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[ { "plaintext": "Panicum miliaceum is a grain crop with many common names, including proso millet, broomcorn millet, common millet, hog millet, Kashfi millet, red millet, and white millet. Archaeobotanical evidence suggests millet was first domesticated about 10,000 BP in Northern China. The crop is extensively cultivated in China, India, Nepal, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, the Middle East, Turkey, Romania, and the United States, where about half a million acres are grown each year. The crop is notable both for its extremely short lifecycle, with some varieties producing grain only 60 days after planting, and its low water requirements, producing grain more efficiently per unit of moisture than any other grain species tested. The name \"proso millet\" comes from the pan-Slavic general and generic name for millet (, , , ). Proso millet is a relative of foxtail millet, pearl millet, maize, and sorghum within the grass subfamily Panicoideae. While all of these crops use C4 photosynthesis, the others all employ the NADP-ME as their primary carbon shuttle pathway, while the primary C4 carbon shuttle in proso millet is the NAD-ME pathway.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 331921, 327940, 971107, 5405, 14533, 171166, 25391, 31750, 3457, 19323, 11125639, 25445, 3434750, 2200906, 1301613, 20656228, 56122, 2087221, 492012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 55 ], [ 172, 188 ], [ 243, 252 ], [ 310, 315 ], [ 317, 322 ], [ 324, 329 ], [ 331, 337 ], [ 339, 346 ], [ 348, 355 ], [ 361, 372 ], [ 374, 380 ], [ 382, 389 ], [ 399, 412 ], [ 842, 856 ], [ 858, 870 ], [ 872, 877 ], [ 883, 890 ], [ 918, 929 ], [ 960, 977 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Panicum miliaceum is a tetraploid species with a base chromosome number of 18, twice the base chromosome number of diploid species within the genus Panicum. The species appears to be an allotetraploid resulting from a wide hybrid between two different diploid ancestors. One of the two subgenomes within proso millet appears to have come from either Panicum capillare or a close relative of that species. The second subgenome does not show close homology to any known diploid Panicum species, but some unknown diploid ancestor apparently also contributed a copy of its genome to a separate allotetraploid species Panicum repens (torpedo grass). The two subgenomes within proso millet are estimated to have diverged 5.6 million years ago. However, the species has experienced only limited amounts of fractionation and copies of most genes are still retained on both subgenomes. A sequenced version of the proso millet genome, estimated to be around 920 megabase pairs in size, was published in 2019.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Evolutionary history", "target_page_ids": [ 2106164, 62610, 21006252, 34365735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 155 ], [ 186, 200 ], [ 350, 367 ], [ 613, 627 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Weedy forms of proso millet are found throughout central Asia, covering a widespread area from the Caspian Sea east to Xinjiang and Mongolia. These may represent the wild progenitor of proso millet or feral escapes from domesticated production. Indeed, in the United States, weedy proso millet, representing feral escapes from cultivation, are now common, suggesting current proso millet cultivars retain the potential to revert, similar to the pattern seen for weedy rice. Currently, the earliest archeological evidence for domesticated proso millet comes from the Cishan site in semiarid north east China around 8,000 BCE. Because early varieties of proso millet had such a short lifecycle, as little as 45 days from planting to harvest, they are thought to have made it possible for seminomadic tribes to first adopt agriculture, forming a bridge between hunter-gatherer-focused lifestyles and early agricultural civilizations. Archaeological evidence for cultivation of domesticated proso millet in east Asia and Europe dates to at least 5,000 BCE in Georgia and Germany (near Leipzig, Hadersleben) by Linear Pottery culture (Early LBK, Neolithikum 5500–4900 BCE), and may represent either an independent domestication of the same wild ancestor, or the spread of the crop from east Asia along trade routes through the arid steppes. Evidence for cultivation in southern Europe and the Near East is comparatively more recent, with the earliest evidence for its cultivation in the Near East a find in the ruins of Nimrud, Iraq, dated to about 700 BC.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Domestication and history of cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 19653787, 25862547, 19271, 48768, 30865121, 461456, 7515928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 110 ], [ 119, 127 ], [ 132, 140 ], [ 1055, 1062 ], [ 1106, 1128 ], [ 1515, 1521 ], [ 1523, 1527 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proso millet is a relatively low-demanding crop, and diseases are not known; consequently, it is often used in organic farming systems in Europe. In the United States, it is often used as an intercrop. Thus, proso millet can help to avoid a summer fallow, and continuous crop rotation can be achieved. Its superficial root system and its resistance to atrazine residue make proso millet a good intercrop between two water- and pesticide-demanding crops. The stubbles of the last crop, by allowing more heat into the soil, result in a faster and earlier millet growth. While millet occupies the ground, because of its superficial root system, the soil can replenish its water content for the next crop. Later crops, for example, a winter wheat, can in turn benefit from the millet stubble, which act as snow accumulators.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 48340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 427, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to its C4 photosynthetic system, proso millet is thermophilic like maize, so shady locations of the field should be avoided. It is sensitive to temperatures lower than 10 to 13°C. Proso millet is highly drought-resistant, which makes it of interest to regions with low water availability and longer periods without rain.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 20656228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The soil should be light or medium-heavy. Due to its flat root systems, soil compaction must be avoided. Furthermore, proso millet does not tolerate soil wetness caused by dammed-up water.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The seedbed should be finely crumbled as for sugar beet and rapeseed. In Europe, proso millet is sowed between mid-April and the end of May. About 500 g/acre of seeds are required, which is roughly 500 grains/m22. In organic farming, this amount should be increased if a harrow weeder is used. For sowing, the usual sowing machines can be used similarly to how they are used for other crops such as wheat. A distance between the rows of 16 to 25 cm is recommended if the farmer uses an interrow cultivator. The sowing depth should be 1.5 to 2cm in optimal soil or 3 to 4cm in dry soil. Rolling of the ground after sowing is helpful for further cultivation. Cultivation in no-till farming systems is also possible and often practiced in the United States. Sowing then can be done two weeks later.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 50245, 219545, 163711, 1909222, 674489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 55 ], [ 60, 68 ], [ 271, 277 ], [ 495, 505 ], [ 672, 687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Only a few diseases and pests are known to attack proso millet, but they are not economically important. Weeds are a bigger problem. The critical phase is in juvenile development. The formation of the grains happens in the 3- to 5-leaf stadium. After that, all nutrients should be available for the millet, so preventing the growth of weeds is necessary. In conventional farming, herbicides may be used. In organic farming, harrow weeder or interrow cultivator use is possible, but special sowing parameters are needed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 152772, 53916, 72754, 1909222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 358, 378 ], [ 380, 390 ], [ 407, 422 ], [ 450, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For good crop development, fertilization with 50 to 75kg nitrogen per hectare is recommended. Planting proso millet in a crop rotation after maize should be avoided due to its same weed spectrum. Because proso millet is an undemanding crop, it may be used at the end of the rotation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 46828, 46470, 20656228, 46470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 40 ], [ 121, 134 ], [ 141, 146 ], [ 274, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harvest time is at the end of August until mid-September. Determining the best harvest date is not easy because all the grains do not ripen simultaneously. The grains on the top of the panicle ripen first, while the grains in the lower parts need more time, making compromise and harvest necessary to optimize yield. Harvesting can be done with a conventional combine harvester with the moisture content of the grains around 15-20%. Usually, proso millet is mowed into windrows first, since the plants are not dry like wheat. There, they can wither, which makes the threshing easier. Then the harvest is done with a pickup attached to a combine.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 219614, 247388, 1264450, 36858, 1121399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 192 ], [ 360, 377 ], [ 469, 476 ], [ 519, 524 ], [ 566, 575 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Possible yields are between 2.5 and 4.5 tonne/ha under optimal conditions. Studies in Germany showed that even higher yields can be attained.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "About half of the millet grown in the United States is grown in eastern Colorado on 340,000 acres. Historically grown as animal and bird seed, as of 2020, it has found a market as an organic gluten-free grain.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Proso millet is one of the few types of millet not cultivated in Africa.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, former Soviet Union, and some South American countries, it is primarily grown for livestock feed. As a grain fodder, it is very deficient in lysine and needs complementation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 63544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proso millet is also a poor fodder due to its low leaf-to-stem ratio and a possible irritant effect due to its hairy stem. Foxtail millet, having a higher leaf-to-stem ratio and less hairy stems, is preferred as fodder, particularly the variety called moha, which is a high-quality fodder.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To promote millet cultivation, other potential uses have been considered recently. For example, starch derived from millets has been shown to be a good substrate for fermentation and malting with grains having similar starch contents as wheat grains. A recently published study suggested that starch derived from proso millet can be converted to ethanol with an only moderately lower efficiency than starch derived from corn. The development of varieties with highly fermentable characteristics could improve ethanol yield to that of highly fermentable corn. Since proso millet is compatible with low-input agriculture, cultivation on marginal soils for biofuel production could represent an important new market, such as for farmers in the High Plains of the US.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 27711, 10048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 102 ], [ 346, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The demand for more diverse and healthier cereal-based foods is increasing, particularly in affluent countries. This could create new markets for proso millet products in human nutrition. Protein content in proso millet grains is comparable with that of wheat, but the share of some essential amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and methionine) is substantially higher in proso millet. In addition, health-promoting phenolic compounds contained in the grains are readily bioaccessible, and their high calcium content favors bone strengthening and dental health. Among the most commonly consumed products are ready-to-eat breakfast cereals made purely from millet flour, and a variety of noodles and bakery products that are, however, often produced from mixtures with wheat flour to improve their sensory quality.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 63546, 63543, 59364, 5668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 306, 313 ], [ 315, 325 ], [ 331, 341 ], [ 499, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Insect pests include:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Seedling pests", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "shoot fly Atherigona pulla (proso millet shoot fly, a major pest in India and Africa)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [ 68333319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Atherigona miliaceae, Atherigona soccata, and Atherigona punctata", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [ 68333316, 63957692, 68333847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 22, 40 ], [ 46, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "wheat stem maggot Meromyza americana occurs in the United States", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [ 69502400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "thrip, Haplothrips aculeatus", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [ 69501828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "armyworms Mythimna separata, Mythimna unipuncta, Spodoptera exempta, and Spodoptera frugiperda", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [ 20407509, 18395403, 4623698, 21561194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 29, 47 ], [ 49, 67 ], [ 73, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "field cricket Brachytrupes sp.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [ 44978961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stem borers", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chilo partellus, Chilo suppressalis, Chilo orichalcociliellus, Sesamia inferens, Sesamia cretica, and Ostrinia furnacalis", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [ 43542518, 28792519, 32103815, 41198160, 39549786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 17, 35 ], [ 63, 79 ], [ 81, 96 ], [ 102, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leaf feeders", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "leaf folders Cnaphalocrocis medinalis and Cnaphalocrocis patnalis", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [ 24617735, 44589546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 37 ], [ 42, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "hairy caterpillar Spilosoma obliqua", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [ 35146721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "rice butterfly Melanitis leda ismene", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [ 4236154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Moroccan locust Dociostaurus maroccanus", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [ 30681225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "migratory locust Locusta migratoria", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [ 1118690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "grasshoppers Hieroglyphus banian and Oxya chinensis", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [ 69501937, 68689220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 32 ], [ 37, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Earhead feeders", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "cotton boll worm Helicoverpa zea (in the United States)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [ 352289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other pests", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "aphid Sipha flava (in North America)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [ 22439800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "earhead bug Leptocorisa acuta and green bug Nezara viridula suck the milky developing grains in India", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [ 63834205, 24287210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 29 ], [ 44, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "termites, Odontotermes spp. and Microtermes spp., are the common species recorded on proso millet during dry seasons in India.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pests", "target_page_ids": [ 60040360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Names for proso millet in other languages spoken in the countries where it is cultivated include:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " or ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alternative Field Crops Manual: Millets", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Juwawut", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Millets", "Panicum", "Forages", "Plants_described_in_1753", "Taxa_named_by_Carl_Linnaeus", "Cereals" ]

