435, Sigismund sent Fruzhin, a Bulgarian nobleman, to negotiate an alliance with the Albanians. He also sent Daud, a pretender to the Ottoman throne, in early 1436. However, following the defeat of the rebels in 1436, plans for an anti-Ottoman alliance ended.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 36511, 355409, 27856145, 226191, 49069, 25458, 36599717, 6930179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 112 ], [ 150, 160 ], [ 220, 225 ], [ 247, 257 ], [ 320, 336 ], [ 364, 368 ], [ 661, 676 ], [ 748, 755 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund died on 9 December 1437 at Znojmo (), Moravia (now Czech Republic), and as ordered in life, he was buried at Nagyvárad, Hungary (today Oradea, Romania), next to the tomb of the king Saint Ladislaus I of Hungary, who was the ideal of the perfect monarch, warrior and Christian for that time and was deeply venerated by Sigismund. By his second wife, Barbara of Celje, he left an only daughter, Elisabeth of Luxembourg, who was married to Albert V, duke of Austria (later German king as Albert II) whom Sigismund named as his successor. As he left no sons, his line of the House of Luxembourg became extinct on his death.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 248697, 20216, 5321, 284235, 879716, 284235, 25445, 161739, 916272, 1934139, 38447, 2646925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 43 ], [ 48, 55 ], [ 61, 75 ], [ 119, 128 ], [ 130, 137 ], [ 145, 151 ], [ 153, 160 ], [ 198, 220 ], [ 359, 375 ], [ 403, 426 ], [ 447, 472 ], [ 581, 600 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund married twice but had little luck in securing the succession to his crowns. Each of his two marriages resulted in the birth of one child. His first-born child, probably a son, was born prematurely as a result of a horse riding accident suffered by Queen Mary of Hungary when she was well advanced in pregnancy. Mother and child both died shortly after the birth in the hills of Buda on 17 May 1395. This caused a deep succession crisis because Sigismund ruled over Hungary by right of his wife, and although he managed to keep his power, the crisis lasted until his second marriage to Barbara of Celje. Barbara's only child, born in the purple on 7 October 1409, probably in the castle of Visegrád, was Elisabeth of Luxembourg, the future queen consort of Hungary, Germany, and Bohemia. Queen Barbara was unable to give birth to any further issue. Elisabeth of Bohemia was thus the only surviving legitimate offspring of Sigismund.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 83449, 20677, 95472, 879716, 916272, 19842539, 790583, 1934139, 170435, 1934139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 162 ], [ 264, 279 ], [ 388, 392 ], [ 475, 482 ], [ 595, 611 ], [ 635, 653 ], [ 699, 707 ], [ 713, 736 ], [ 749, 762 ], [ 858, 878 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund was known to speak fluent Hungarian, wore Hungarian-style royal clothes, and even grew his beard in the Hungarian fashion. He also spent huge amounts of money during his reign to rebuild the Gothic castles of Buda and Visegrád in the Kingdom of Hungary, ordering the transportation of materials from Austria and Bohemia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 13972, 2994351, 790583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 45 ], [ 219, 223 ], [ 228, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His many affairs with women led to the birth of several legends, as the one that existed decades later during the reign of the King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary. According to this, John Hunyadi was Sigismund's illegitimate son. Sigismund gave a ring to the boy's mother when he was born, but one day in the forest a raven stole it from her, and the ring was only recovered after the bird was hunted down. It is said that this incident inspired the coat of arms of the Hunyadis, and later also appeared in the coat of arms of Matthias \"Corvinus\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 53974, 272105, 285013, 20845085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 62 ], [ 132, 149 ], [ 181, 193 ], [ 468, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund adopted the Hungarian reverence for Saint Ladislaus I of Hungary, who was considered to be an ideal Christian knight at that time. He went on pilgrimage several times to his tomb in Nagyvárad. Before Sigismund died, in Znaim, Moravia, he ordered to be buried next to the king saint.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 161739, 248697, 20216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 74 ], [ 229, 234 ], [ 236, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The bloodline of Sigismund connects through three princesses to the royal Hungarian Árpád dynasty.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and issue", "target_page_ids": [ 549494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Reformatio Sigismundi appeared in connection with efforts to reform the Holy Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Sigismund (1410–1437). It was presented in 1439 at the Council of Basel, published by an anonymous author, and referred to the injustice of the German rulers. It included a vision of Sigismund's about the appearance of a priest-king, Frederick, as well as plans for a wide reform of the monarchy and emperorship and the German empire.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reformatio Sigismundi", "target_page_ids": [ 234986, 13277, 144596, 171428, 350685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 71 ], [ 76, 93 ], [ 177, 193 ], [ 295, 301 ], [ 395, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund, by the grace of God elected Holy Roman Emperor, forever August, King in Germany, of Hungary, Bohemia, Italy, Dalmatia, Croatia, Rama, Serbia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Cumania and Bulgaria; Duke of Silesia and Luxembourg; Margrave of Moravia, Lusatia and Brandenburg.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Titles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kings of Germany family tree", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17767437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stibor of Stiboricz", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17382621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Clan of Ostoja", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26066384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of the Dragon", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 471142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Art, images, maps connected to Sigismund", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1368_births", "1437_deaths", "15th-century_Holy_Roman_Emperors", "Medieval_kings_of_Bohemia", "Jure_uxoris_kings", "14th-century_German_nobility", "15th-century_German_nobility", "Kings_of_Croatia", "Kings_of_Hungary", "Prince-electors_of_Brandenburg", "Christians_of_the_Battle_of_Nicopolis", "Czech_people_of_Luxembourgian_descent", "House_of_Luxembourg", "Knights_of_the_Garter", "Order_of_the_Dragon", "People_from_Nuremberg", "People_of_the_Hussite_Wars", "Pretenders_to_the_Bohemian_throne", "Burials_at_Oradea_Cathedral,_Crişana", "Remarried_royal_consorts", "14th-century_Bohemian_people", "15th-century_Bohemian_people", "14th-century_Hungarian_people", "15th-century_Hungarian_nobility", "14th-century_Luxembourgian_people", "15th-century_Luxembourgian_people", "All_articles_with_unsourced_statements", "Sons_of_emperors" ]

[ "Super-Grammaticam" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11983318, 26700, 21830, 60931, 307139, 22649, 59861, 24116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 38 ], [ 42, 49 ], [ 114, 121 ], [ 122, 131 ], [ 142, 160 ], [ 166, 177 ], [ 182, 197 ], [ 218, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. Life science is alternatively known as biology, and physical science is subdivided into branches: physics, chemistry, earth science, and astronomy. These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches (also known as fields). As empirical sciences, natural sciences use tools from the formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, converting information about nature into measurements which can be explained as clear statements of the \"laws of nature\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 68140, 23638, 9127632, 22939, 5180, 20653168, 50650, 3694774, 18831, 46426065, 244629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 67 ], [ 72, 88 ], [ 129, 136 ], [ 188, 195 ], [ 197, 206 ], [ 208, 221 ], [ 227, 236 ], [ 409, 423 ], [ 434, 445 ], [ 450, 455 ], [ 562, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern natural science succeeded more classical approaches to natural philosophy, usually traced to Taoists traditions in Asia and in the West to ancient Greece. Galileo, Descartes, Bacon, and Newton debated the benefits of using approaches which were more mathematical and more experimental in a methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science. Systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and so on. Today, \"natural history\" suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 382251, 30365, 66540, 29688374, 25525, 11319, 14627, 173416, 6138, 1965727, 2780651, 166380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 80 ], [ 100, 107 ], [ 146, 160 ], [ 162, 169 ], [ 171, 180 ], [ 182, 187 ], [ 193, 199 ], [ 257, 269 ], [ 348, 358 ], [ 365, 379 ], [ 475, 492 ], [ 504, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Philosophers of science have suggested several criteria, including Karl Popper's controversial falsifiability criterion, to help them differentiate scientific endeavors from non-scientific ones. Validity, accuracy, and quality control, such as peer review and repeatability of findings, are amongst the most respected criteria in today's global scientific community.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Criteria", "target_page_ids": [ 16623, 11283, 239140, 41932, 41613, 24116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 78 ], [ 95, 109 ], [ 195, 203 ], [ 205, 213 ], [ 219, 234 ], [ 244, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In natural science, impossibility assertions come to be widely accepted as overwhelmingly probable rather than considered proved to the point of being unchallengeable. The basis for this strong acceptance is a combination of extensive evidence of something not occurring, combined with an underlying theory, very successful in making predictions, whose assumptions lead logically to the conclusion that something is impossible. While an impossibility assertion in natural science can never be absolutely proved, it could be refuted by the observation of a single counterexample. Such a counterexample would require that the assumptions underlying the theory that implied the impossibility be re-examined.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Criteria", "target_page_ids": [ 3710507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This field encompasses a diverse set of disciplines that examines phenomena related to living organisms. The scale of study can range from sub-component biophysics up to complex ecologies. Biology is concerned with the characteristics, classification and behaviors of organisms, as well as how species were formed and their interactions with each other and the environment.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 54000, 9630, 36675611, 4805, 19653842, 21780446, 17554500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 163 ], [ 178, 187 ], [ 236, 250 ], [ 255, 264 ], [ 268, 276 ], [ 294, 301 ], [ 361, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The biological fields of botany, zoology, and medicine date back to early periods of civilization, while microbiology was introduced in the 17th century with the invention of the microscope. However, it was not until the 19th century that biology became a unified science. Once scientists discovered commonalities between all living things, it was decided they were best studied as a whole.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 4183, 34413, 18957, 21393077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 31 ], [ 33, 40 ], [ 46, 54 ], [ 105, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some key developments in biology were the discovery of genetics; evolution through natural selection; the germ theory of disease and the application of the techniques of chemistry and physics at the level of the cell or organic molecule.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 12266, 9236, 21147, 185259, 3954, 54000, 4230, 22203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 63 ], [ 65, 74 ], [ 83, 100 ], [ 106, 128 ], [ 170, 179 ], [ 184, 191 ], [ 212, 216 ], [ 220, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern biology is divided into subdisciplines by the type of organism and by the scale being studied. Molecular biology is the study of the fundamental chemistry of life, while cellular biology is the examination of the cell; the basic building block of all life. At a higher level, anatomy and physiology look at the internal structures, and their functions, of an organism, while ecology looks at how various organisms interrelate.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 19200, 6339, 674, 23597, 9630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 119 ], [ 177, 193 ], [ 283, 290 ], [ 295, 305 ], [ 382, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Earth science (also known as geoscience), is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth, including geology, geography, geophysics, geochemistry, climatology, glaciology, hydrology, meteorology, and oceanography.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 9228, 12207, 18963910, 54962, 39562, 142440, 231504, 13435, 19904, 44044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 111 ], [ 123, 130 ], [ 132, 141 ], [ 144, 154 ], [ 156, 168 ], [ 170, 181 ], [ 183, 193 ], [ 195, 204 ], [ 206, 217 ], [ 223, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although mining and precious stones have been human interests throughout the history of civilization, the development of the related sciences of economic geology and mineralogy did not occur until the 18th century. The study of the earth, particularly paleontology, blossomed in the 19th century. The growth of other disciplines, such as geophysics, in the 20th century, led to the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s, which has had a similar effect on the Earth sciences as the theory of evolution had on biology. Earth sciences today are closely linked to petroleum and mineral resources, climate research and to environmental assessment and remediation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 20381, 60767, 277532, 19883, 23084, 54962, 24944, 23195, 21675, 5999, 2364800, 406260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 15 ], [ 20, 35 ], [ 145, 161 ], [ 166, 176 ], [ 252, 264 ], [ 338, 348 ], [ 411, 426 ], [ 580, 589 ], [ 594, 610 ], [ 613, 620 ], [ 637, 661 ], [ 666, 677 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although sometimes considered in conjunction with the earth sciences, due to the independent development of its concepts, techniques, and practices and also the fact of it having a wide range of sub-disciplines under its wing, atmospheric science is also considered a separate branch of natural science. This field studies the characteristics of different layers of the atmosphere from ground level to the edge of the space. The timescale of the study also varies from day to century. Sometimes the field also includes the study of climatic patterns on planets other than earth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 164633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 227, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The serious study of oceans began in the early- to the mid-20th century. As a field of natural science, it is relatively young but stand-alone programs offer specializations in the subject. Though some controversies remain as to the categorization of the field under earth sciences, interdisciplinary sciences, or as a separate field in its own right, most modern workers in the field agree that it has matured to a state that it has its own paradigms and practices.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Constituting the scientific study of matter at the atomic and molecular scale, chemistry deals primarily with collections of atoms, such as gases, molecules, crystals, and metals. The composition, statistical properties, transformations, and reactions of these materials are studied. Chemistry also involves understanding the properties and interactions of individual atoms and molecules for use in larger-scale applications.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 902, 19555, 18993869, 6015, 19042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 55 ], [ 62, 71 ], [ 140, 143 ], [ 158, 165 ], [ 172, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most chemical processes can be studied directly in a laboratory, using a series of (often well-tested) techniques for manipulating materials, as well as an understanding of the underlying processes. Chemistry is often called \"the central science\" because of its role in connecting the other natural sciences.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 11092324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early experiments in chemistry had their roots in the system of Alchemy, a set of beliefs combining mysticism with physical experiments. The science of chemistry began to develop with the work of Robert Boyle, the discoverer of gas, and Antoine Lavoisier, who developed the theory of the Conservation of mass.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 573, 50237, 1822, 145040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 71 ], [ 196, 208 ], [ 237, 254 ], [ 288, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The discovery of the chemical elements and atomic theory began to systematize this science, and researchers developed a fundamental understanding of states of matter, ions, chemical bonds and chemical reactions. The success of this science led to a complementary chemical industry that now plays a significant role in the world economy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 8200, 2844, 37461, 18963787, 5993, 6271, 58721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 38 ], [ 43, 56 ], [ 149, 165 ], [ 167, 170 ], [ 173, 186 ], [ 192, 209 ], [ 263, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Physics embodies the study of the fundamental constituents of the universe, the forces and interactions they exert on one another, and the results produced by these interactions. In general, physics is regarded as the fundamental science, because all other natural sciences use and obey the field's principles and laws. Physics relies heavily on mathematics as the logical framework for formulating and quantifying principles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 31880, 10902, 18831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 74 ], [ 80, 86 ], [ 346, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The study of the principles of the universe has a long history and largely derives from direct observation and experimentation. The formulation of theories about the governing laws of the universe has been central to the study of physics from very early on, with philosophy gradually yielding to systematic, quantitative experimental testing and observation as the source of verification. Key historical developments in physics include Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation and classical mechanics, an understanding of electricity and its relation to magnetism, Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, the development of thermodynamics, and the quantum mechanical model of atomic and subatomic physics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 13692155, 14627, 244611, 19555586, 9550, 19716, 736, 26962, 12024, 29952, 25202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 273 ], [ 436, 448 ], [ 451, 482 ], [ 487, 506 ], [ 528, 539 ], [ 560, 569 ], [ 571, 579 ], [ 594, 601 ], [ 606, 624 ], [ 645, 659 ], [ 669, 687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The field of physics is extremely broad, and can include such diverse studies as quantum mechanics and theoretical physics, applied physics and optics. Modern physics is becoming increasingly specialized, where researchers tend to focus on a particular area rather than being \"universalists\" like Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein and Lev Landau, who worked in multiple areas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 25202, 19594028, 2641938, 22483, 14627, 736, 80322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 98 ], [ 103, 122 ], [ 124, 139 ], [ 144, 150 ], [ 297, 309 ], [ 311, 326 ], [ 331, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galaxies, and comets. Astronomy is the study of everything in the universe beyond Earth's atmosphere. That includes objects we can see with our naked eyes. Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Astronomers of early civilizations performed methodical observations of the night sky, and astronomical artifacts have been found from much earlier periods. There are two types of astronomy: observational astronomy and theoretical astronomy. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring and analyzing data, mainly using basic principles of physics while Theoretical astronomy is oriented towards the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This discipline is the science of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere. It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 206542, 60931, 202898, 22939, 5180, 19904, 20580, 5378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 51 ], [ 56, 65 ], [ 93, 111 ], [ 149, 156 ], [ 158, 167 ], [ 169, 180 ], [ 186, 192 ], [ 230, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Astronomy includes the examination, study, and modeling of stars, planets, comets. Most of the information used by astronomers is gathered by remote observation, although some laboratory reproduction of celestial phenomena has been performed (such as the molecular chemistry of the interstellar medium).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 69453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 282, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the origins of the study of celestial features and phenomena can be traced back to antiquity, the scientific methodology of this field began to develop in the middle of the 17th century. A key factor was Galileo's introduction of the telescope to examine the night sky in more detail.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 29688374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mathematical treatment of astronomy began with Newton's development of celestial mechanics and the laws of gravitation, although it was triggered by earlier work of astronomers such as Kepler. By the 19th century, astronomy had developed into formal science, with the introduction of instruments such as the spectroscope and photography, along with much-improved telescopes and the creation of professional observatories.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Branches of natural science", "target_page_ids": [ 14627, 102182, 38579, 15736, 29293, 23604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 57 ], [ 75, 94 ], [ 111, 122 ], [ 189, 195 ], [ 312, 324 ], [ 329, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The distinctions between the natural science disciplines are not always sharp, and they share many cross-discipline fields. Physics plays a significant role in the other natural sciences, as represented by astrophysics, geophysics, chemical physics and biophysics. Likewise chemistry is represented by such fields as biochemistry, chemical biology, geochemistry and astrochemistry.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interdisciplinary studies", "target_page_ids": [ 361897, 54962, 733929, 54000, 3954, 1686272, 39562, 71268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 218 ], [ 220, 230 ], [ 232, 248 ], [ 253, 263 ], [ 317, 329 ], [ 331, 347 ], [ 349, 361 ], [ 366, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A particular example of a scientific discipline that draws upon multiple natural sciences is environmental science. This field studies the interactions of physical, chemical, geological, and biological components of the environment, with particular regard to the effect of human activities and the impact on biodiversity and sustainability. This science also draws upon expertise from other fields such as economics, law, and social sciences.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interdisciplinary studies", "target_page_ids": [ 64919, 3588722, 17554500, 45086, 18413531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 114 ], [ 191, 212 ], [ 220, 231 ], [ 308, 320 ], [ 325, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A comparable discipline is oceanography, as it draws upon a similar breadth of scientific disciplines. Oceanography is sub-categorized into more specialized cross-disciplines, such as physical oceanography and marine biology. As the marine ecosystem is very large and diverse, marine biology is further divided into many subfields, including specializations in particular species.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interdisciplinary studies", "target_page_ids": [ 44044, 387440, 20021, 5411659, 21780446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 39 ], [ 184, 205 ], [ 210, 224 ], [ 233, 249 ], [ 372, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is also a subset of cross-disciplinary fields that have strong currents that run counter to specialization by the nature of the problems that they address. Put another way: In some fields of integrative application, specialists in more than one field are a key part of the most dialog. Such integrative fields, for example, include nanoscience, astrobiology, and complex system informatics.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interdisciplinary studies", "target_page_ids": [ 21488, 2787, 37438, 23997153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 338, 349 ], [ 351, 363 ], [ 369, 383 ], [ 384, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Materials science is a relatively new, interdisciplinary field that deals with the study of matter and its properties; as well as the discovery and design of new materials. Originally developed through the field of metallurgy, the study of the properties of materials and solids has now expanded into all materials. The field covers the chemistry, physics, and engineering applications of materials including metals, ceramics, artificial polymers, and many others. The core of the field deals with relating the structure of materials with their properties.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interdisciplinary studies", "target_page_ids": [ 19673093, 19722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 98 ], [ 215, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is at the forefront of research in science and engineering. It is an important part of forensic engineering (the investigation of materials, products, structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property) and failure analysis, the latter being the key to understanding, for example, the cause of various aviation accidents. Many of the most pressing scientific problems that are faced today are due to the limitations of the materials that are available and, as a result, breakthroughs in this field are likely to have a significant impact on the future of technology.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interdisciplinary studies", "target_page_ids": [ 69817, 2652917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 110 ], [ 283, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The basis of materials science involves studying the structure of materials, and relating them to their properties. Once a materials scientist knows about this structure-property correlation, they can then go on to study the relative performance of a material in a certain application. The major determinants of the structure of a material and thus of its properties are its constituent chemical elements and how it has been processed into its final form. These characteristics, taken together and related through the laws of thermodynamics and kinetics, govern a material's microstructure, and thus its properties.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interdisciplinary studies", "target_page_ids": [ 23626, 29952, 17593800, 2189901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 114 ], [ 526, 540 ], [ 545, 553 ], [ 575, 589 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some scholars trace the origins of natural science as far back as pre-literate human societies, where understanding the natural world was necessary for survival. People observed and built up knowledge about the behavior of animals and the usefulness of plants as food and medicine, which was passed down from generation to generation. These primitive understandings gave way to more formalized inquiry around 3500 to 3000 BC in the Mesopotamian and Ancient Egyptian cultures, which produced the first known written evidence of natural philosophy, the precursor of natural science. While the writings show an interest in astronomy, mathematics, and other aspects of the physical world, the ultimate aim of inquiry about nature's workings was in all cases religious or mythological, not scientific.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 20189, 874, 382251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 432, 443 ], [ 449, 462 ], [ 527, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A tradition of scientific inquiry also emerged in Ancient China, where Taoist alchemists and philosophers experimented with elixirs to extend life and cure ailments. They focused on the yin and yang, or contrasting elements in nature; the yin was associated with femininity and coldness, while yang was associated with masculinity and warmth. The five phases – fire, earth, metal, wood, and water – described a cycle of transformations in nature. The water turned into wood, which turned into the fire when it burned. The ashes left by fire were earth. Using these principles, Chinese philosophers and doctors explored human anatomy, characterizing organs as predominantly yin or yang, and understood the relationship between the pulse, the heart, and the flow of blood in the body centuries before it became accepted in the West.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5760, 30365, 573, 183290, 144804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 63 ], [ 71, 77 ], [ 78, 88 ], [ 135, 146 ], [ 186, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Little evidence survives of how Ancient Indian cultures around the Indus River understood nature, but some of their perspectives may be reflected in the Vedas, a set of sacred Hindu texts. They reveal a conception of the universe as ever-expanding and constantly being recycled and reformed. Surgeons in the Ayurvedic tradition saw health and illness as a combination of three humors: wind, bile and phlegm. A healthy life was the result of a balance among these humors. In Ayurvedic thought, the body consisted of five elements: earth, water, fire, wind, and space. Ayurvedic surgeons performed complex surgeries and developed a detailed understanding of human anatomy.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13890, 15490, 1527181, 13543, 236674, 15440316, 86092, 302927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 45 ], [ 67, 78 ], [ 153, 158 ], [ 176, 181 ], [ 308, 317 ], [ 385, 389 ], [ 391, 395 ], [ 400, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pre-Socratic philosophers in Ancient Greek culture brought natural philosophy a step closer to direct inquiry about cause and effect in nature between 600 and 400 BC, although an element of magic and mythology remained. Natural phenomena such as earthquakes and eclipses were explained increasingly in the context of nature itself instead of being attributed to angry gods. Thales of Miletus, an early philosopher who lived from 625 to 546 BC, explained earthquakes by theorizing that the world floated on water and that water was the fundamental element in nature. In the 5th century BC, Leucippus was an early exponent of atomism, the idea that the world is made up of fundamental indivisible particles. Pythagoras applied Greek innovations in mathematics to astronomy, and suggested that the earth was spherical.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30340, 66540, 30072, 17924, 5756554, 23275, 27859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 29, 42 ], [ 374, 391 ], [ 589, 598 ], [ 624, 631 ], [ 706, 716 ], [ 805, 814 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later Socratic and Platonic thought focused on ethics, morals and art and did not attempt an investigation of the physical world; Plato criticized pre-Socratic thinkers as materialists and anti-religionists. Aristotle, however, a student of Plato who lived from 384 to 322 BC, paid closer attention to the natural world in his philosophy. In his History of Animals, he described the inner workings of 110 species, including the stingray, catfish and bee. He investigated chick embryos by breaking open eggs and observing them at various stages of development. Aristotle's works were influential through the 16th century, and he is considered to be the father of biology for his pioneering work in that science. He also presented philosophies about physics, nature, and astronomy using inductive reasoning in his works Physics and Meteorology.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25664190, 22954, 308, 1692666, 54195, 47335, 4654, 48691513, 393736, 1692795, 1692685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 14 ], [ 19, 24 ], [ 208, 217 ], [ 346, 364 ], [ 428, 436 ], [ 438, 445 ], [ 450, 453 ], [ 652, 709 ], [ 785, 804 ], [ 818, 825 ], [ 830, 841 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Aristotle considered natural philosophy more seriously than his predecessors, he approached it as a theoretical branch of science. Still, inspired by his work, Ancient Roman philosophers of the early 1st century AD, including Lucretius, Seneca and Pliny the Elder, wrote treatises that dealt with the rules of the natural world in varying degrees of depth. Many Ancient Roman Neoplatonists of the 3rd to the 6th centuries also adapted Aristotle's teachings on the physical world to a philosophy that emphasized spiritualism. Early medieval philosophers including Macrobius, Calcidius and Martianus Capella also examined the physical world, largely from a cosmological and cosmographical perspective, putting forth theories on the arrangement of celestial bodies and the heavens, which were posited as being composed of aether.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 521555, 37145, 75150, 44920, 521555, 23385833, 18836, 235887, 3959150, 737686, 585226, 1949268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 179 ], [ 233, 242 ], [ 244, 250 ], [ 255, 270 ], [ 369, 382 ], [ 383, 396 ], [ 538, 546 ], [ 570, 579 ], [ 581, 590 ], [ 595, 612 ], [ 679, 693 ], [ 826, 832 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aristotle's works on natural philosophy continued to be translated and studied amid the rise of the Byzantine Empire and Abbasid Caliphate. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16972981, 49856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 116 ], [ 121, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Byzantine Empire, John Philoponus, an Alexandrian Aristotelian commentator and Christian theologian was the first who questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics. Unlike Aristotle who based his physics on verbal argument, Philoponus instead relied on observation and argued for observation rather than resorting to a verbal argument. He introduced the theory of impetus. John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian principles of physics served as inspiration for Galileo Galilei during the Scientific Revolution.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2673476, 12320384, 29544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 40 ], [ 358, 375 ], [ 495, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A revival in mathematics and science took place during the time of the Abbasid Caliphate from the 9th century onward, when Muslim scholars expanded upon Greek and Indian natural philosophy. The words alcohol, algebra and zenith all have Arabic roots.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 49856, 14533, 3939361, 18716923, 48909, 803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 88 ], [ 163, 168 ], [ 200, 207 ], [ 209, 216 ], [ 221, 227 ], [ 237, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aristotle's works and other Greek natural philosophy did not reach the West until about the middle of the 12th century, when works were translated from Greek and Arabic into Latin. The development of European civilization later in the Middle Ages brought with it further advances in natural philosophy. European inventions such as the horseshoe, horse collar and crop rotation allowed for rapid population growth, eventually giving way to urbanization and the foundation of schools connected to monasteries and cathedrals in modern-day France and England. Aided by the schools, an approach to Christian theology developed that sought to answer questions about nature and other subjects using logic. This approach, however, was seen by some detractors as heresy. By the 12th century, Western European scholars and philosophers came into contact with a body of knowledge of which they had previously been ignorant: a large corpus of works in Greek and Arabic that were preserved by Islamic scholars. Through translation into Latin, Western Europe was introduced to Aristotle and his natural philosophy. These works were taught at new universities in Paris and Oxford by the early 13th century, although the practice was frowned upon by the Catholic church. A 1210 decree from the Synod of Paris ordered that \"no lectures are to be held in Paris either publicly or privately using Aristotle's books on natural philosophy or the commentaries, and we forbid all this under pain of ex-communication.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 42056, 17730, 13480, 2457359, 46470, 5843419, 9316, 30503, 20611083, 22989, 22308, 75792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 157 ], [ 174, 179 ], [ 335, 344 ], [ 346, 358 ], [ 363, 376 ], [ 536, 542 ], [ 547, 554 ], [ 603, 611 ], [ 754, 760 ], [ 1149, 1154 ], [ 1159, 1165 ], [ 1279, 1284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late Middle Ages, Spanish philosopher Dominicus Gundissalinus translated a treatise by the earlier Persian scholar Al-Farabi called On the Sciences into Latin, calling the study of the mechanics of nature Scientia naturalis, or natural science. Gundissalinus also proposed his own classification of the natural sciences in his 1150 work On the Division of Philosophy. This was the first detailed classification of the sciences based on Greek and Arab philosophy to reach Western Europe. Gundissalinus defined natural science as \"the science considering only things unabstracted and with motion,\" as opposed to mathematics and sciences that rely on mathematics. Following Al-Farabi, he then separated the sciences into eight parts, including physics, cosmology, meteorology, minerals science, and plant and animal science.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26667, 863333, 175040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 32 ], [ 45, 68 ], [ 122, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later philosophers made their own classifications of the natural sciences. Robert Kilwardby wrote On the Order of the Sciences in the 13th century that classed medicine as a mechanical science, along with agriculture, hunting and theater while defining natural science as the science that deals with bodies in motion. Roger Bacon, an English friar and philosopher, wrote that natural science dealt with \"a principle of motion and rest, as in the parts of the elements of fire, air, earth and water, and in all inanimate things made from them.\" These sciences also covered plants, animals and celestial bodies. Later in the 13th century, a Catholic priest and theologian Thomas Aquinas defined natural science as dealing with \"mobile beings\" and \"things which depend on a matter not only for their existence but also for their definition.\" There was wide agreement among scholars in medieval times that natural science was about bodies in motion, although there was division about the inclusion of fields including medicine, music, and perspective. Philosophers pondered questions including the existence of a vacuum, whether motion could produce heat, the colors of rainbows, the motion of the earth, whether elemental chemicals exist, and were in the atmosphere rain is formed. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 153666, 25879, 21490957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 91 ], [ 318, 329 ], [ 670, 684 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the centuries up through the end of the Middle Ages, natural science was often mingled with philosophies about magic and the occult. Natural philosophy appeared in a wide range of forms, from treatises to encyclopedias to commentaries on Aristotle. The interaction between natural philosophy and Christianity was complex during this period; some early theologians, including Tatian and Eusebius, considered natural philosophy an outcropping of pagan Greek science and were suspicious of it. Although some later Christian philosophers, including Aquinas, came to see natural science as a means of interpreting scripture, this suspicion persisted until the 12th and 13th centuries. The Condemnation of 1277, which forbade setting philosophy on a level equal with theology and the debate of religious constructs in a scientific context, showed the persistence with which Catholic leaders resisted the development of natural philosophy even from a theological perspective. Aquinas and Albertus Magnus, another Catholic theologian of the era, sought to distance theology from science in their works. \"I don't see what one's interpretation of Aristotle has to do with the teaching of the faith,\" he wrote in 1271.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5211, 45158, 10172, 1001325, 1573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 299, 311 ], [ 378, 384 ], [ 389, 397 ], [ 687, 707 ], [ 984, 999 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the 16th and 17th centuries, natural philosophy underwent an evolution beyond commentary on Aristotle as more early Greek philosophy was uncovered and translated. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century, the invention of the microscope and telescope, and the Protestant Reformation fundamentally altered the social context in which scientific inquiry evolved in the West. Christopher Columbus's discovery of a new world changed perceptions about the physical makeup of the world, while observations by Copernicus, Tyco Brahe and Galileo brought a more accurate picture of the solar system as heliocentric and proved many of Aristotle's theories about the heavenly bodies false. Several 17th-century philosophers, including Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Francis Bacon made a break from the past by rejecting Aristotle and his medieval followers outright, calling their approach to natural philosophy as superficial. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 37857, 5635, 323592, 30027, 29688374, 244588, 29823, 16143, 11319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 300 ], [ 391, 411 ], [ 521, 531 ], [ 533, 543 ], [ 548, 555 ], [ 611, 623 ], [ 742, 755 ], [ 757, 767 ], [ 772, 785 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The titles of Galileo's work Two New Sciences and Johannes Kepler's New Astronomy underscored the atmosphere of change that took hold in the 17th century as Aristotle was dismissed in favor of novel methods of inquiry into the natural world. Bacon was instrumental in popularizing this change; he argued that people should use the arts and sciences to gain dominion over nature. To achieve this, he wrote that \"human life [must] be endowed with discoveries and powers.\" He defined natural philosophy as \"the knowledge of Causes and secret motions of things; and enlarging the bounds of Human Empire, to the effecting of all things possible.\" Bacon proposed that scientific inquiry be supported by the state and fed by the collaborative research of scientists, a vision that was unprecedented in its scope, ambition, and forms at the time. Natural philosophers came to view nature increasingly as a mechanism that could be taken apart and understood, much like a complex clock. Natural philosophers including Isaac Newton, Evangelista Torricelli and Francesco Redi conducted experiments focusing on the flow of water, measuring atmospheric pressure using a barometer and disproving spontaneous generation. Scientific societies and scientific journals emerged and were spread widely through the printing press, touching off the scientific revolution. Newton in 1687 published his The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, or Principia Mathematica, which set the groundwork for physical laws that remained current until the 19th century.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15736, 29560452, 14627, 210413, 140757, 47484, 47488, 150135, 29544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 65 ], [ 331, 335 ], [ 1008, 1020 ], [ 1022, 1044 ], [ 1049, 1063 ], [ 1127, 1147 ], [ 1156, 1165 ], [ 1181, 1203 ], [ 1326, 1347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some modern scholars, including Andrew Cunningham, Perry Williams, and Floris Cohen, argue that natural philosophy is not properly called a science, and that genuine scientific inquiry began only with the scientific revolution. According to Cohen, \"the emancipation of science from an overarching entity called 'natural philosophy is one defining characteristic of the Scientific Revolution.\" Other historians of science, including Edward Grant, contend that the scientific revolution that blossomed in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries occurred when principles learned in the exact sciences of optics, mechanics, and astronomy began to be applied to questions raised by natural philosophy. Grant argues that Newton attempted to expose the mathematical basis of nature – the immutable rules it obeyed – and in doing so joined natural philosophy and mathematics for the first time, producing an early work of modern physics.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16693272, 988402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 83 ], [ 432, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The scientific revolution, which began to take hold in the 17th century, represented a sharp break from Aristotelian modes of inquiry. One of its principal advances was the use of the scientific method to investigate nature. Data was collected and repeatable measurements made in experiments. Scientists then formed hypotheses to explain the results of these experiments. The hypothesis was then tested using the principle of falsifiability to prove or disprove its accuracy. The natural sciences continued to be called natural philosophy, but the adoption of the scientific method took science beyond the realm of philosophical conjecture and introduced a more structured way of examining nature. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26833, 986651, 59861, 21073209, 11283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 201 ], [ 248, 258 ], [ 280, 290 ], [ 316, 326 ], [ 426, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Newton, an English mathematician, and physicist was the seminal figure in the scientific revolution. Drawing on advances made in astronomy by Copernicus, Brahe, and Kepler, Newton derived the universal law of gravitation and laws of motion. These laws applied both on earth and in outer space, uniting two spheres of the physical world previously thought to function independently of each other, according to separate physical rules. Newton, for example, showed that the tides were caused by the gravitational pull of the moon. Another of Newton's advances was to make mathematics a powerful explanatory tool for natural phenomena. While natural philosophers had long used mathematics as a means of measurement and analysis, its principles were not used as a means of understanding cause and effect in nature until Newton. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 244611, 55212, 30718, 19331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 220 ], [ 225, 239 ], [ 471, 475 ], [ 522, 526 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 18th century and 19th century, scientists including Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, Alessandro Volta, and Michael Faraday built upon Newtonian mechanics by exploring electromagnetism, or the interplay of forces with positive and negative charges on electrically charged particles. Faraday proposed that forces in nature operated in \"fields\" that filled space. The idea of fields contrasted with the Newtonian construct of gravitation as simply \"action at a distance\", or the attraction of objects with nothing in the space between them to intervene. James Clerk Maxwell in the 19th century unified these discoveries in a coherent theory of electrodynamics. Using mathematical equations and experimentation, Maxwell discovered that space was filled with charged particles that could act upon themselves and each other and that they were a medium for the transmission of charged waves.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 211439, 1923, 19727, 9532, 9804, 26998617, 28989696, 19737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 86 ], [ 88, 104 ], [ 110, 125 ], [ 170, 186 ], [ 253, 273 ], [ 337, 343 ], [ 554, 573 ], [ 634, 659 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Significant advances in chemistry also took place during the scientific revolution. Antoine Lavoisier, a French chemist, refuted the phlogiston theory, which posited that things burned by releasing \"phlogiston\" into the air. Joseph Priestley had discovered oxygen in the 18th century, but Lavoisier discovered that combustion was the result of oxidation. He also constructed a table of 33 elements and invented modern chemical nomenclature. Formal biological science remained in its infancy in the 18th century, when the focus lay upon the classification and categorization of natural life. This growth in natural history was led by Carl Linnaeus, whose 1735 taxonomy of the natural world is still in use. Linnaeus in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1822, 23886, 40176, 22303, 5638, 66313, 36675611, 166380, 5233, 30463, 39736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 101 ], [ 133, 150 ], [ 225, 241 ], [ 257, 263 ], [ 315, 325 ], [ 344, 353 ], [ 540, 573 ], [ 606, 621 ], [ 633, 646 ], [ 659, 667 ], [ 739, 755 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the 19th century, the study of science had come into the purview of professionals and institutions. In so doing, it gradually acquired the more modern name of natural science. The term scientist was coined by William Whewell in an 1834 review of Mary Somerville's On the Connexion of the Sciences. But the word did not enter general use until nearly the end of the same century.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 205488, 600171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 212, 227 ], [ 249, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to a famous 1923 textbook, Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances, by the American chemist Gilbert N. Lewis and the American physical chemist Merle Randall, the natural sciences contain three great branches:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13017, 6134329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 136 ], [ 171, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aside from the logical and mathematical sciences, there are three great branches of natural science which stand apart by reason of the variety of far reaching deductions drawn from a small number of primary postulates — they are mechanics, electrodynamics, and thermodynamics.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19559, 9532, 29952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 238 ], [ 240, 255 ], [ 261, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today, natural sciences are more commonly divided into life sciences, such as botany and zoology; and physical sciences, which include physics, chemistry, astronomy, and Earth sciences.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Empiricism", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Branches of science", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11983318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of academic disciplines and sub-disciplines", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 242710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Natural Sciences (Cambridge), for the Tripos at the University of Cambridge", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 999990, 83025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 39, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Defining Natural Sciences Ledoux, S. F., 2002: Defining Natural Sciences, Behaviorology Today, 5(1), 34–36.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The History of Recent Science and Technology", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Natural Sciences Contains updated information on research in the Natural Sciences including biology, geography and the applied life and earth sciences.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Reviews of Books About Natural Science This site contains over 50 previously published reviews of books about natural science, plus selected essays on timely topics in natural science.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Scientific Grant Awards Database Contains details of over 2,000,000 scientific research projects conducted over the past 25 years.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " E!Science Up-to-date science news aggregator from major sources including universities.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Natural_sciences", "Branches_of_science" ]