[ "Proso millet" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Dyson's eternal intelligence concept (the Dyson Scenario), proposed by Freeman Dyson in 1979, proposes a means by which an immortal society of intelligent beings in an open universe may escape the prospect of the heat death of the universe by extending subjective time to infinity even though expending only a finite amount of energy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11397, 177052, 519280, 99293, 362722, 6069126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 84 ], [ 123, 131 ], [ 143, 154 ], [ 168, 181 ], [ 213, 239 ], [ 253, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bremermann's limit can be invoked to deduce that the amount of time to perform a computation on 1 bit is inversely proportional to the change in energy in the system. As a result, the amount of computations that can be performed grows over time. The increase in energy available slows logarithmically, but never stops. Therefore, for any specific computation rate that requires a specific amount of energy, there will come a time when that energy is available to be used.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1824836, 17860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 285, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The intelligent beings would begin by storing a finite amount of energy. They then use half (or any fraction) of this energy to power their thought. When the energy gradient created by unleashing this fraction of the stored fuel was exhausted, the beings would enter a state of zero-energy-consumption until the universe cooled. Once the universe had cooled sufficiently, half of the remaining half (one quarter of the original energy) of the intelligent beings' fuel reserves would once again be released, powering a brief period of thought once more. This would continue, with smaller and smaller amounts of energy being released. As the universe cooled, the thoughts would be slower and slower, but there would still be an infinite number of them. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1998, it was discovered that the expansion of the universe appears to be accelerating rather than decelerating due to a positive cosmological constant, implying that any two regions of the universe will eventually become permanently separated from one another. Dyson noted that \"in an accelerated universe everything is different\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frank J. Tipler has cited Dyson's writings, and specifically his writings on the eternal intelligence, as a major influence on his own highly controversial Omega Point theory.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 415958, 217422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 157, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tipler's theory differs from Dyson's theory on several key points, most notable of which is that Dyson's eternal intelligence presupposes an open universe while Tipler's Omega Point presupposes a closed/contracting universe. Both theories will be invalidated if the observed universal expansion continues to accelerate.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Physical_cosmology", "Freeman_Dyson" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Prince Igor ( ) is an opera in four acts with a prologue, written and composed by Alexander Borodin. The composer adapted the libretto from the Ancient Russian epic The Lay of Igor's Host, which recounts the campaign of Rus' prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the invading Cuman (\"Polovtsian\") tribes in 1185. He also incorporated material drawn from two medieval Kievan chronicles. The opera was left unfinished upon the composer's death in 1887 and was edited and completed by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov and Alexander Glazunov. It was first performed in St. Petersburg, Russia, in 1890. It was most recently performed at the Metropolitan Opera in New York in March of 2014.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22348, 143605, 46950, 21486360, 472374, 21485652, 2681509, 922690, 75847, 254781, 24320051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 27 ], [ 82, 99 ], [ 126, 134 ], [ 144, 159 ], [ 165, 187 ], [ 220, 224 ], [ 232, 250 ], [ 272, 277 ], [ 479, 502 ], [ 507, 525 ], [ 553, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After briefly considering Lev Mei's The Tsar's Bride as a subject (later taken up in 1898 by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, his 9th opera), Borodin began looking for a new project for his first opera. Vladimir Stasov, critic and advisor to The Mighty Handful, suggested The Lay of Igor's Host, a 12thcentury epic prose poem, and sent Borodin a scenario for a three-act opera on 30April 1869. Initially, Borodin found the proposition intriguing, but daunting:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Composition history", "target_page_ids": [ 3222121, 3429764, 2771068, 75849, 472374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 33 ], [ 118, 131 ], [ 195, 210 ], [ 234, 252 ], [ 264, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After collecting material from literary sources, Borodin began composition in September 1869 with initial versions of Yaroslavna's arioso and Konchakovna's cavatina, and sketched the Polovtsian Dances and March of the Polovtsy. He soon began to have doubts and ceased composing. He expressed his misgivings in a letter to his wife: \"There is too little drama here, and no movement ... To me, opera without drama, in the strict sense, is unnatural.\" This began a period of about four years in which he proceeded no further on Prince Igor, but began diverting materials for the opera into his other works, the Symphony No. 2 in B minor (1869–1876) and the collaborative opera-ballet Mlada(1872).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Composition history", "target_page_ids": [ 1856464, 16979369, 2678142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 200 ], [ 608, 633 ], [ 681, 686 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mlada project was soon aborted, and Borodin, like the other members of The Mighty Handful who were involved – César Cui, Modest Mussorgsky, and Rimsky-Korsakov – thought about ways to recycle the music he contributed. Of the eight numbers he had composed for Act4 of Mlada, those that eventually found their way into (or back into) Prince Igor included No.1 (Prologue: The opening Cmajor chorus), No.2 (material for Yaroslavna's arioso and Igor's aria), No.3 (Prologue: The eclipse), No.4 (Act3: The trio), and No.8 (Act 4:The closing chorus).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Composition history", "target_page_ids": [ 143810, 64710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 123 ], [ 125, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Borodin returned to Prince Igor in 1874, inspired by the success of his colleagues Rimsky-Korsakov and Mussorgsky in the staging of their historical operas, The Maid of Pskov (1873) and Boris Godunov (1874). This period also marks the creation of two new characters, the deserters Skula and Yeroshka, who have much in common with the rogue monks Varlaam and Misail in Boris Godunov.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Composition history", "target_page_ids": [ 11653917, 39085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 174 ], [ 186, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his memoirs, Rimsky-Korsakov mentions an 1876 concert at which Borodin's \"closing chorus\" was performed, the first public performance of any music from Prince Igor identified by him:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Composition history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The idea of a choral epilogue in the original scenario was no doubt inspired by the example of A Life for the Tsar by Mikhail Glinka, to whose memory Prince Igor is dedicated.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Composition history", "target_page_ids": [ 1253732, 254773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 114 ], [ 118, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Borodin's primary occupation was chemistry, including research and teaching. However, he also spent much time in support of women's causes, much to the consternation of his fellow composers, who felt he should devote his time and talent to music. In 1876, a frustrated Stasov gave up hope that Borodin would ever finish Prince Igor, and offered his scenario to Rimsky-Korsakov. Rimsky-Korsakov instead assisted Borodin in orchestrating important numbers in preparation for concert performance; for example, the Polovtsian Dances in 1879:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Composition history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Borodin worked on Prince Igor, off and on, for almost 18years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Composition history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Borodin died suddenly in 1887, leaving Prince Igor incomplete. Rimsky-Korsakov and Stasov went to Borodin's home, collected his scores, and brought them to Rimsky-Korsakov's house.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Composition history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The often-repeated account that Glazunov reconstructed and orchestrated the overture from memory after hearing the composer play it at the piano is true only in part. The following statement by Glazunov himself clarifies the matter:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Composition history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Central to the opera is the way the Russians are distinguished from the Polovtsians through melodic characterization. While Borodin uses features of Russian folk music to represent his compatriots, he uses chromaticism, melismas and appoggiaturas—among other techniques—represent their 'heathen' opponents. These methods had already been used by Glinka and others to portray Orientalism in Russian music.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Musical analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 500922, 231715, 235284, 254773, 39301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 218 ], [ 220, 227 ], [ 233, 246 ], [ 346, 352 ], [ 375, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The world premiere was given in St. Petersburg on 4 November (23 October O.S.), 1890 at the Mariinsky Theatre. Set designers were Yanov, Andreyev, and Bocharov, while Lev Ivanov was balletmaster. Moscow premieres followed in 1892 by the Russian Opera Society, conducted by Iosif Pribik. The Bolshoi Theatre premiere was given in 1898 and was conducted by Ulrikh Avranek", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 888602, 917386, 2806289, 532264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 77 ], [ 92, 109 ], [ 167, 177 ], [ 291, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other notable premieres were given in Prague in 1899 and in Paris in 1909, with a Sergei Diaghilev production featuring Feodor Chaliapin as Galitsky and Maria Nikolaevna Kuznetsova as Yaroslavna. Ivanov's choreography was revived by Mikhail Fokin (and in that form can be seen in the 1969 film. London saw the same production in 1914 conducted by Thomas Beecham, again with Chaliapin as Galitsky. In 1915 the United States premiere took place at the Metropolitan Opera, staged in Italian and conducted by Giorgio Polacco. The first performance in English was at Covent Garden on 26 July 1919, with Miriam Licette as Yaroslavna.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 23844, 28607, 576250, 7818408, 477185, 58036460, 148224, 216641, 41378587, 161781, 31839635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 44 ], [ 82, 98 ], [ 120, 136 ], [ 153, 180 ], [ 233, 246 ], [ 284, 293 ], [ 347, 361 ], [ 450, 468 ], [ 505, 520 ], [ 562, 575 ], [ 598, 612 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January and February 2009 there was a production at the Aalto Theatre by the Essen Opera. While some aspects of the production may have been unusual, one critic noted that \"placing the (Polovtsian) Dances as a Finale is an elegant idea, ... the director Andrejs Zagars and the conductor Noam Zur have thus presented a musically and dramaturgically coherent Prince Igor. Heartfelt applause for a worthwhile evening at the opera.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 26395315, 173973, 31532031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 72 ], [ 80, 85 ], [ 290, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2011 there was a concert performance in Moscow by Helikon Opera, based on Pavel Lamm's reconstruction. A new edition based on 92 surviving manuscripts by Borodin was completed by musicologist Anna Bulycheva and published in 2012.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, the Metropolitan Opera in New York City staged a reconceived version, sung in Russian for the first time there. Director Dmitri Tcherniakov and conductor Gianandrea Noseda removed most of the melodies contributed by Rimsky-Korsakov and Glazunov, although they retained those composers' orchestrations. They added many fragments by Borodin that Rimsky-Korsakov and Glazunov had omitted, basing their work on many decades of musicological research. They rearranged the order in which some of the material appeared, in some cases taking account of notes left by Borodin. The overall conception made the opera more of a psychological drama about Prince Igor and his state of mind, given the deep depression he went into following his soldiers' loss to the Polovtsians. The entire opera was reordered: after the prologue, in which the solar eclipse was taken as a bad omen, Act 1 presented a dream sequence dealing with the relation of Igor and his son with the Polovtsian general and his daughter in the Polovtsian camp. The second act largely dealt with the antics of Prince Galitsky in Putivyl and ended with the destruction of the city. The third act ended with Prince Igor coming out of his depression to begin the rebuilding of the destroyed city. This production starred Russian bass Ildar Abdrazakov in the title role with Ukrainian soprano Oksana Dyka as Yaroslavna. The performances in New York included a worldwide HD broadcast. The production was jointly produced with De Nederlandse Opera of Amsterdam.