[ "natural sciences", "natural history" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The term chat room, or chatroom (and sometimes group chat; abbreviated as GC), is primarily used to describe any form of synchronous conferencing, occasionally even asynchronous conferencing. The term can thus mean any technology ranging from real-time online chat and online interaction with strangers (e.g., online forums) to fully immersive graphical social environments.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8143988, 15362277, 174492, 294813, 716896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 145 ], [ 165, 190 ], [ 253, 264 ], [ 310, 323 ], [ 344, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The primary use of a chat room is to share information via text with a group of other users. Generally ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "speaking, the ability to converse with multiple people in the same conversation differentiates chat rooms from instant messaging programs, which are more typically designed for one-to-one communication. The users in a particular chat room are generally connected via a shared internet or other similar connection, and chat rooms exist catering for a wide range of subjects. New technology has enabled the use of file sharing and webcams.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 55951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first chat system was used by the U.S. government in 1971. It was developed by Murray Turoff, a young PhD graduate from Berkeley, and its first use was during President Nixon's wage-price freeze under Project Delphi. The system was called EMISARI and would allow 10 regional offices to link together in a real-time online chat known as the party line. It was in use up until 1986. The first public online chat system was called Talkomatic, created by Doug Brown and David R. Woolley in 1973 on the PLATO System at the University of Illinois. It offered several channels, each of which could accommodate up to five people, with messages appearing on all users' screens character-by-character as they were typed. Talkomatic was very popular among PLATO users into the mid-1980s. In 2014 Brown and Woolley released a web-based version of Talkomatic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 42911827, 1000474, 384695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 433, 443 ], [ 503, 515 ], [ 523, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first dedicated online chat service that was widely available to the public was the CompuServe CB Simulator in 1980, created by CompuServe executive Alexander \"Sandy\" Trevor in Columbus, Ohio. Chat rooms gained mainstream popularity with AOL.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2317164, 77664, 5950, 1397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 111 ], [ 132, 142 ], [ 181, 195 ], [ 242, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jarkko Oikarinen created Internet Relay Chat (IRC) in 1988. Many peer-to-peer clients have chat rooms, e.g. Ares Galaxy, eMule, Filetopia, Retroshare, Vuze, WASTE, WinMX, etc. Many popular social media platforms are now used as chat rooms, such as WhatsApp, Facebook Groups, Twitter, and TikTok.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 170573, 14730, 5464202, 832613, 30992851, 8293945, 239970, 230289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 25, 44 ], [ 122, 127 ], [ 129, 138 ], [ 140, 150 ], [ 152, 156 ], [ 158, 163 ], [ 165, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Visual chat rooms add graphics to the chat experience, in either 2D or 3D (employing virtual reality technology). These are characterized by using a graphic representation of the user, an avatar (virtual elements such as games (in particular massively multiplayer online games) and educational material most often developed by individual site owners, who in general are simply more advanced users of the systems. The most popular environments, such as The Palace, also allow users to create or build their own spaces. Some of the most popular 3D chat experiences are IMVU and Second Life (though they extend far beyond just chat). Many such implementations generate profit by selling virtual goods to users at a high margin.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Graphical multi-user environments", "target_page_ids": [ 32612, 908746, 529056, 1497138, 13052645, 589192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 100 ], [ 188, 194 ], [ 242, 275 ], [ 452, 462 ], [ 567, 571 ], [ 576, 587 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some online chat rooms also incorporate audio and video communications, so that users may actually see and hear each other.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Graphical multi-user environments", "target_page_ids": [ 2304367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Games are also often played in chat rooms. These are typically implemented by an external process such as an IRC bot joining the room to conduct the game. Trivia question & answer games are most prevalent. A historic example is Hunt the Wumpus. Chatroom-based implementations of the party game Mafia also exist. A similar but more complex style of text-based gaming are MUDs, in which players interact within a textual, interactive fiction–like environment.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Graphical multi-user environments", "target_page_ids": [ 676905, 1690736, 14323, 235401, 19537, 14789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 116 ], [ 155, 161 ], [ 228, 243 ], [ 294, 299 ], [ 370, 373 ], [ 420, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chat rooms, particularly those intended for children, usually have rules that they require users to follow. The rules are generally posted before entry, either on a web page or an MOTD-type banner in the case of IRC and other text-based chat systems. Rules usually do not allow users to use offensive/rude language, or to promote hate, violence, and other negative issues. Many also disallow impersonating another user. Chat rooms often do not allow advertising or \"flooding\", which is continually filling the screen with repetitive text. Typing with caps lock on is usually considered shouting (suggesting anger) and is discouraged. Offenders of these rules can be \"kicked\" (temporarily ejected from the room, but allowed back in) or banned completely either on a temporary or permanent basis.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Rules of behavior", "target_page_ids": [ 21076839, 28111753, 555364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 173 ], [ 180, 184 ], [ 551, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sometimes chat room venues are moderated either by limiting who is allowed to speak (not common), by having comments be approved by moderators (often presented as asking questions of a guest or celebrity), or by having moderation volunteers patrol the venue watching for disruptive or otherwise undesirable behavior. Yet, most commonly used chat rooms are not moderated and users may chat freely with the other occupants of the room.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Rules of behavior", "target_page_ids": [ 294813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Email", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Internet Relay Chat", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of chat websites", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40203401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Online chat", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 174492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Psychology of Cyberspace (2006)—E-book exploring the psychological aspects of online environments by Dr. John Suler, Rider University", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 16465425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 120 ] ] } ]

[ "Online_chat", "1990s_fads_and_trends", "2000s_fads_and_trends", "Internet_culture", "Internet_forum_terminology" ]