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 30493595, 7483164, 35194734, 27678920, 275937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 148 ], [ 163, 180 ], [ 1298, 1314 ], [ 1356, 1367 ], [ 1488, 1508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the beginning of the Opening Ceremony of the Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia, in February 2014, some of Borodin's music from this opera was played while an eclipsed sun, crescent-shaped, drifted across the upper levels of the center of the stadium, showing the basis of Russian history in the Prince Igor story.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1885, three arias, piano-vocal score, edition by Borodin, W. W. Bessel, St. Petersburg", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Publication history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1888, piano-vocal score, edition by Rimsky-Korsakov & Glazunov, M. P. Belyayev, Leipzig", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Publication history", "target_page_ids": [ 7045989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1888, full score, edition by Rimsky-Korsakov & Glazunov, M. P. Belyayev, Leipzig", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Publication history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1953, piano-vocal score, edition by Rimsky-Korsakov & Glazunov, Muzgiz, Moscow", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Publication history", "target_page_ids": [ 28035304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1954, full score, edition by Rimsky-Korsakov & Glazunov, Muzgiz, Moscow", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Publication history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2012, piano-vocal score, the original version, edited by Bulycheva, Classica-XXI, Moscow", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Publication history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Note:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Roles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The actual given name of the historical Yaroslavna is Yefrosinya (, ). Yaroslavna is a patronymic, meaning \"daughter of Yaroslav\". Konchakovna's name is similarly derived.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Roles", "target_page_ids": [ 51027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yaroslavna's brother, Vladimir Yaroslavich, is often called \"Prince Galitsky\" (), leading to the misconception that he was a prince by the name of Galitsky. In fact, he was a son of Prince of Galich Yaroslav Osmomysl. Prince Galitsky is a title meaning \"Prince of Galich\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Roles", "target_page_ids": [ 473024, 3650415, 226160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 199 ], [ 200, 217 ], [ 240, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Time: The year 1185", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Synopsis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Place: The city of Putivl (prologue, Acts 1 and 4); a Polovtsian camp (Acts 2 and 3)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Synopsis", "target_page_ids": [ 1998587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Note: Performance practice, Borodin's final decision on the order of the first two acts is unclear. The traditional grouping presented here is that of the Rimsky-Korsakov-Glazunov edition. In many productions, Act 3 is omitted.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Synopsis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The cathedral square in Putivl", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Synopsis", "target_page_ids": [ 1998587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prince Igor is about to set out on a campaign against the Cumans/Polovtsy and their Khans who have previously attacked the Russian lands. The people sing his praise and that of his son, the other leaders and the army (Chorus: \"Glory to the beautiful Sun\"). A solar eclipse takes place to general consternation. Two soldiers Skula and Yeroshka desert feeling sure that Vladimir Yaroslavich, Prince Galitsky, will offer them work more to their liking. Although Yaroslavna, Igor's wife, takes the eclipse for a bad omen, Igor insists that honour demands that he go to war. He leaves her to the care of her brother, Prince Galitsky, who tells of his gratitude to Igor for sheltering him after he was banished from his own home by his father and brothers. The people sing a great chorus of praise (Chorus: \"Glory to the multitude of stars\") as the host sets out on their campaign against the Polovtsy.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Synopsis", "target_page_ids": [ 2681509, 922690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 65, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scene 1: Vladimir Galitsky's court in Putivl", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Synopsis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Galitsky's followers sing his praise. Skula and Yeroshka are now working as gudok-players. They entertain the followers and all sing of how Galitsky and his men abducted a young woman and how she pleaded to be allowed to return to her father without being dishonoured. The prince arrives and sings of how, if he were Prince of Putivl, he would drink and feast all day while dispensing judgment and have the prettiest maidens with him all night (Galitsky's Song). The treasury would be spent on himself and his men while his sister would be praying in a monastery. A group of young women beg the prince to restore their abducted friend. He threatens them and drives them away, saying how she now lives in luxury in his quarters and does not have to work. The prince returns to his rooms having sent for wine for his followers. The gudok players and the prince's followers mock the women. They wonder what might happen if Yaroslavna hears of what happens, but then realise she would be helpless with all her men gone to war. They sing of how they are all drunkards and are supported by Galitsky. The men decide to go to the town square to declare Galitsky the Prince of Putivl, leaving just the two drunk musicians behind.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Synopsis", "target_page_ids": [ 374575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scene 2: A room in Yaroslavna's palace", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Synopsis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Yaroslavna is alone worrying about why she has not heard from Igor and his companions (Yaroslavna's Arioso). She sings of her tearful nights and nightmares and reminisces about when she was happy with Igor by her side. The nurse brings in the young women who tell Yaroslavna of their abducted friend. They are reluctant at first to reveal the culprit but eventually name Galitsky and talk of how he and his drunken followers cause trouble around Putivl. Galitsky enters and the women run away. Yaroslavna questions him as to the truth of their story and he mocks her saying she should treat him as a guest in her house. She threatens him with what Igor will do on his return, but Galitsky replies that he can seize the throne whenever he wants. Yaroslavna accuses him of repeating the betrayal that he carried out against their father, but he replies that he was only joking and asks if she has a lover now her husband is away. She threatens him with sending him back to their father. He replies that he will return the girl but will take another later and leaves. The council of boyars arrive to inform Yaroslavna that the Polovtsy under Khan Gzak are about to attack Putivl. Igor's army has been utterly destroyed and he has been wounded and captured with his son and brother. After a moment of faintness, Yaroslavna orders messengers sent to the city's allies, but the Boyars report that the roads are cut, some towns are in revolt and their princes will be captured. The Boyars say that they will organise the defence but Galitsky returns with his followers to demand that a new Prince be chosen. His retinue say it should be him as he is Yaroslavna's brother and Igor's brother-in-law. The boyars refuse. The argument is interrupted by the sight of flames and the sound of crying women. Some of the boyars flee; some join the battle, others guard the Princess. They call the attack God's judgment.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Synopsis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Evening in the Polovtsian Camp", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Synopsis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Polovtsian maidens sing comparing love to a flower that droops in the heat of the day and is revived by night. They dance together (Dance of the Polovtsian Maidens). Konchakovna joins in the singing hoping that her own lover will join her soon (Konchakovna's Cavatina). The Russian prisoners arrive from their day's work and express their gratitude when fed by Konchakovna and the maidens. Their guards retire for the night leaving just Ovlur, a Christian, in charge. Vladimir, son of Igor, sings of his hope that his love will soon join him now that the day is fading (Vladimir's Cavatina). His love is Konchakovna. She comes and the two sing of their love and their desire to marry (Love Duet). While her father will consent to the marriage, they know that his will not. They part when they hear Igor coming. He sings of his disgrace and torment at being captured with his followers dead (Prince Igor's Aria). Only his wife, he feels, will be loyal. He hopes for the chance to regain his honour. Ovlur urges Igor to escape and the prince agrees to think about it. Khan Konchak asks him if all is well (Konchak's Aria) and he replies that the falcon cannot live in captivity. Konchak says that as Igor did not ask for mercy he is not a prisoner but an honoured guest equal to a Khan. Igor reminds him that he too knows what it is to be a captive. Konchak offers Igor freedom if he will promise not to wage war on him again, but he refuses saying he cannot lie. Konchak regrets that they were not born to be allies. They would then have captured all of Russia. He summons the Polovtsian slaves to entertain Igor and himself and offers Igor his choice of them. As the slaves dance the Polovtsy sing of Konchak's glory (Polovtsian Dances).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Synopsis", "target_page_ids": [ 1856464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1718, 1735 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Polovtsian camp", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Synopsis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Polovtsian army returns in triumph singing the praise of Khan Gzak (Polovtsian March). Konchak sings of the sack of Putivl and other victories and confidently predicts that they will soon capture all of Russia. Igor and his son Vladimir have their worst fears confirmed by the new captives. Vladimir and the other prisoners urge Igor to escape, but he is at first reluctant, singing of his shame and saying that it is the duty of the other Russian princes to save the homeland (Igor's Monologue, Mariinsky edition only). Ovlur now arrives to say that he has prepared horses for Igor and Vladimir and Igor now agrees to escape. The distressed Konchakovna comes, challenging Vladimir to show his love by either taking her with him or by staying. Igor urges his son to come, but Vladimir feels unable to leave Konchakovna who threatens to wake the camp. Eventually Igor flees alone and Konchakovna sounds the alarm. She and her father refuse to let the Polovtsy kill Vladimir. Instead Konchak orders the death of the guards and marries Vladimir to his daughter. As for Igor, Konchak thinks more of him for his escape.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Synopsis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dawn in Putivl", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Synopsis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Yaroslavna weeps at her separation from Igor and the defeat of his army, blaming the very elements themselves for helping the enemy (Yaroslavna's Lament). Peasant women blame not the wind but Khan Gzak for the devastation. As Yaroslavna looks around to acknowledge the destruction, she sees two riders in the distance who turn out to be Igor and Ovlur. The two lovers sing of their joy of being reunited and of the expectation that Igor will lead the Russians to victory against the Khan. Unaware of Igor's return, Skula and Yeroshka, the drunken gudok players, sing a song that mocks him. Then they notice him in the distance. After a moment of panic about what will happen to them, Skula says that they should rely on their cunning and decides on a plan that will save them. They ring the church bells to summon a crowd. Although people at first treat them with suspicion, the gudok players manage to convince the crowd that Igor has returned and the boyars that they are loyal followers of the true prince and not Galitsky. All joyously celebrate Igor's return.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Synopsis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Overture", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Prologue", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chorus: \"Glory to the beautiful Sun\", «Солнцу красному слава!» (People of Putivl)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chorus: \"Glory to the multitude of stars\", «Частым звёздочкам слава!» (People of Putivl)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Act 1", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Song: \"If only I had the honor\", «Только б мне дождаться чести» (Galitsky)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arioso: \"A long time has passed\", «Немало времени прошло с тех пор» (Yaroslavna)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Act 2", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dance: \"Dance of the Polovtsian Maidens\", «Пляска половецких девушек» (Orchestra)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cavatina: \"The light of day fades\", «Меркнет свет дневной» (Konchakovna)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cavatina: \"Slowly the day died away\", «Медленно день угасал» (Vladimir)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Duet: \"Is that you, my Vladimir?\", «Ты ли, Владимир мой?» (Konchakovna, Vladimir)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aria: \"No sleep, no rest for my tormented soul\", «Ни сна, ни отдыха измученной душе» (Igor)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aria: \"Are you well, Prince?\", «Здоров ли, князь?» (Konchak)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Polovtsian Dances: \"Fly away on the wings of the wind\", «Улетай на крыльях ветра» (Slaves, Konchak)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Act 3", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "March: \"Polovtsian March\", «Половецкий марш» (Orchestra)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Trio: \"Vladimir! Is all this really true?\", «Владимир! Ужель все это правда?» (Konchakovna, Vladimir, Igor)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Act 4", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aria: \"Oh, I weep\", «Ах, плачу я» (Yaroslavna)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chorus: \"God heard our prayers\", «Знать, господь мольбы услышал» (People of Putivl)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Both the Overture to Prince Igor and the \"Polovtsian Dances\" (from Act II) are well-known concert standards. Together with the \"Polovtsian March\", they form the so-called \"suite\" from the opera.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Principal arias and numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 1856464, 190256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 59 ], [ 172, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prince Igor is a staple of Russian opera, but has not travelled well abroad. One obvious reason is the Russian language, although translation into Italian was once a solution.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Critical analysis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another explanation for the failure to gain acceptance is its lack of unity resulting from its unfinished state. Despite the skill and efforts of editors Rimsky-Korsakov and Glazunov, the opera is still episodic and dramatically static, a problem of which the composer himself was aware when he embarked on composition (see quote above in \"Composition History\"). This is partly a consequence of Borodin's failure to complete a libretto before beginning composition of the music—the same problem that plagued his colleague Mussorgsky in the composition of Khovanshchina. Both composers wrote their librettos piece by piece while composing the music, both lost sight of the overall narrative thread of their operas, and both wound up with pages and pages of music that needed to be sacrificed to assemble a cohesive whole. Also, both died before finishing their operas, leaving the task of completion, editing, and orchestration in both cases to Rimsky-Korsakov.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Critical analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 1250775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 555, 568 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the main considerations when performing Prince Igor is the question of whether to include Act 3, much of which was composed by Glazunov. The practice of omitting it was mentioned as early as 1909 in Rimsky-Korsakov's memoirs. Many productions leave Act 3 out because it \"fails to carry conviction both musically and dramatically.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Performance practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On the other hand, maintaining the act has certain benefits. It contains some fine pages (e.g., the \"Polovtsian March\"), provides an important link in the narrative (Igor's escape, Vladimir's fate), and is the origin of some of the memorable themes first heard in the overture (the trio, brass fanfares). Fortunately, the option of omitting the fine overture, also known to have been composed by Glazunov, is seldom considered.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Performance practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recently, the question of the best sequence of scenes in which to perform the opera has gained some prominence. Borodin did not complete a libretto before composing the music to Prince Igor. The opera has traditionally been performed in the edition made by Rimsky-Korsakov and Glazunov. It will be obvious that the positions to which they assigned the Prologue, Act 3, and Act 4 cannot be changed if the story is to make sense. However, because the events of Act 1 and Act 2 overlap and are independent of one another, Act 2 may just as well precede Act 1 without any loss of coherence. Soviet musicologists Pavel Lamm and Arnold Sokhor reported the existence of a written plan (now in Glinka's Musical Culture Museum, Moscow), in Borodin's hand, that specified this sequence of scenes:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Performance practice", "target_page_ids": [ 46950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The omen from heaven (Prologue)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Performance practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Imprisonment (Act 2)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Performance practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galitsky's court (Act 1, Scene 1)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Performance practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Yaroslavna's palace (Act 1, Scene 2)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Performance practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Escape (Act 3)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Performance practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Return (Act 4)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Performance practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sokhor assessed the plan as not written later than 1883.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Performance practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 1993 recording of Prince Igor by Valery Gergiev with the Kirov Opera features a new edition of the score with additions commissioned from composer Yuri Faliek for a production at the Mariinsky Theatre, adopting this hypothetical original sequence. The authors of the notes to the recording assert that this order better balances the musical structure of the score by alternating the acts in the Russian and Polovtsian settings with their distinctive musical atmospheres.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Performance practice", "target_page_ids": [ 849630, 917386, 917386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 51 ], [ 61, 72 ], [ 187, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite this justification, there is reason to maintain the traditional sequence. Act II contains most of the numbers for which the work is known today, with Igor's brooding and impassioned aria (\"Oh give me freedom\") at the center, flanked by Vladimir's cavatina and Konchak's aria, not to mention the rousing conclusion provided by the Polovtsian Dances. Moving its wealth of arias and dances from the center of the work to near the beginning may weaken the opera's structure.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Performance practice", "target_page_ids": [ 1856464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 338, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"Mariinsky edition\" makes other important changes and additions to the score. Although much of the material composed or orchestrated by Glazunov and Rimsky-Korsakov is retained, there are additions culled from the unpublished vocal score by Pavel Lamm, orchestrated and linked by Faliek. The changes include:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Performance practice", "target_page_ids": [ 5867312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 230, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " About 200 bars added to the scene in Yaroslavna's palace which make explicit Galitsky's rebellion", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Performance practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Various additions and removals from Act 3, including the restoration of a monologue for Igor composed by Borodin in 1875. A review in Gramophone highlights how the newly added monologue \"helps to give a weighty focus to Act 3, otherwise a phenomenal feat of reconstruction on Glazunov's part, but somehow insubstantial\".", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Performance practice", "target_page_ids": [ 3333909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A different final chorus for Act 4, \"Glory to the multitude of stars\", a repeat of material from the Prologue. This idea is historically justified, as Borodin had originally placed this chorus at the end of the opera in the form of an epilogue [see the quote by Rimsky-Korsakov above under Composition history]. This regrettably necessitates the elimination of Borodin's subsequent chorus, \"God heard our prayers\".", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Performance practice", "target_page_ids": [ 39143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 291, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the West, the opera has often been given in languages other than Russian. For example, the 1960 recording under Lovro von Matačić is sung in German, the 1964 recording under Armando La Rosa Parodi is in Italian and the 1982 David Lloyd-Jones recording is in English. On the other hand, the 1990 Bernard Haitink and the 1962 Oscar Danon recordings are Western performances sung in Russian.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Performance practice", "target_page_ids": [ 3774367, 6039623, 317527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 132 ], [ 227, 244 ], [ 298, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " This is a sortable table. Click on the button next to the criterion you would like to use to sort the information.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The numbers are given according to the traditional Rimsky-Korsakov-Glazunov edition.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The dates refer to composition, not orchestration. Where a pair of dates differ, a large gap (more than one year) may indicate an interruption of composition or a revision of the musical number.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In No.1 (the Prologue), the Eclipse scene (301 bars) was orchestrated by Rimsky-Korsakov and the remainder by Borodin.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This is a list of studio recordings. A comprehensive list of all recordings of Prince Igor may be found at operadis-opera-discography.org.uk", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Audio", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1936-38, Lev Steinberg, Aleksander Orlov and Alexander Melik-Pashayev (conductor), Bolshoi Theatre Orchestra and Chorus, Alexander Baturin (Igor), Xenia Derzhinskaya (Yaroslavna), Ivan Kozlovsky (Vladimir), Aleksandr Pirogov (Galitsky), Maxim Mikhailov (Konchak), Elizaveta Antonova (Konchakovna)(abridged over 32 sides)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 27197898, 26962704, 4891559, 5275631, 26656282, 26656518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ], [ 24, 40 ], [ 45, 69 ], [ 180, 194 ], [ 207, 224 ], [ 237, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1941, Aleksandr Melik-Pashayev (conductor), Bolshoi Theatre Orchestra and Chorus, Alexander Baturin (Igor), Sofia Panova (Yaroslavna), Ivan Kozlovsky (Vladimir), Aleksandr Pirogov (Galitsky), Maxim Mikhailov (Konchak), Nadezhda Obukhova (Konchakovna) ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 4891559, 5275631, 26656282, 26656518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 31 ], [ 136, 150 ], [ 163, 180 ], [ 193, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1952, Aleksandr Melik-Pashayev (conductor), Bolshoy Theatre Orchestra and Chorus, Andrey Ivanov (Igor), Yelena Smolenskaya (Yaroslavna), Sergey Lemeshev (Vladimir), Aleksandr Pirogov (Galitsky), Mark Reyzen (Konchak), Vera Borisenko (Konchakovna)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 4891559, 5297632, 26656282, 5312046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 31 ], [ 138, 153 ], [ 166, 183 ], [ 196, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1955, Oskar Danon (conductor), Belgrade National Opera Orchestra and Chorus; Dušan Popović (Igor), Valerija Heybalova (Yaroslavna), Noni Zunec (Vladimir), Žarko Cvejić (Galitsky, Konchak), Melanija Bugarinović (Konchakovna)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1966, Jerzy Semkow (conductor), National Opera Theatre of Sofia; Constantin Chekerliiski (Igor), Julia Wiener (Yaroslavna), Todor Todorov (Vladimir), Boris Christoff (Galitsky, Konchak), Reni Penkova (Konchakovna)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 4887975, 1280877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ], [ 151, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1969, Mark Ermler (conductor), Bolshoy Theatre Orchestra and Chorus; Ivan Petrov (Igor), Tatyana Tugarinova (Yaroslavna), Vladimir Atlantov (Vladimir), Artur Eisen (Galitsky), Aleksandr Vedernikov (Konchak), Yelena Obraztsova (Konchakovna)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 4875709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990, Emil Tchakarov (conductor), Sofia Festival Orchestra and National Opera Chorus, Boris Martinovich (Igor), Stefka Evstatieva (Yaroslavna), Kaludi Kaludov (Vladimir), Nicola Ghiuselev (Galitsky), Nicolai Ghiaurov (Konchak), Alexandrina Milcheva-Nonova (Konchakovna) Sony 44878", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 48767368, 8030368, 18812030, 700951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ], [ 113, 130 ], [ 172, 188 ], [ 201, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1993, Valery Gergiev (conductor), Kirov Opera Orchestra and Chorus; Mikhail Kit (Igor), Galina Gorchakova (Yaroslavna), Gegham Grigoryan (Vladimir), Vladimir Ognovienko (Galitsky), Bulat Minjelkiev (Konchak), Olga Borodina (Konchakovna), Philips 442–537–2.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 849630, 48550093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ], [ 121, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Video", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Evgeny Nesterenko (Prince Igor), Elena Kurovskaya (Jaroslavna), Vladimir Sherbakov (Vladimir Igorevich), Alexander Vedernikov (Prince Galitsky), Boris Morozov (Konchak), Tamara Sinyavskaya (Konchakovna), Vladimir Petrov (Ovlur), Valery Yaroslavtsev (Skula), Konstantin Baskov (Yeroshka), Nina Grigorieva (Nurse), Margarita Miglau (Polovtsian Maiden) Orchestra & Chorus of the Bolshoi Theatre, Mark Ermler.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 15128425, 4875709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 23 ], [ 399, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1993 Nikolai Putilin, Galina Gorchakova, Evgeny Akimov, Sergey Aleksashkin, Vladimir Vaneev, Olga Borodina, Kirov Opera & Ballet, Valery Gergiev", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 7908320, 8521006, 849630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 40 ], [ 94, 107 ], [ 132, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the American musical Kismet (1953), most of the score was adapted from works by Borodin. Themes from the Polovtsian Dances from Prince Igor were used extensively and the \"Gliding Dance of the Maidens\" provided the melody for the popular hit song \"Stranger in Paradise\".", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 871923, 1856464, 2100114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 30 ], [ 108, 125 ], [ 250, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In The Simpsons episode \"Simpson Tide\", the Boyars' Chorus (Act 1, Scene 2) plays while tanks emerge from parade floats during a peace parade on Red Square in front of Saint Basil's, soldiers walk out of a building, the Berlin Wall re-erects itself out of the ground, and Lenin rises from his grave, saying \"Rrr! Must Crush Capitalism, Rrr!\". The \"Gliding dance of the Maidens\" is also played during the Valentine's Day Itchy and Scratchy cartoon featured in The Simpsons episode \"I Love Lisa\".", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 29838, 1878227, 29838, 2011213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 15 ], [ 25, 37 ], [ 460, 472 ], [ 482, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Musical quotations from the Polovtsian Dances can be heard: ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " in Warren G's 1997 hit \"Prince Igor\", and in the track \"Echoes\" on Pink Floyd's 1971 album, \"Meddle\"", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 161493, 14614720, 398735, 5079506, 303876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 25, 36 ], [ 57, 63 ], [ 68, 78 ], [ 94, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Masterplan – Lonely Winds Of War (2010)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Arash feat. Helena – Angels Lullaby (2021)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cuman people", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 922690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cumania", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 922693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Solar eclipses in fiction", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4380624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Notes", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sources", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abraham, G. (1939) On Russian Music, London (via album notes by Richard Taruskin in \"Alexander Borodin: Orchesterwerke\" Deutsche Grammophon CD 435 757–2)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 2822690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abraham, G. and Lloyd-Jones, D. (1986) \"Alexander Borodin\" in Brown, D. (ed.) The New Grove: Russian Masters 1, New York: W. W. Norton & Co., pp.45–76.