[ "chatroom", "syncronised chat", "video chat room", "chat channel", "channel", "group chat", "groupchat", "GC", "online chat room", "online chatroom" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is a standardized exterior gateway protocol designed to exchange routing and reachability information among autonomous systems (AS) on the Internet. BGP is classified as a path-vector routing protocol, and it makes routing decisions based on paths, network policies, or rule-sets configured by a network administrator.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5345346, 25750, 312399, 14539, 2421243, 25750, 1595155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 73 ], [ 95, 102 ], [ 138, 156 ], [ 169, 177 ], [ 202, 230 ], [ 245, 252 ], [ 326, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "BGP used for routing within an autonomous system is called Interior Border Gateway Protocol, Internal BGP (iBGP). In contrast, the Internet application of the protocol is called Exterior Border Gateway Protocol, External BGP (eBGP).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Border Gateway Protocol was sketched out in 1989 by engineers on the back of \"three ketchup-stained napkins\", and is still known as the three-napkin protocol. It was first described in 1989 in RFC 1105, and has been in use on the Internet since 1994. IPv6 BGP was first defined in in 1994, and it was improved to in 1998.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 255, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The current version of BGP is version 4 (BGP4), which was published as RFC 4271 in 2006. RFC 4271 corrected errors, clarified ambiguities and updated the specification with common industry practices. The major enhancement was the support for Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) and use of route aggregation to decrease the size of routing tables. The new RFC allows BGP4 to carry a wide range of IPv4 and IPv6 \"address families\". It is also called the Multiprotocol Extensions which is Multiprotocol BGP (MP-BGP).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 38404, 889746, 48043, 15317, 15318, 2413437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 242, 272 ], [ 291, 308 ], [ 333, 346 ], [ 398, 402 ], [ 407, 411 ], [ 488, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "BGP neighbors, called peers, are established by manual configuration among routers to create a TCP session on port 179. A BGP speaker sends 19-byte keep-alive messages every 30 seconds (protocol default value, tunable) to maintain the connection. Among routing protocols, BGP is unique in using TCP as its transport protocol.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 25748, 30538, 4971331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 81 ], [ 95, 98 ], [ 110, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When BGP runs between two peers in the same autonomous system (AS), it is referred to as Internal BGP (iBGP or Interior Border Gateway Protocol). When it runs between different autonomous systems, it is called External BGP (eBGP or Exterior Border Gateway Protocol). Routers on the boundary of one AS exchanging information with another AS are called border or edge routers or simply eBGP peers and are typically connected directly, while iBGP peers can be interconnected through other intermediate routers. Other deployment topologies are also possible, such as running eBGP peering inside a VPN tunnel, allowing two remote sites to exchange routing information in a secure and isolated manner.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 312399, 41413, 147130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 61 ], [ 525, 535 ], [ 593, 596 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main difference between iBGP and eBGP peering is in the way routes that were received from one peer are typically propagated by default to other peers:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " New routes learned from an eBGP peer are re-advertised to all iBGP and eBGP peers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " New routes learned from an iBGP peer are re-advertised to all eBGP peers only.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These route-propagation rules effectively require that all iBGP peers inside an AS are interconnected in a full mesh with iBGP sessions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "How routes are propagated can be controlled in detail via the route-maps mechanism. This mechanism consists of a set of rules. Each rule describes, for routes matching some given criteria, what action should be taken. The action could be to drop the route, or it could be to modify some attributes of the route before inserting it in the routing table.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 48043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 338, 351 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the peering handshake, when OPEN messages are exchanged, BGP speakers can negotiate optional capabilities of the session, including multiprotocol extensions and various recovery modes. If the multiprotocol extensions to BGP are negotiated at the time of creation, the BGP speaker can prefix the Network Layer Reachability Information (NLRI) it advertises with an address family prefix. These families include the IPv4 (default), IPv6, IPv4/IPv6 Virtual Private Networks and multicast BGP. Increasingly, BGP is used as a generalized signaling protocol to carry information about routes that may not be part of the global Internet, such as VPNs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 2413437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In order to make decisions in its operations with peers, a BGP peer uses a simple finite state machine (FSM) that consists of six states: Idle; Connect; Active; OpenSent; OpenConfirm; and Established. For each peer-to-peer session, a BGP implementation maintains a state variable that tracks which of these six states the session is in. The BGP defines the messages that each peer should exchange in order to change the session from one state to another.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 10931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first state is the Idle state. In the Idle state, BGP initializes all resources, refuses all inbound BGP connection attempts and initiates a TCP connection to the peer. The second state is Connect. In the Connect state, the router waits for the TCP connection to complete and transitions to the OpenSent state if successful. If unsuccessful, it starts the ConnectRetry timer and transitions to the Active state upon expiration. In the Active state, the router resets the ConnectRetry timer to zero and returns to the Connect state. In the OpenSent state, the router sends an Open message and waits for one in return in order to transition to the OpenConfirm state. Keepalive messages are exchanged and, upon successful receipt, the router is placed into the Established state. In the Established state, the router can send and receive: Keepalive; Update; and Notification messages to and from its peer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Idle State:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Refuse all incoming BGP connections.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Start the initialization of event triggers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Initiates a TCP connection with its configured BGP peer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Listens for a TCP connection from its peer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Changes its state to Connect.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If an error occurs at any state of the FSM process, the BGP session is terminated immediately and returned to the Idle state. Some of the reasons why a router does not progress from the Idle state are:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " TCP port 179 is not open.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A random TCP port over 1023 is not open.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Peer address configured incorrectly on either router.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " AS number configured incorrectly on either router.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Connect State:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Waits for successful TCP negotiation with peer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " BGP does not spend much time in this state if the TCP session has been successfully established.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sends Open message to peer and changes state to OpenSent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If an error occurs, BGP moves to the Active state. Some reasons for the error are:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " TCP port 179 is not open.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A random TCP port over 1023 is not open.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Peer address configured incorrectly on either router.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " AS number configured incorrectly on either router.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Active State:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If the router was unable to establish a successful TCP session, then it ends up in the Active state.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " BGP FSM tries to restart another TCP session with the peer and, if successful, then it sends an Open message to the peer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If it is unsuccessful again, the FSM is reset to the Idle state.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Repeated failures may result in a router cycling between the Idle and Active states. Some of the reasons for this include:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " TCP port 179 is not open.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A random TCP port over 1023 is not open.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " BGP configuration error.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Network congestion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Flapping network interface.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " OpenSent State:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " BGP FSM listens for an Open message from its peer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Once the message has been received, the router checks the validity of the Open message.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If there is an error it is because one of the fields in the Open message does not match between the peers, e.g., BGP version mismatch, the peering router expects a different My AS, etc. The router then sends a Notification message to the peer indicating why the error occurred.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If there is no error, a Keepalive message is sent, various timers are set and the state is changed to OpenConfirm.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " OpenConfirm State:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The peer is listening for a Keepalive message from its peer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If a Keepalive message is received and no timer has expired before reception of the Keepalive, BGP transitions to the Established state.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If a timer expires before a Keepalive message is received, or if an error condition occurs, the router transitions back to the Idle state.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Established State:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In this state, the peers send Update messages to exchange information about each route being advertised to the BGP peer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If there is any error in the Update message then a Notification message is sent to the peer, and BGP transitions back to the Idle state.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the simplest arrangement, all routers within a single AS and participating in BGP routing must be configured in a full mesh: each router must be configured as a peer to every other router. This causes scaling problems, since the number of required connections grows quadratically with the number of routers involved. To alleviate the problem, BGP implements two options: route reflectors (RFC 4456) and BGP confederations (RFC 5065). The following discussion of basic update processing assumes a full iBGP mesh.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 9228246, 38893, 38893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 282 ], [ 374, 389 ], [ 406, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A given BGP router may accept network-layer reachability information (NLRI) updates from multiple neighbors and advertise NLRI to the same, or a different set, of neighbors. Conceptually, BGP maintains its own master routing table, called the local routing information base (Loc-RIB), separate from the main routing table of the router. For each neighbor, the BGP process maintains a conceptual adjacent routing information base, incoming (Adj-RIB-In) containing the NLRI received from the neighbor, and a conceptual outgoing information base (Adj-RIB-Out) for NLRI to be sent to the neighbor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 48043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The physical storage and structure of these conceptual tables are decided by the implementer of the BGP code. Their structure is not visible to other BGP routers, although they usually can be interrogated with management commands on the local router. It is quite common, for example, to store the two Adj-RIBs and the Loc-RIB together in the same data structure, with additional information attached to the RIB entries. The additional information tells the BGP process such things as whether individual entries belong in the Adj-RIBs for specific neighbors, whether the peer-neighbor route selection process made received policies eligible for the Loc-RIB, and whether Loc-RIB entries are eligible to be submitted to the local router's routing table management process.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "BGP submits the routes that it considers best to the main routing table process. Depending on the implementation of that process, the BGP route is not necessarily selected. For example, a directly connected prefix, learned from the router's own hardware, is usually most preferred. As long as that directly connected route's interface is active, the BGP route to the destination will not be put into the routing table. Once the interface goes down, and there are no more preferred routes, the Loc-RIB route would be installed in the main routing table.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "BGP carries the information with which rules inside BGP-speaking routers can make policy decisions. Some of the information carried that is explicitly intended to be used in policy decisions are communities and multi-exit discriminators (MED).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The BGP standard specifies a number of decision factors, more than the ones that are used by any other common routing process, for selecting NLRI to go into the Loc-RIB. The first decision point for evaluating NLRI is that its next-hop attribute must be reachable (or resolvable). Another way of saying the next-hop must be reachable is that there must be an active route, already in the main routing table of the router, to the prefix in which the next-hop address is reachable.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Next, for each neighbor, the BGP process applies various standard and implementation-dependent criteria to decide which routes conceptually should go into the Adj-RIB-In. The neighbor could send several possible routes to a destination, but the first level of preference is at the neighbor level. Only one route to each destination will be installed in the conceptual Adj-RIB-In. This process will also delete, from the Adj-RIB-In, any routes that are withdrawn by the neighbor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Whenever a conceptual Adj-RIB-In changes, the main BGP process decides if any of the neighbor's new routes are preferred to routes already in the Loc-RIB. If so, it replaces them. If a given route is withdrawn by a neighbor, and there is no other route to that destination, the route is removed from the Loc-RIB and no longer sent by BGP to the main routing table manager. If the router does not have a route to that destination from any non-BGP source, the withdrawn route will be removed from the main routing table.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After verifying that the next hop is reachable, if the route comes from an internal (i.e. iBGP) peer, the first rule to apply, according to the standard, is to examine the local preference attribute. If there are several iBGP routes from the neighbor, the one with the highest local preference is selected unless there are several routes with the same local preference. In the latter case the route selection process moves to the next tiebreaker. While local preference is the first rule in the standard, once reachability of the next hop is verified, Cisco and several other vendors first consider a decision factor called weight which is local to the router (i.e. not transmitted by BGP). The route with the highest weight is preferred.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 3013373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 435, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The local preference, weight, and other criteria can be manipulated by local configuration and software capabilities. Such manipulation, although commonly used, is outside the scope of the standard. For example, the community attribute (see below) is not directly used by the BGP selection process. The BGP neighbor process however can have a rule to set local preference or another factor based on a manually programmed rule to set the attribute if the community value matches some pattern-matching criterion. If the route was learned from an external peer the per-neighbor BGP process computes a local preference value from local policy rules and then compares the local preference of all routes from the neighbor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the per-neighbor level ignoring implementation-specific policy modifiers the order of tie-breaking rules is:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Prefer the route with the shortest AS path. An AS path is the set of AS numbers that must be traversed to reach the advertised destination. AS1–AS2–AS3 is shorter than AS4–AS5–AS6–AS7.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Prefer routes with the lowest value of their ORIGIN attribute.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Prefer routes with the lowest multi-exit discriminator or MED) value.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Once candidate routes are received from neighbors, the Loc-RIB software applies additional tie-breakers to routes to the same destination.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If at least one route was learned from an external neighbor (i.e., the route was learned from eBGP), drop all routes learned from iBGP.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Prefer the route with the lowest interior cost to the next hop, according to the main routing table. If two neighbors advertised the same route, but one neighbor is reachable via a low-bitrate link and the other by a high-bitrate link, and the interior routing protocol calculates lowest cost based on highest bitrate, the route through the high-bitrate link would be preferred and other routes dropped.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If there is more than one route still tied at this point, several BGP implementations offer a configurable option to load-share among the routes, accepting all (or all up to some number).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "BGP communities are attribute tags that can be applied to incoming or outgoing prefixes to achieve some common goal. While it is common to say that BGP allows an administrator to set policies on how prefixes are handled by ISPs, this is generally not possible, strictly speaking. For instance, BGP natively has no concept to allow one AS to tell another AS to restrict advertisement of a prefix to only North American peering customers. Instead, an ISP generally publishes a list of well-known or proprietary communities with a description for each one, which essentially becomes an agreement of how prefixes are to be treated. RFC 1997 defines three well-known communities that have global significance; NO_EXPORT, NO_ADVERTISE and NO_EXPORT_SUBCONFED. RFC 7611 defines ACCEPT_OWN. Examples of common communities include local preference adjustments, geographic or peer type restrictions, denial-of-service attack identification, and AS prepending options. An ISP might state that any routes received from customers with community XXX:500 will be advertised to all peers (default) while community XXX:501 will only be advertised to North America. The customer simply adjusts their configuration to include the correct community or communities for each route, and the ISP is responsible for controlling who the prefix is advertised to. The end user has no technical ability to enforce correct actions being taken by the ISP, though problems in this area are generally rare and accidental.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 39776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 890, 914 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is a common tactic for end customers to use BGP communities (usually ASN:70,80,90,100) to control the local preference the ISP assigns to advertised routes instead of using MED (the effect is similar). The community attribute is transitive, but communities applied by the customer very rarely propagated outside the next-hop AS. Not all ISPs give out their communities to the public.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The BGP Extended Community Attribute was added in 2006, in order to extend the range of such attributes and to provide a community attribute structuring by means of a type field. The extended format consists of one or two octets for the type field followed by seven or six octets for the respective community attribute content. The definition of this Extended Community Attribute is documented in RFC 4360. The IANA administers the registry for BGP Extended Communities Types. The Extended Communities Attribute itself is a transitive optional BGP attribute. However, a bit in the type field within the attribute decides whether the encoded extended community is of a transitive or non-transitive nature. The IANA registry therefore provides different number ranges for the attribute types. Due to the extended attribute range, its usage can be manifold. RFC 4360 exemplarily defines the \"Two-Octet AS Specific Extended Community\", the \"IPv4 Address Specific Extended Community\", the \"Opaque Extended Community\", the \"Route Target Community\", and the \"Route Origin Community\". A number of BGP QoS drafts also use this Extended Community Attribute structure for inter-domain QoS signalling.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With the introduction of 32-bit AS numbers, some issues were immediately obvious with the community attribute that only defines a 16 bits ASN field, which prevents the matching between this field and the real ASN value. Since RFC 7153, extended communities are compatible with 32-bit ASNs. RFC 8092 and RFC 8195 introduce a Large Community attribute of 12 bytes, divided in three field of 4 bytes each (AS:function:parameter).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "MEDs, defined in the main BGP standard, were originally intended to show to another neighbor AS the advertising AS's preference as to which of several links are preferred for inbound traffic. Another application of MEDs is to advertise the value, typically based on delay, of multiple ASs that have a presence at an IXP, that they impose to send traffic to some destination.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 359193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 316, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marker: Included for compatibility, must be set to all ones.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Length: Total length of the message in octets, including the header.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 4240997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Type: Type of BGP message. The following values are defined:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Open (1)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Update (2)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Notification (3)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " KeepAlive (4)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Route-Refresh (5)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "BGP is \"the most scalable of all routing protocols.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An autonomous system with internal BGP (iBGP) must have all of its iBGP peers connect to each other in a full mesh (where everyone speaks to everyone directly). This full-mesh configuration requires that each router maintain a session with every other router. In large networks, this number of sessions may degrade the performance of routers, due to either a lack of memory, or high CPU process requirements.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [ 85816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Route reflectors (RRs) reduce the number of connections required in an AS. A single router (or two for redundancy) can be made an RR: other routers in the AS need only be configured as peers to them. An RR offers an alternative to the logical full-mesh requirement of iBGP. The purpose of the RR is concentration. Multiple BGP routers can peer with a central point, the RR acting as an RR server rather than peer with every other router in a full mesh. All the other iBGP routers become RR clients.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This approach, similar to OSPF's DR/BDR feature, provides large networks with added iBGP scalability. In a fully meshed iBGP network of 10 routers, 90 individual CLI statements (spread throughout all routers in the topology) are needed just to define the remote-AS of each peer: this quickly becomes a headache to manage. An RR topology can cut these 90 statements down to 18, offering a viable solution for the larger networks administered by ISPs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [ 43388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An RR is a single point of failure, therefore at least a second RR may be configured in order to provide redundancy. As it is an additional peer for the other 10 routers, it approximately doubles the number of CLI statements, requiring an additional statements in this case. In a BGP multipath environment the additional RR also can benefit the network by adding local routing throughput if the RRs are acting as traditional routers instead of just a dedicated RR server role.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [ 26207504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "RR servers propagate routes inside the AS based on the following rules:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Routes are always reflected to eBGP peers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Routes are never reflected to the originator of the route.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If a route is received from a non-client peer, reflect to client peers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If a route is received from a client peer, reflect to client and non-client peers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "RR and its clients form a cluster. The cluster ID is then attached to every route advertised by RR to its client or nonclient peers. A cluster ID is a cumulative, non-transitive BGP attribute, and every RR must prepend the local cluster ID to the cluster list to avoid routing loops.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "RRs and confederations both reduce the number of iBGP peers to each router and thus reduce processing overhead. RRs are a pure performance-enhancing technique, while confederations also can be used to implement more fine-grained policy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Confederations are sets of autonomous systems. In common practice, only one of the confederation AS numbers is seen by the Internet as a whole. Confederations are used in very large networks where a large AS can be configured to encompass smaller more manageable internal ASs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The confederated AS is composed of multiple ASs. Each confederated AS alone has iBGP fully meshed and has connections to other ASs inside the confederation. Even though these ASs have eBGP peers to ASs within the confederation, the ASs exchange routing as if they used iBGP. In this way, the confederation preserves next hop, metric, and local preference information. To the outside world, the confederation appears to be a single AS. With this solution, iBGP transit AS problems can be resolved as iBGP requires a full mesh between all BGP routers: large number of TCP sessions and unnecessary duplication of routing traffic.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Confederations can be used in conjunction with route reflectors. Both confederations and route reflectors can be subject to persistent oscillation unless specific design rules, affecting both BGP and the interior routing protocol, are followed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, these alternatives can introduce problems of their own, including the following:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " route oscillation", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " sub-optimal routing", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " increase of BGP convergence time", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Additionally, route reflectors and BGP confederations were not designed to ease BGP router configuration. Nevertheless, these are common tools for experienced BGP network architects. These tools may be combined, for example, as a hierarchy of route reflectors.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Internal scalability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The routing tables managed by a BGP implementation are adjusted continually to reflect actual changes in the network, such as links breaking and being restored or routers going down and coming back up. In the network as a whole it is normal for these changes to happen almost continuously, but for any particular router or link, changes are supposed to be relatively infrequent. If a router is misconfigured or mismanaged then it may get into a rapid cycle between down and up states. This pattern of repeated withdrawal and re-announcement known as route flapping can cause excessive activity in all the other routers that know about the broken link, as the same route is continually injected and withdrawn from the routing tables. The BGP design is such that delivery of traffic may not function while routes are being updated. On the Internet, a BGP routing change may cause outages for several minutes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Stability", "target_page_ids": [ 47167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 550, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A feature known as route flap damping (RFC 2439) is built into many BGP implementations in an attempt to mitigate the effects of route flapping. Without damping, the excessive activity can cause a heavy processing load on routers, which may in turn delay updates on other routes, and so affect overall routing stability. With damping, a route's flapping is exponentially decayed. At the first instance when a route becomes unavailable and quickly reappears, damping does not take effect, so as to maintain the normal fail-over times of BGP. At the second occurrence, BGP shuns that prefix for a certain length of time; subsequent occurrences are timed out exponentially. After the abnormalities have ceased and a suitable length of time has passed for the offending route, prefixes can be reinstated and its slate wiped clean. Damping can also mitigate denial of service attacks; damping timings are highly customizable.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Stability", "target_page_ids": [ 330320, 39776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 357, 378 ], [ 853, 870 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is also suggested in RFC 2439 (under \"Design Choices -> Stability Sensitive Suppression of Route Advertisement\") that route flap damping is a feature more desirable if implemented to Exterior Border Gateway Protocol Sessions (eBGP sessions or simply called exterior peers) and not on Interior Border Gateway Protocol Sessions (iBGP sessions or simply called internal peers); With this approach when a route flaps inside an autonomous system, it is not propagated to the external ASs flapping a route to an eBGP will have a chain of flapping for the particular route throughout the backbone. This method also successfully avoids the overhead of route flap damping for iBGP sessions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Stability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, subsequent research has shown that flap damping can actually lengthen convergence times in some cases, and can cause interruptions in connectivity even when links are not flapping. Moreover, as backbone links and router processors have become faster, some network architects have suggested that flap damping may not be as important as it used to be, since changes to the routing table can be handled much faster by routers. This has led the RIPE Routing Working Group to write that \"with the current implementations of BGP flap damping, the application of flap damping in ISP networks is NOT recommended. ... If flap damping is implemented, the ISP operating that network will cause side-effects to their customers and the Internet users of their customers' content and services ... . These side-effects would quite likely be worse than the impact caused by simply not running flap damping at all.\" Improving stability without the problems of flap damping is the subject of current research.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Stability", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One of the largest problems faced by BGP, and indeed the Internet infrastructure as a whole, is the growth of the Internet routing table. If the global routing table grows to the point where some older, less capable routers cannot cope with the memory requirements or the CPU load of maintaining the table, these routers will cease to be effective gateways between the parts of the Internet they connect. In addition, and perhaps even more importantly, larger routing tables take longer to stabilize (see above) after a major connectivity change, leaving network service unreliable, or even unavailable, in the interim.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Routing table growth", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Until late 2001, the global routing table was growing exponentially, threatening an eventual widespread breakdown of connectivity. In an attempt to prevent this, ISPs cooperated in keeping the global routing table as small as possible, by using Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) and route aggregation. While this slowed the growth of the routing table to a linear process for several years, with the expanded demand for multihoming by end user networks the growth was once again superlinear by the middle of 2004.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Routing table growth", "target_page_ids": [ 191933, 38404, 889746, 641227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 67 ], [ 245, 275 ], [ 287, 304 ], [ 424, 435 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Y2K-like overflow triggered in 2014 for those models that were not appropriately updated.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Routing table growth", "target_page_ids": [ 25739013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While a full IPv4 BGP table (512k day) was in excess of 512,000 prefixes, many older routers had a limit of 512k (512,000–524,288) routing table entries. On August 12, 2014, outages resulting from full tables hit eBay, LastPass and Microsoft Azure among others. A number of Cisco routers commonly in use had TCAM, a form of high-speed content-addressable memory, for storing BGP advertised routes. On impacted routers, the TCAM was default allocated as 512k IPv4 routes and 256k IPv6 routes. While the reported number of IPv6 advertised routes was only about 20k, the number of advertised IPv4 routes reached the default limit, causing a spillover effect as routers attempted to compensate for the issue by using slow software routing (as opposed to fast hardware routing via TCAM). The main method for dealing with this issue involves operators changing the TCAM allocation to allow more IPv4 entries, by reallocating some of the TCAM reserved for IPv6 routes, which requires a reboot on most routers. The 512k problem was predicted by a number of IT professionals.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Routing table growth", "target_page_ids": [ 130495, 21807738, 19961416, 327799, 327799, 16720480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 214, 218 ], [ 220, 228 ], [ 233, 248 ], [ 309, 313 ], [ 336, 362 ], [ 639, 655 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The actual allocations which pushed the number of routes above 512k was the announcement of about 15,000 new routes in short order, starting at 07:48 UTC. Almost all of these routes were to Verizon Autonomous Systems 701 and 705, created as a result of deaggregation of larger blocks, introducing thousands of new routes, and making the routing table reach 515,000 entries. The new routes appear to have been reaggregated within 5 minutes, but instability across the Internet apparently continued for a number of hours. Even if Verizon had not caused the routing table to exceed 512k entries in the short spike, it would have happened soon anyway through natural growth.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Routing table growth", "target_page_ids": [ 18619278, 312399, 889746, 38404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 197 ], [ 198, 216 ], [ 253, 266 ], [ 314, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Route summarization is often used to improve aggregation of the BGP global routing table, thereby reducing the necessary table size in routers of an AS. Consider AS1 has been allocated the big address space of , this would be counted as one route in the table, but due to customer requirement or traffic engineering purposes, AS1 wants to announce smaller, more specific routes of , , and . The prefix does not have any hosts so AS1 does not announce a specific route . This all counts as AS1 announcing four routes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Routing table growth", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AS2 will see the four routes from AS1 (, , , and ) and it is up to the routing policy of AS2 to decide whether or not to take a copy of the four routes or, as overlaps all the other specific routes, to just store the summary, .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Routing table growth", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If AS2 wants to send data to prefix , it will be sent to the routers of AS1 on route . At AS1's router, it will either be dropped or a destination unreachable ICMP message will be sent back, depending on the configuration of AS1's routers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Routing table growth", "target_page_ids": [ 15107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If AS1 later decides to drop the route , leaving , , and , AS1 will drop the number of routes it announces to three. AS2 will see the three routes, and depending on the routing policy of AS2, it will store a copy of the three routes, or aggregate the prefix's and to , thereby reducing the number of routes AS2 stores to only two: and .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Routing table growth", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If AS2 wants to send data to prefix , it will be dropped or a destination unreachable ICMP message will be sent back at the routers of AS2 (not AS1 as before), because would not be in the routing table.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Routing table growth", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The RFC 1771 (A Border Gateway Protocol 4 (BGP-4)) planned the coding of AS numbers on 16 bits, for 64510 possible public AS, since ASN 64512 to 65534 were reserved for private use (0 and 65535 being forbidden). In 2011, only 15000 AS numbers were still available, and projections were envisioning a complete depletion of available AS numbers in September 2013.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Routing table growth", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "RFC 6793 extends AS coding from 16 to 32 bits (keeping the 16 bits AS range 0 to 65535, and its reserved AS numbers), which now allows up to 4 billion available AS. An additional private AS range is also defined in RFC 6996 (from 4200000000 to 4294967294, 4294967295 being forbidden by RFC 7300).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Routing table growth", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To allow the traversal of router groups not able to manage those new ASNs, the new attribute OT AS4_PATH is used.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Routing table growth", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "32-bit ASN assignments started in 2007.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Routing table growth", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another factor causing this growth of the routing table is the need for load balancing of multi-homed networks. It is not a trivial task to balance the inbound traffic to a multi-homed network across its multiple inbound paths, due to limitation of the BGP route selection process. For a multi-homed network, if it announces the same network blocks across all of its BGP peers, the result may be that one or several of its inbound links become congested while the other links remain under-utilized, because external networks all picked that set of congested paths as optimal. Like most other routing protocols, BGP does not detect congestion.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Load balancing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To work around this problem, BGP administrators of that multihomed network may divide a large contiguous IP address block into smaller blocks and tweak the route announcement to make different blocks look optimal on different paths, so that external networks will choose a different path to reach different blocks of that multi-homed network. Such cases will increase the number of routes as seen on the global BGP table.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Load balancing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One method growing in popularity to address the load balancing issue is to deploy BGP/LISP (Locator/Identifier Separation Protocol) gateways within an Internet exchange point to allow ingress traffic engineering across multiple links. This technique does not increase the number of routes seen on the global BGP table.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Load balancing", "target_page_ids": [ 19358462, 359193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 130 ], [ 151, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By design, routers running BGP accept advertised routes from other BGP routers by default. This allows for automatic and decentralized routing of traffic across the Internet, but it also leaves the Internet potentially vulnerable to accidental or malicious disruption, known as BGP hijacking. Due to the extent to which BGP is embedded in the core systems of the Internet, and the number of different networks operated by many different organizations which collectively make up the Internet, correcting this vulnerability (such as by introducing the use of cryptographic keys to verify the identity of BGP routers) is a technically and economically challenging problem.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Security", "target_page_ids": [ 2672232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An extension to BGP is the use of multipathing this typically requires identical MED, weight, origin, and AS-path although some implementations provide the ability to relax the AS-path checking to only expect an equal path length rather than the actual AS numbers in the path being expected to match too. This can then be extended further with features like Cisco's dmzlink-bw which enables a ratio of traffic sharing based on bandwidth values configured on individual links.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Multiprotocol Extensions for BGP (MBGP), sometimes referred to as Multiprotocol BGP or Multicast BGP and defined in IETF , is an extension to (BGP) that allows different types of addresses (known as address families) to be distributed in parallel. Whereas standard BGP supports only IPv4 unicast addresses, Multiprotocol BGP supports IPv4 and IPv6 addresses and it supports unicast and multicast variants of each. Multiprotocol BGP allows information about the topology of IP multicast-capable routers to be exchanged separately from the topology of normal IPv4 unicast routers. Thus, it allows a multicast routing topology different from the unicast routing topology. Although MBGP enables the exchange of inter-domain multicast routing information, other protocols such as the Protocol Independent Multicast family are needed to build trees and forward multicast traffic.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Multiprotocol BGP is also widely deployed in case of MPLS L3 VPN, to exchange VPN labels learned for the routes from the customer sites over the MPLS network, in order to distinguish between different customer sites when the traffic from the other customer sites comes to the Provider Edge router (PE router) for routing.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Extensions", "target_page_ids": [ 20623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "BGP4 is standard for Internet routing and required of most Internet service providers (ISPs) to establish routing between one another. Very large private IP networks use BGP internally. An example is the joining of a number of large Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) networks, when OSPF by itself does not scale to the size required. Another reason to use BGP is multihoming a network for better redundancy, either to multiple access points of a single ISP or to multiple ISPs.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 100245, 15323, 43388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 84 ], [ 154, 156 ], [ 233, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Routers, especially small ones intended for small office/home office (SOHO) use, may not include BGP software. Some SOHO routers simply are not capable of running BGP or using BGP routing tables of any size. Other commercial routers may need a specific software executable image that contains BGP, or a license that enables it. Open-source packages that run BGP include GNU Zebra, Quagga, OpenBGPD, BIRD, XORP, and Vyatta. Devices marketed as Layer 3 switches are less likely to support BGP than devices marketed as routers, but high-end Layer 3 switches usually can run BGP.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Implementations", "target_page_ids": [ 304173, 1256558, 5664561, 3448813, 4998809, 1232264, 6120119, 235110, 25748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 68 ], [ 370, 379 ], [ 381, 387 ], [ 389, 397 ], [ 399, 403 ], [ 405, 409 ], [ 415, 421 ], [ 443, 457 ], [ 516, 523 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Products marketed as switches may or may not have a size limitation on BGP tables, such as 20,000 routes, far smaller than a full Internet table plus internal routes. These devices, however, may be perfectly reasonable and useful when used for BGP routing of some smaller part of the network, such as a confederation-AS representing one of several smaller enterprises that are linked, by a BGP backbone of backbones, or a small enterprise that announces routes to an ISP but only accepts a default route and perhaps a small number of aggregated routes.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Implementations", "target_page_ids": [ 1274136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 490, 503 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A BGP router used only for a network with a single point of entry to the Internet may have a much smaller routing table size (and hence RAM and CPU requirement) than a multihomed network. Even simple multihoming can have modest routing table size. See RFC 4098 for vendor-independent performance parameters for single-BGP-router convergence in the control plane. The actual amount of memory required in a BGP router depends on the amount of BGP information exchanged with other BGP speakers and the way in which the particular router stores BGP information. The router may have to keep more than one copy of a route, so it can manage different policies for route advertising and acceptance to a specific neighboring AS. The term view is often used for these different policy relationships on a running router.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Implementations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If one router implementation takes more memory per route than another implementation, this may be a legitimate design choice, trading processing speed against memory. A full IPv4 BGP table is in excess of 590,000 prefixes. Large ISPs may add another 50% for internal and customer routes. Again depending on implementation, separate tables may be kept for each view of a different peer AS.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Implementations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Notable free and open-source implementations of BGP include:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Implementations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " BIRD, a GPL routing package for Unix-like systems.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Implementations", "target_page_ids": [ 4998809, 18938683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 9, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "FRRouting, a fork of Quagga for Unix-like systems.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Implementations", "target_page_ids": [ 59571426, 21347057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 32, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " GNU Zebra, a GPL routing suite supporting BGP4. (decommissioned)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Implementations", "target_page_ids": [ 1256558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " OpenBGPD, a BSD-licensed implementation by the OpenBSD team.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Implementations", "target_page_ids": [ 3448813, 18933111, 18949571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 13, 25 ], [ 48, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Quagga, a fork of GNU Zebra for Unix-like systems.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Implementations", "target_page_ids": [ 5664561, 21347057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 33, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " XORP, the eXtensible Open Router Platform, a BSD-licensed suite of routing protocols.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Implementations", "target_page_ids": [ 1232264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Systems for testing BGP conformance, load or stress performance come from vendors such as:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Implementations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Agilent Technologies", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Implementations", "target_page_ids": [ 162468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " GNS3 open source network simulator", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Implementations", "target_page_ids": [ 31817801, 277663, 1446517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 18, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ixia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Implementations", "target_page_ids": [ 28822335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Spirent Communications", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Implementations", "target_page_ids": [ 4007152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " , Application of the Border Gateway Protocol in the Internet Protocol (BGP-4) using SMIv2", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , BGP Communities Attribute", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , BGP Route Flap Damping", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Route Refresh Capability for BGP-4", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , NOPEER Community for Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) Route Scope Control", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , A Border Gateway Protocol 4 (BGP-4)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , BGP Security Vulnerabilities Analysis", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Definitions of Managed Objects for BGP-4", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , BGP-4 Protocol Analysis", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , BGP-4 MIB Implementation Survey", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , BGP-4 Implementation Report", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Experience with the BGP-4 Protocol", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Standards Maturity Variance Regarding the TCP MD5 Signature Option (RFC 2385) and the BGP-4 Specification", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , BGP Extended Communities Attribute", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , BGP Route Reflection– An Alternative to Full Mesh Internal BGP (iBGP)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Graceful Restart Mechanism for BGP", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Multiprotocol Extensions for BGP-4", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Autonomous System Confederations for BGP", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Capabilities Advertisement with BGP-4", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Dissemination of Flow Specification Rules", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , IPv6 Address Specific BGP Extended Community Attribute", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , BGP Support for Four-Octet Autonomous System (AS) Number Space", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , IANA Registries for BGP Extended Communities", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Revised Error Handling for BGP UPDATE Messages", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , North-Bound Distribution of Link-State and Traffic Engineering Information Using BGP", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Advertisement of Multiple Paths in BGP", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , BGP Large Communities Attribute", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Use of BGP Large Communities", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Policy Behavior for Well-Known BGP Communities", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " draft-ietf-idr-custom-decision-08– BGP Custom Decision Process, Feb 3, 2017", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Selective Route Refresh for BGP, IETF draft", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Obsolete– Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Obsolete– A Border Gateway Protocol 4 (BGP-4)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Obsolete– Application of the Border Gateway Protocol in the Internet", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Obsolete– Definitions of Managed Objects for the Fourth Version of the Border Gateway", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Obsolete– A Border Gateway Protocol 4 (BGP-4)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Obsolete– Autonomous System Confederations for BGP", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Obsolete– BGP Route Reflection An Alternative to Full Mesh iBGP", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Obsolete– Multiprotocol Extensions for BGP-4", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Obsolete– Autonomous System Confederations for BGP", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Obsolete– Capabilities Advertisement with BGP-4", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Obsolete– BGP Support for Four-octet AS Number Space", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Standards documents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2021 Facebook outage", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 68890493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AS 7007 incident", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21844118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Internet Assigned Numbers Authority", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 84022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Packet forwarding", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1073520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Private IP", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3907726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " QPPB", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9488174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Regional Internet registry", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 286013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Route analytics", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1663751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Route filtering", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7469733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Routing Assets Database", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11095055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chapter \"Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)\" in the Cisco \"IOS Technology Handbook\"", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 51746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "BGP Routing Resources (includes a dedicated section on BGP & ISP Core Security)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " BGP table statistics", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Internet_Standards", "Internet_protocols", "Routing_protocols", "Internet_architecture" ]

[ "BGP" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, is the movement to end slavery. In Western Europe and the Americas, abolitionism was a historic movement that sought to end the Atlantic slave trade and liberate the enslaved people.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27992, 49005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 74 ], [ 172, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The British abolitionist movement started in the late 18th century when English and American Quakers began to question the morality of slavery. James Oglethorpe was among the first to articulate the Enlightenment case against slavery, banning it in the Province of Georgia on humanitarian grounds, and arguing against it in Parliament, and eventually encouraging his friends Granville Sharp and Hannah More to vigorously pursue the cause. Soon after Oglethorpe's death in 1785, Sharp and More united with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4812151, 40772594, 30758, 487081, 444862, 458861, 50226, 50495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 100 ], [ 144, 160 ], [ 199, 212 ], [ 253, 272 ], [ 375, 390 ], [ 395, 406 ], [ 505, 524 ], [ 551, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Somersett case in 1772, in which a fugitive slave was freed with the judgement that slavery did not exist under English common law, helped launch the British movement to abolish slavery. Though anti-slavery sentiments were widespread by the late 18th century, many colonies and emerging nations continued to use slave labour: Dutch, French, British, Spanish, and Portuguese territories in the West Indies, South America, and the Southern United States. After the American Revolution established the United States, northern states, beginning with Pennsylvania in 1780, passed legislation during the next two decades abolishing slavery, sometimes by gradual emancipation. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal; freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state. Vermont, which existed as an unrecognized state from 1777 to 1791, abolished adult slavery in 1777. In other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans and African Americans. During the following decades, the abolitionist movement grew in northern states, and Congress regulated the expansion of slavery in new states admitted to the union.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30863809, 85441, 27992, 1283751, 216862, 4721, 303062, 230578, 1973, 25916051, 67604412, 203889, 30456842, 47481202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 116, 134 ], [ 316, 328 ], [ 330, 335 ], [ 337, 343 ], [ 345, 352 ], [ 354, 361 ], [ 367, 377 ], [ 467, 486 ], [ 535, 562 ], [ 652, 672 ], [ 688, 711 ], [ 741, 754 ], [ 906, 937 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1787, the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade was formed in London. Revolutionary France abolished slavery throughout its empire through the Law of 4 February 1794, but Napoleon restored it in 1802 as part of a programme to ensure sovereignty over its colonies. Haiti (then Saint-Domingue) formally declared independence from France in 1804 and became the first sovereign nation in the Western Hemisphere to unconditionally abolish slavery in the modern era. The northern states in the U.S. all abolished slavery by 1804. The United Kingdom (then including Ireland) and the United States outlawed the international slave trade in 1807, after which Britain led efforts to block slave ships. Britain abolished slavery throughout its empire by the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 (with the notable exception of India), the French colonies re-abolished it in 1848 and the U.S. abolished slavery in 1865 with the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. In 1888, Brazil became the last country in the Americas to abolish slavery.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7533345, 11188, 67731536, 69880, 21281748, 13374, 73162, 435268, 49005, 1176080, 1811656, 11461860, 216862, 31665, 269405, 711943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 67 ], [ 90, 110 ], [ 163, 185 ], [ 192, 200 ], [ 202, 221 ], [ 323, 356 ], [ 410, 428 ], [ 471, 481 ], [ 625, 650 ], [ 695, 712 ], [ 769, 795 ], [ 814, 832 ], [ 839, 854 ], [ 927, 966 ], [ 977, 983 ], [ 1027, 1042 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Eastern Europe, groups organized to abolish the enslavement of the Roma in Wallachia and Moldavia, and to emancipate the serfs in Russia. Slavery was declared illegal in 1948 under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Mauritania was the last country to abolish slavery, with a presidential decree in 1981. Today, child and adult slavery and forced labour are illegal in almost all countries, as well as being against international law, but human trafficking for labour and for sexual bondage continues to affect tens of millions of adults and children.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26152, 46026, 46007, 976976, 31899, 18778516, 17168143, 541048, 8195726, 19333662, 173634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 74 ], [ 78, 87 ], [ 92, 100 ], [ 106, 139 ], [ 188, 225 ], [ 227, 237 ], [ 315, 345 ], [ 350, 363 ], [ 426, 443 ], [ 449, 466 ], [ 486, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1315, Louis X, king of France, published a decree proclaiming that \"France signifies freedom\" and that any slave setting foot on French soil should be freed. This prompted subsequent governments to circumscribe slavery in the overseas colonies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "France", "target_page_ids": [ 78345, 216862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 16 ], [ 229, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some cases of African slaves freed by setting foot on French soil were recorded such as the example of a Norman slave merchant who tried to sell slaves in Bordeaux in 1571. He was arrested and his slaves were freed according to a declaration of the Parlement of Guyenne which stated that slavery was intolerable in France, although it is a misconception that there were 'no slaves in France'; thousands of African slaves were present in France during the eighteenth century. Born into slavery in Saint Domingue, Thomas-Alexandre Dumas became free when his father brought him to France in 1776.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "France", "target_page_ids": [ 21724, 4097, 766191, 85457, 212797, 6448661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 111 ], [ 155, 163 ], [ 249, 258 ], [ 262, 269 ], [ 496, 510 ], [ 512, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As in other New World colonies, the French relied on the Atlantic slave trade for labour for their sugar cane plantations in their Caribbean colonies; the French West Indies. In addition, French colonists in Louisiane in North America held slaves, particularly in the South around New Orleans, where they established sugarcane plantations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "France", "target_page_ids": [ 2393552, 49005, 13873779, 142473, 294564, 18130, 53842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 21 ], [ 57, 77 ], [ 99, 109 ], [ 110, 121 ], [ 155, 173 ], [ 208, 217 ], [ 281, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis XIV's Code Noir regulated the slave trade and institution in the colonies. It gave unparalleled rights to slaves. It included the right to marry, gather publicly, or take Sundays off. Although the Code Noir authorized and codified cruel corporal punishment against slaves under certain conditions, it forbade slave owners to torture them or to separate families. It also demanded enslaved Africans receive instruction in the Catholic faith, implying that Africans were human beings endowed with a soul, a fact French law did not admit until then. It resulted in a far higher percentage of blacks being free in 1830 (13.2% in Louisiana compared to 0.8% in Mississippi). They were on average exceptionally literate, with a significant number of them owning businesses, properties, and even slaves. Other free people of colour, such as Julien Raimond, spoke out against slavery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "France", "target_page_ids": [ 18553, 30872706, 47512411, 2711369, 1582560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 12, 21 ], [ 631, 640 ], [ 661, 672 ], [ 839, 853 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Code Noir also forbade interracial marriages, but it was often ignored in French colonial society and the mulattoes became an intermediate caste between whites and blacks, while in the British colonies mulattoes and blacks were considered equal and discriminated against equally.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "France", "target_page_ids": [ 193629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Age of Enlightenment, many philosophers wrote pamphlets against slavery and its moral and economical justifications, including Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws (1748) and Denis Diderot in the Encyclopédie. In 1788, Jacques Pierre Brissot founded the Society of the Friends of the Blacks (Société des Amis des Noirs) to work for the abolition of slavery. After the Revolution, on 4 April 1792, France granted free people of colour full citizenship.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "France", "target_page_ids": [ 30758, 54956, 2449747, 8199, 101919, 193973, 4144059, 618959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 31 ], [ 138, 149 ], [ 153, 175 ], [ 187, 200 ], [ 208, 220 ], [ 231, 253 ], [ 266, 302 ], [ 424, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The slave revolt, in the largest Caribbean French colony of Saint-Domingue in 1791, was the beginning of what became the Haitian Revolution led by formerly enslaved people like Georges Biassou, Toussaint L'Ouverture, and Jean-Jacques Dessalines. The rebellion swept through the north of the colony, and with it came freedom to thousands of enslaved blacks, but also violence and death. In 1793, French Civil Commissioners in St. Domingue and abolitionists, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax and Étienne Polverel, issued the first emancipation proclamation of the modern world (Decree of 16 Pluviôse An II). The Convention sent them to safeguard the allegiance of the population to revolutionary France. The proclamation resulted in crucial military strategy as it gradually brought most of the black troops into the French fold and kept the colony under the French flag for most of the conflict. The connection with France lasted until blacks and free people of colour formed L'armée indigène in 1802 to resist Napoleon's Expédition de Saint-Domingue. Victory over the French in the decisive Battle of Vertières finally led to independence and the creation of present Haiti in 1804.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "France", "target_page_ids": [ 212797, 999895, 1078246, 141986, 193872, 1061383, 2057944, 69880, 21279745, 1239736, 13373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 74 ], [ 121, 139 ], [ 177, 192 ], [ 194, 215 ], [ 221, 244 ], [ 457, 481 ], [ 486, 502 ], [ 1002, 1010 ], [ 1013, 1041 ], [ 1083, 1102 ], [ 1159, 1164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The convention, the first elected Assembly of the First Republic (1792–1804), on 4 February 1794, under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre, abolished slavery in law in France and its colonies. Abbé Grégoire and the Society of the Friends of the Blacks were part of the abolitionist movement, which had laid important groundwork in building anti-slavery sentiment in the metropole. The first article of the law stated that \"Slavery was abolished\" in the French colonies, while the second article stated that \"slave-owners would be indemnified\" with financial compensation for the value of their slaves. The French constitution passed in 1795 included in the declaration of the Rights of Man that slavery was abolished.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "France", "target_page_ids": [ 62243, 23860776, 67731536, 330089, 1222812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 64 ], [ 122, 144 ], [ 146, 170 ], [ 199, 212 ], [ 376, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the French Revolutionary Wars, French slave-owners joined the counter-revolution en masse and, through the Whitehall Accord, they threatened to move the French Caribbean colonies under British control, as Great Britain still allowed slavery. Fearing secession from these islands, successfully lobbied by planters and concerned about revenues from the West Indies, and influenced by the slaveholder family of his wife, Napoleon Bonaparte decided to re-establish slavery after becoming First Consul. He promulgated the law of 20 May 1802 and sent military governors and troops to the colonies to impose it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "France", "target_page_ids": [ 233039, 43440724, 36026901, 62626, 69880, 216843, 21281748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 36 ], [ 69, 87 ], [ 114, 130 ], [ 415, 423 ], [ 425, 443 ], [ 491, 503 ], [ 524, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 10 May 1802, Colonel Delgrès launched a rebellion in Guadeloupe against Napoleon's representative, General Richepanse. The rebellion was repressed, and slavery was re-established.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "France", "target_page_ids": [ 4012687, 12343, 14173535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 31 ], [ 56, 66 ], [ 102, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The news of the Law of 4 February 1794 that abolished slavery in France and its colonies and the revolution led by Colonel Delgrès sparked another wave of rebellion in Saint-Domingue. Although from 1802 Napoleon sent more than 20,000 troops to the island, two-thirds died mostly due to yellow fever. He withdrew the remaining 7,000 troops and the black population achieved an independent republic they called Haïti in 1804, which became the first country in the Americas to abolish slavery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "France", "target_page_ids": [ 67731536, 4012687, 13373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 38 ], [ 115, 130 ], [ 409, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Seeing the failure of the Saint-Domingue expedition, in 1803 Napoleon decided to sell the Louisiana Territory to the United States.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "France", "target_page_ids": [ 21279745, 17628, 193623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 51 ], [ 81, 85 ], [ 90, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The French governments initially refused to recognize Haïti. It forced the nation to pay a substantial amount of reparations (which it could ill afford) for losses during the revolution and did not recognize its government until 1825.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "France", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "France was a signatory to the first multilateral treaty for the suppression of the slave trade, the Treaty for the Suppression of the African Slave Trade (1841), but the king, Louis Philippe I, declined to ratify it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "France", "target_page_ids": [ 9573984, 62826676, 77352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 55 ], [ 100, 153 ], [ 176, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 27 April 1848, under the Second Republic (1848–1852), the decree-law written by Victor Schœlcher abolished slavery in the remaining colonies. The state bought the slaves from the colons (white colonists; Békés in Creole), and then freed them.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "France", "target_page_ids": [ 304270, 322949, 1061772, 21597585, 49823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 43 ], [ 61, 71 ], [ 83, 99 ], [ 207, 211 ], [ 216, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At about the same time, France started colonizing Africa and gained possession of much of West Africa by 1900. In 1905, the French abolished slavery in most of French West Africa. The French also attempted to abolish Tuareg slavery following the Kaocen Revolt. In the region of the Sahel, slavery has however long persisted.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "France", "target_page_ids": [ 292705, 14751875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 178 ], [ 246, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Passed on 10 May 2001, the Taubira law officially acknowledges slavery and the Atlantic slave trade as a crime against humanity. 10 May was chosen as the day dedicated to recognition of the crime of slavery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "France", "target_page_ids": [ 4905288, 61099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 34 ], [ 105, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The last known form of enforced servitude of adults (villeinage) had disappeared in England by the beginning of the 17th century. In 1569 a court considered the case of Cartwright, who had bought a slave from Russia. The court ruled English law could not recognize slavery, as it was never established officially. This ruling was overshadowed by later developments; It was upheld in 1700 by the Lord Chief Justice John Holt when he ruled that a slave became free as soon as he arrived in England. During the English Civil Wars of the mid-seventeenth century, sectarian radicals challenged slavery and other threats to personal freedom. Their ideas influenced many antislavery thinkers in the eighteenth century.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Great Britain", "target_page_ids": [ 16925701, 3964592, 333709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 60 ], [ 414, 423 ], [ 508, 526 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to English colonists importing slaves to the North American colonies, by the 18th century, traders began to import slaves from Africa, India and East Asia (where they were trading) to London and Edinburgh to work as personal servants. Men who migrated to the North American colonies often took their East Indian slaves or servants with them, as East Indians have been documented in colonial records.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Great Britain", "target_page_ids": [ 17867, 9602, 2529783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 196, 202 ], [ 207, 216 ], [ 357, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some of the first freedom suits, court cases in the British Isles to challenge the legality of slavery, took place in Scotland in 1755 and 1769. The cases were Montgomery v. Sheddan (1755) and Spens v. Dalrymple (1769). Each of the slaves had been baptized in Scotland and challenged the legality of slavery. They set the precedent of legal procedure in British courts that would later lead to successful outcomes for the plaintiffs. In these cases, deaths of the plaintiff and defendant, respectively, brought an end before court decisions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Great Britain", "target_page_ids": [ 30456842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "African slaves were not bought or sold in London but were brought by masters from other areas. Together with people from other nations, especially non-Christian, Africans were considered foreigners, not able to be English subjects. At the time, England had no naturalization procedure. The African slaves' legal status was unclear until 1772 and Somersett's Case, when the fugitive slave James Somersett forced a decision by the courts. Somersett had escaped, and his master, Charles Steuart, had him captured and imprisoned on board a ship, intending to ship him to Jamaica to be resold into slavery. While in London, Somersett had been baptized; three godparents issued a writ of habeas corpus. As a result, Lord Mansfield, Chief Justice of the Court of the King's Bench, had to judge whether Somersett's abduction was lawful or not under English Common Law. No legislation had ever been passed to establish slavery in England. The case received national attention, and five advocates supported the action on behalf of Somersett.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Great Britain", "target_page_ids": [ 42314, 30863809, 15660, 4298, 14091, 314445, 424396, 5254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 260, 274 ], [ 346, 362 ], [ 567, 574 ], [ 638, 646 ], [ 682, 695 ], [ 710, 724 ], [ 747, 772 ], [ 849, 859 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his judgement of 22 June 1772, Mansfield declared:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Great Britain", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The state of slavery is of such a nature that it is incapable of being introduced on any reasons, moral or political, but only by positive law, which preserves its force long after the reasons, occasions, and time itself from whence it was created, is erased from memory. It is so odious, that nothing can be suffered to support it, but positive law. Whatever inconveniences, therefore, may follow from a decision, I cannot say this case is allowed or approved by the law of England; and therefore the black must be discharged.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Great Britain", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although the exact legal implications of the judgement are unclear when analysed by lawyers, the judgement was generally taken at the time to have determined that slavery did not exist under English common law and was thus prohibited in England. The decision did not apply to the British overseas territories; by then, for example, the American colonies had established slavery by positive laws. Somersett's case became a significant part of the common law of slavery in the English-speaking world and it helped launch the movement to abolish slavery.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Great Britain", "target_page_ids": [ 5894168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After reading about Somersett's Case, Joseph Knight, an enslaved African who had been purchased by his master John Wedderburn in Jamaica and brought to Scotland, left him. Married and with a child, he filed a freedom suit, on the grounds that he could not be held as a slave in Great Britain. In the case of Knight v. Wedderburn (1778), Wedderburn said that Knight owed him \"perpetual servitude\". The Court of Session of Scotland ruled against him, saying that chattel slavery was not recognized under the law of Scotland, and slaves could seek court protection to leave a master or avoid being forcibly removed from Scotland to be returned to slavery in the colonies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Great Britain", "target_page_ids": [ 1351443, 30456842, 158019, 1351443, 381053, 27992, 30876354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 51 ], [ 209, 221 ], [ 278, 291 ], [ 308, 328 ], [ 401, 417 ], [ 461, 476 ], [ 506, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "But at the same time, legally mandated, hereditary slavery of Scots persons in Scotland had existed from 1606 and continued until 1799, when colliers and salters were emancipated by an act of the Parliament of Great Britain (39 Geo.III. c. 56). Skilled workers, they were restricted to a place and could be sold with the works. A prior law enacted in 1775 (15 Geo. III. c. 28) was intended to end what the act referred to as \"a state of slavery and bondage,\" but that was ineffective, necessitating the 1799 act.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Great Britain", "target_page_ids": [ 13457, 208413, 6015669, 5575410, 378032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 50 ], [ 141, 149 ], [ 154, 161 ], [ 167, 178 ], [ 196, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1776 book The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith argued for the abolition of slavery on economic grounds. Smith pointed out that slavery incurred security, housing, and food costs that the use of free labour would not, and opined that free workers would be more productive because they would have personal economic incentives to work harder. The death rate (and thus repurchase cost) of slaves was also high, and people are less productive when not allowed to choose the type of work they prefer, are illiterate, and are forced to live and work in miserable and unhealthy conditions. The free labour markets and international free trade that Smith preferred would also result in different prices and allocations that Smith believed would be more efficient and productive for consumers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Great Britain", "target_page_ids": [ 725991, 1814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 38 ], [ 40, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to the American Revolution, there were few significant initiatives in the American colonies that led to the abolitionist movement. Some Quakers were active. Benjamin Kent was the lawyer who took on most of the cases of slaves suing their masters for personal illegal enslavement. He was the first lawyer to successfully establish a slave's freedom. In addition, Brigadier General Samuel Birch created the Book of Negroes, to establish which slaves were free after the war.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Great Britain", "target_page_ids": [ 1973, 51911709, 60795175, 14424151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 32 ], [ 163, 176 ], [ 386, 398 ], [ 411, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1783, an anti-slavery movement began among the British public to end slavery throughout the British Empire.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Great Britain", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After the formation of the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade in 1787, William Wilberforce led the cause of abolition through the parliamentary campaign. Thomas Clarkson became the group's most prominent researcher, gathering vast amounts of data on the trade. One aspect of abolitionism during this period was the effective use of images such as the famous Josiah Wedgwood \"Am I Not A Man and a Brother?\" anti-slavery medallion of 1787. Clarkson described the medallion as \"promoting the cause of justice, humanity and freedom\". The 1792 Slave Trade Bill passed the House of Commons mangled and mutilated by the modifications and amendments of Pitt, it lay for years, in the House of Lords. Biographer William Hague considers the unfinished abolition of the slave trade to be Pitt's greatest failure. The Slave Trade Act was passed by the British Parliament on 25 March 1807, making the slave trade illegal throughout the British Empire. Britain used its influence to coerce other countries to agree to treaties to end their slave trade and allow the Royal Navy to seize their slave ships. Britain enforced the abolition of the trade because the act made trading slaves within British territories illegal. However, the act repealed the Amelioration Act 1798 which attempted to improve conditions for slaves. The end of the slave trade did not end slavery as a whole. Slavery was still a common practice.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Great Britain", "target_page_ids": [ 7533345, 50226, 444841, 16295, 16295, 79451, 161041, 498157, 13964, 11039349, 1176080, 9505841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 73 ], [ 83, 102 ], [ 166, 181 ], [ 370, 385 ], [ 387, 416 ], [ 658, 662 ], [ 716, 729 ], [ 819, 834 ], [ 853, 871 ], [ 1017, 1025 ], [ 1079, 1102 ], [ 1250, 1271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1820s, the abolitionist movement revived to campaign against the institution of slavery itself. In 1823 the first Anti-Slavery Society, the Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions, was founded. Many of its members had previously campaigned against the slave trade. On 28 August 1833, the Slavery Abolition Act was passed. It purchased the slaves from their masters and paved the way for the abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire by 1838, after which the first Anti-Slavery Society was wound up.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Great Britain", "target_page_ids": [ 2132945, 1811656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 239 ], [ 348, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1839, the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society was formed by Joseph Sturge, which attempted to outlaw slavery worldwide and also to pressure the government to help enforce the suppression of the slave trade by declaring slave traders to be pirates. The world's oldest international human rights organization, it continues today as Anti-Slavery International. Thomas Clarkson was the key speaker at the World Anti-Slavery Convention it held in London in 1840.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Great Britain", "target_page_ids": [ 442525, 1278640, 6585135, 442525, 38400061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 53 ], [ 68, 81 ], [ 227, 240 ], [ 338, 364 ], [ 409, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, the government held slavery of the Roma (often referred to as Gypsies) as legal at the beginning of the 19th century. The progressive pro-European and anti-Ottoman movement, which gradually gained power in the two principalities, also worked to abolish that slavery. Between 1843 and 1855, the principalities emancipated all of the 250,000 enslaved Roma people.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Moldavia and Wallachia", "target_page_ids": [ 46026, 46007, 26152, 16272642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 34 ], [ 39, 47 ], [ 84, 88 ], [ 120, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bartolomé de las Casas was a 16th-century Spanish Dominican priest, the first resident Bishop of Chiapas (Central America, today Mexico). As a settler in the New World he witnessed and opposed the poor treatment and virtual slavery of the Native Americans by the Spanish colonists, under the encomienda system. He advocated before King Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor on behalf of rights for the natives.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In the Americas", "target_page_ids": [ 69830, 303062, 8973, 6787, 2393552, 2402376, 449390, 70716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 42, 49 ], [ 50, 59 ], [ 97, 104 ], [ 158, 167 ], [ 239, 255 ], [ 292, 302 ], [ 336, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Las Casas for 20 years worked to get African slaves imported to replace natives; African slavery was everywhere and no one talked of ridding the New World of it, though France had abolished slavery in France itself and there was talk in other countries about doing the same. In fact, from a purely economic point of view Africans were better slaves, stronger and healthier, because the \"Middle Passage\" had selected for these traits. However, Las Casas had a late change of heart, and became an advocate for the Africans in the colonies.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In the Americas", "target_page_ids": [ 392278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 387, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His book, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, contributed to Spanish passage of colonial legislation known as the New Laws of 1542, which abolished native slavery for the first time in European colonial history. It ultimately led to the Valladolid debate, the first European debate about the rights of colonized people.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In the Americas", "target_page_ids": [ 1235872, 453742, 2799269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 58 ], [ 128, 144 ], [ 251, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the early 19th century, slavery expanded rapidly in Brazil, Cuba, and the United States, while at the same time the new republics of mainland Spanish America became committed to the gradual abolition of slavery. During the Spanish American wars for independence (1810–1826), slavery was abolished in most of Latin America, though it continued until 1873 in Puerto Rico, 1886 in Cuba, and 1888 in Brazil (where it was abolished by the Lei Áurea, the \"Golden Law\"). Chile declared freedom of wombs in 1811, followed by the United Provinces of the River Plate in 1813, Colombia and Venezuela in 1821, but without abolishing slavery completely. While Chile abolished slavery in 1823, Argentina did so with the signing of the Argentine Constitution of 1853. Peru abolished slavery in 1854. Colombia abolished slavery in 1851. Slavery was abolished in Uruguay during the Guerra Grande, by both the government of Fructuoso Rivera and the government in exile of Manuel Oribe.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In the Americas", "target_page_ids": [ 20954277, 4517597, 711943, 9522461, 2976779, 5222, 32374, 5059382, 8864219, 1595967, 241905, 759124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 269 ], [ 365, 376 ], [ 442, 451 ], [ 487, 503 ], [ 529, 564 ], [ 574, 582 ], [ 587, 596 ], [ 729, 759 ], [ 874, 887 ], [ 915, 931 ], [ 940, 959 ], [ 963, 975 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout the growth of slavery in the American South, Nova Scotia became a destination for black refugees leaving Southern Colonies and United States. While many blacks who arrived in Nova Scotia during the American Revolution were free, others were not. Black slaves also arrived in Nova Scotia as the property of White American Loyalists. In 1772, prior to the American Revolution, Britain determined that slavery could not exist in the British Isles followed by the Knight v. Wedderburn decision in Scotland in 1778. This decision, in turn, influenced the colony of Nova Scotia. In 1788, abolitionist James Drummond MacGregor from Pictou published the first anti-slavery literature in Canada and began purchasing slaves' freedom and chastising his colleagues in the Presbyterian church who owned slaves. In 1790 John Burbidge freed his slaves. Led by Richard John Uniacke, in 1787, 1789 and again on 11 January 1808, the Nova Scotian legislature refused to legalize slavery. Two chief justices, Thomas Andrew Lumisden Strange (1790–1796) and Sampson Salter Blowers (1797–1832) were instrumental in freeing slaves from their owners in Nova Scotia. They were held in high regard in the colony. By the end of the War of 1812 and the arrival of the Black Refugees, there were few slaves left in Nova Scotia. The Slave Trade Act outlawed the slave trade in the British Empire in 1807 and the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 outlawed slavery all together.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In the Americas", "target_page_ids": [ 21184, 2495537, 30863809, 1351443, 45256631, 15157165, 10686382, 6036250, 215123, 34059, 498157, 1811656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 67 ], [ 317, 331 ], [ 394, 454 ], [ 471, 491 ], [ 607, 631 ], [ 818, 831 ], [ 858, 878 ], [ 1002, 1032 ], [ 1049, 1071 ], [ 1217, 1228 ], [ 1315, 1330 ], [ 1394, 1423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With slaves escaping to New York and New England, legislation for gradual emancipation was passed in Upper Canada (1793) and Lower Canada (1803). In Upper Canada, the Act Against Slavery of 1793 was passed by the Assembly under the auspices of John Graves Simcoe. It was the first legislation against slavery in the British Empire. Under its provisions no new slaves could be imported, slaves already in the province would remain enslaved until death, and children born to female slaves would be slaves but must be freed at the age of 25. The last slaves in Canada gained their freedom when slavery was abolished in the entire British Empire by the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In the Americas", "target_page_ids": [ 40389, 45945, 558055, 15918, 4721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 113 ], [ 125, 137 ], [ 167, 186 ], [ 244, 262 ], [ 316, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The historian James M. McPherson defines an abolitionist \"as one who before the Civil War had agitated for the immediate, unconditional, and total abolition of slavery in the United States\". He does not include antislavery activists such as Abraham Lincoln or the Republican Party, which called for the gradual ending of slavery.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In the Americas", "target_page_ids": [ 480182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benjamin Franklin, a slaveholder for much of his life, became a leading member of the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery, the first recognized organization for abolitionists in the United States. Following the American Revolutionary War, Northern states abolished slavery, beginning with the 1777 Constitution of Vermont, followed by Pennsylvania's gradual emancipation act in 1780. Other states with more of an economic interest in slaves, such as New York and New Jersey, also passed gradual emancipation laws, and by 1804, all the Northern states had abolished it, although this did not mean that already enslaved people were freed. Some had to work without wages as \"indentured servants\" for two more decades, although they could no longer be sold.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In the Americas", "target_page_ids": [ 3986, 1285973, 771, 41174, 25916051, 327044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 86, 135 ], [ 225, 251 ], [ 307, 335 ], [ 349, 396 ], [ 686, 705 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also in the post-Revolutionary years, individual slaveholders, especially in the Upper South, manumitted slaves, sometimes in their wills. (In the Deep South manumission was made difficult; in South Carolina every manumission required legislative approval, and the freed slaves had to leave the state immediately.) Many noted that they had been moved by the revolutionary ideals of the equality of men. The number of free black people as a proportion of the black population increased from less than one percent to nearly ten percent from 1790 to 1810 in the Upper South as a result of these actions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In the Americas", "target_page_ids": [ 8152135, 401342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 92 ], [ 147, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1840 more than 15,000 people were members of abolitionist societies in the United States.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In the Americas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1850s in the fifteen states constituting the American South, slavery was legally established. While it was fading away in the cities as well as in the border states, it remained strong in plantation areas that grew cotton for export, or sugar, tobacco, or hemp. According to the 1860 United States Census, the slave population in the United States had grown to four million. American abolitionism was based in the North, although there were anti-abolitionist riots in several cities. In the South abolitionism was illegal, and abolitionist publications, like The Liberator, could not be sent to Southern post offices. Amos Dresser, a white alumnus of Lane Theological Seminary, was publicly whipped in Nashville, Tennessee for possessing abolitionist publications.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In the Americas", "target_page_ids": [ 179553, 4483525, 593025, 62852215, 608223, 22018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 66 ], [ 286, 311 ], [ 566, 579 ], [ 625, 637 ], [ 658, 683 ], [ 709, 729 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abolitionism in the United States became a popular expression of moralism, operating in tandem with other social reform efforts, such as the temperance movement, and much more problematically, the women's suffrage movement.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In the Americas", "target_page_ids": [ 6718638, 76293, 3289982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 73 ], [ 141, 160 ], [ 197, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The white abolitionist movement in the North was led by social reformers, especially William Lloyd Garrison (founder of the American Anti-Slavery Society) and writers Wendell Phillips, John Greenleaf Whittier, and Harriet Beecher Stowe. Black activists included former slaves such as Frederick Douglass; and free blacks such as the brothers Charles Henry Langston and John Mercer Langston, who helped found the Ohio Anti-Slavery Society. Some abolitionists said that slavery was criminal and a sin; they also criticized slave owners of using black women as concubines and taking sexual advantage of them.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In the Americas", "target_page_ids": [ 149837, 364528, 376964, 406192, 164100, 11033, 20757601, 1718954, 7016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 107 ], [ 124, 153 ], [ 168, 184 ], [ 186, 209 ], [ 215, 236 ], [ 285, 303 ], [ 342, 364 ], [ 369, 389 ], [ 558, 568 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Republican Party wanted to achieve the gradual extinction of slavery by market forces, because its members believed that free labour was superior to slave labour. White southern leaders said that the Republican policy of blocking the expansion of slavery into the West made them second-class citizens, and they also said it challenged their autonomy. With the 1860 presidential victory of Abraham Lincoln, seven Deep South states whose economy was based on cotton and the labour of enslaved people decided to secede and form a new nation. The American Civil War broke out in April 1861 with the firing on Fort Sumter in South Carolina. When Lincoln called for troops to suppress the rebellion, four more slave states seceded. Meanwhile, four slave states (Maryland, Missouri, Delaware, and Kentucky) chose to remain in the Union.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In the Americas", "target_page_ids": [ 32070, 40519, 307, 863, 339819, 27956, 38278941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 364, 389 ], [ 393, 408 ], [ 547, 565 ], [ 599, 620 ], [ 624, 638 ], [ 645, 670 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 16 April 1862, Abraham Lincoln signed the District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act, abolishing slavery in Washington D. C. Meanwhile, the Union suddenly found themselves dealing with a steady stream of escaped slaves from the South rushing to Union lines. In response, Congress passed the Confiscation Acts, which essentially declared escaped slaves from the South to be confiscated war property, called contrabands, so that they would not be returned to their masters in the Confederacy. Although the initial act did not mention emancipation, the second Confiscation Act, passed on 17 July 1862, stated that escaped or liberated slaves belonging to anyone who participated in or supported the rebellion \"shall be deemed captives of war, and shall be forever free of their servitude, and not again held as slaves.\" Later on, Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order of the U.S. government issued on 1 January 1863, changing the legal status of 3million slaves in the Confederacy from \"slave\" to \"forever free\". Slaves were legally freed by the Proclamation and became actually free by escaping to federal lines, or by advances of federal troops. Many served the federal army as teamsters, cooks, laundresses, and labourers, as well as scouts, spies, and guides. Confederate General Robert Lee once said \"The chief source of information to the enemy is through our negroes.\" Plantation owners sometimes moved the Blacks they claimed to own as far as possible out of reach of the Union army. By \"Juneteenth\" (19 June 1865, in Texas), the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and liberated all its slaves. The owners were never compensated, nor were freed slaves compensated by former owners.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In the Americas", "target_page_ids": [ 32175613, 9407415, 4009905, 7023, 9515, 61542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 94 ], [ 303, 320 ], [ 418, 429 ], [ 490, 501 ], [ 850, 875 ], [ 1527, 1537 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The border states were exempt from the Emancipation Proclamation, but they too (except Delaware) began their own emancipation programmes. When the Union Army entered Confederate areas, thousands of slaves escaped to freedom behind Union Army lines, and in 1863 many men started serving as the United States Colored Troops.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In the Americas", "target_page_ids": [ 298234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 293, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the war dragged on, both the federal government and Union states continued to take measures against slavery. In June 1864, the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, which required free states to aid in returning escaped slaves to slave states, was repealed. The state of Maryland abolished slavery on 13 October 1864. Missouri abolished slavery on 11 January 1865. West Virginia, which had been admitted to the Union in 1863 as a slave state, but on the condition of gradual emancipation, fully abolished slavery on 3 February 1865. The 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution took effect in December 1865, 7 months after the end of the war, and finally ended slavery throughout the United States. It also abolished slavery among the Indian tribes, including the Alaska tribes that became part of the U.S. in 1867.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In the Americas", "target_page_ids": [ 385486, 32905, 31665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 157 ], [ 361, 374 ], [ 534, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "White and Black opponents of slavery, who played a considerable role in the movement. This list includes some escaped slaves, who were traditionally called abolitionists.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Quincy Adams", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 15654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jeremy Bentham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 46038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Brown", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 77323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Wells Brown", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 1742128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oren Burbank Cheney", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 2033647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ellen and William Craft", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 2183011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frederick Douglass", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 11033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sarah Mapps Douglass", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 34881568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Henry Dundas", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 220565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Gregg Fee", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 2397480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Henry Highland Garnet", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 367722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Lloyd Garrison", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 149837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abbé Grégoire", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 330089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frances Ellen Watkins Harper", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 391183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Johns Hopkins", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 218864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 2161650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Laurens", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 430947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Toussaint Louverture", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 141986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harriet Martineau", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 213936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Stuart Mill", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 15626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charles Miner", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 8737274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joaquim Nabuco", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 1670065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Daniel O'Connell", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 168154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " José do Patrocínio", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 19612067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William B. Preston", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 769234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " André Rebouças", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 2458963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harriet Beecher Stowe", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 164100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Henry David Thoreau", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 43421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sojourner Truth", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 29305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harriet Tubman", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 37243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nat Turner", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 7124229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " David Walker", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 359215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Wilberforce", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 50226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Woolman", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable abolitionists", "target_page_ids": [ 350557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Emancipator (1819–20): founded in Jonesboro, Tennessee in 1819 by Elihu Embree as the Manumission Intelligencier, The Emancipator ceased publication in October 1820 due to Embree's illness. It was sold in 1821 and became The Genius of Universal Emancipation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abolitionist publications", "target_page_ids": [ 135407, 12671622, 27322326, 3498485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 59 ], [ 71, 83 ], [ 91, 117 ], [ 226, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Genius of Universal Emancipation (1821–39): an abolitionist newspaper published and edited by Benjamin Lundy. In 1829 it employed William Lloyd Garrison, who would go on to create The Liberator.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abolitionist publications", "target_page_ids": [ 3498485, 40318770, 363454, 149837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ], [ 48, 60 ], [ 95, 109 ], [ 131, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Liberator (1831–65): a weekly newspaper founded by William Lloyd Garrison.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abolitionist publications", "target_page_ids": [ 593025, 149837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 56, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Emancipator (1833–50): different from The Emancipator above. Published in New York and later Boston.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abolitionist publications", "target_page_ids": [ 27322367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Slave's Friend (1836–38): an anti-slavery magazine for children produced by the American Anti-Slavery Society (AASS).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abolitionist publications", "target_page_ids": [ 27322690, 364528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 85, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Philanthropist (1836–37): newspaper published in Ohio for and owned by the Anti-Slavery Society.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abolitionist publications", "target_page_ids": [ 12865480, 2132945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 80, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Liberty Bell, by Friends of Freedom (1839–58): an annual gift book edited and published by Maria Weston Chapman, to be sold or gifted to participants in the anti-slavery bazaars organized by the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abolitionist publications", "target_page_ids": [ 16923068, 16922196, 367376, 27460203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ], [ 62, 71 ], [ 96, 116 ], [ 200, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " National Anti-Slavery Standard (1840–70): the official weekly newspaper of the American Anti-Slavery Society, the paper published continuously until the ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1870.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abolitionist publications", "target_page_ids": [ 3498588, 364528, 31667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ], [ 80, 109 ], [ 174, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Unconstitutionality of Slavery (1845): a pamphlet by Lysander Spooner advocating the view that the U.S. Constitution prohibited slavery.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abolitionist publications", "target_page_ids": [ 18736475, 264757, 79355, 31644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ], [ 46, 54 ], [ 58, 74 ], [ 104, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Anti-Slavery Bugle (1845–1861): a newspaper published in New Lisbon and Salem, Columbiana County, Ohio, and distributed locally and across the mid-west, primarily to Quakers.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abolitionist publications", "target_page_ids": [ 37894662, 129048, 129051, 93131, 22199, 4812151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 62, 72 ], [ 77, 82 ], [ 84, 101 ], [ 103, 107 ], [ 171, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The National Era (1847–60): a weekly newspaper which featured the works of John Greenleaf Whittier, who served as associate editor, and first published, as a serial, Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin (1851).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abolitionist publications", "target_page_ids": [ 37894082, 406192, 164100, 71989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 76, 99 ], [ 167, 188 ], [ 191, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " North Star (1847–51): an anti-slavery American newspaper published by the escaped slave, author, and abolitionist, Frederick Douglass.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abolitionist publications", "target_page_ids": [ 3498684, 11033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 116, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Slave narratives, books published in the U.S. and elsewhere by former slaves or about former slaves, relating their experiences.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abolitionist publications", "target_page_ids": [ 26952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anti-Slavery International publications", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abolitionist publications", "target_page_ids": [ 442525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In societies with large proportions of the population working in conditions of slavery or serfdom, stroke-of-the-pen laws declaring abolition can have thorough-going social, economic and political consequences. Issues of compensation/redemption, land-redistribution and citizenship can prove intractable. For example:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "After abolition", "target_page_ids": [ 4353300, 178753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 233 ], [ 246, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Haiti, which effectively achieved abolition due to slave revolt (1792–1804), struggled to overcome racial or anti-revolutionary prejudice in the international financial and diplomatic scene, and exchanged unequal prosperity for relative poverty.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "After abolition", "target_page_ids": [ 13373, 999895, 13378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 52, 64 ], [ 196, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Russia's emancipation of its serfs in 1861 failed to allay rural and industrial unrest, which played a part in fomenting the revolutions of 1917.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "After abolition", "target_page_ids": [ 976976, 25762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ], [ 126, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The United States of America achieved freedom for its slaves in 1865 with the ratification of the 13th Amendment on December 6 of that year, but faced ongoing slavery-associated racial issues (Jim Crow system, civil-rights struggles).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "After abolition", "target_page_ids": [ 31665, 19481110, 49001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 113 ], [ 194, 209 ], [ 211, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Queensland deported most of its blackbirded Pacific Islander labour-force in 1901–06.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "After abolition", "target_page_ids": [ 59051, 575230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 33, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "People in modern times have commemorated abolitionist movements and the abolition of slavery in different ways around the world. The United Nations General Assembly declared 2004 the International Year to Commemorate the Struggle against Slavery and its Abolition. This proclamation marked the bicentenary of the proclamation of the first modern slavery-free state, Haiti. Numerous exhibitions, events and research programmes became associated with the initiative.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Commemoration", "target_page_ids": [ 1019040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2007 witnessed major exhibitions in British museums and galleries to mark the anniversary of the 1807 abolition act – 1807 Commemorated 2008 marked the 201st anniversary of the Abolition of the Slave Trade in the British Empire. It also marked the 175th anniversary of the abolition of slavery in the British Empire.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Commemoration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Faculty of Law at the University of Ottawa held a major international conference entitled, \"Routes to Freedom: Reflections on the Bicentenary of the Abolition of the Slave Trade\", from 14 to 16 March 2008.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Commemoration", "target_page_ids": [ 140699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 10 December 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Article 4 states:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Contemporary abolitionism", "target_page_ids": [ 31957, 31899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 41 ], [ 76, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Contemporary abolitionism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although outlawed in most countries, slavery is nonetheless practised secretly in many parts of the world. Enslavement still takes place in the United States, Europe, and Latin America, as well as parts of Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia. There are an estimated 27million victims of slavery worldwide. In Mauritania alone, estimates are that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are enslaved. Many of them are used as bonded labour.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Contemporary abolitionism", "target_page_ids": [ 24734015, 91815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 158 ], [ 456, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern-day abolitionists have emerged over the last several years, as awareness of slavery around the world has grown, with groups such as Anti-Slavery International, the American Anti-Slavery Group, International Justice Mission, and Free the Slaves working to rid the world of slavery.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Contemporary abolitionism", "target_page_ids": [ 442525, 531662, 4164194, 472388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 165 ], [ 171, 198 ], [ 200, 229 ], [ 235, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, The Action Group to End Human Trafficking and Modern-Day Slavery is a coalition of NGOs, foundations and corporations working to develop a policy agenda for abolishing slavery and human trafficking. Since 1997, the United States Department of Justice has, through work with the Coalition of Immokalee Workers, prosecuted six individuals in Florida on charges of slavery in the agricultural industry. These prosecutions have led to freedom for over 1000 enslaved workers in the tomato and orange fields of South Florida. This is only one example of the contemporary fight against slavery worldwide. Slavery exists most widely in agricultural labour, apparel and sex industries, and service jobs in some regions.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Contemporary abolitionism", "target_page_ids": [ 693306, 52563, 3421644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 122 ], [ 238, 273 ], [ 301, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2000, the United States passed the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act (TVPA) \"to combat trafficking in persons, especially into the sex trade, slavery, and involuntary servitude.\" The TVPA also \"created new law enforcement tools to strengthen the prosecution and punishment of traffickers, making human trafficking a Federal crime with severe penalties.\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Contemporary abolitionism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, for the first time in history major Anglican, Catholic, and Orthodox Christian leaders, as well as Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist leaders, met to sign a shared commitment against modern-day slavery; the declaration they signed calls for the elimination of slavery and human trafficking by 2020. The signatories were: Pope Francis, Mātā Amṛtānandamayī (also known as Amma), Bhikkhuni Thich Nu Chân Không (representing Zen Master Thích Nhất Hạnh), Datuk K. Sri Dhammaratana, Chief High Priest of Malaysia, Rabbi and rector of the Seminario Rabínico Latinoamericano in Buenos Aires, Dr. Abraham Skorka, Rabbi Dr. David Rosen, Dr. Abbas Abdalla Abbas Soliman, Undersecretary of State of Al Azhar Alsharif (representing Ahmed el-Tayeb, Grand Imam of Al-Azhar), Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi, Sheikh Naziyah Razzaq Jaafar, Special advisor of Grand Ayatollah (representing Grand Ayatollah Sheikh Bashir al-Najafi), Sheikh Omar Abboud, Justin Welby, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Metropolitan Emmanuel of France (representing Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew.)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Contemporary abolitionism", "target_page_ids": [ 1687680, 297723, 5966494, 30769, 1824796, 38808011, 26644621, 17213881, 5553396, 15703656, 61618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 331, 343 ], [ 345, 364 ], [ 406, 416 ], [ 442, 457 ], [ 460, 485 ], [ 598, 612 ], [ 729, 743 ], [ 786, 812 ], [ 916, 932 ], [ 955, 967 ], [ 1056, 1077 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The United States Department of State publishes the annual Trafficking in Persons Report, identifying countries as either Tier 1, Tier 2, Tier 2 Watch List or Tier 3, depending upon three factors: \"(1) The extent to which the country is a country of origin, transit, or destination for severe forms of trafficking; (2) The extent to which the government of the country does not comply with the TVPA's minimum standards including, in particular, the extent of the government's trafficking-related corruption; and (3) The resources and capabilities of the government to address and eliminate severe forms of trafficking in persons.\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Contemporary abolitionism", "target_page_ids": [ 31975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abolitionism (disambiguation), other movements to address perceived social ills, such as the Prison abolition movement", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15946603, 1027332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ], [ 94, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abolitionist teaching", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 67011996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anti-Slavery Society (disambiguation), various organisations referred to by this name", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 66148359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of slavery", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6585135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of abolitionist forerunners", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 49997128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " London Society of West India Planters and Merchants, a lobby group representing slave owners", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 49010187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " , in Puerto Rico", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Representation of slavery in European art", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37588136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Slavery in the British and French Caribbean", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1978042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11039349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " International Day for the Abolition of Slavery", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33902483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18475648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bader-Zaar, Birgitta, \"Abolitionism in the Atlantic World: The Organization and Interaction of Anti-Slavery Movements in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries\", European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2010; retrieved 14 June 2012.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 31997884, 20623953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 187 ], [ 196, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Blackwell, Marilyn S. Women Were Among Our Primeval Abolitionists': Women and Organized Antislavery in Vermont, 1834–1848\", Vermont History, 82 (Winter-Spring 2014), 13–44.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Carey, Brycchan, and Geoffrey Plank, eds. Quakers and Abolition (University of Illinois Press, 2014), 264 pp.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Coupland, Sir Reginald. \"The British Anti-Slavery Movement\". London: F. Cass, 1964.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Davis, David Brion, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823 (1999); The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (1988)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 16018978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Drescher, Seymour. Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery (2009)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Finkelman, Paul, ed. Encyclopedia of Slavery (1999)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kemner, Jochen. \"Abolitionism\" (2015). University Bielefeld – Center for InterAmerican Studies.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gordon, M. Slavery in the Arab World (1989)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gould, Philip. Barbaric Traffic: Commerce and Antislavery in the 18th-century Atlantic World (2003)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hellie, Richard. Slavery in Russia: 1450–1725 (1982)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 59895092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hinks, Peter, and John McKivigan, eds. Encyclopedia of Antislavery and Abolition (2 vol. 2006) ; 846 pp; 300 articles by experts", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jeffrey, Julie Roy. \"Stranger, Buy... Lest Our Mission Fail: the Complex Culture of Women's Abolitionist Fairs\". American Nineteenth Century History 4, no. 1 (2003): 185–205.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kolchin, Peter. Unfree Labor; American Slavery and Russian Serfdom (1987)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kolchin, Peter. \"Reexamining Southern Emancipation in Comparative Perspective\", Journal of Southern History, (Feb. 2015) 81#1 pp.7–40.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Oakes, James. The Crooked Path to Abolition: Abraham Lincoln and the Antislavery Constitution (W.W. Norton, 2021).", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Oakes, James. Freedom National: The Destruction of Slavery in the United States, 1861–1865 (W. W. Norton, 2012)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Palen, Marc-William. \"Free-Trade Ideology and Transatlantic Abolitionism: A Historiography\". Journal of the History of Economic Thought 37 (June 2015): 291–304.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Reckord, Mary. \"The Colonial Office and the Abolition of Slavery.\" Historical Journal 14, no. 4 (1971): 723–734. online", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rodriguez, Junius P., ed. Encyclopedia of Emancipation and Abolition in the Transatlantic World (2007)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rodriguez, Junius P., ed. The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery (1997)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sinha, Manisha. The Slave's Cause: A History of Abolition (Yale UP, 2016) 784 pp; Highly detailed coverage of the American movement", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas, Hugh. The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440–1870 (2006)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Unangst, Matthew. \"Manufacturing Crisis: Anti-slavery ‘Humanitarianism’ and Imperialism in East Africa, 1888–1890.\" Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 48.5 (2020): 805–825.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wyman‐McCarthy, Matthew. \"British abolitionism and global empire in the late 18th century: A historiographic overview.\" History Compass 16.10 (2018): e12480. ", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Largest Surviving Anti Slave Trade Petition from Manchester, UK 1806", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Original Document Proposing Abolition of Slavery 13th Amendment", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"John Brown's body and blood\" by Ari Kelman: a review in the TLS, 14 February 2007.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Scotland and the Abolition of the Slave Trade\" – schools resource", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Elijah Parish Lovejoy: A Martyr on the Altar of American Liberty", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Brycchan Carey's pages listing British abolitionists", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Teaching resources about Slavery and Abolition on blackhistory4schools.com", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Abolition of the Slave Trade\", The National Archives (UK)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Towards Liberty: Slavery, the Slave Trade, Abolition and Emancipation. Produced by Sheffield City Council's Libraries and Archives (UK)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The slavery debate", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Brown Museum", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " American Abolitionism", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " American Abolitionists, comprehensive list of abolitionists and anti-slavery activists and organizations in the United States", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " History of the British abolitionist movement by Right Honourable Lord Archer of Sandwell", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Slavery – The emancipation movement in Britain\", lecture by James Walvin at Gresham College, 5 March 2007 (available for video and audio download)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 422947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Underground Railroad: Escape from Slavery. Scholastic.com", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Black Canada and the Journey to Freedom\"", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1807 Commemorated", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Action Group", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Trafficking in Persons Report 2008, US Department of State", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " National Underground Railroad Freedom Center in Cincinnati, Ohio", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Liberator Files, Horace Seldon's collection and summary of research of William Lloyd Garrison's The Liberator original copies at the Boston Public Library, Boston, Massachusetts.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 593025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " University of Detroit Mercy Black Abolitionist Archive, a collection of more than 800 speeches by antebellum blacks and approximately 1,000 editorials from the period.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abolitionist movement ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Raymond James Krohn, \"Abolitionist Movement\", Encyclopedia of Civil Liberties in the United States", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Abolitionism", "Political_movements", "African_diaspora_history" ]