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Borodin, A. Libretto for Prince Igor.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hofmann, M. Une musique d'une somptueuse beauté (album notes to the 1952 Bolshoy Theatre recording) Le Chant du Monde CD LDC 2781041/43", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Malkiel, M. and Barry, A. (1994) Authenticity in Prince Igor:Open Questions, New Answers (introductory note to 1993 Gergiev recording) pp.13–22 of booklet, Philips CD 442–537–2.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rimsky-Korsakov, N. (1923) Chronicle of My Musical Life, translated by J. A. Joffe, New York: Knopf", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Score for Prince Igor with lyrics in Russian, French, and English on archive.org", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " English libretto (Brilliant Classics)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Synopsis and libretto, Italian and English, 1915 (courtesy of Open Library) (English also here)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 3011287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Russian libretto at Либретто опер [Libretto oper]", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poem about the March into Battle of Prince Ihor (stained glass window) by Leo Mol", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 2508059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 82 ] ] } ]

[ "Operas_by_Alexander_Borodin", "Russian-language_operas", "The_Tale_of_Igor's_Campaign", "1890_operas", "Operas", "Operas_completed_by_others", "Classical_musical_works_published_posthumously", "Kievan_Rus_in_fiction" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Abduction of Figaro is a comic opera, described as \"A Simply Grand Opera by P. D. Q. Bach\", which is actually the work of composer Peter Schickele. It is a parody of opera in general, and the title is a play on two operas by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: The Abduction from the Seraglio and The Marriage of Figaro. Those two operas, Così fan tutte and Don Giovanni, as well as Gilbert and Sullivan's The Pirates of Penzance are among the core inspirations for the piece.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 336025, 39082, 22348, 33163, 38062, 30418, 38090, 38092, 13021, 46667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 93 ], [ 135, 150 ], [ 170, 175 ], [ 229, 252 ], [ 254, 285 ], [ 290, 312 ], [ 333, 347 ], [ 352, 364 ], [ 377, 397 ], [ 400, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schickele was commissioned to \"discover\" this opera by the Minnesota Opera, where the piece premiered on April 27 and 28, 1984. In addition to parodying Mozart, the music incorporates diverse influences and musical quotes, from traditional camp songs like \"Found a Peanut\" to popular songs like \"Macho Man\" by the Village People. The opera has been released on VHS and DVD.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3893536, 160790, 3293901, 4780005, 23416939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 74 ], [ 122, 126 ], [ 257, 271 ], [ 296, 305 ], [ 314, 328 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Introductory remarks by Prof. Peter Schickele", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Opening credits", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Overture", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Act One: A town on the seacoast of Spain or Italy or somewhere", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scene One: Figaro's bedroom in the palace of Count Almamater", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Introduction: \"Found a peanut!\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recitative: \"Ah, dear husband\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aria: \"Stay with me\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recitative: \"Susanna\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recitative: \"Dog!\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aria: \"Perfidy, thy name is Donald\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recitative: \"I am distraught\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Quartet: \"Love is gone\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scene Two: A courtyard of the palace", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recitative: \"Well, here we are\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aria: \"Behold, fair maiden\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recitative: \"Just a moment\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Duet: \"Thy lofty tree\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scene Three: Figaro's bedroom", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"And here is my husband\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recitative: \"Hold it!\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"My name is Captain Kadd\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recitative: \"Now that you've heard\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sextet: \"What a downer!\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scene Four: The courtyard", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recitative: \"Schlepporello\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aria: \"No man\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scene Five: At the dock", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recitative: \"What a strange turn of events\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Quintet and chorus: \"Ah, though we must part\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Act One Finale", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Intermission", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Introduction to Act Two", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Act Two: Somewhere in the Turkish Empire", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scene One: At the seashore", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Duet: \"God be praised\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scene Two: In front of the Pasha's palace", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aria: \"Fish gotta swim\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chorus: \"Hey, make way\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dance of the Seven Pails", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recitative: \"Your immenseness\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Duet, chorus, and dialogue: \"Who is the highest\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Quartet: \"May I introduce\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scene Three: A courtyard of the palace", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dialogue and recitative: \"Why?\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aria and dialogue: \"Macho, macho\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cavatina and dialogue: \"You can beat me\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Act Two Finale", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Act Three: A tropical forest", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ballet", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Trio and dialogue: \"A magic forest\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Duet and dialogue: \"I am a swineherd\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Finale (Part I) and dialogue", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aria and dialogue: \"Why, oh why\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Finale (Part II)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Curtain calls and closing credits", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [ 494165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Closing remarks by Prof. Schickele", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "DVD Bonus Selections", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Excerpts from the Gross Concerto for Divers Flutes, Two Trumpets, and Strings, S. −2''' ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Professor Peter Schickele in conversation with Gordon Hunt", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synopsis of scenes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Abduction of Figaro DVD", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Peter Schickele/P.D.Q. Bach Homepage", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "P._D._Q._Bach", "Operas", "1984_operas", "English-language_operas", "1984_video_albums", "Works_based_on_Die_Entführung_aus_dem_Serail", "Works_based_on_The_Marriage_of_Figaro", "Works_based_on_Così_fan_tutte", "Works_based_on_Don_Giovanni" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A finite difference is a mathematical expression of the form . If a finite difference is divided by , one gets a difference quotient. The approximation of derivatives by finite differences plays a central role in finite difference methods for the numerical solution of differential equations, especially boundary value problems.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 241863, 7921, 6054681, 21506, 1424309, 436779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 132 ], [ 155, 165 ], [ 213, 237 ], [ 247, 256 ], [ 269, 290 ], [ 304, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The difference operator, commonly denoted is the operator that maps a function to the function defined by", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 146806, 22213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 50, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A difference equation is a functional equation that involves the finite difference operator in the same way as a differential equation involves derivatives. There are many similarities between difference equations and differential equations, specially in the solving methods. Certain recurrence relations can be written as difference equations by replacing iteration notation with finite differences.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 146806, 364377, 1424309, 7921, 146806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 21 ], [ 27, 46 ], [ 113, 134 ], [ 144, 154 ], [ 276, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In numerical analysis, finite differences are widely used for Relation with derivatives, and the term \"finite difference\" is often used as an abbreviation of \"finite difference approximation of derivatives\". Finite difference approximations are finite difference quotients in the terminology employed above.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finite differences were introduced by Brook Taylor in 1715 and have also been studied as abstract self-standing mathematical objects in works by George Boole (1860), L. M. Milne-Thomson (1933), and (1939). Finite differences trace their origins back to one of Jost Bürgi's algorithms () and work by others including Isaac Newton. The formal calculus of finite differences can be viewed as an alternative to the calculus of infinitesimals.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 210429, 38298, 31375012, 1607826, 14627, 5176, 160990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 50 ], [ 145, 157 ], [ 166, 185 ], [ 261, 271 ], [ 317, 329 ], [ 412, 420 ], [ 424, 437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three basic types are commonly considered: forward, backward, and central finite differences.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A forward difference, denoted of a function is a function defined as", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic types", "target_page_ids": [ 185427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Depending on the application, the spacing may be variable or constant. When omitted, is taken to be 1; that is, ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A backward difference uses the function values at and , instead of the values at and:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Finally, the central difference is given by", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Finite difference is often used as an approximation of the derivative, typically in numerical differentiation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relation with derivatives", "target_page_ids": [ 1254566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The derivative of a function at a point is defined by the limit.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relation with derivatives", "target_page_ids": [ 7921, 285759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 61, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If has a fixed (non-zero) value instead of approaching zero, then the right-hand side of the above equation would be written", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relation with derivatives", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hence, the forward difference divided by approximates the derivative when is small. The error in this approximation can be derived from Taylor's theorem. Assuming that is twice differentiable, we have", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relation with derivatives", "target_page_ids": [ 51714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The same formula holds for the backward difference:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relation with derivatives", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, the central (also called centered) difference yields a more accurate approximation. If is three times differentiable,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relation with derivatives", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The main problem with the central difference method, however, is that oscillating functions can yield zero derivative. If for odd, and for even, then if it is calculated with the central difference scheme. This is particularly troublesome if the domain of is discrete. See also Symmetric derivative", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relation with derivatives", "target_page_ids": [ 40996300, 3219921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 215 ], [ 291, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Authors for whom finite differences mean finite difference approximations define the forward/backward/central differences as the quotients given in this section (instead of employing the definitions given in the previous section).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relation with derivatives", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In an analogous way, one can obtain finite difference approximations to higher order derivatives and differential operators. For example, by using the above central difference formula for and and applying a central difference formula for the derivative of at , we obtain the central difference approximation of the second derivative of :", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Higher-order differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Second-order central", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Higher-order differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Similarly we can apply other differencing formulas in a recursive manner.