[ "Abolition of the slave trade", "Slavery abolition", "Abolitionism", "Abolitionism (slavery)", "Abolitionist Movement", "Anti slavery movement", "Antislavery movement", "Anti-Slavery Movement", "Opposition to slavery", "Movement to abolish slavery" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Charles IV (; ; ; 14 May 1316 – 29 November 1378), also known as Charles of Luxembourg, born Wenceslaus (, ), was the first King of Bohemia to become Holy Roman Emperor. He was a member of the House of Luxembourg from his father's side and the Bohemian House of Přemyslid from his mother's side; he emphasized the latter due to his lifelong affinity for the Bohemian side of his inheritance, and also because his direct ancestors in the Přemyslid line included two saints.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 223907, 50853, 2646925, 2486608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 139 ], [ 150, 168 ], [ 193, 212 ], [ 253, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was the eldest son and heir of John of Bohemia, King of Bohemia and Count of Luxembourg, who died at the Battle of Crécy on 26August 1346. His mother, Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia, was the sister of Wenceslaus III, King of Bohemia and Poland, the last of the male Přemyslid rulers of Bohemia. Charles inherited the County of Luxembourg from his father and was elected king of the Kingdom of Bohemia. On 2September 1347, Charles was crowned King of Bohemia.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38197, 3547997, 58916, 1988573, 285723, 2486608, 3547997, 223907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 49 ], [ 71, 90 ], [ 108, 123 ], [ 154, 181 ], [ 201, 215 ], [ 266, 293 ], [ 317, 337 ], [ 382, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 11 July 1346, the prince-electors chose him as King of the Romans (rex Romanorum) in opposition to Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor. Charles was crowned on 26November 1346 in Bonn. After his opponent died, he was re-elected in 1349 and crowned King of the Romans. In 1355, he was crowned King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor. With his coronation as King of Burgundy in 1365, he became the personal ruler of all the kingdoms of the Holy Roman Empire.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 63576900, 14056, 302609, 38802, 3295, 434937, 1468681, 13277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 15 ], [ 21, 36 ], [ 50, 68 ], [ 102, 130 ], [ 174, 178 ], [ 287, 300 ], [ 348, 364 ], [ 430, 447 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having played a tremendous part in the political and cultural history of the Kingdom of Bohemia, he remains a very popular figure in the Czech Republic. The Golden Bull of 1356 marked a structural change in the politics of the Holy Roman Empire. Several aspects of his legacy remain a contentious matter though. The image of Charles as a wise, pious, peace-loving king (partly constructed by Charles himself) has proved influential until this day, supported by several artistic or scholarly projects produced during Charles's reign or afterwards.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1625048, 5321, 671259, 71165340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 95 ], [ 137, 151 ], [ 157, 176 ], [ 265, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles was born to John of Bohemia of the Luxembourg dynasty and Queen Elizabeth of Bohemia of the Bohemian Přemyslid dynasty in Prague. His maternal grandfather was the Bohemian King Wenceslaus II. He chose the name Charles at his confirmation in honor of his uncle, King Charles IV of France, at whose court he was resident for seven years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 38197, 1988573, 2486608, 23844, 251548, 217733, 78500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 35 ], [ 66, 92 ], [ 109, 126 ], [ 130, 136 ], [ 185, 198 ], [ 233, 245 ], [ 274, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles received French education and was literate and fluent in five languages: Latin, Czech, German, French, and Italian.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 6343, 11884, 10597, 14708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 86 ], [ 88, 93 ], [ 95, 101 ], [ 103, 109 ], [ 115, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1331, he gained some experience of warfare in Italy with his father. At the beginning of 1333, Charles went to Lucca (Tuscany) to consolidate his rule there. In an effort to defend the city, Charles founded the nearby fortress and the town of Montecarlo (Charles' Mountain).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 46169, 21967242, 6736059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 119 ], [ 121, 128 ], [ 246, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1333, he administered the lands of the Bohemian Crown due to his father's frequent absence and deteriorating eyesight. In 1334, Charles was named Margrave of Moravia, the traditional title for heirs to the throne. Two years later, he assumed the government of Tyrol on behalf of his brother, John Henry, and was soon actively involved in a struggle for the possession of this county.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1618997, 38130219, 148994, 5600212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 58 ], [ 151, 170 ], [ 265, 270 ], [ 297, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 11 July 1346, in consequence of an alliance between his father and Pope Clement VI, relentless enemy of the emperor Louis IV, Charles was elected as Roman king in opposition to Louis by some of the prince-electors at Rhens. As he had previously promised to be subservient to Clement, he made extensive concessions to the pope in 1347. Confirming the papacy in the possession of vast territories, he promised to annul the acts of Louis against Clement, to take no part in Italian affairs, and to defend and protect the church.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 24103, 38802, 63576900, 10330111, 14056, 4253389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 85 ], [ 119, 127 ], [ 137, 148 ], [ 158, 176 ], [ 201, 216 ], [ 220, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles IV was in a very weak position in Germany. Owing to the terms of his election, he was derisively referred to as a \"Priests' King\" (Pfaffenkönig). Many bishops and nearly all of the Imperial cities remained loyal to Louis the Bavarian. Worse still, Charles backed the wrong side in the Hundred Years' War, losing his father and many of his best knights at the Battle of Crécy in August 1346, with Charles himself escaping from the field wounded.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 784912, 19038039, 58916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 204 ], [ 293, 311 ], [ 367, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Civil war in Germany was prevented, however, when Louis IV died on 11 October 1347, after suffering a stroke during a bear hunt. In January 1349, House of Wittelsbach partisans attempted to secure the election of Günther von Schwarzburg as king, but he attracted few supporters and was defeated by Charles at the siege of Eltville in May. Thereafter, Charles faced no direct threat to his claim to the Imperial throne.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 38848, 1449744, 64316163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 166 ], [ 213, 236 ], [ 313, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles initially worked to secure his power base. Bohemia had remained untouched by the plague. Prague became his capital, and he rebuilt the city on the model of Paris, establishing the New Town (Nové Město). In 1348, he founded the Charles University in Prague, which was later named after him and was the first university in Central Europe. This served as a training ground for bureaucrats and lawyers. Soon Prague emerged as the intellectual and cultural center of Central Europe.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 4345, 23844, 2208327, 38091, 5188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 58 ], [ 97, 103 ], [ 188, 196 ], [ 235, 263 ], [ 329, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having made good use of the difficulties of his opponents, Charles was again elected in Frankfurt on 17 June 1349 and re-crowned at Aachen on 25 July 1349. He was soon the undisputed ruler of the Empire. Gifts or promises had won the support of the Rhenish and Swabian towns; a marriage alliance secured the friendship of the Habsburgs; and an alliance with Rudolf II of Bavaria, Count Palatine of the Rhine, was obtained when Charles, who had become a widower in 1348, married Rudolph's daughter Anna.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 10992, 1520, 616237, 3506104, 25805199, 9671393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 97 ], [ 132, 138 ], [ 261, 267 ], [ 358, 378 ], [ 380, 407 ], [ 497, 501 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1350, the king was visited at Prague by the Roman tribune Cola di Rienzo, who urged him to go to Italy, where the poet Petrarch and the citizens of Florence also implored his presence. Turning a deaf ear to these entreaties, Charles kept Cola in prison for a year, and then handed him as a prisoner to Clement at Avignon.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 23797501, 23734, 11525, 38166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 75 ], [ 122, 130 ], [ 151, 159 ], [ 316, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Outside Prague, Charles attempted to expand the Bohemian crown lands, using his imperial authority to acquire fiefs in Silesia, the Upper Palatinate, and Franconia. The latter regions comprised \"New Bohemia\", a string of possessions intended to link Bohemia with the Luxemburg territories in the Rhineland. The Bohemian estates, however, were not willing to support Charles in these ventures. When Charles sought to codify Bohemian law in the Maiestas Carolina of 1355, he met with sharp resistance. After that point, Charles found it expedient to scale back his efforts at centralization.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 28399, 190155, 11401, 5680750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 126 ], [ 132, 148 ], [ 154, 163 ], [ 443, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1354, Charles crossed the Alps without an army, received the Lombard crown in St. Ambrose Basilica, Milan, on 6January1355, and was crowned emperor at Rome by a cardinal on April 5th of the same year. His sole object appears to have been to obtain the Imperial crown in peace, in accordance with a promise previously made to Pope Clement. He only remained in the city for a few hours, in spite of the expressed wishes of the Roman people. Having virtually abandoned all the Imperial rights in Italy, the emperor re-crossed the Alps, pursued by the scornful words of Petrarch, but laden with considerable wealth. On his return, Charles was occupied with the administration of the Empire, then just recovering from the Black Death, and in 1356, he promulgated the famous Golden Bull to regulate the election of the king.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 981, 355409, 7413341, 36511, 25458, 6221, 4501, 671259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 33 ], [ 64, 77 ], [ 81, 101 ], [ 103, 108 ], [ 154, 158 ], [ 164, 172 ], [ 720, 731 ], [ 772, 783 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having given Moravia to one brother, John Henry, and erected the county of Luxembourg into a duchy for another, Wenceslaus, he was unremitting in his efforts to secure other territories as compensation and to strengthen the Bohemian monarchy. To this end he purchased part of the upper Palatinate of the Rhine in1353, and in 1367 annexed Lower Lusatia to Bohemia and bought numerous estates in various parts of Germany. On the death of Meinhard, Duke of Upper Bavaria and Count of Tyrol, in 1363, Upper Bavaria was claimed by the sons of the emperor LouisIV, and Tyrol by Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria. Both claims were admitted by Charles on the understanding that if these families died out both territories should pass to the House of Luxembourg. At about the same time, he was promised the succession to the Margravate of Brandenburg, which he actually obtained for his son Wenceslaus in1373.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 20216, 5600212, 6829177, 5563404, 38846, 2349520, 1376601, 6493681, 190061, 148994, 2646925, 8206970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ], [ 37, 47 ], [ 65, 85 ], [ 112, 122 ], [ 286, 309 ], [ 338, 351 ], [ 436, 467 ], [ 472, 486 ], [ 497, 510 ], [ 563, 568 ], [ 726, 745 ], [ 809, 834 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Casimir III of Poland and Louis I of Hungary entered a conspiracy against Charles and managed to persuade Otto V of Bavaria to join. After the repeal of the estate contract by margrave Otto, in early July 1371, Charles IV declared hostilities and invaded Margraviate of Brandenburg; after two years of conflict, in 1373 Brandenburg became part of the Czech lands. This was when he gave the order to measure his new territory, its villages, people, and income. This was recorded in the Landbuch of Charles IV, which was finished in 1375. Many villages were mentioned for the first time in this book, so it can provide information on how old they are. He also gained a considerable portion of Silesian territory, partly by inheritance through his third wife, Anna von Schweidnitz, daughter of Henry II, Duke of Świdnica and Catherine of Hungary. In 1365, Charles visited Pope Urban V at Avignon and undertook to escort him to Rome; on the same occasion he was crowned King of Burgundy at Arles.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 7362, 38740, 3322535, 8206970, 1625048, 28399, 20052346, 20148894, 21983591, 38166, 1992429, 79494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 26, 44 ], [ 106, 123 ], [ 255, 281 ], [ 351, 362 ], [ 691, 698 ], [ 757, 777 ], [ 791, 817 ], [ 822, 842 ], [ 885, 892 ], [ 974, 982 ], [ 986, 991 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His second journey to Italy took place in 1368 when he had a meeting with Pope UrbanV at Viterbo, was besieged in his palace at Siena, and left the country before the end of 1369. During his later years, the emperor took little part in German affairs beyond securing the election of his son Wenceslaus as king of the Romans in1376, and negotiating a peace between the Swabian League of Cities and some nobles in1378. After dividing his lands between his three sons and his nephews, he died in November 1378 at Prague, where he was buried, and where a statue was erected to his memory in1848.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 92898, 27856145, 41160900, 23844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 96 ], [ 128, 133 ], [ 368, 392 ], [ 510, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles IV suffered from gout (metabolic arthritis), a painful disease quite common in that time.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 55584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The reign of Charles IV was characterized by a transformation in the nature of the Empire and is remembered as the Golden Age of Bohemia. He promulgated the Golden Bull of 1356 whereby the succession to the imperial title was laid down, which held for the next four centuries.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 31497818, 671259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 125 ], [ 157, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He also organized the states of the empire into peace-keeping confederations. In these, the Imperial cities figured prominently. The Swabian Landfriede confederation of 1370 was made up almost entirely of Imperial Cities. At the same time, the leagues were organized and led by the crown and its agents. As with the electors, the cities that served in these leagues were given privileges to aid in their efforts to keep the peace.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 227091, 220358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 76 ], [ 205, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He assured his dominance over the eastern borders of the Empire through succession treaties with the Habsburgs and the purchase of Brandenburg. He also claimed imperial lordship over the crusader states of Prussia and Livonia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 13824, 371248, 18448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 109 ], [ 206, 213 ], [ 218, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2005 Charles IV ranked the first in the TV show Největší Čech, the Czech spin-off of the BBC Greatest Britons show.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1874239, 1463305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 64 ], [ 76, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prague became the capital of the Holy Roman Empire during the reign of Charles IV. The name of the royal founder and patron remains on many monuments and institutions, for example Charles University, Charles Bridge, Charles Square. High Gothic Prague Castle and part of the cathedral of Saint Vitus by Peter Parler were also built under his patronage. Finally, the first flowering of manuscript painting in Prague dates from Charles's reign. In the present Czech Republic, he is still regarded as Pater Patriae (father of the country or otec vlasti), a title first coined by Adalbertus Ranconis de Ericinio at his funeral.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 23844, 38091, 515933, 17315097, 39774955, 672020, 429421, 1944402, 5321, 400774, 11302326, 5680180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 180, 198 ], [ 200, 214 ], [ 216, 230 ], [ 232, 243 ], [ 244, 257 ], [ 274, 298 ], [ 302, 314 ], [ 458, 472 ], [ 498, 511 ], [ 513, 534 ], [ 576, 607 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles also had strong ties to Nuremberg, staying within its city walls 52 times and thereby strengthening its reputation amongst German cities. Charles was the patron of the Nuremberg Frauenkirche, built between 1352 and 1362 (the architect was likely Peter Parler), where the imperial court worshipped during its stays in Nuremberg.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 21287, 21049502, 1944402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 41 ], [ 177, 199 ], [ 255, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles's imperial policy was focused on the dynastic sphere and abandoned the lofty ideal of the Empire as a universal monarchy of Christendom. In 1353, he granted the Duchy of Luxembourg to his half-brother, Wenceslaus. He concentrated his energies chiefly on the economic and intellectual development of Bohemia, where he founded the university in 1348 and encouraged the early humanists. He corresponded with Petrarch and invited him to visit the royal residence in Prague, whilst the Italian hoped – to no avail – to see Charles move his residence to Rome and reawaken tradition of the Roman Empire.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 5603951, 5563404, 290237, 23734, 25507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 188 ], [ 210, 220 ], [ 375, 390 ], [ 413, 421 ], [ 591, 603 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles's sister Bona married the eldest son of Philip VI of France, the future John II of France, in 1335. Thus, Charles was the maternal uncle of Charles V of France, who solicited his relative's advice at Metz in 1356 during the Parisian Revolt. This family connection was celebrated publicly when Charles made a solemn visit to his nephew in 1378, just months before his death. A detailed account of the occasion, enriched by many splendid miniatures, can be found in Charles V's copy of the Grandes Chroniques de France.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 767157, 57906, 426745, 5719951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 21 ], [ 208, 212 ], [ 232, 247 ], [ 496, 524 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Castles built or established by Charles IV:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Karlštejn, 1348–1355 in Central Bohemian Region for safekeeping the Imperial Regalia, especially the Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire (later the Czech Crown Jewels were also kept there)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1484443, 682983, 1900593, 796455, 1997048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 25, 48 ], [ 69, 85 ], [ 102, 141 ], [ 153, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kašperk (Karlsberg), 1356 in Kašperské Hory in Plzeň Region", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 40048736, 6210047, 681888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 30, 44 ], [ 48, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lauf (Wenzelsburg) – built on the way connecting Prague and Nuremberg in Bohemian Palatinate, inside survived 112 coats of arms of the Bohemian Kingdom", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 38943877, 23844, 21287, 38486399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 50, 56 ], [ 61, 70 ], [ 74, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Montecarlo in Italy", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 6736059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Radyně (Karlskrone) – around 1360 in Plzeň Region", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 28966804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hrádek u Purkarce (Karlshaus) – around 1357", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tepenec (Twingenberg, Karlsburg) in Jívová in Olomouc Region", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 47082327, 23761555, 683156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 37, 43 ], [ 47, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Karlsfried", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Czech Republic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Karlovy Vary, a spa city", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 316657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Karlštejn, a town beyond the eponymous castle", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 13770355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charles Bridge (Karlův most), Prague", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 515933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charles University (Univerzita Karlova), Prague", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 38091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Multiple squares – Charles Square (Karlovo náměstí) in Prague and others, for example in Brno, Kolín, Mělník etc.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 17315097, 57575, 1070358, 856899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 34 ], [ 90, 94 ], [ 96, 101 ], [ 103, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Multiple streets", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Italy", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Montecarlo (Charles's Mountain), a municipality", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 6736059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The 100-Czech koruna banknote", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1307572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 16951 Carolus Quartus, an asteroid", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 720246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles was married four times. His first wife was Blanche of Valois (1316–1348), daughter of Charles, Count of Valois, and a half-sister of King Philip VI of France. They had three children:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 10907658, 806323, 2612950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 69 ], [ 95, 102 ], [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " son (b. 1334), died young", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret of Bohemia, Queen of Hungary (1335–1349); married King Louis I of Hungary.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 20277747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Catherine of Bohemia (1342–1395); married Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria and Otto V, Duke of Bavaria and Elector of Brandenburg.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 3490394, 743182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 43, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He secondly married Anna of Bavaria, (1329–1353), daughter of Rudolf II, Count Palatine of the Rhine; they had one son:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 9671393, 3506104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 35 ], [ 62, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wenceslaus (1350–1351).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "His third wife was Anna von Schweidnitz, (1339–1362), daughter of Henry II, Duke of Świdnica and Katharina of Anjou (daughter of Charles I Robert, King of Hungary), by whom he had three children:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 20052346, 21983591, 70219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 39 ], [ 97, 115 ], [ 129, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elisabeth of Bohemia (19 April 1358 – 4 September 1373); married Albert III, Duke of Austria at the very young age of 8 and died at the age of 15, they had no children.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 20278021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia (1361–1419); later elected King of Germany (formally King of the Romans) and on his father's death, became King of Bohemia (as WenceslausIV) and Emperor-elect of the Holy Roman Empire; married firstly to Joanna of Bavaria in 1370 and secondly to Sophia of Bavaria in 1389.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 38826, 9670219, 4364223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 230, 247 ], [ 272, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " son (born and died 11July 1362).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "His fourth wife was Elizabeth of Pomerania, (1345 or 1347 – 1393), daughter of Bogislaw V, Duke of Pomerania and Elisabeth of Poland who was the daughter of King Casimir III of Poland. They had six children:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 5958282, 20341798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 42 ], [ 113, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anne of Bohemia, Queen of England (1366–1394); married King Richard II of England", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 71370, 46531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 61, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sigismund of Bohemia (1368–1437); later became Holy Roman Emperor, was King of Bohemia, Margrave of Brandenburg, and also King of Hungary through his first marriage to Mary, Queen of Hungary in 1385. His second marriage was to Barbara of Cilli, the daughter and youngest child of Herman II, Count of Celje, in 1405/1408.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 38889, 2290530, 324235, 20677, 916272, 1597261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 90, 113 ], [ 124, 139 ], [ 170, 192 ], [ 229, 245 ], [ 282, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John of Bohemia (1370–1396); later Margrave of Moravia and Duke of Görlitz; married Richardis Catherine of Sweden, the daughter of Albert, King of Sweden. His only daughter and heiress Elisabeth of Görlitz was Duchess of Luxembourg.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 34189482, 38130219, 193044, 32636146, 195241, 5263375, 5603951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 36, 55 ], [ 68, 75 ], [ 85, 114 ], [ 132, 154 ], [ 186, 206 ], [ 211, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charles (13 March 1372 – 24 July 1373).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret of Bohemia, Burgravine of Nuremberg (1373–1410); married John III, Burgrave of Nuremberg.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 21314034, 3497966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ], [ 67, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Henry (1377–1378)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Charles IV (autobiography), edited by Balázs Nagy, Frank Schaer: Autobiography of Emperor Charles IV; And, His Legend of St. Wenceslas: Karoli IV Imperatoris Romanorum Vita Ab Eo Ipso Conscripta; Et, Hystoria Nova de Sancto Wenceslao Martyre, Published by Central European University Press, 2001, , , 259 pages, books.google.com", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Entry in the Residenzen-Kommission", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Regesta Imperii", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Publications on Charles IV. in the OPAC of the Regesta Imperii", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 'Constitutiones et acta publica imperatorum et regum 1357–1378' – digital pre-publication of documents by Charles IV by the MGH", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 380334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aleksandra Filipek-Misiak, Karol IV Luksemburski jako ideał władcy w Catalogus abbatum Saganensium Ludolfa z Żagania, In: Historie – Otázky – Problémy, 7 (2015), z. 1, p. 76-89", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lewis E 64 Golden Bull of Charles IV at OPenn", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Charles_IV,_Holy_Roman_Emperor", "1316_births", "1378_deaths", "14th-century_Holy_Roman_Emperors", "Anti-kings", "Medieval_kings_of_Bohemia", "14th-century_Bohemian_people", "House_of_Luxembourg", "Counts_of_Luxembourg", "Prince-electors_of_Brandenburg", "Czech_people_of_Luxembourgian_descent", "Czech_expatriates_in_France", "Czech_people_of_French_descent", "Nobility_from_Prague", "Burials_at_St._Vitus_Cathedral", "14th-century_Luxembourgian_people", "Czech_Roman_Catholics" ]