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Higher-order differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Second order forward", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Higher-order differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Second order backward", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Higher-order differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "More generally, the th order forward, backward, and central differences are given by, respectively,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Higher-order differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Forward", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Higher-order differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "or for ,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Higher-order differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Backward", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Higher-order differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Central", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Higher-order differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These equations use binomial coefficients after the summation sign shown as . Each row of Pascal's triangle provides the coefficient for each value of .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Higher-order differences", "target_page_ids": [ 4668, 49497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 40 ], [ 91, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Note that the central difference will, for odd , have multiplied by non-integers. This is often a problem because it amounts to changing the interval of discretization. The problem may be remedied taking the average of and .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Higher-order differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Forward differences applied to a sequence are sometimes called the binomial transform of the sequence, and have a number of interesting combinatorial properties. Forward differences may be evaluated using the Nörlund–Rice integral. The integral representation for these types of series is interesting, because the integral can often be evaluated using asymptotic expansion or saddle-point techniques; by contrast, the forward difference series can be extremely hard to evaluate numerically, because the binomial coefficients grow rapidly for large .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Higher-order differences", "target_page_ids": [ 27838, 3877474, 3856935, 642090, 640249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 41 ], [ 67, 85 ], [ 209, 230 ], [ 352, 372 ], [ 376, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The relationship of these higher-order differences with the respective derivatives is straightforward,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Higher-order differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Higher-order differences can also be used to construct better approximations. As mentioned above, the first-order difference approximates the first-order derivative up to a term of order . However, the combination", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Higher-order differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "approximates up to a term of order . This can be proven by expanding the above expression in Taylor series, or by using the calculus of finite differences, explained below.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Higher-order differences", "target_page_ids": [ 30448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If necessary, the finite difference can be centered about any point by mixing forward, backward, and central differences.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Higher-order differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Using linear algebra one can construct finite difference approximations which utilize an arbitrary number of points to the left and a (possibly different) number of points to the right of the evaluation point, for any order derivative. This involves solving a linear system such that the Taylor expansion of the sum of those points around the evaluation point best approximates the Taylor expansion of the desired derivative. Such formulas can be represented graphically on a hexagonal or diamond-shaped grid.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Arbitrarily sized kernels", "target_page_ids": [ 30448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 288, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This is useful for differentiating a function on a grid, where, as one approaches the edge of the grid, one must sample fewer and fewer points on one side.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Arbitrarily sized kernels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The details are outlined in these notes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Arbitrarily sized kernels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Finite Difference Coefficients Calculator constructs finite difference approximations for non-standard (and even non-integer) stencils given an arbitrary stencil and a desired derivative order.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Arbitrarily sized kernels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " For all positive and ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Arbitrarily sized kernels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Leibniz rule: ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Arbitrarily sized kernels", "target_page_ids": [ 1116115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An important application of finite differences is in numerical analysis, especially in numerical differential equations, which aim at the numerical solution of ordinary and partial differential equations. The idea is to replace the derivatives appearing in the differential equation by finite differences that approximate them. The resulting methods are called finite difference methods.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In differential equations", "target_page_ids": [ 21506, 1634583, 32742753, 52564, 6054681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 71 ], [ 87, 119 ], [ 160, 168 ], [ 173, 202 ], [ 361, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Common applications of the finite difference method are in computational science and engineering disciplines, such as thermal engineering, fluid mechanics, etc.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In differential equations", "target_page_ids": [ 19582317, 2684988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 137 ], [ 139, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Newton series consists of the terms of the Newton forward difference equation, named after Isaac Newton; in essence, it is the Newton interpolation formula, first published in his Principia Mathematica in 1687, namely the discrete analog of the continuous Taylor expansion,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Newton's series", "target_page_ids": [ 216333, 14627, 48781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 95, 107 ], [ 186, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "which holds for any polynomial function and for many (but not all) analytic functions. (It does not hold when is exponential type . This is easily seen, as the sine function vanishes at integer multiples of ; the corresponding Newton series is identically zero, as all finite differences are zero in this case. Yet clearly, the sine function is not zero.) Here, the expression", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Newton's series", "target_page_ids": [ 23000, 61478, 4081509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ], [ 69, 86 ], [ 116, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "is the binomial coefficient, and", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Newton's series", "target_page_ids": [ 4668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "is the \"falling factorial\" or \"lower factorial\", while the empty product is defined to be1. In this particular case, there is an assumption of unit steps for the changes in the values of of the generalization below.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Newton's series", "target_page_ids": [ 230193, 181289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 25 ], [ 60, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Note the formal correspondence of this result to Taylor's theorem. Historically, this, as well as the Chu–Vandermonde identity, ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Newton's series", "target_page_ids": [ 51714, 916157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 65 ], [ 103, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(following from it, and corresponding to the binomial theorem), are included in the observations that matured to the system of umbral calculus.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Newton's series", "target_page_ids": [ 4677, 214124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 61 ], [ 128, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Newton series expansions can be superior to Taylor series expansions when applied to discrete quantities like quantum spins (see Holstein–Primakoff_transformation), bosonic operator functions or discrete counting statistics.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Newton's series", "target_page_ids": [ 12101027, 1193525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 162 ], [ 165, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To illustrate how one may use Newton's formula in actual practice, consider the first few terms of doubling the Fibonacci sequence One can find a polynomial that reproduces these values, by first computing a difference table, and then substituting the differences that correspond to (underlined) into the formula as follows,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Newton's series", "target_page_ids": [ 10918, 23000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 130 ], [ 147, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For the case of nonuniform steps in the values of , Newton computes the divided differences,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Newton's series", "target_page_ids": [ 976365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "the series of products,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Newton's series", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and the resulting polynomial is the scalar product,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Newton's series", "target_page_ids": [ 157093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Newton's series", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In analysis with -adic numbers, Mahler's theorem states that the assumption that is a polynomial function can be weakened all the way to the assumption that is merely continuous.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Newton's series", "target_page_ids": [ 51423, 408111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 30 ], [ 32, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carlson's theorem provides necessary and sufficient conditions for a Newton series to be unique, if it exists. However, a Newton series does not, in general, exist.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Newton's series", "target_page_ids": [ 4065365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Newton series, together with the Stirling series and the Selberg series, is a special case of the general difference series, all of which are defined in terms of suitably scaled forward differences.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Newton's series", "target_page_ids": [ 151783, 2200454, 4069270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 52 ], [ 61, 75 ], [ 110, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a compressed and slightly more general form and equidistant nodes the formula reads", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Newton's series", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The forward difference can be considered as an operator, called the difference operator, which maps the function to . This operator amounts to", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 22213, 146806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 55 ], [ 68, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is the shift operator with step h, defined by , and is the identity operator.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 467384, 15069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 28 ], [ 68, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The finite difference of higher orders can be defined in recursive manner as . Another equivalent definition is .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The difference operator is a linear operator, as such it satisfies .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 18102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It also satisfies a special Leibniz rule indicated above,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 1116115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ". Similar statements hold for the backward and central differences.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Formally applying the Taylor series with respect to , yields the formula", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 30448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where denotes the continuum derivative operator, mapping to its derivative . The expansion is valid when both sides act on analytic functions, for sufficiently small . Thus, , and formally inverting the exponential yields ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 61478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This formula holds in the sense that both operators give the same result when applied to a polynomial.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Even for analytic functions, the series on the right is not guaranteed to converge; it may be an asymptotic series. However, it can be used to obtain more accurate approximations for the derivative. For instance, retaining the first two terms of the series yields the second-order approximation to mentioned at the end of the Higher-order differences.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 642090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The analogous formulas for the backward and central difference operators are", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The calculus of finite differences is related to the umbral calculus of combinatorics. This remarkably systematic correspondence is due to the identity of the commutators of the umbral quantities to their continuum analogs ( limits),", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 214124, 7193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 68 ], [ 159, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A large number of formal differential relations of standard calculus involving ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "functions thus map systematically to umbral finite-difference analogs involving .