[ "Karl von Luxemburg", "Charles of Luxembourg", "Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV", "Holy Roman Emperor Karl IV", "Karl IV." ]

[ { "plaintext": "La Ruffiana is an older female character of the Commedia dell'Arte with a shady past or who used to be a prostitute. She is used most often in relationship to the vecchi of which group she is a nominal member. Ruffiana is most often romantically involved with Pantalone, though his love may easily be unrequited if it suits the plot. She is generally described as being talkative/gossipy, sneaky, and mischievous, but deep down is actually kind. She has been described as an \"outsider\" that always mixes things up and causes trouble for the rest of the characters. \"Her quips reek of garlic\" (Pierre Louis Duchartre, The Italian Comedy p.285) ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24527985, 45363, 45364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 66 ], [ 163, 169 ], [ 260, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Typically la Ruffiana is a former prostitute. While she is long retired, she still knows everything there is to know about the business. Because of this sometimes she is a counsel to some of the younger characters when it comes to romance. As a retired older character, she can fill the role of other shady characters in scenarios, such as a peasant or a woman who pursues younger men. When performed in the northern parts of Italy, specifically around Venice, she is portrayed as the gossipy townsperson. Whereas when we venture down south around Naples, she makes appearances as a midwife, or the older herb woman.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Roles in scenarios", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another common role for la Ruffiana is a mysterious magical woman or gypsy. Most of the other characters in Commedia are not trusting or scared of sorceresses and gypsies because they are typically mischievous thieves. La Ruffiana is known to have spells, potions, and a vast amount of knowledge. She is also found to use her powers to see the future and to meddle in the younger characters love lives. While she is good at heart, she is still known to be a thief and should not be messed with.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Roles in scenarios", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "La Ruffiana gets her name from the earlier Italian word \"ruffiano\", from which, via French, the English word \"ruffian\" also comes. A \"ruffian\" (first recorded in English in 1525) is \"a boisterous, brutal fellow, one ready to commit any crime\". In Italian \"ruffiano\" means \"a pander, pimp\". La Ruffiana is therefore also related to the procurer/old woman/pimp characters of ancient Latin comedy. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "La Ruffiana has been seen in various clothing options and styles depending on the direction that the character is being taken. Traditionally, she is seen in Neapolitan peasant clothing. She is also often seen in a cloak and a mask, which makes her one of the only woman Commedia dell'Arte characters to be played in a mask. She is also occasionally seen with a staff of some variety.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Costume", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Commedia_dell'arte_female_characters", "Fictional_prostitutes" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Gli Innamorati (, meaning \"The Lovers\") were stock characters within the theatre style known as commedia dell'arte, who appeared in 16th century Italy. In the plays, everything revolved around the Lovers in some regard. These dramatic and posh characters were present within commedia plays for the sole purpose of being in love with one another, and moreover, with themselves. These characters move elegantly and smoothly, and their young faces are unmasked unlike other commedia dell'arte characters. Despite facing many obstacles, the Lovers were always united by the end.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24527985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name Innamorati is the Italian word for \"Lovers\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The dramatists of the Italian Renaissance borrowed ideas from early Roman playwrights, such as Plautus and Terence, whom the theater style known as commedia erudita was inspired by. The \"lovers\" are the first actor, first actress, second actor and second actress.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 322915, 24171, 30756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 41 ], [ 95, 102 ], [ 107, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The comedy of the Lovers is that they are ridiculous and over the top about everything, but they are completely sincere in their emotions. The main function of the Lovers within the play is to be in love; and in doing so, they come upon obstacles that keep them from pursuing their relationship. These obstacles stemmed from varied causes. For instance, the financial or personal interests of a lover's parent may have prevented the lovers' relationship from progressing. The pair always involves other commedia characters, such as Zanni characters, to try to figure out how they can be together. This is necessary, because due to their conceited stupidity, and lack of experience with the all of the mysteries of love, and the sensations and emotions that come with it, they cannot figure it out on their own.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Characteristics and dramatic function", "target_page_ids": [ 38343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 532, 537 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Lovers tend to be overly dramatic in whatever emotion they express. Separation from their lover leads them to strongly lament and moan their state, although, once they finally meet, they are at a loss of words. In order to express what they truly want to say, they always need the help of a servant to act as a go-between. The Lovers often act in a childlike and immature way. When not getting their way, they become completely devastated, they pout, and even cry and whine if things do not go according to their wishes. Very selfish and self-centered, the Lovers are in their own worlds where they are each the most important subjects. Along with loving themselves, they are in love with the very idea of love and what it pertains to.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Characteristics and dramatic function", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Lovers are always young in age, possessing courteousness and gallantry. They are very educated, but lack life experiences that would have prepared them for the real world. They are very attractive and elegant in their appearance overall.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Physical appearance and attributes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The women's dresses were of the finest silks and they wear showy jewelry characteristic of Renaissance style. The males wear soldier-like attire, while both genders wear extravagant wigs and also change clothes numerous times throughout the length of the production. The costumes of the lovers were the fashion of the day, and the extravagance of the Lovers costumes often represented the status of the Commedia dell'arte company.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Physical appearance and attributes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Lovers never wear the masks, which is characteristic of most of the other stock characters in the commedia dell'arte. They do, however, wear a large amount of makeup and apply beauty marks to their faces.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Physical appearance and attributes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Their speech is very eloquent Tuscan, as they are of high social status. When commedia dell'arte is played in England the lovers often speak in Received Pronunciation. They are well-read in poetry and often recite it at length from memory, and even tend to sing quite often. Their language is full of flamboyant and lofty rhetoric so that most of what they say is not taken too seriously, by either the audience or the other characters. Although their dramatics were laughable, their struggle as a romantic couple added a cultural layer to the show, adding tone of seriousness to the show.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Physical appearance and attributes", "target_page_ids": [ 26247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Innamorati do everything perfectly and strive for perfection. Their movements are elegant and are not to be aimed towards parody. They occasionally do courtly dances using two dance movements called \"pas\", and \"swivel\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physicality", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The posture that the Lovers take on is that of strong pride. They point their toes while standing and puff up their chests. Overall, they lack contact with the ground and seem to float across the ground rather than take steps. Their hand movements and gestures are also very characteristic of the buoyant movements that their feet take on. The physicality of the Lovers should not be done in a way that makes fun of them.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physicality", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Following that, they do love each other, but are more consumed with the idea of being in love. They never outwardly communicate with their lover even when they are in close contact, due to nerves, and, therefore, never really outwardly express affection toward their beloved. The Lovers commonly fight or bicker. Despite the bitter interactions, the Lovers mostly reconcile their differences by the end of the play and end up happily together and/or married. The Lovers are usually the children of either Dottore or Pantalone.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Relationships", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Lovers are aware of the audience's presence. They use the audience as a means to show themselves off and also to express their plight at not being able to obtain their love. In other ways, they may also call on an audience member for help or advice, or even flirt with someone who is watching from their T.V.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Relationships", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alliteration", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rhetorical conceits used", "target_page_ids": [ 58533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Allusion", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rhetorical conceits used", "target_page_ids": [ 297267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antithesis", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rhetorical conceits used", "target_page_ids": [ 77695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Assonance", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rhetorical conceits used", "target_page_ids": [ 186153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hyperbole", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rhetorical conceits used", "target_page_ids": [ 184433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Interrogation", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rhetorical conceits used", "target_page_ids": [ 220414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Invocation", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rhetorical conceits used", "target_page_ids": [ 265635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Irony", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rhetorical conceits used", "target_page_ids": [ 21514028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Metaphor", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rhetorical conceits used", "target_page_ids": [ 20518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prosopopoeia", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rhetorical conceits used", "target_page_ids": [ 2916422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Conceit", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rhetorical conceits used", "target_page_ids": [ 164465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Lovers use Usite (exits) and Chiusette (endings) sometimes when entering and exiting. These are rhyming couplets that are said before exiting and entering a scene.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Entering and exiting", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since the Lovers are stock characters, the names of both the male and female lovers are used over and over again:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arsenio", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aurielo", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cinthio", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fabrizio", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Flavio", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fedelindo", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Florindo", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Flaminio", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Leandro", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lélio", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [ 50856379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lindoro", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mario", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ortensio", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ottavio", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Orazio", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sireno, often the son of Pantalone.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [ 45364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Silvio", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tristano", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Angelica", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aurelia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Beatrice", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bianchetta", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Celia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Clarice", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Clori", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cinzio", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Emilia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Eularia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Flaminia, played by Elena Balletti having inherited the role from her grandmother", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [ 64495434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Florinda, famously portrayed by Virginia Ramponi-Andreini who also used \"La Florinda\" as her stage name", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [ 40719309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Filesia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Filli, often daughter of Pantalone.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [ 45364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Isabella", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [ 3061689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lavinia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lidia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ortensia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rosalinda", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Silvia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Turchetta", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Vittoria", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Variations on names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Commedia_dell'arte_characters", "Romance_characters", "Couples", "Fictional_characters_introduced_in_the_16th_century" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Slapstick is a style of humor involving exaggerated physical activity that exceeds the boundaries of normal physical comedy. Slapstick may involve both intentional violence and violence by mishap, often resulting from inept use of props such as saws and ladders. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38407, 11838661, 410978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 29 ], [ 40, 51 ], [ 108, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term arises from a device developed for use in the broad, physical comedy style known as commedia dell'arte in 16th-century Italy. The \"slap stick\" consists of two thin slats of wood, which make a \"slap\" when striking another actor, with little force needed to make a loud—and comical—sound. The physical slap stick remains a key component of the plot in the traditional and popular Punch and Judy puppet show. Other examples of slapstick humor include The Naked Gun and Mr. Bean.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24527985, 12399907, 23013, 5419140, 34499113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 111 ], [ 140, 150 ], [ 387, 401 ], [ 457, 470 ], [ 475, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name \"slapstick\" originates from the Italian Batacchio or Bataccio – called the \"slap stick\" in English – a club-like object composed of two wooden slats used in commedia dell'arte. When struck, the Batacchio produces a loud smacking noise, though it is only a little force that is transferred from the object to the person being struck. Actors may thus hit one another repeatedly with great audible effect while causing no damage and only very minor, if any, pain. Along with the inflatable bladder (of which the whoopee cushion is a modern variant), it was among the earliest special effects.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 12399907, 24527985, 526633, 53017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 95 ], [ 167, 185 ], [ 520, 535 ], [ 584, 599 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Slapstick comedy's history is measured in centuries. Shakespeare incorporated many chase scenes and beatings into his comedies, such as in his play The Comedy of Errors. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early uses", "target_page_ids": [ 32897, 324904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 64 ], [ 148, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early 19th-century England, pantomime acquired its present form which includes slapstick comedy: its most famous performer, Joseph Grimaldi—the father of modern clowning—would partake in slapstick, with the Smithsonian stating he \"fought himself in hilarious fisticuffs that had audiences rolling in the aisles\". Comedy routines also featured heavily in British music hall theatre which became popular in the 1850s. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2101713, 1329082, 5928, 65828, 232692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 40 ], [ 127, 142 ], [ 164, 169 ], [ 210, 221 ], [ 365, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Punch and Judy shows, which first appeared in England on 9 May 1662, a large slapstick is wielded by Punch against the other characters.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early uses", "target_page_ids": [ 23013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Use of the slapstick in public places was a fad in the early 20th century.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "20th century fad", "target_page_ids": [ 4137095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1911 Veiled Prophet Parade in St. Louis, according to the St. Louis Post-Dispatch,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "20th century fad", "target_page_ids": [ 15185924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The slapstick, so long indispensable to low comedy, found a new use among the crowds . . . they used the slapstick to the extreme embarrassment of many women. The carnival spirit, for the most part tempered by high good humor, at times verged on rowdyism. Girls used a stick ripped with feathers to tickle the faces of young men, and they retaliated vigorously with the slapstick.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "20th century fad", "target_page_ids": [ 49572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An editorial in the Asbury Park Press, New Jersey, said in 1914:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "20th century fad", "target_page_ids": [ 26513025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Slapsticks are the latest \"fun-making\" fad for masque fetes. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "20th century fad", "target_page_ids": [ 74909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " . . . Orders to stop the slapstick nuisance should be issued by the police and the Asbury Park carnival commissioners. Any device that cannot be operated or used without inflicting unmerited pain and injury should be excluded . . . .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "20th century fad", "target_page_ids": [ 125458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "British comedians who honed their skills at pantomime and music hall sketches include Charlie Chaplin, Stan Laurel, George Formby, and Dan Leno. The influential English music hall comedian and theatre impresario Fred Karno developed a form of sketch comedy without dialogue in the 1890s, and Chaplin and Laurel were among the young comedians who worked for him as part of \"Fred Karno's Army\". Chaplin's fifteen-year music hall career inspired the comedy in all his later film work, especially as pantomimicry. In a biography of Karno, Laurel stated: \"Fred Karno didn't teach Charlie [Chaplin] and me all we know about comedy. He just taught us most of it\". American film producer Hal Roach described Karno as \"not only a genius, he is the man who originated slapstick comedy. We in Hollywood owe much to him.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Fred Karno", "target_page_ids": [ 5142, 897299, 391415, 450886, 343176, 310161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 101 ], [ 103, 114 ], [ 116, 129 ], [ 135, 143 ], [ 212, 222 ], [ 680, 689 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Building on its later popularity in the 19th and early 20th-century ethnic routines of the American Mack Twain house, the style was explored extensively during the \"golden era\" of black and white movies directed by Mack Sennett and Hal Roach that featured such notables as Charlie Chaplin, Mabel Normand, Marx Brothers, Laurel and Hardy, Abbott & Costello, and Three Stooges. Silent slapstick comedy was also popular in early French films and included films by Max Linder, Charles Prince, and Sarah Duhamel.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In film and television", "target_page_ids": [ 18824, 310161, 5142, 579712, 19669, 55909, 105969, 36816, 1115120, 34141094, 64175428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 215, 227 ], [ 232, 241 ], [ 273, 288 ], [ 290, 303 ], [ 305, 318 ], [ 320, 336 ], [ 338, 355 ], [ 361, 374 ], [ 461, 471 ], [ 473, 487 ], [ 493, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Slapstick also became a common element in animated cartoons starting in the 1930; examples include Disney's Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck shorts, Walter Lantz's Woody Woodpecker and The Beary Family, MGM's Tom and Jerry, the unrelated Tom and Jerry cartoons of Van Beuren Studios, Warner Bros. Looney Tunes/Merrie Melodies, MGM's Barney Bear, and Tex Avery's Screwy Squirrel. Slapstick was later used in Japanese Tokusatsu TV Kamen Rider Drive, by Benny Hill in The Benny Hill Show in the UK, and in the US used in the three 1960s TV series, Gilligan's Island, Batman and The Flying Nun.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In film and television", "target_page_ids": [ 3825974, 19179331, 220109, 200953, 25359395, 871053, 952884, 952869, 50287, 199608, 1592801, 1607899, 634965, 43637792, 151404, 4963313, 87639, 298705, 696196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 120 ], [ 125, 136 ], [ 145, 157 ], [ 160, 176 ], [ 181, 197 ], [ 205, 218 ], [ 234, 247 ], [ 260, 278 ], [ 293, 305 ], [ 306, 321 ], [ 329, 340 ], [ 358, 373 ], [ 412, 421 ], [ 425, 442 ], [ 447, 457 ], [ 461, 480 ], [ 541, 558 ], [ 560, 566 ], [ 571, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of slapstick comedy topics", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39802571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Slapstick film", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 226300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cartoon violence", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26778610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stage combat", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 227135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Schadenfreude", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 177681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harisen, a paper fan used by the Japanese for a similar purpose.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4440174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] } ]

[ "Slapstick_comedy", "Film_genres" ]

[ "slapstick comedy" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Mattachine Society (), founded in 1950, was an early national gay rights organization in the United States, perhaps preceded only by Chicago's Society for Human Rights. Communist and labor activist Harry Hay formed the group with a collection of male friends in Los Angeles to protect and improve the rights of gay men. Branches formed in other cities, and by 1961 the Society had splintered into regional groups.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13070, 3434750, 6886, 4871265, 140263, 18110, 754804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 76 ], [ 97, 110 ], [ 137, 144 ], [ 147, 171 ], [ 202, 211 ], [ 266, 277 ], [ 315, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the beginning of gay rights protest, news on Cuban prison work camps for homosexuals inspired Mattachine Society to organize protests at the United Nations and the White House in 1965.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5042481, 31769, 33057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 52 ], [ 144, 158 ], [ 167, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harry Hay conceived the idea of a gay activist group in 1948. After signing a petition for Progressive Party presidential candidate Henry A. Wallace, Hay spoke with other gay men at a party about forming a gay support organization for him called \"Bachelors for Wallace\". Encouraged by the response he received, Hay wrote the organizing principles that night, a document he referred to as \"The Call\". However, the men who had been interested at the party were less than enthusiastic the following morning. Over the next two years, Hay refined his idea, finally conceiving of an \"international... fraternal order\" to serve as \"a service and welfare organization devoted to the protection and improvement of Society's Androgynous Minority\". He planned to call this organization \"Bachelors Anonymous\" and envisioned it serving a similar function and purpose as Alcoholics Anonymous. Hay met Rudi Gernreich in July 1950. The two became partners, and Hay showed Gernreich The Call. Gernreich, declaring the document \"the most dangerous thing [he had] ever read\", became an enthusiastic financial supporter of the venture, although he did not lend his name to it (going instead by the initial \"R\"). Finally on November 11, 1950, Hay, along with Gernreich and friends Dale Jennings and partners Bob Hull and Chuck Rowland, held the first meeting of the Mattachine Society in Los Angeles, under the name Society of Fools. James Gruber and Konrad Stevens joined the Society in April 1951 and they are generally considered to be original members. Also that month the group changed its name to Mattachine Society, a name suggested by Gruber and chosen by Hay, after Medieval French secret societies of masked men who, through their anonymity, were empowered to criticize ruling monarchs with impunity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Founding", "target_page_ids": [ 140263, 3976426, 92220, 2047, 501700, 18528552, 31294527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 91, 108 ], [ 132, 148 ], [ 857, 877 ], [ 887, 901 ], [ 1260, 1273 ], [ 1413, 1425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Hay became more involved in his Mattachine work, he correspondingly became more concerned that his orientation would negatively affect the Communist Party, which like most other organizations at the time was anti-homosexual and did not allow gay people to be members. Hay himself approached party leaders and recommended his own expulsion. The party decided to expel him as a \"security risk\", but declared him a \"Lifelong Friend of the People\" in recognition of his previous work for the party.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Founding", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mattachine was originally organized in similar structure to the Communist Party, with cells, oaths of secrecy and five different levels of membership, each of which required greater levels of involvement and commitment. As the organization grew, the levels were expected to subdivide into new cells, creating both the potential for horizontal and vertical growth. The founding members constituted the so-called \"Fifth Order\" and from the outset remained anonymous.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Founding", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mattachine's membership grew slowly at first but received a major boost in February 1952 when founder Jennings was arrested in a Los Angeles park and charged with lewd behavior. Often, men in Jennings' situation would simply plead guilty to the charge and hope to quietly rebuild their lives. Jennings and the rest of the Fifth Order saw the charges as a means to address the issue of police entrapment of homosexual men. The group began publicizing the case (under the name \"Citizens Committee to Outlaw Entrapment\") and the publicity it generated brought in financial support and volunteers. Jennings admitted during his trial to being a homosexual but insisted he was not guilty of the specific charge. The jury deadlocked and Mattachine declared victory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Founding", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Mattachine Society was named by Harry Hay at the suggestion of James Gruber, inspired by a French medieval and renaissance masque group he had studied while preparing a course on the history of popular music for a workers' education project. In a 1976 interview with Jonathan Ned Katz, Hay was asked the origin of the name Mattachine. He mentioned the medieval-Renaissance French Sociétés Joyeuses:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Naming", "target_page_ids": [ 74909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This French group was named in turn after Mattaccino (or the Anglicized Mattachino), a character in Italian theater. Mattaccino was a kind of court jester, who would speak the truth to the king when nobody else would. The \"mattachin\" (from Arabic mutawajjihin—\"mask-wearers\") were originally Moorish (Hispano-Arab) sword-dancers who wore elaborate, colorful costumes and masks.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Naming", "target_page_ids": [ 78135, 803, 45127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 154 ], [ 240, 246 ], [ 292, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mattachine Society used so-called harlequin diamonds as their emblem. The design consisted of four diamonds arranged in a pattern to form a larger diamond.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Naming", "target_page_ids": [ 38341, 328763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 47 ], [ 66, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of the Mattachine founders were communists. As the Red Scare progressed, the association with communism concerned some members as well as supporters and Hay, a dedicated member of the CPUSA for 15 years, stepped down as the Society's leader. Others were similarly ousted, and the leadership structure became influenced less by communism, replaced by a moderate ideology similar to that espoused by the liberal reformist civil rights organizations that existed for African Americans. Although Hay claimed \"never to have even heard\" of the earlier gay liberation struggle in Germany—by the people around Adolf Brand, Magnus Hirschfeld and the Austrian-Hungarian Leontine Sagan—he is known to have talked about it with German émigrés in America, including the Austrian-born Rudi Gernreich.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Affiliations", "target_page_ids": [ 9209651, 43805, 452981, 37071, 2154, 1727494, 11867, 839656, 234282, 2983, 1245794, 26964606, 501700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 46 ], [ 56, 65 ], [ 189, 194 ], [ 425, 437 ], [ 469, 485 ], [ 551, 565 ], [ 578, 585 ], [ 607, 618 ], [ 620, 637 ], [ 646, 664 ], [ 665, 679 ], [ 762, 769 ], [ 776, 790 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mattachine Society existed as a single national organization headquartered first in Los Angeles and then, beginning around 1956, in San Francisco. Outside of Los Angeles and San Francisco, chapters were established in New York; Washington, D.C.; Chicago; and other locales. Due to internal disagreements, the national organization disbanded in 1961. The San Francisco national chapter retained the name \"Mattachine Society\", while the New York chapter became \"Mattachine Society of New York, Inc\" and was commonly known by its acronym MSNY. Other independent groups using the name Mattachine were formed in Washington, D.C. (Mattachine Society of Washington, 1961), in Chicago (Mattachine Midwest, 1965), and in Buffalo (Mattachine Society of the Niagara Frontier, 1970). In 1963 Congressman John Dowdy introduced a bill which resulted in congressional hearings to revoke the license for solicitation of funds of the Mattachine Society of Washington; the license was not revoked.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Affiliations", "target_page_ids": [ 2694875, 2956464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 629, 661 ], [ 796, 806 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A largely amicable split within the national Society in 1952 resulted in a new organization called ONE, Inc. ONE admitted women and, together with Mattachine, provided help to the Daughters of Bilitis in the launching of that group's magazine, The Ladder, in 1956. The Daughters of Bilitis were an independent lesbian organization who occasionally worked with the predominantly male Mattachine Society.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Affiliations", "target_page_ids": [ 1570938, 178587, 3291464, 178587, 17846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 108 ], [ 180, 200 ], [ 244, 254 ], [ 269, 289 ], [ 310, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Janus Society grew out of lesbian and gay activists meeting regularly, beginning in 1961, in hopes of forming a Mattachine Society chapter. The group was not officially recognized as such a chapter, however, and so instead named itself the Janus Society of Delaware Valley. In 1964 they renamed themselves the Janus Society of America due to their increasing national visibility.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Affiliations", "target_page_ids": [ 24000369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 1962 East Coast Homophile Organizations (ECHO) was established, with its formative membership including the Mattachine Society chapters in New York and Washington D.C., the Janus Society, and the Daughters of Bilitis chapter in New York. ECHO was meant to facilitate cooperation between homophile organizations and outside administrations. In 1964, ECHO received a $500 settlement from the Manger Hamilton hotel upon the hotel’s last minute cancellation of ECHO’s conference in their location. This out of court settlement was portrayed by the organization as an affirmation to the homophile community that they were not to mess with and that any matters that violated their rights would be handled in accordance with the law.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Affiliations", "target_page_ids": [ 43976376, 24000369, 178587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 50 ], [ 184, 197 ], [ 207, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the eve of January 1, 1965, several homophile organizations in San Francisco, California - including Mattachine, the Daughters of Bilitis, the Council on Religion and the Homosexual, and the Society for Individual Rights - held a fund-raising ball for their mutual benefit at California Hall on Polk Street. San Francisco police had agreed not to interfere; however, on the evening of the ball, the police surrounded the building and focused numerous Klieg lights on its entrance. As each of the 600 plus persons entering the ball approached the entrance, the police took their photographs. Police vans were parked in plain view near the entrance to the ball. Evander Smith, a (gay) lawyer for the groups organizing the ball, and gay lawyer Herb Donaldson tried to stop the police from conducting the fourth \"inspection\" of the evening; both were arrested, along with two heterosexual lawyers - Elliott Leighton and Nancy May - who were supporting the rights of the participants to gather at the ball. But twenty-five of the most prominent lawyers in San Francisco joined the defense team for the four lawyers, and the judge directed the jury to find the four not-guilty before the defense had even had a chance to begin their argumentation when the case came to court. This event has been called \"San Francisco's Stonewall\" by some historians; the participation of such prominent litigators in the defense of Smith, Donaldson and the other two lawyers marked a turning point in gay rights on the West Coast of the United States.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Affiliations", "target_page_ids": [ 178587, 25487868, 204479, 867574, 37945241, 37939184, 29383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 140 ], [ 146, 184 ], [ 194, 223 ], [ 454, 466 ], [ 664, 677 ], [ 745, 759 ], [ 1318, 1327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The primary goals of the society were to", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Unify homosexuals isolated from their own kind\";", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Educate homosexuals and heterosexuals toward an ethical homosexual culture paralleling the cultures of the Negro, Mexican and Jewish peoples\";", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Lead the more socially conscious homosexual to provide leadership to the whole mass of social variants\"; and", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Assist gays who are victimized daily as a result of oppression\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Following the Jennings trial, the group expanded rapidly, with founders estimating membership in California by May 1953 at over 2,000 with as many as 100 people joining a typical discussion group. Membership diversified, with more women and people from a broader political spectrum becoming involved. With that growth came concern about the radical left slant of the organization. In particular, Hal Call and others out of San Francisco along with Ken Burns from Los Angeles wanted Mattachine to amend its constitution to clarify its opposition to so-called \"subversive elements\" and to affirm that members were loyal to the United States and its laws (which declared homosexuality illegal). In an effort to preserve their vision of the organization, the Fifth Order members revealed their identities and resigned their leadership positions at Mattachine's May 1953 convention. With the founders gone, Call, Burns and other like-minded individuals stepped into the leadership void, and Mattachine officially adopted non-confrontation as an organizational policy. Some historians argue that these changes reduced the effectiveness of this newly organized Mattachine and led to a precipitous drop in membership and participation. Other historians contend that the Mattachine Society between 1953 and 1966 was enormously effective as it published a magazine, developed relationships with allies in the fight for homosexual equality, and influenced public opinion on the topic too.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Decline", "target_page_ids": [ 24058460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 396, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1960s, the various unaffiliated Mattachine Societies, especially the Mattachine Society in San Francisco and MSNY, were among the foremost gay rights groups in the United States, but beginning in the middle 1960s and, especially, following the Stonewall riots of 1969, they began increasingly to be seen as too traditional, and not willing enough to be confrontational. Like the divide that occurred within the Civil Rights Movement, the late 1960s and the 1970s brought a new generation of activists, many of whom felt that the gay rights movement needed to endorse a larger and more radical agenda to address other forms of oppression, the Vietnam War, and the sexual revolution. Several unaffiliated entities that went under the name Mattachine eventually lost support or fell prey to internal division.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Decline", "target_page_ids": [ 29383, 49001, 32611, 37056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 255, 270 ], [ 422, 443 ], [ 653, 664 ], [ 674, 691 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1973 Hal Call opened the Cinemattachine, a venue showing both Mattachine newsreels and pornographic movies. The Cinemattachine was an extension of the Mattachine Society’s Sex Education Film Series and branded as being presented by both The Mattachine Society and The Seven Committee. In 1976 a venue with the name Cinemattachine Los Angeles at the ONE opened. The same screenings as the San Francisco establishment were shown there. Mattachine co-founder Chuck Rowland indicated that he did not feel that Call associating this venue with The Mattachine Society was appropriate.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Decline", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the Quantum Leap comic book titled Up Against a Stonewall (1992), the Mattachine Society and the Daughters of Bilitis are mentioned as two groups campaigning for LGBT rights prior to the Stonewall riots.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 54586, 178587, 29383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ], [ 100, 120 ], [ 190, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1995 film Stonewall included members of the Mattachine Society of New York among its characters. Mattachine members are seen leafleting, attending meetings and participating in the Annual Reminder picket in Philadelphia. However, the film sets the Reminder earlier in the summer than it really was, predating the June 28 Stonewall riots.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1834238, 23377626, 29383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 23 ], [ 185, 200 ], [ 325, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2002 Mattachine Midwest was inducted into the Chicago Gay and Lesbian Hall of Fame.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 20873177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2009 the Mattachine Society and its founders became the subjects of the play The Temperamentals by Jon Marans. After workshop performances in 2009, the play opened Off-Broadway at New World Stages in early 2010. The Temperamentals received a Drama Desk Award for Best Ensemble Cast. Michael Urie, who originated the role of Rudi Gernreich, received a Lucille Lortel Award for Outstanding Lead Actor.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 27455030, 89127, 15848683, 417090, 7600820, 11099063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 98 ], [ 167, 179 ], [ 183, 199 ], [ 245, 261 ], [ 286, 298 ], [ 354, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A new Mattachine Society of Washington, D.C. was formed in 2011 and is dedicated to original archival research of LGBT political history.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Playboy Club, a 2011 television series on NBC, includes a lesbian Playboy Bunny in a lavender marriage with a gay man. The two are members of the Chicago Mattachine chapter.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 31764300, 21780, 621599, 707385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 46, 49 ], [ 70, 83 ], [ 89, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mattachine Steps, also known as the Cove Avenue stairway, is an outdoor staircase in Silver Lake, Los Angeles, dedicated to the Mattachine Society in 2012 in memory of its founder Harry Hay.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 57699711, 544861, 18110, 140263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 89, 100 ], [ 102, 113 ], [ 184, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, a gay bar called Bar Mattachine opened in downtown Los Angeles. The podcast “Making Gay History” (season 1, episode 7) is about Mattachine co-founder Chuck Rowland, and another episode is about Mattachine co-founder Harry Hay (season 4, episode 3).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1034453, 61773328, 140263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 84 ], [ 86, 104 ], [ 225, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Julius’ bar in Manhattan has held a monthly party called \"Mattachine\" honoring the early gay rights pioneers.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 18188997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dick Leitsch", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52922656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " LGBT rights in the United States", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3510770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of LGBT rights organizations", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 291028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Radical Faeries", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 158691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timeline of LGBT history", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 477944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Notes", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Citations", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bibliography", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Miller, Neil (1995). Out of the Past: Gay and Lesbian History from 1869 to the Present. New York: Vintage Books. . .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Boyd, Nan Alamilla. Wide Open Town: A History of Queer San Francisco to 1965. University of California Press, 2003.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bullough, Vern L. Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context. Harrington Park Press, 2002.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Carter, David. Stonewall: The Riots That Sparked the Gay Revolution. St. Martin's Press, 2004.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Homosexuality. New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1990.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Johnson, David. The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government. University of Chicago Press, 2004.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mattachine Society Today, Mattachine Society, 1965.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poling, John D. Mattachine Midwest: The History of a Chicago Gay Rights Organization, 1965 to 1986 (thesis, M.S., Illinois State University, 2002).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sears, James T. Behind the Mask of the Mattachine. Harrington Park Press, 2006.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " White, C. Todd. Pre-Gay L.A. University of Illinois Press, 2009.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mattachine Society of Washington, D.C.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mattachine Society, Encyclopedia of Homosexuality", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mattachine Society, Shreveport, Louisiana", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " FBI file on the Mattachine Society", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Documents from the Mattachine Society's archives", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mattachine-related correspondence of Franklin Kameny", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Mattachine_Society", "1950_establishments_in_California", "1950s_in_LGBT_history", "Communism_in_the_United_States", "Defunct_LGBT_organizations_in_the_United_States", "Gay_history", "History_of_LGBT_civil_rights_in_the_United_States", "LGBT_culture_in_Los_Angeles", "LGBT_history_in_California", "LGBT_political_advocacy_groups_in_California", "LGBT_political_advocacy_groups_in_the_United_States", "Organizations_established_in_1950", "Secret_societies_in_the_United_States" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In the performing arts, a scenario (, ; ; ) is a synoptical collage of an event or series of actions and events. In the commedia dell'arte, it was an outline of entrances, exits, and action describing the plot of a play, and was literally pinned to the back of the scenery. It is also known as canovaccio or \"that which is pinned to the canvas\" of which the scenery was constructed.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22938, 24527985, 893843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ], [ 120, 138 ], [ 294, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Surviving scenarios from the Renaissance contain little other than character names, brief descriptions of action, and references to specific lazzi with no further explanation. It is believed that a scenario formed the basis for a fully improvisational performance, though it is also likely that they were simple reminders of the plot for those members of the cast who were literate. Modern commedia troupes most often make use of a script with varying degrees of additional improvisation.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25532, 38901, 15041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 40 ], [ 141, 146 ], [ 236, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the creation of an opera or ballet, a scenario is often developed initially to indicate how the original source, if any, is to be adapted and to summarize the aspects of character, staging, plot, etc. that can be expanded later in a fully developed libretto, or script. This sketch can be helpful in \"pitching\" the idea to a prospective producer, director or composer.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22348, 49733, 46950, 1748973, 103078, 198778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 27 ], [ 31, 37 ], [ 252, 260 ], [ 340, 348 ], [ 350, 358 ], [ 362, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the filmmaking of the early 20th century, film scenarios (also called \"treatments\" or \"synopses\") were short written scripts to provide narrative coherence that had previously been improvised. They could consist of a simple list of scene headings or scene headings with a detailed explication of the action in each scene. At this time in the silent era, scripts had yet to include individual shots or dialogue (obviously). These scenario scripts evolved into lengthier continuity scripts, which listed a number of shots within each scene, thus providing continuity to streamline the filmmaking process.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 933117, 83597, 26956, 83597, 5899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 17 ], [ 45, 58 ], [ 347, 357 ], [ 475, 492 ], [ 560, 570 ] ] } ]