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For instance, the umbral analog of a monomial is a generalization of the above falling factorial (Pochhammer k-symbol), ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 12104271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "so that ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "hence the above Newton interpolation formula (by matching coefficients in the expansion of an arbitrary function in such symbols), and so on.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For example, the umbral sine is", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As in the continuum limit, the eigenfunction of also happens to be an exponential,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and hence Fourier sums of continuum functions are readily mapped to umbral Fourier sums faithfully, i.e., involving the same Fourier coefficients multiplying these umbral basis exponentials. This umbral exponential thus amounts to the exponential generating function of the Pochhammer symbols.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 160993, 230193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 267 ], [ 275, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus, for instance, the Dirac delta function maps to its umbral correspondent, the cardinal sine function,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 37021, 610583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 45 ], [ 84, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and so forth. Difference equations can often be solved with techniques very similar to those for solving differential equations.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 146806, 1424309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 34 ], [ 106, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The inverse operator of the forward difference operator, so then the umbral integral, is the indefinite sum or antidifference operator.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 22203596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Analogous to rules for finding the derivative, we have:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 10308785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Constant rule: If is a constant, then", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 24758132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Linearity: if and are constants,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 147909, 24758132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 25, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All of the above rules apply equally well to any difference operator, including as to .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Product rule:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 248988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Quotient rule:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 209128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "or", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Summation rules:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 19468696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "See references.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Calculus of finite differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A generalized finite difference is usually defined as where is its coefficient vector. An infinite difference is a further generalization, where the finite sum above is replaced by an infinite series. Another way of generalization is making coefficients depend on point : , thus considering weighted finite difference. Also one may make the step depend on point : . Such generalizations are useful for constructing different modulus of continuity.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 15287, 964161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 201 ], [ 429, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The generalized difference can be seen as the polynomial rings . It leads to difference algebras.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Difference operator generalizes to Möbius inversion over a partially ordered set.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 20963, 23572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 51 ], [ 59, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a convolution operator: Via the formalism of incidence algebras, difference operators and other Möbius inversion can be represented by convolution with a function on the poset, called the Möbius function ; for the difference operator, is the sequence .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 166980, 7519, 20961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 65 ], [ 138, 149 ], [ 191, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finite differences can be considered in more than one variable. They are analogous to partial derivatives in several variables.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Multivariate finite differences", "target_page_ids": [ 52565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some partial derivative approximations are:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Multivariate finite differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alternatively, for applications in which the computation of is the most costly step, and both first and second derivatives must be computed, a more efficient formula for the last case is", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Multivariate finite differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "since the only values to compute that are not already needed for the previous four equations are and .", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Multivariate finite differences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Richardson, C. H. (1954): An Introduction to the Calculus of Finite Differences (Van Nostrand (1954) online copy", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mickens, R. E. (1991): Difference Equations: Theory and Applications'' (Chapman and Hall/CRC) ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Table of useful finite difference formula generated using Mathematica", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " D. Gleich (2005), Finite Calculus: A Tutorial for Solving Nasty Sums", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Discrete Second Derivative from Unevenly Spaced Points", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Finite_differences", "Numerical_differential_equations", "Mathematical_analysis", "Factorial_and_binomial_topics", "Linear_operators_in_calculus", "Numerical_analysis", "Non-Newtonian_calculus" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Frederic William Henry Myers (6 February 1843 – 17 January 1901) was a British poet, classicist, philologist, and a founder of the Society for Psychical Research. Myers' work on psychical research and his ideas about a \"subliminal self\" were influential in his time, but have not been accepted by the scientific community. However, in 2007 a team of cognitive scientists at University of Virginia School of Medicine, led by Edward F. Kelly published a major empirical-theoretical work, Irreducible Mind, citing various empirical evidence that they think broadly corroborates Myer's conception of human self and its survival of bodily death.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23193, 28122, 23754, 338705, 5675255, 63927679, 28650767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 108 ], [ 131, 161 ], [ 178, 196 ], [ 301, 321 ], [ 374, 415 ], [ 424, 439 ], [ 486, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Myers was born on 6 February 1843 at St John's parsonage, Keswick, Cumberland, the son of Revd Frederic Myers (1811–1851) and his second wife Susan Harriet Myers nee Marshall (1811–1896). He was a brother of poet Ernest Myers (1844–1921) and of Dr. Arthur Thomas Myers (1851–1894). His maternal grandfather was the wealthy industrialist John Marshall (1765–1845).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 350491, 34968307, 18771187, 32963230, 5839366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 65 ], [ 95, 109 ], [ 213, 225 ], [ 249, 268 ], [ 337, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Myers was educated at Cheltenham College and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he received a B.A. in 1864, and university prizes, including the Bell, Craven, Camden and Chancellor's Medal, though he was forced to resign the Camden medal for 1863 after accusations of plagiarism. He was a Fellow of Trinity College from 1865 to 1874 and college lecturer in classics from 1865 to 1869. In 1872 he became an Inspector of schools.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 620670, 31803, 381889, 301482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 40 ], [ 48, 74 ], [ 291, 297 ], [ 409, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1867, Myers published a long poem, St Paul, which includes the words of the hymn Hark what a sound, and too divine for hearing. This was followed in 1882 by The Renewal of Youth and Other Poems. He also wrote books of literary criticism, in particular, Wordsworth (1881) and Essays, Classical and Modern (in two volumes, 1883), which included an essay on Virgil.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 32359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 358, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a young man, Myers was involved in homosexual relationships with Arthur Sidgwick, the poet John Addington Symonds, and possibly Lord Battersea. He later fell in love with Annie Eliza, the wife of his cousin Walter James Marshall. Myers' relationship with his cousin's wife has been questioned by different researchers to be sexual or Platonic. Annie committed suicide in September 1876 by drowning.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 69455060, 163658, 14142931, 286012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 83 ], [ 94, 116 ], [ 131, 145 ], [ 337, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The British writer on the occult Richard Cavendish commented: \"According to his own statement, he [Myers] had very strong sexual inclinations, which he indulged. These would seem to have been mainly homosexual in his youth, but in later life, he was said to be wholly heterosexual.\" In 1880, Myers married Eveleen Tennant (1856–1937), daughter of Charles Tennant and Gertrude Tennant. They had two sons, the elder the novelist Leopold Hamilton Myers (1881–1944), and a daughter. English author Ronald Pearsall suggested that Myers had sexual interests in young lady mediums, writing \"[I]t is certainly true that Myers's interest in young lady mediums was not solely due to their spiritualistic talents.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 4960553, 35397713, 35397200, 35408498, 1462041, 3055590, 211430, 2269697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 50 ], [ 306, 321 ], [ 347, 362 ], [ 367, 383 ], [ 428, 450 ], [ 495, 510 ], [ 536, 551 ], [ 567, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The researcher Trevor H. Hall argued that Myers had an affair with the medium Ada Goodrich Freer. However, Trevor Hamilton dismissed this and suggested that Freer was simply using her acquaintance with Myers to gain status in the psychical research movement. John Grant has suggested that Myers was a womaniser who was easily duped and \"probably seduced\" by Freer.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 38404162, 34025213, 12798965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 29 ], [ 78, 96 ], [ 259, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Biographer Bart Schultz wrote that \"Myers was suspected of all manner of sexual quirks and it was alleged that he looked upon psychical research as giving him opportunities for voyeurism.\" He also noted the odd behaviour of Myers, such as insisting to be with Edmund Gurney with his bride on their Honeymoon even against strong protest from the bride.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 55534784, 602598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 23 ], [ 260, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A relationship between eroticism and Myer's interest in psychical research was examined by Professor of Philosophy Jeffrey J. Kripal.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 52357, 3483915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 32 ], [ 115, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Biographer Trevor Hamilton has defended Myer's against the allegations of sexual misconduct.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Myers was interested in psychical research and was one of the founding members of the Society for Psychical Research (SPR) in 1883. He became the President in 1900. Myers psychical ideas and theory of a subliminal self did not impress contemporary psychologists. Psychologists who shared an interest in psychical research such as Théodore Flournoy and William James were influenced by Myers. However, according to historian Janet Oppenheim \"not even all Myer's colleagues at the SPR accepted his hypotheses.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [ 23754, 28122, 6047644, 90682, 49669667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 42 ], [ 86, 116 ], [ 330, 347 ], [ 352, 365 ], [ 424, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some historians have suggested that Myers was strongly biased to believe in the paranormal and held a secret religious agenda. After the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859), it was difficult for those with a scientific education to retain a belief in tenets of the Judeo-Christian religion. Early SPR members like Myers and Henry Sidgwick hoped to cling to something spiritual through psychical research. Psychical researcher Eric Dingwall wrote regarding the early formation of the Society for Psychical Research, \"Myers, among others... knew that the primary aim of the society was not objective experimentation but the establishment of telepathy.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [ 156861, 8145410, 16395, 206999, 39359167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 90 ], [ 152, 166 ], [ 293, 308 ], [ 352, 366 ], [ 454, 467 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "British historian G.R. Searle described Myers as \"having lost his Christian faith, sought a new kind of religion that could reassure him that death did not lead to extinction.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [ 28205448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In opposition to Richard Hodgson and Eleanor Mildred Sidgwick who held the view that many physical mediums were fraudulent, Myers believed that although many of these mediums cheated they could also produce genuine physical phenomena. According to Trevor Hamilton \"Myers had no direct involvement in the exposure of physical fraud.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [ 39243612, 7873449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 32 ], [ 37, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 19th century Douglas Blackburn and George Albert Smith were endorsed as genuine psychics by Myers and Edmund Gurney. Smith even became an SPR member himself and the private secretary to the Honorary Secretary Gurney from 1883 to 1888. However, Blackburn later confessed to fraud. Blackburn called Gurney and Myers a \"couple of credulous spiritualists\" and wrote \"we resolved that we should be doing the world a service by fooling them to the top of their bent, and then showing how easy a matter it was to 'take in' scientific observers.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [ 28800675, 1775697, 602598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 42 ], [ 47, 66 ], [ 114, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Myers' 1884 essay Visible Apparitions with Gurney claimed a \"personal experience\" by a retired Judge Edmund Hornby involving a visitation from a spirit was true, but Joseph McCabe wrote that the story was a \"jumble of inaccuracies\" and \"Sir E. Hornby was compelled to admit, that the story was entirely untrue.