[ "Cinematic_techniques" ]

[ "scenarios" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Lazzi (; from the Italian lazzo, a joke or witticism) are stock comedic routines that are associated with Commedia dell'arte. Performers, especially those playing the masked Arlecchino, had many examples of this in their repertoire, and would use improvisatory skills to weave them into the plot of dozens of different commedia scenarios. These largely physical sequences could be improvised or preplanned within the performance and were often used to enliven the audience when a scene was dragging, to cover a dropped line or cue, or to delight an expectant audience with the troupe's specialized lazzi.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14708, 24527985, 38341, 38900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 25 ], [ 106, 124 ], [ 174, 184 ], [ 328, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lazzi could be completed by a single player (e.g. the Lazzo of the School of Humanity wherein a Zanni character would announce that his sister was running a \"school of humanity\" from their home because she was a prostitute), a few individuals (e.g. the Lazzo of the Straw wherein a stock character of higher status would pour wine as his servant emptied it through a straw), or the entire troupe (e.g. the Lazzo of Nightfall wherein the entire troupe would stumble onto stage to enact hapless physical sequences as though the room was pitch black). While its placement in the plot was usually fixed during rehearsals, it was acceptable for an actor to unexpectedly utter a predetermined line of dialogue that instructed fellow performers to enact lazzi at any time during the performance. Sometimes lazzi could take place in dances or songs accompanied by onstage stringed musical instruments.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38343, 98352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 101 ], [ 282, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Evidence of lazzi's conventionalization within the Italian Commedia dell'arte includes visual iconography, paintings, fragmented writings, and personal manuscripts from prominent 16th and 17th century dramatists and actors. One of the earliest accounts can be found in the work of Flaminio Scala, who listed 30 instances of lazzi, though the word \"lazzi\" was not yet used. Nearly a century later, Andrea Petrucci described lazzi as a fixture of commedia in The Art of The Rehearsal Performance and Improvisation. In Selva over zibaldone di concetti comic raccolti dal P.D. Placidio, Adriani di Lucca provides a list of lazzi from a manuscript that is one of the few extant and intact accounts of lazzi from 17th and 18th century Italy. The manuscript is currently held at the Library in Perugia Most recently, Mel Gordon compiled a comprehensive collection of lazzi performed by commedia troupes between 1550 and 1750, and organized the descriptions into twelve categories that include 'acrobatic and mimic' as well as 'violence/sadistic behavior' lazzi.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32840818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 281, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition, visual iconography from the 17th and 18th century depicts elements of lazzi that often portray what would have been considered vulgar physical acts (i.e. a doctor administering an enema as seen in the image), though few of the written accounts describe such content. It has been proposed that the marked lack of documentation may be, in part, an attempt to evade rising censorship by authorities, especially in the case of Parisian Commedia Italienne under the rule of Louis XIV, who threatened troupes with the revocation of royal subsidies should their material be deemed subversive. In some cases, his censorship resulted in a troupe's expulsion from the country. Others theorize that lazzi often went undocumented so that it could not be imitated by competing troupes, as routines could not be patented. Also, it has been suggested that because of the oral and physical nature of the training, as well as the inbred legacy of performers within the troupe, there was less of a need to have written explanations of lazzi.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 483, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the direct influence of Italy's Commedia dell'arte on the England's Elizabethan and Jacobean theatre is subject to much debate, verbal and visual lazzi were present in the plays of William Shakespeare. Shakespeare's work implies a familiarity with Italian literature and theatrical practices, though it is not certain that he ever experienced a commedia performance firsthand. It is as likely that Richard Tarlton served as the inspiration for Shakespeare's plays, as well as the lazzi of Italian commedia. Verbal lazzi were used in the form of puns, proverbs, and malapropisms, while instances of physical lazzi were abundant, especially in the work of Shakespeare's clowns, whose improvisations during performances often vexed the playwright.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 46947, 993162, 1458799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 85 ], [ 90, 98 ], [ 404, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More recent appropriations of lazzi include the 1920s silent films of Charlie Chaplin, the silent/sound films and stage productions of Laurel and Hardy, and Punch and Judy puppet shows. While many similarities exist, a few parallels can be drawn in the use of pratfalls, fright jumps, and physical settings that enable the use of objects to perform the comedy. One popular comparison is Charlie Chaplin's cane to Arlecchino, or the Harlequin's stick when used as a comedic device.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5142, 55909, 23013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 85 ], [ 135, 151 ], [ 157, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following list contains a few examples of 17th and 18th century lazzi that were found in the notes and manuscripts of actors and dramatists. The term \"lazzo\" refers to lazzi in the singular:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lazzo of the Fly: (17th century Italy) Servant stock character tells master that there is \"not a fly\" in his home. Master enters to find it is full of people. Servant insists that there are still \"no flies.\" ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lazzo of Water: (17th century Italy): The mistress has fainted. Female servant asks the male servant, usually an Arlecchino or Pulcinella, to fetch water. After splashing many kinds of water on her face, the male servant splashes his own urine on the fainted mistress, and she is revived. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lazzo of Begging: (17th century Italy) A servant character/low status stock character pretends to be a beggar by hiding his limbs from passers-by. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lazzo of the School of Humanity: (17th century Italy) Harlequin, Arlecchino, or other servant stock character insists that female relative runs a \"school of humanity.\" The female relative is a prostitute. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lazzo of the Barber: (17th century Paris) Clown/servant stock character shaves male character of higher status and replaces fresh drinking water with the contaminated shave remnants. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lazzo of Eating Oneself: (18th century Paris) Clown/servant stock character, who is traditionally always hungry, eats himself. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lazzo of the Straw: (17th century Paris) A high status character pours wine into a glass while his servant empties the cup through a straw.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Commedia_dell'arte", "Jokes" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Brown is a color, and it can be considered a composite color but it is mainly a darker shade of orange. In the CMYK color model used in printing or painting, brown is usually made by combining the colors orange and black. In the RGB color model used to project colors onto television screens and computer monitors, brown combines red and green.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5921, 44682, 71234, 4035, 25989, 12460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 16 ], [ 111, 127 ], [ 204, 210 ], [ 215, 220 ], [ 229, 244 ], [ 338, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The color brown is seen widely in nature, wood, soil, human hair color, eye color and skin pigmentation. Brown is the color of dark wood or rich soil. According to public opinion surveys in Europe and the United States, brown is the least favorite color of the public; it is often associated with plainness, the rustic, feces, and poverty. More positive associations include baking, warmth, wildlife, and the autumn.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 518358, 759008, 38041, 24536042, 64959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 64 ], [ 72, 81 ], [ 86, 103 ], [ 320, 325 ], [ 331, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term is from Old English , in origin for any dusky or dark shade of color. The first recorded use of brown as a color name in English was in 1000.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 22667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Common Germanic adjectives *brûnoz and *brûnâ meant both dark colors and a glistening or shining quality, whence burnish. The current meaning developed in Middle English from the 14th century.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 202353, 17549172, 50711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 117, 124 ], [ 159, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Words for the color brown around the world often come from foods or beverages; in the eastern Mediterranean, the word for brown often comes from the color of coffee: in Turkish, the word for brown is ; in Greek, . In Southeast Asia, the color name often comes from chocolate: in Malay; in Filipino. In Japan, the word means the color of tea.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Brown has been used in art since prehistoric times. Paintings using umber, a natural clay pigment composed of iron oxide and manganese oxide, have been dated to 40,000 BC. Paintings of brown horses and other animals have been found on the walls of the Lascaux cave dating back about 17,300 years. The female figures in ancient Egyptian tomb paintings have brown skin, painted with umber. Light tan was often used on painted Greek amphorae and vases, either as a background for black figures, or the reverse.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and art", "target_page_ids": [ 561853, 18594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 73 ], [ 252, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ancient Greeks and Romans produced a fine reddish-brown ink, of a color called sepia, made from the ink of a variety of cuttlefish. This ink was used by Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael and other artists during the Renaissance, and by artists up until the present time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and art", "target_page_ids": [ 1182477, 20976520, 18079, 44525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 88 ], [ 124, 134 ], [ 157, 174 ], [ 176, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Ancient Rome, brown clothing was associated with the lower classes or barbarians. The term for the plebeians, or urban poor, was \"pullati\", which meant literally \"those dressed in brown\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and art", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the Middle Ages brown robes were worn by monks of the Franciscan order, as a sign of their humility and poverty. Each social class was expected to wear a color suitable to their station; and grey and brown were the colors of the poor. Russet was a coarse homespun cloth made of wool and dyed with woad and madder to give it a subdued grey or brown shade. By the statute of 1363, poor English people were required to wear russet. The medieval poem Piers Plowman describes the virtuous Christian: ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and art", "target_page_ids": [ 64176, 33131240, 251147, 7071234, 175416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 73 ], [ 238, 244 ], [ 300, 304 ], [ 309, 315 ], [ 450, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Middle Ages dark brown pigments were rarely used in art; painters and book illuminators artists of that period preferred bright, distinct colors such as red, blue and green, rather than dark colors. The umbers were not widely used in Europe before the end of the fifteenth century; The Renaissance painter and writer Giorgio Vasari (1511–1574) described them as being rather new in his time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and art", "target_page_ids": [ 102036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 324, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Artists began using far greater use of browns when oil painting arrived in the late fifteenth century. During the Renaissance, artists generally used four different browns; raw umber, the dark brown clay mined from the earth around Umbria, in Italy; raw sienna, a reddish-brown earth mined near Siena, in Tuscany; burnt umber, the Umbrian clay heated until it turned a darker shade, and burnt sienna, heated until it turned a dark reddish brown. In Northern Europe, Jan van Eyck featured rich earth browns in his portraits to set off the brighter colors.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and art", "target_page_ids": [ 27856145, 21967242, 46381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 295, 300 ], [ 305, 312 ], [ 466, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 17th and 18th century saw the greatest use of brown. Caravaggio and Rembrandt Van Rijn used browns to create chiaroscuro effects, where the subject appeared out of the darkness. Rembrandt also added umber to the ground layers of his paintings because it promoted faster drying. Rembrandt also began to use new brown pigment, called Cassel earth or Cologne earth. This was a natural earth color composed of over ninety percent organic matter, such as soil and peat. It was used by Rubens and Anthony van Dyck, and later became commonly known as Van Dyck brown.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and art", "target_page_ids": [ 7018, 4254144, 164332, 21463370, 294462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 67 ], [ 72, 90 ], [ 113, 124 ], [ 484, 490 ], [ 495, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brown was generally hated by the French impressionists, who preferred bright, pure colors. The exception among French 19th-century artists was Paul Gauguin, who created luminous brown portraits of the people and landscapes of French Polynesia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and art", "target_page_ids": [ 64719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 20th century, brown became a common symbol in western culture for simple, inexpensive, natural and healthy. Bag lunches were carried in plain brown paper bags; packages were wrapped in plain brown paper. Brown bread and brown sugar were viewed as more natural and healthy than white bread and white sugar.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and art", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Brown is a dark orange color, made by combining red, yellow and black. It can be thought of as dark orange, but it can also be made in other ways. In the RGB color model, which uses red, green and blue light in various combinations to make all the colors on computer and television screens, it is made by mixing red and green light.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 71234, 25989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 106 ], [ 156, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In terms of the visible spectrum, \"brown\" refers to long wavelength hues, yellow, orange, or red, in combination with low luminance or saturation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 41464, 34368, 71234, 25825, 18365, 664556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 32 ], [ 74, 80 ], [ 82, 88 ], [ 93, 96 ], [ 122, 131 ], [ 135, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since brown may cover a wide range of the visible spectrum, composite adjectives are used such as red brown, yellowish brown, dark brown or light brown.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As a color of low intensity, brown is a tertiary color: a mix of the three subtractive primary colors is brown if the cyan content is low. Brown exists as a color perception only in the presence of a brighter color contrast. Yellow, orange, red, or rose objects are still perceived as such if the general illumination level is low, despite reflecting the same amount of red or orange light as a brown object would in normal lighting conditions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 3179882, 45939, 6102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 54 ], [ 87, 100 ], [ 118, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Raw umber and burnt umber are two of the oldest pigments used by humans. Umber is a brown clay, containing a large amount of iron oxide and between five and twenty percent manganese oxide, which give the color. Its shade varies from a greenish brown to a dark brown. It takes its name from the Italian region of Umbria, where it was formerly mined. The principal source today is the island of Cyprus. Burnt umber is the same pigment which has been roasted (calcined), which turns the pigment darker and more reddish.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 561853, 277266, 808389, 51590, 5593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 10 ], [ 126, 136 ], [ 173, 188 ], [ 313, 319 ], [ 394, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Raw sienna and burnt sienna are also clay pigments rich in iron oxide, which were mined during the Renaissance around the city of Siena in Tuscany. Sienna contains less than five percent manganese. The natural sienna earth is a dark yellow ochre color; when roasted it becomes a rich reddish brown called burnt sienna.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 29559, 25532, 425289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 11 ], [ 100, 111 ], [ 241, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mummy brown was a pigment used in oil paints made from ground Egyptian mummies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 15655240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Caput mortuum is a haematite iron oxide pigment, used in painting. The name is also used in reference to mummy brown.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 63495501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Van Dyck brown, known in Europe as Cologne earth or Cassel earth, is another natural earth pigment, that was made up largely of decayed vegetal matter. It made a rich dark brown, and was widely used during the Renaissance to the 19th century It takes its name from the painter Anthony van Dyck, but it was used by many other artists before him. It was highly unstable and unreliable, so its use was abandoned by the 20th century, though the name continues to be used for modern synthetic pigments. The color of Van Dyck brown can be recreated by mixing ivory black with mauve or with Venetian red, or mixing cadmium red with cobalt blue.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 294462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mars brown. The names of the earth colors are still used, but very few modern pigments with these names actually contain natural earths; most of their ingredients today are synthetic. Mars brown is typical of these new colors, made with synthetic iron oxide pigments. The new colors have a superior coloring power and opacity, but not the delicate hue as their namesakes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Walnuts have been used to make a brown dye since antiquity. The Roman writer Ovid, in the first century BC described how the Gauls used the juice of the hull or husk inside the shell of the walnut to make a brown dye for wool, or a reddish dye for their hair.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 30826411, 37802, 22235155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 78, 82 ], [ 126, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The chestnut tree has also been used since ancient times as a source brown dye. The bark of the tree, the leaves and the husk of the nuts have all been used to make dye. The leaves were used to make a beige or yellowish-brown dye, and in the Ottoman Empire the yellow-brown from chestnut leaves was combined with indigo blue to make shades of green.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 67733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With few exceptions, all mammals have brown or darkly-pigmented irises. In humans, brown eyes result from a relatively high concentration of melanin in the stroma of the iris, which causes light of both shorter and longer wavelengths to be absorbed and in many parts of the world, it is nearly the only iris color present. Dark pigment of brown eyes is most common in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, West Asia, Oceania, Africa, Americas, etc. as well as parts of Eastern Europe and Southern Europe. The majority of people in the world overall have dark brown eyes. Light or medium-pigmented brown eyes are common in Europe, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Northern India, as well as some parts of the Middle East. (See eye color).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 50513, 7118828, 19605700, 28741, 21566765, 399656, 22621, 5334607, 29833, 37403, 410666, 9239, 737, 23235, 1552939, 19323, 759008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 148 ], [ 156, 162 ], [ 368, 377 ], [ 379, 393 ], [ 395, 405 ], [ 407, 416 ], [ 418, 425 ], [ 427, 433 ], [ 435, 443 ], [ 470, 484 ], [ 489, 504 ], [ 623, 629 ], [ 631, 642 ], [ 644, 652 ], [ 657, 671 ], [ 702, 713 ], [ 720, 729 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brown is the second most common color of human hair, after black. It is caused by higher levels of the natural dark pigment eumelanin, and lower levels of the pale pigment pheomelanin. Brown eumelanin is more common among Europeans, while black eumelanin is more often found in the hair on non-Europeans. A small amount of black eumelanin, in the absence of other pigments, results in grey hair. A small amount of brown eumelanin in the absence of other pigments results in blond hair.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 50513, 50513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 133 ], [ 172, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A majority of people in the world have skin that is a shade of brown, from a very light honey brown or a golden brown, to a copper or bronze color, to a coffee color or a dark chocolate brown. Skin color and race are not the same; many people classified as \"white\" or \"black\" actually have skin that is a shade of brown. Brown skin is caused by melanin, a natural pigment which is produced within the skin in cells called melanocytes. Skin pigmentation in humans evolved to primarily regulate the amount of ultraviolet radiation penetrating the skin, controlling its biochemical effects.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 50513, 52541, 31990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 345, 352 ], [ 422, 432 ], [ 507, 528 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Natural skin color can darken as a result of tanning due to exposure to sunlight. The leading theory is that skin color adapts to intense sunlight irradiation to provide partial protection against the ultraviolet fraction that produces damage and thus mutations in the DNA of the skin cells. There is a correlation between the geographic distribution of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and the distribution of indigenous skin pigmentation around the world. Darker-skinned populations are found in the regions with the most ultraviolet, closer to the equator, while lighter skinned populations live closer to the poles, with less UVR, though immigration has changed these patterns.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 541488, 31990, 7955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 52 ], [ 201, 212 ], [ 269, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While white and black are commonly used to describe racial groups, brown is rarely used, because it crosses all racial lines.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 7518888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Brazil, the Portuguese word pardo, which can mean different shades of brown, is used to refer to multiracial people. The Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) asks people to identify themselves as branco (white), pardo (brown), negro (black), or amarelo (yellow). In 2008 43.8 percent of the population identified themselves as pardo. (See Human skin color)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 3383, 46790333, 38041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ], [ 31, 36 ], [ 360, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The thin top layer of the Earth's crust on land is largely made up of soil colored different shades of brown. Good soil is composed of about forty-five percent minerals, twenty-five percent water, twenty-five percent air, and five percent organic material, living and dead. Half the color of soil comes from minerals it contains; soils containing iron turn yellowish or reddish as the iron oxidizes. Manganese, nitrogen and sulfur turn brownish or blackish as they decay naturally. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 37738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rich and fertile soils tend to be darker in color; the deeper brown color of fertile soil comes from the decomposing of the organic matter. Dead leaves and roots become black or brown as they decay. Poorer soils are usually paler brown in color, and contain less water or organic matter.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mollisols are the soil type found under grassland in the Great Plains of America, the Pampas in Argentina and the Russian Steppes. The soil is 60–80 centimeters deep and is rich in nutrients and organic matter.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 1163894, 51464, 373252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 58, 70 ], [ 87, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Loess is a type of pale yellow or buff soil, which originated as wind-blown silt. It is very fertile, but is easily eroded by wind or water.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 245138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation, whose decomposition is slowed by water. Despite its dark brown color, it is infertile, but is useful as a fuel.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 99404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A large number of mammals and predatory birds have a brown coloration. This sometimes changes seasonally, and sometimes remains the same year-round. This color is likely related to camouflage, since the backdrop of some environments, such as the forest floor, is often brown, and especially in the spring and summertime when animals like the snowshoe hare get brown fur. Most mammals are dichromats and so do not easily distinguish brown fur from green grass.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 6446, 238019, 593758, 12460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 191 ], [ 342, 355 ], [ 388, 398 ], [ 447, 452 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The brown rat or Norwegian rat (Rattus norvegicus) is one of the best known and most common rats.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 56109, 26471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 14 ], [ 93, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The brown bear (Ursus arctos) is a large bear distributed across much of northern Eurasia and North America.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 4402, 4400, 20611107, 21139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ], [ 42, 46 ], [ 83, 90 ], [ 95, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The ermine (Mustela erminea) has a brown back in summer, or year-round in the southern reaches of its range.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 87851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The solid waste excreted by human beings and many other animals is characteristically brown in color due to the presence of bilirubin, a byproduct of destruction of red blood cells.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Brown in science and nature", "target_page_ids": [ 68344, 67158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 134 ], [ 166, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Surveys in Europe and the United States showed that brown was the least popular color among respondents. It was the favorite color of only one percent of respondents and the least favorite color of twenty percent of people.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Brown has been a popular color for military uniforms since the late 18th century, largely because of its wide availability and low visibility. When the Continental Army was established in 1775 at the outbreak of the American Revolution, the first Continental Congress declared that the official uniform color would be brown, but this was not popular with many militias, whose officers were already wearing blue. In 1778 the Congress asked George Washington to design a new uniform, and in 1779 Washington made the official color of all uniforms blue and buff.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [ 168210, 1973, 38322, 11968, 2230239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 168 ], [ 216, 235 ], [ 247, 267 ], [ 439, 456 ], [ 554, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1846 the Indian soldiers of the Corps of Guides in British India began to wear a yellowish shade of tan, which became known as khaki from the Urdu word for dust-colored, taken from an earlier Persian word for soil. The color made an excellent natural camouflage, and was adopted by the British Army for their Abyssian Campaign in 1867–1868, and later in the Boer War. It was adopted by the United States Army during the Spanish–American War (1896), and afterwards by the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [ 13103745, 192398, 32231, 6446, 4887, 42720, 28265, 20518076, 17349325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 50 ], [ 130, 135 ], [ 145, 149 ], [ 254, 264 ], [ 289, 301 ], [ 361, 369 ], [ 423, 443 ], [ 474, 492 ], [ 497, 523 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1920s, brown became the uniform color of the Nazi Party in Germany. The Nazi paramilitary organization the Sturmabteilung (SA) wore brown uniforms and were known as the brownshirts. The color brown was used to represent the Nazi vote on maps of electoral districts in Germany. If someone voted for the Nazis, they were said to be \"voting brown\". The national headquarters of the Nazi party, in Munich, was called the Brown House. The Nazi seizure of power in 1933 was called the Brown Revolution. At Adolf Hitler's Obersalzberg home, the Berghof, he slept in a \"bed which was usually covered by a brown quilt embroidered with a huge swastika. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [ 21212, 54378, 54378, 19058, 9306733, 3796622, 2731583, 2923849, 343975, 45943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 83 ], [ 114, 128 ], [ 176, 187 ], [ 401, 407 ], [ 424, 435 ], [ 486, 502 ], [ 507, 519 ], [ 522, 534 ], [ 545, 552 ], [ 640, 648 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The swastika also appeared on Hitler's brown satin pajamas, embroidered in black against a red background on the pocket. He had a matching brown silk robe.\" Brown had originally been chosen as a Party color largely for convenience; large numbers of war-surplus brown uniforms from Germany's former colonial forces in Africa were cheaply available in the 1920s. It also suited the working-class and military images that the Party wished to convey. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From the 1930s onwards, the Party's brown uniforms were mass-produced by German clothing firms such as Hugo Boss.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1696801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The color brown is said to represent ruggedness when used in advertising. is the color of the United Parcel Service (UPS) delivery company with their trademark brown trucks and uniforms; it was earlier the color of Pullman rail cars of the Pullman Company, and was adopted by UPS both because brown is easy to keep clean, and due to favorable associations of luxury that Pullman brown evoked. UPS has filed two trademarks on the color brown to prevent other shipping companies (and possibly other companies in general) from using the color if it creates \"market confusion\". In its advertising, UPS refers to itself as \"Brown\" (\"What can Brown do for you?\").", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2861, 206099, 10573494, 477712, 18935023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 72 ], [ 96, 117 ], [ 217, 234 ], [ 242, 257 ], [ 413, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"To be brown as a berry\" (to be deeply suntanned)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"To brown bag\" a meal (to bring food from home to eat at work or school rather than patronizing an in-house cafeteria or a restaurant)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"To experience a brown out\" (a partial loss of electricity, less severe than a blackout)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Brownfields are abandoned, idled, or under-used industrial and commercial facilities where redevelopment for infill housing is complicated by real or perceived environmental contaminations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [ 174230, 329770, 3371392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 92, 105 ], [ 110, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " '\"Brown-nose\" is a verb which means to be obsequious. It comes from the term for kissing the posterior of the boss in order to gain advancement.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [ 25998383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"In a brown study\" (melancholy).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In Wicca, brown represents endurance, solidity, grounding, and strength. It is strongly associated with the element of earth.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [ 33295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Cleveland Browns of the National Football League, take their team name from its founder and long-time coach, Paul Brown, and use brown as a team color.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [ 6576, 21211, 493703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 21 ], [ 29, 53 ], [ 114, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Hawthorn Football Club of the Australian Football League wears a brown and gold uniform.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [ 12941233, 4732785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 27 ], [ 35, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The San Diego Padres of Major League Baseball utilizes brown as its primary color.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [ 28417, 38776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 21 ], [ 25, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " FC St. Pauli, a German association football club, typically features brown shirts as its primary kit.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [ 881244, 10568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 24, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Club Atlético Platense in Argentina, typically features brown shirts as its primary kit.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3954167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The University of Wyoming, Brown University, St. Bonaventure University, and Lehigh University sports teams generally feature this color.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Brown in culture", "target_page_ids": [ 10485435, 16904870, 29590289, 8115227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 26 ], [ 28, 44 ], [ 46, 72 ], [ 78, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shades of brown", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33256637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of colors", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37703894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Primary colors", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 45939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] } ]

[ "Shades_of_brown", "Shades_of_orange" ]

[ "color brown", "brown color", "colour brown", "brown colour", "Lee Brown" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Proserpina ( , ) or Proserpine ( ) is an ancient Roman goddess whose iconography, functions and myths are virtually identical to those of Greek Persephone. Proserpina replaced or was combined with the ancient Roman fertility goddess Libera, whose principal cult was housed in the Aventine temple of the grain-goddess Ceres, along with the wine god Liber. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12734, 24253, 78452, 79357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 62 ], [ 144, 154 ], [ 317, 322 ], [ 348, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Each of these three deities occupied their own cella at the temple. Their cults were served or supervised by a male public priesthood. Ceres was by far the senior of the three, one of the dii consentes, Rome's approximate equivalent to the Greek Twelve Olympians. She was identified with Greek Demeter and Liber was identified with Bacchus and Dionysus. Libera is sometimes described as a female version of Liber Pater, concerned with female fertility. Otherwise she is given no clear identity or mythology by Roman sources, and no Greek equivalent. Nothing is known of her native iconography: her name translates as a feminine form of Liber, \"the free one\". Proserpina's name is a Latinisation of \"Persephone\", perhaps influenced by the Latin proserpere (\"to emerge, to creep forth\"), with reference to the growing of grain. Her iconography is \"entirely based\" on that of her Greek original, Persephone.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 214954, 16475671, 574742, 8230, 63325, 63325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 133 ], [ 188, 201 ], [ 246, 262 ], [ 294, 301 ], [ 332, 339 ], [ 344, 352 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proserpina was imported from southern Italy as part of an official religious strategy, towards the end of the second Punic war, when ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "antagonism between Rome's lower and upper social classes, crop failures and intermitent famine were thought to be signs of divine wrath, provoked by Roman impiety. The new cult was installed around 205 BC at Ceres' Aventine temple. Ethnically Greek priestesses were recruited to serve Ceres and Proserpina as \"Mother and Maiden\". This innovation might represent an attempt by Rome's ruling class to please the gods and the plebs; the latter shared strong cultural ties with Italian magna Graeca. The reformed cult was based on the Greek, women-only Thesmophoria, and was promoted as morally desirable for respectable Roman women, both as followers and priestesses. It was almost certainly supervised by Rome's Flamen Cerealis, a male priesthood usually reserved to plebeians. The new cult might have partly subsumed the Aventine temple's older, native cults to Ceres, Liber and Libera, but it also functioned alongside them. Liber played no part in the reformed cult. Ceres, Proserpina/Libera and Liber are known to have received cult in their own right, at their Aventine temple and elsewhere, though details are lacking. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 45333, 80168, 650667, 347423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 482, 494 ], [ 549, 561 ], [ 583, 600 ], [ 710, 716 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Roman cult of Mother and Maiden named Proserpina as queen of the underworld, spouse to Rome's king of the underworld, Dis pater, and daughter to Ceres. The cult's functions, framework of myths and roles involved the agricultural cycle, seasonal death and rebirth, dutiful daughterhood and motherly care. They included secret initiations and nocturnal torchlit processions, and cult objects concealed from non-initiates. Proserpina's forcible abduction by the god of the underworld, her mother's search for her, and her eventual but temporary restoration to the world above are the subject of works in Roman and later art and literature. In particular, her seizure by the god of the Underworld – usually described as the Rape of Proserpina, or of Persephone – has offered dramatic subject matter for Renaissance and later sculptors and painters.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 84895, 24253, 98694, 1076505, 25532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 131 ], [ 439, 457 ], [ 465, 486 ], [ 607, 612 ], [ 805, 816 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early Roman religion, Libera was the female equivalent of Liber Pater, protector of plebeian rights, god of wine, male fertility and liberty, equivalent to Greek Bacchus or Dionysus. Libera was originally an Italic goddess, paired with Liber as an \"etymological duality\" at some time during Rome's Regal or very early Republican eras. She enters Roman history as part of a so-called Triadic cult alongside Ceres and Liber, in a temple established around 493 BC on the Aventine Hill at state expense, promised by Rome's governing class to the plebs (Rome's citizen-commoners), who had threatened secession. Collectively, these three deities were divine patrons and protectors of Rome's commoner-citizens, and guardians of Rome's senatorial records and written laws, housed at the temple soon after its foundation. Libera might have been offered cult on March 17 during Liber's festival, Liberalia, or at some time during the seven days of Cerealia, held in mid-to-late April; in the latter festival, she would have been subordinate to Ceres; the names of both Liber and Libera were a later addition to Ceres's festival. Otherwise, Libera's functional relationship to her Aventine cult partners is uncertain. She has no known native iconography or mythology.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Cult and myths", "target_page_ids": [ 79357, 244404, 63325, 63325, 2237587, 27957492, 78452, 103787, 244404, 2996202, 213154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 72 ], [ 87, 95 ], [ 165, 172 ], [ 176, 184 ], [ 211, 217 ], [ 386, 398 ], [ 409, 414 ], [ 471, 484 ], [ 545, 550 ], [ 889, 898 ], [ 941, 949 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Libera was officially identified as Proserpina from 205 BC, when she and Ceres acquired a Romanised form of Greek mystery rite, the ritus graecia cereris. This was part of Rome's religious recrecruitment of deities to serve as divine allies against Carthage, towards the end of the Second Punic War. In the late Republican era, Cicero described Liber and Libera as Ceres' children. At around the same time, possibly in the context of popular or religious drama, Hyginus equated Libera with Greek Ariadne, as bride to Liber's Greek equivalent, Dionysus.<ref>Wiseman, T.P., Satyrs in Rome? The background to Horace's Ars Poetica, The Journal of Roman Studies, 1988, 78, p. 7, note52}}</ref> The older and newer forms of her names, cult, and rites, and their diverse associations, persisted well into the late Imperial era. St. Augustine (354–430AD) wrote that Libera was a goddess of female fertility, just as Liber was a god of male fertility.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Cult and myths", "target_page_ids": [ 78452, 28563, 6046, 143691, 82482, 63325, 2030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 154 ], [ 283, 299 ], [ 329, 335 ], [ 463, 470 ], [ 497, 504 ], [ 544, 552 ], [ 822, 835 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proserpina was officially introduced to Rome as the daughter of Ceres in the newly Romanised cult of \"Mother and Daughter\". The cult's origins lay in southern Italy, which was politically allied to Rome but culturally a part of Magna Graecia. The cult was based on the women-only Greek Thesmophoria, which was a part public and part mystery cult to Demeter and Persephone as \"Mother and Maiden\". It arrived in Rome along with its Greek priestesses, who were granted Roman citizenship so that they could pray to the gods \"with a foreign and external knowledge, but with a domestic and civil intention\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Cult and myths", "target_page_ids": [ 45333, 80168, 8230, 1037008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 241 ], [ 286, 298 ], [ 349, 356 ], [ 467, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The exclusively female initiates and priestesses of the new \"Greek-style\" mysteries of Ceres and Proserpina were expected to uphold Rome's traditional, patrician-dominated social hierarchy and traditional morality. Unmarried girls were expected to emulate the chastity of Proserpina, the maiden; married women were expected to seek to emulate Ceres, the devoted and fruitful Mother. Their rites were intended to secure a good harvest, and increase the fertility of those who partook in the mysteries. Each of the Aventine triad's deities continued to receive cult in their own right. Liber's open, gender-mixed cult and festivals continued, though likely caught up in the suppression of the Bacchanalia some twenty years on. Proserpina's individual cult, and her joint cult with Ceres became widespread throughout the Republic and Empire. A Temple of Proserpina was located in a suburb of Melite, in modern Mtarfa, Malta. The temple's ruins were quarried away between the 17th and 18thcenturies; only a few fragments survive.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Cult and myths", "target_page_ids": [ 26130884, 181397, 650667, 58229, 50387809, 50155754, 2662009, 19137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 72 ], [ 152, 161 ], [ 193, 213 ], [ 691, 702 ], [ 841, 861 ], [ 889, 895 ], [ 907, 913 ], [ 915, 920 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The best-known myth surrounding Proserpina is of her abduction by the god of the Underworld, her mother Ceres' frantic search for her, and her eventual but temporary restitution to the world above. In Latin literature, several versions are known, all similar in most respects to the myths of Greek Persephone's abduction by the King of the underworld, named variously in Latin sources as Dis or Pluto, and in Greek sources as Hades or Pluto. \"Hades\" can mean both the hidden Underworld and its king ('the hidden one'), who in early Greek versions of the myth is a dark, unsympathetic figure; Persephone is \"Kore\" ('the maiden'), taken against her will; in the Greek Eleusinian Mysteries, her captor is known as Hades; they form a divine couple who rule the underworld together, and receive Eleusinian initiates into some form of better afterlife. Renamed Pluto, the king of the underworld is distanced from his violent abduction of his consort. In 27 BC Vergil presented his own version of the myth, in his Georgics. In the early 1st century AD, Ovid gives two poetic versions: one in Book5 of his Metamorphoses and another in Book4 of his Fasti An early 5th centuryAD Latin version of the same myth is Claudian's De raptu Proserpinae; in most cases, these Latin works identify Proserpina's underworld abductor and later consort as Dis.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Cult and myths", "target_page_ids": [ 84895, 98694, 52000, 32359, 37802, 83101, 7352465, 144752, 84895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 388, 391 ], [ 395, 400 ], [ 666, 686 ], [ 954, 960 ], [ 1046, 1050 ], [ 1098, 1111 ], [ 1140, 1145 ], [ 1203, 1211 ], [ 1332, 1335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Claudian's version, the unprepossessing Dis yearns for the joys of married love and fatherhood, and threatens to make war on the other gods if he remains alone in Erebus. The Fates (Parcae), who determine the destinies of all, arrange a future marriage for Dis, to prevent the outbreak of war. Jupiter orders Venus to bring love to Dis, in fulfillment of the prophesy. Ceres has already sought to conceal the innocent Proserpina by sending her to safety in Sicily, Ceres' earthly home and sanctuary; but Dis comes out from the volcano at Mount Etna in his chariot, seizes Proserpina at the Pergusa Lake near Enna, and takes her down into the underworld. The poem ends at this point. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Cult and myths", "target_page_ids": [ 81010, 84918, 37622, 27619, 169351, 8838470, 923091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 172 ], [ 185, 191 ], [ 312, 317 ], [ 460, 466 ], [ 541, 551 ], [ 593, 605 ], [ 611, 615 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proserpina's mother, Ceres, seeks her daughter across the world, but in vain. The sun sinks and darkness falls as Ceres walks the earth, stopping the growth of crops and creating a desert with each step.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Cult and myths", "target_page_ids": [ 18955999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jupiter sends Mercury to order Dis to free Proserpina; but Proserpinahas melted Dis' hard heart, and eats \"several\" of the pomegranate seeds he offers her; those who have eaten the food of the dead cannot return to the world of the living. Pluto insists that she had willingly eaten his pomegranate seeds and in return she must stay with him for half the year. Virgil asserts that Proserpina agrees to this, and is reluctant to ascend from the underworld and re-unite with her mother. When Ceres greets her daughter's return to the world of the living, the crops grow, flowers blossom, and in summer all growing crops flourish, to be harvested in Autumn. During the time that Proserpina resides with Pluto, the world goes through winter, when the earth gives no crops.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Cult and myths", "target_page_ids": [ 37417, 74549, 32359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 21 ], [ 123, 134 ], [ 361, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The earth can only be fertile when she is above.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Cult and myths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most extensive myth of Proserpina in Latin is Claudian's (4th centuryAD). It is closely connected with that of Orpheus and Eurydice. In Virgil's Georgics, Orpheus' beloved wife, Eurydice, died from a snake-bite; Proserpina allowed Orpheus into Hades without losing his life; charmed by his music, she allowed him to lead his wife back to the land of the living, as long as he did not look back during the journey. But Orpheus could not resist a backward glance, so Eurydice was forever lost to him.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Cult and myths", "target_page_ids": [ 144752, 22877693, 26157112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 58 ], [ 115, 122 ], [ 127, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proserpina's figure inspired many artistic compositions, eminently in sculpture (Bernini, see The Rape of Proserpina (Bernini) ) in painting (D.G.Rossetti, a fresco by Pomarancio, J. Heintz, Rubens, A. Dürer, Dell'Abbate, Parrish) and in literature (Goethe's Proserpina and Swinburne's Hymn to Proserpine and The Garden of Proserpine) The statue of the Rape of Prosepina by Pluto that stands in the Great Garden of Dresden, Germany is also referred to as \"Time Ravages Beauty\". Kate McGarrigle's song about the legend was one of the last things she wrote prior to her death, and received its only performance at her last concert at Royal Albert Hall in December 2009.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "In artwork", "target_page_ids": [ 752, 26714, 12635, 8969400, 8897770, 21463370, 2402, 878427, 409045, 19242322, 58090661, 1637, 4499157, 2608512, 37410, 942010, 179238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 37 ], [ 70, 79 ], [ 81, 88 ], [ 94, 126 ], [ 168, 178 ], [ 191, 197 ], [ 199, 207 ], [ 209, 220 ], [ 222, 229 ], [ 250, 258 ], [ 274, 285 ], [ 286, 304 ], [ 309, 333 ], [ 400, 412 ], [ 416, 423 ], [ 479, 494 ], [ 633, 650 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Miles, Gary B. (1980), Virgil's Georgics: A New Interpretation, University of California Press, . Google books.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 2296203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Claudian, De raptu Proserpinae (\"The Rape of Proserpine\"), three books in Latin and English, Bill Thayer's edition of the Loeb Classical Library text at LacusCurtius", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 144752, 660135, 932942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 122, 144 ], [ 153, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Proserpina\" on the Mythology Guide", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Proserpina, Proserpina.net. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Il Ratto di Proserpina'' ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Proserpina", "Death_goddesses", "Life-death-rebirth_goddesses", "Roman_goddesses", "Roman_underworld", "Spring_(season)", "Underworld_goddesses", "Harvest_goddesses", "Agricultural_goddesses", "Fertility_goddesses" ]

[ "Proserpine", "Cora" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Juan García Esquivel (January 20, 1918 – January 3, 2002), often known mononymously as Esquivel!, was a Mexican band leader, pianist, and composer for television and films. He is recognized today as one of the foremost exponents of a sophisticated style of largely instrumental music that combines elements of lounge music and jazz with Latin flavors. Esquivel is sometimes called \"The King of Space Age Pop\" and \"The Busby Berkeley of Cocktail Music\", and is considered one of the foremost exponents of a style of late 1950s-early 1960s quirky instrumental pop that became known (in retrospect) as \"Space Age Bachelor Pad Music\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 49844822, 23528, 176945, 473531, 15613, 43355228, 18361730, 6322476, 430356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 116 ], [ 125, 132 ], [ 138, 146 ], [ 310, 322 ], [ 327, 331 ], [ 337, 342 ], [ 383, 394 ], [ 395, 408 ], [ 419, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was born in 1918, in Tampico, Tamaulipas, and his family moved to Mexico City in 1928 where he became a self-taught musician from an early age. In interviews, Esquivel's family members have stated that the young boy started playing piano when he was around 6 years old, to the amazement of older musicians who would gather around him in disbelief and to his own delight exhibiting his musical gifts. They have also stated that Esquivel continued to eschew formal musical training as he grew older, preferring to learn from books and by listening to and playing music instead.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 224093, 222254, 18987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 31 ], [ 33, 43 ], [ 69, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Esquivel played a style of late 1950s-early 1960s quirky instrumental pop known today as lounge music. Esquivel's musical style was highly idiosyncratic, and although elements sound like his contemporaries, many stylistic traits distinguished his music and made it instantly recognizable. These included exotic percussion, wordless vocals, virtuoso piano runs, and exaggerated dynamic shifts. He used many jazz-like elements; however, other than his piano solos, there is no improvisation, and the works are meticulously arranged by Esquivel himself, who considered himself a perfectionist as a composer, performer, and recording artist.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 473531, 15613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 101 ], [ 409, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His orchestration employed novel instrumental combinations, such as Chinese bells, mariachi bands, whistling, and numerous percussion instruments, blended with orchestra, mixed chorus, and his own heavily ornamented piano style. Vocal groups were often utilized to sing only nonsense syllables, most famously \"zu-zu\" and \"pow!\" A survey of Esquivel's recordings reveals a fondness for glissando, sometimes on a half-valved trumpet, sometimes on a kettle drum, but most frequently on pitched percussion instruments and steel guitars.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 12716, 140758, 24638, 27615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 386, 395 ], [ 448, 459 ], [ 492, 513 ], [ 519, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Esquivel's use of stereo recording was notable, and he occasionally employed two bands recording simultaneously in separate studios, such as on his album Latin-Esque (1962). That album's song \"Mucha Muchacha\" makes unusual use of stereo separation, with the chorus and brass rapidly alternating in the left and right audio channels.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 1369770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He arranged many traditional Mexican songs like \"Bésame Mucho\", \"La Bamba\", \"El Manisero\" (Cuban/Mexican) and \"La Bikina\"; covered Brazilian songs like \"Aquarela do Brasil\" (also known simply as \"Brazil\") by Ary Barroso, \"Surfboard\" and \"Agua de Beber\" by Tom Jobim, and composed spicy lounge-like novelties such as \"Mini Skirt\", \"Yeyo\", \"Latin-Esque\", \"Mucha Muchacha\" and \"Whatchamacallit\". He was commissioned to compose the music of a Mexican children's TV show Odisea Burbujas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 248045, 864638, 1213664, 5776033, 1476033, 2328873, 2787884, 43435217, 12933084, 297412, 29831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 36 ], [ 49, 61 ], [ 65, 73 ], [ 77, 88 ], [ 111, 120 ], [ 153, 171 ], [ 208, 219 ], [ 222, 231 ], [ 238, 251 ], [ 256, 265 ], [ 459, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His concerts featured elaborate light shows years before such effects became popular in live music. He performed in Las Vegas on several occasions, often as the opening act for Frank Sinatra. He frequently performed at the Stardust casino lounge circa 1964.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 665172, 11181, 742340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 126 ], [ 178, 191 ], [ 224, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several compilations of Esquivel's music were issued on compact disc starting with Space Age Bachelor Pad Music in 1994. The first reissues were compiled by Irwin Chusid (who also produced the first CD compilation of Raymond Scott recordings and the premiere release of The Langley Schools Music Project). The success of these releases led to reissues of several of Esquivel's original 1950s-'60s albums. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 1631132, 146562, 1744561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 169 ], [ 217, 230 ], [ 270, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The last recording on which Esquivel worked was Merry Xmas from the Space-Age Bachelor Pad in 1996, for which he did a voiceover on a track by the band Combustible Edison. This album also included several obscure tracks from his past sessions. The last CD released during his lifetime, See It In Sound, was actually recorded in 1960, but was not released at the time because the record company believed it would not be commercially successful. When released in 1998, it exhibited very unusual and introspective stylings absent from his other works, including a version of \"Brazil\", played as a musical soundscape of a man bar-hopping where the band plays different renditions of \"Brazil\" at each bar.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 32665, 2296613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 128 ], [ 152, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Esquivel also worked as composer for Revue Productions/Universal Television. There he scored the TV western series \"The Tall Man,\" and co-wrote, with Stanley Wilson, the Revue/Universal TV logo fanfare.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 12903344, 22421617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 128 ], [ 150, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Esquivel's recording of \"Boulevard of Broken Dreams\" was used in episode two of Better Call Saul.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Music in recent TV and films", "target_page_ids": [ 32262767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His recording of his composition \"Mucha Muchacha\" was used in the films Confessions of a Dangerous Mind, The Big Lebowski, The Notorious Bettie Page, Stuart Saves His Family, Nacho Libre and Beavis and Butt-Head Do America.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Music in recent TV and films", "target_page_ids": [ 945305, 29782, 921301, 1717500, 2439396, 1528430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 103 ], [ 105, 121 ], [ 123, 148 ], [ 150, 173 ], [ 175, 186 ], [ 191, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His recording of his composition \"Whatchamacallit\" was used in the 2002 film Secretary.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Music in recent TV and films", "target_page_ids": [ 236283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Mini Skirt\" was used as the opening theme for the BBC documentary series Louis Theroux's Weird Weekends and When Louis Met....", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Music in recent TV and films", "target_page_ids": [ 2768063, 11621508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 104 ], [ 109, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Esquivel’s recording of \"My Blue Heaven\" was used in the trailer for the 2021 film Malibu Road.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Music in recent TV and films", "target_page_ids": [ 3979670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2022, Esquival's 1959 recording of \"Fantasy\" was used by Apple in its \"Data Auction\" global TV ad campaign, to promote privacy on its iPhone product.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Music in recent TV and films", "target_page_ids": [ 856, 8841749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 65 ], [ 137, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kronos Quartet recorded a string quartet arrangement of Esquivel's song \"Mini Skirt\" for their album Nuevo.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Influences", "target_page_ids": [ 337723, 65417, 63835889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 26, 40 ], [ 101, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(12\" LP releases, US and Mexico)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Las Tandas de Juan Garcia Esquivel (1957, RCA Victor Mexico)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " To Love Again (1957, RCA Victor)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cabaret Tragico (April 1958, RCA Victor Mexico)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Other Worlds Other Sounds (October 1958, RCA Victor)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Four Corners of the World (December 1958, RCA Victor)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Exploring New Sounds in Hi-Fi/Stereo (May 1959, RCA Victor)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Ames Brothers: Hello Amigos (1959, RCA Victor)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Strings Aflame (August 1959, RCA Victor)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Merriest of Christmas Pops (1959, RCA Victor)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Infinity in Sound, Vol. 1 (August 1960, RCA Victor)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Infinity in Sound, Vol. 2 (April 1961, RCA Victor)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Latin-Esque (1962, RCA Victor)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " More of Other Worlds Other Sounds (1962, Reprise Records)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Living Strings: In a Mellow Mood (1962, RCA Camden)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Genius of Esquivel (1967, RCA Victor)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 Esquivel!! (1968, RCA Mexico)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Burbujas (1979)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [ 19279453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Odisea Burbujas (1980)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Vamos al Circo (1981)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(CD releases)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Space-Age Bachelor Pad Music (1994, Bar/None Records)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Music From a Sparkling Planet (1995, Bar/None Records)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cabaret Mañana (1996, BMG Entertainment)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Merry Xmas from the Space-Age Bachelor Pad (1996, Bar/None Records)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " See It in Sound (1998, House of Hits Records), recorded 1960, previously unreleased", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Sights and Sounds of Esquivel (2005, Bar/None Records)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Esquivel! Remixed (2006, SonyBMG Mexico)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Complete 1954–1962 Recordings (2017, New Continent, Europe)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(Related releases featuring Esquivel's music)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Unforgettable Sounds of Esquivel (Mr. Ho's Orchestrotica, 2010)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Perfect Vision: The Esquivel Sound – Metropole Orkest (June 2013, Basta Music)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Exotica", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 314566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Space age pop", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6322476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wood, Susan (2016). Esquivel! Space-Age Sound Artist. .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bar-none.com", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " SpaceAgePop.com on Esquivel", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Weirdomusic.com on Esquivel", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Space Age Bachelor Pad Music on the Web on Esquivel", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1918_births", "2002_deaths", "Exotica", "Bandleaders", "Mexican_composers", "Mexican_male_composers", "Mexican_pianists", "20th-century_pianists", "Mexican_jazz_musicians", "Male_pianists", "20th-century_male_musicians", "Male_jazz_musicians", "People_from_Tampico,_Tamaulipas" ]

[ "Juan Garcia Esquivel", "Esquivel!" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Nijō can refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", one of numbered east–west streets in the ancient capital of Heian-kyō (present-day Kyoto, Japan)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 10441306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nijō Castle, a castle in Nakagyō-ku, Kyoto ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 545743, 3230349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 25, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nijō Station (Kyoto), a train station in Nakagyō-ku, Kyoto", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 13120297, 3230349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 41, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", a former town in Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 180874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Emperor Nijō (1143–1165), 78th emperor of Japan", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 2542456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nijō family, one of the five regent houses (go-sekke)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 13259204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nijō Tameuji (1222–1286), also known as Fujiwara no Tameuji, poet and founder of:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 55699230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nijō poetic school, a conservative school of Japanese waka (poetry)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 20689558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lady Nijō (1258–c. 1307), Japanese writer, author of The Confessions of Lady Nijo", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 2265090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1165 (MCLXV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168855, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 16 ], [ 24, 54 ], [ 100, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 21 Philip II, king of France (d. 1223)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1499, 25093, 376974, 36064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 21 ], [ 31, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Albéric Clément, Marshal of France (d. 1191)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1278353, 310824, 40007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 18, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Albert of Buxhoeven, bishop of Riga (d. 1229)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 772847, 3234, 36067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 32, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Blacas III, French knight and troubadour (d. 1237)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10108385, 63788, 40068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 31, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Conrad III, German cleric and bishop (d. 1224)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10186819, 36065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Han (or Gongshu), Chinese empress (d. 1200)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 33575352, 36394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Henry I (the Brave), duke of Brabant (d. 1235)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 75973, 4589770, 40066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 30, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1197)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27485318, 40060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Henry the Bearded, High Duke of Poland (d. 1238)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6301248, 393229, 36070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 33, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hermann von Salza, German nobleman (d. 1239)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 649293, 28978421, 40069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 27, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ibn Arabi, Andalusian philosopher (d. 1240)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 200354, 42479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jean Bodel, French poet and writer (d. 1210)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 323168, 39998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jean de Montmirail, French nobleman (d. 1217)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16087173, 39992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joan of England, queen of Sicily (d. 1199)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4693026, 641373, 40062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 27, 33 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Phillipe de Plessis, French Grand Master (d. 1209)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2098722, 2000515, 36057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 29, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Renaud I (or Reginald), French nobleman (d. 1227)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10178442, 36262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ruben II (or Roupen), Armenian prince (d. 1170)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 406446, 36459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shizuka Gozen, Japanese court dancer (d. 1211)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8382517, 39997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Theobald Walter, Norman High Sheriff (d. 1206)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14103728, 13807427, 40001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 25, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Waleran III (or Walram), duke of Limburg (d. 1226)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5562470, 1839411, 36066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 34, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William the Breton, French chronicler (d. 1225)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2157320, 36261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 24 William of Ypres, Flemish nobleman (b. 1090)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15954, 7226913, 42468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 29 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 7 Stephen of Armenia, Armenian nobleman (b. 1111)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11063, 406275, 36279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 31 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 27 Awn al-Din ibn Hubayra, Abbasid vizier (b. 1105)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20585, 17696336, 42474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 33 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 11", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ibn al-Tilmidh, Arab physician and calligrapher (b. 1074)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 31562722, 42459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stephen IV, king of Hungary and Croatia (b. 1133)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2659025, 41235373, 755314, 40073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 21, 28 ], [ 33, 40 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 5 Nijō, emperor of Japan (b. 1143)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27990, 2542456, 15573, 35544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 18 ], [ 31, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 9 Malcolm IV, king of Scotland (b. 1141)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8589, 147997, 23248387, 34975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 23 ], [ 33, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adalgott II of Disentis, German abbot and bishop", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 7941469, 1143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 33, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Goswin of Anchin, Flemish Benedictine abbot (b. 1086)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 23570612, 4240, 36699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 27, 38 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gottfried of Admont, German Benedictine abbot", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16349522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Helias de Say (or Hellias), Norman nobleman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28492972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John FitzGilbert, Marshal of England (b. 1105)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 7945666, 407950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 30, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Muhammad al-Idrisi, Arab geographer (b. 1100)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 420360, 12868203, 36300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 26, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rostislav Glebovich, Kievan prince of Minsk", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 44275744, 36612726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 39, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sibylla of Anjou, countess of Flanders (b. 1112)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3632523, 43008790, 36264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 31, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] } ]

[ "1165" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": " literally means sixth street in Japanese. It can refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Emperor Rokujō, the 79th Emperor of Japan", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 195043, 10110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 25, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "the Rokujō family, a poetically conservative faction in the Japanese Imperial court", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 5224902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lady Rokujō, a character in the Tale of Genji", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 7982522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Miyuki Rokujō, a fictional character in Strawberry Panic!—see List of Strawberry Panic! characters", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 4804980, 5515130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 58 ], [ 63, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", one of east–west streets in the ancient capital of Heian-kyō, present-day Kyoto", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 10441306, 37652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 62 ], [ 76, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rokujō Station, a train station on the JR West Etsumi-Hoku Line in Fukui, Fukui, Japan", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 19726376, 193334, 19684990, 6792950, 15573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 39, 46 ], [ 47, 63 ], [ 67, 79 ], [ 81, 86 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1176 (MCLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321380, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 56 ], [ 102, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 15 Leopold VI, German nobleman (d. 1230)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22555, 1117998, 28978421, 40064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 23 ], [ 32, 40 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Agnes of Hohenstaufen, German noblewoman (d. 1204)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34197136, 34986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Mu'azzam Isa, Ayyubid ruler of Damascus (d. 1227)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14790733, 8914, 36262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 35, 43 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anna Komnene Angelina, Nicene empress (d. 1212)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4672585, 39996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fujiwara no Nobuzane, Japanese painter (d. 1265)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18529160, 42500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hachijō-in Takakura, Japanese waka poet (d. 1248)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 49801266, 34999845, 36071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 31, 35 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Henry de Bohun, 1st Earl of Hereford (d. 1220)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 293913, 797218, 36063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 21, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hugh de Lacy, 1st Earl of Ulster (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10869147, 802992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 19, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Maud le Vavasour, English noblewoman (d. 1225)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19662871, 36261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Theresa of Portugal, queen of León (d. 1250)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2406198, 336544, 38708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 31, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Longespée, 3rd Earl of Salisbury (d. 1226)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 296084, 440338, 36066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 24, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 18 Galdino della Sala, Italian archbishop (b. 1096)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1826, 1761457, 42440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 29 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 20 Richard de Clare, English nobleman (b. 1130)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2195, 887903, 35543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 27 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 8 David FitzGerald, bishop of St. Davids (b. 1106)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19353, 34965638, 4279521, 42475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 24 ], [ 36, 46 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 13 Matthias I, duke of Lorraine (b. 1119)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19675, 655704, 49149, 36271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 19 ], [ 29, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 20 Yoshika, Japanese empress (b. 1141)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15803, 33823923, 34975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 17 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 23 Rokujō, emperor of Japan (b. 1164)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1628, 195043, 15573, 38435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 18 ], [ 31, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 1 Maurice FitzGerald, English nobleman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27530, 10890414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 17 ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Baldwin of Antioch, French nobleman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 30979806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Kantakouzenos, Byzantine general", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40840974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 12 William d'Aubigny, English politician (b. 1109)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22530, 2548165, 42477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ahmad ibn Muhammad Sajawandi, Persian chronicler", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 57362586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chekawa Yeshe Dorje, Tibetan Buddhist monk (b. 1102)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21991786, 3267529, 42472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 30, 38 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Constance of France, French princess (approximate date)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22066478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fujiwara no Teishi, Japanese noblewoman (b. 1131)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 33824787, 40071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jaksa Gryfita, Polish nobleman and knight (b. 1120)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 41618897, 16897, 36272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 36, 42 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Doukas (Komnenos), Byzantine governor (b. 1128)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36265017, 36277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Klængur Þorsteinsson, bishop of Skálholt (b. 1102)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10820623, 693512, 42472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 33, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margrethe of Roskilde, Danish noblewoman and saint ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 45402125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michael Aspietes, Byzantine nobleman and general", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 43051308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rosamund Clifford (the Fair), mistress of Henry II", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 86405, 26042562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 43, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sancha Ponce de Cabrera, Spanish noblewoman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 41659139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Volodar Glebovich, prince of Minsk (approximate date)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 60361903, 36612726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 30, 35 ] ] } ]

[ "1176" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Takakura (高倉) may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Emperor Takakura (1161–1181), emperor of Japan", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 229376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ken Takakura (1931–2014), Japanese actor", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1938232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Miki Takakura (born 1960), Japanese actress", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37604755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Takakura family, a branch of the Japanese Fujiwara clan", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Takakura (2003, September 12), a game character in A Wonderful Life", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Japanese-language_surnames" ]

[]