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [ 773566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1895, Eusapia Palladino was invited to England to Myers' house in Cambridge for a series of investigations into her mediumship. According to reports by the investigators such as Richard Hodgson and magician John Nevil Maskelyne, all the phenomena observed in the Cambridge sittings were the result of trickery. Her fraud was so clever, according to Myers, that it \"must have needed long practice to bring it to its present level of skill.\" However, despite the exposure of her fraud, Myers was convinced some of her phenomena was genuine.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [ 2653519, 36995, 2269697, 39243612, 5417699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 31 ], [ 74, 83 ], [ 124, 134 ], [ 186, 201 ], [ 215, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clinical neurologist Sebastian Dieguez has commented that Myers \"was seriously duped by many people\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Myers was the co-author of the two-volume Phantasms of the Living (1886) with Gurney and Frank Podmore which documented alleged sightings of apparitions. Myers wrote an introduction and concluding chapter. The two volumes consist of 701 cases of alleged spontaneous apparitional communications. It also explored a telepathic theory to explain such cases. Psychical researcher Thomas Walker Mitchell commented that \"the chief aim of [the] book was to produce a cumulative quasi-statistical proof of telepathy.\"<ref>Mitchell, Thomas Walker. (1923). Phantasms of the Living. Nature 111: 211–212.</ref> It was enthusiastically praised by psychologist William James as a \"most extraordinary work...exhibiting untiring zeal in collecting facts, and patience in seeking to make them accurate.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [ 1345338, 6525262, 29923, 49677916, 49677916, 43427, 90682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 102 ], [ 141, 152 ], [ 314, 324 ], [ 376, 398 ], [ 514, 537 ], [ 572, 578 ], [ 647, 660 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some scholars, however, criticised Phantasms of the Living for its lack of written testimony and the time elapsed between the occurrence and the report of it being made. Some of the reports were analysed by the German hallucination researcher Edmund Parish (1861–1916) who concluded they were evidence for a dream state of consciousness, not the paranormal. Charles Sanders Peirce wrote a long criticism of the book arguing that no scientific conclusion could be reached from anecdotes and stories of unanalyzed phenomena. Peirce argued that the stories were \"worthless, partly because of the uncertainty and error of the numerical data, and partly because the authors have been astonishingly careless in the admission of cases ruled out by the conditions of the argumentation.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [ 49159, 49672020, 6117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 231 ], [ 243, 256 ], [ 358, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A strong attack on the book was made by physiologist William Thierry Preyer. Mathematician Simon Newcomb noted that there were many possible natural explanations for the stories including \"unconscious exaggeration; the faculty of remembering what is striking and forgetting what is not; illusions of sense, mistakes of memory; the impressions left by dreams; and, finally, deceit and trickery, whether intentional or unconscious.\" Because of all these possible factors that were not ruled out, he concluded \"there is therefore no proof of telepathy in any of the wonders narrated in these volumes.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [ 15561472, 443879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 75 ], [ 91, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alexander Taylor Innes attacked the book due to the stories lacking evidential substantiation in nearly every case. According to Innes the alleged sightings of apparitions were unreliable as they rested upon the memory of the witnesses and no contemporary documents had been produced, even in cases where such documents were alleged to exist. Edmund Gurney replied to the criticism, but \"could only point to three cases that met Innes's requirements, one of which later turned out to be fraud\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [ 28004279, 602598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 343, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another major criticism of the book was that it endorsed the tests of the Creery Sisters as genuine evidence for telepathy. However, in 1887 two of the sisters had been detected in fraud, utilising a code of signals and the third sister confessed to using the signals in the experiments. The psychologist C. E. M. Hansel noted that the stories in Phantasms of the Living were not backed up by any corroborating evidence. Hansel concluded \"none of the stories investigated has withstood critical examination.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [ 29923, 39264850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 88 ], [ 305, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shane McCorristine in his book Spectres of the Self (2010), explores the criticisms of Phantasms of the Living in depth.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Myers wrote a small collection of essays, Science and a Future Life which was published in 1893. In 1903, after Myers's death, Human Personality and Its Survival of Bodily Death was compiled and published. This work comprises two large volumes at 1,360 pages in length and presents an overview of Myers's research into the unconscious mind. Myers believed that a theory of consciousness must be part of a unified model of mind which derives from the full range of human experience, including not only normal psychological phenomena but also a wide variety of abnormal and \"supernormal\" phenomena. In the book, Myers believed he had provided evidence for the existence of the soul and survival of personality after death. The book cites cases of automatic writing, hypnotism, mediumship, possession, psychokinesis, and telepathy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [ 42037, 156861, 28297, 252251, 14417, 2269697, 45936, 25688257, 29923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 323, 339 ], [ 573, 584 ], [ 675, 679 ], [ 745, 762 ], [ 764, 773 ], [ 775, 785 ], [ 787, 797 ], [ 799, 812 ], [ 818, 827 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Human Personality and Its Survival of Bodily Death, Myers speculated on the existence of a deep region of the subconscious mind, which he termed the \"subliminal self\", which he believed could account for paranormal events. He also proposed the existence of a \"metetherial world,\" a world of images lying beyond the physical world. He wrote that apparitions are not hallucinations but have a real existence in the metetherial world which he described as a dream-like world. Myers’ belief that apparitions occupied regions of physical space and had an objective existence was in opposition to the views of his co-authors Gurney and Podmore who wrote apparitions were telepathic hallucinations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [ 156861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was well received by parapsychologists and spiritualists, being described as \"the Bible of British psychical researchers\". Théodore Flournoy and William James both positively reviewed the book. It was negatively reviewed by psychologist George Stout who described the concept of the subliminal self as \"baseless, futile, and incoherent.\" Andrew Lang and Gerald Balfour were unconvinced about some of Myers ideas. William McDougall in a detailed review for Mind also criticised the book. French psychologist Henri Delacroix commented that Myers \"experimental metaphysics\" was a failure. Psychologist G. T. W. Patrick criticised Myers concepts as a \"metaphysical, not a psychological hypothesis.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [ 200732, 5034109, 142539, 3143526, 1209907, 3995598, 33443960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 58 ], [ 240, 252 ], [ 341, 352 ], [ 357, 371 ], [ 416, 433 ], [ 459, 463 ], [ 510, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Myers' book greatly impressed Aldous Huxley. In 1961, Human Personality was re-published as an abridged version with Huxley's foreword, in which he remarked \"an amazingly rich, profound and stimulating book.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [ 628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Strong praise for the book and a revival of interest in Myers' ideas appeared in the 2007 Irreducible Mind by Emily Williams Kelly, Alan Gauld and Bruce Greyson.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Psychical research", "target_page_ids": [ 28650767, 47739855, 7624849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 106 ], [ 132, 142 ], [ 147, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In each of 1898, 1899, and 1900 Myers had severe attacks of influenza and also developed Bright's disease. At the end of 1900 he travelled abroad to try to restore his health. He died of pneumonia in Rome on 17 January 1901. Myers was buried in the graveyard of St John's Church, Keswick, between his father's grave and a gateway into the garden of the house where he was born. He was survived by his wife. A memorial tablet to Myers was erected in Rome's Protestant cemetery.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Renewal of Youth, and Other Poems (1882)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Phantasms of the Living: Volume 1 (1886)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Phantasms of the Living: Volume 2 (1886)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Science and a Future Life: With Other Essays (1893)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Human Personality and Its Survival of Bodily Death: Volume 1 (1903)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Human Personality and Its Survival of Bodily Death: Volume 2 (1903)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cross-Correspondences", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26657965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peirce, Charles S. (1887). Criticism on Phantasms of the Living: An Examination of an Argument of Messrs. Gurney, Myers, and Podmore''. Proceedings of the American Society for Psychical Research 1: 150-57.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 6117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] } ]

[ "1843_births", "1901_deaths", "19th-century_English_poets", "19th-century_male_writers", "19th-century_essayists", "Alumni_of_Trinity_College,_Cambridge", "Bisexual_writers", "English_essayists", "English_male_poets", "English_spiritualists", "English_writers_on_paranormal_topics", "Male_essayists", "Parapsychologists", "People_educated_at_Cheltenham_College", "Bisexual_academics", "LGBT_writers_from_England" ]

[ "F. W. H. Myers", "Frederick W. H. Myers", "Frederic W. H. Myers" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In computing, Microsoft's ActiveX Data Objects (ADO) comprises a set of Component Object Model (COM) objects for accessing data sources. A part of MDAC (Microsoft Data Access Components), it provides a middleware layer between programming languages and OLE DB (a means of accessing data stores, whether databases or not, in a uniform manner). ADO allows a developer to write programs that access data without knowing how the database is implemented; developers must be aware of the database for connection only. No knowledge of SQL is required to access a database when using ADO, although one can use ADO to execute SQL commands directly (with the disadvantage of introducing a dependency upon the type of database used).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5213, 19001, 17058007, 169665, 2263152, 34658368, 23015, 1435966, 8377, 23716, 29004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 14, 23 ], [ 72, 94 ], [ 101, 107 ], [ 147, 151 ], [ 202, 212 ], [ 227, 247 ], [ 253, 259 ], [ 303, 311 ], [ 356, 365 ], [ 528, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Microsoft introduced ADO in October 1996, positioning the software as a successor to Microsoft's earlier object layers for accessing data sources, including RDO (Remote Data Objects) and DAO (Data Access Objects).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2711835, 1913568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 160 ], [ 187, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ADO is made up of four collections and twelve objects.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fields", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "ADO collections", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " This collection contains a set of Field objects. The Collection can be used in either a Recordset object or in a Record object. In a Recordset object, each of the Field objects that make up the Fields collection corresponds to a column in that Record set object. In a Record object, a Field can be an absolute or relative URL that points into a tree-structured namespace (used for semi-structured data providers like the Microsoft OLE DB Provider for Internet Publishing) or as a reference to the default Stream object associated with that Record object.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "ADO collections", "target_page_ids": [ 21796, 22135297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 362, 371 ], [ 382, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Properties", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "ADO collections", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An object can have more than one Property object, which are contained in the object's Properties collection.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "ADO collections", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Parameters", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "ADO collections", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Command object can have several Parameter commands to change its predefined behaviour, and each of the Parameter objects are contained in the Command object's Parameters collection", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "ADO collections", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Errors", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "ADO collections", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " All provider-created errors are passed to a collection of Error objects, while the Errors collection itself is contained in a Connection object. When an ADO operation creates an error, the collection is cleared and a new group of Error objects is created in the collection.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "ADO collections", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Connection", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The connection object is ADO's connection to a data store via OLE DB. The connection object stores information about the session and provides methods of connecting to the data store. As some data stores have different methods of establishing a connection, some methods may not be supported in the connection object for particular OLE DB provider. A connection object connects to the data store using its 'Open' method with a connection string which specifies the connection as a list of key value pairs (for example: \"Provider='SQLOLEDB';Data Source='TheSqlServer'; Initial Catalog='Northwind';Integrated Security='SSPI';\"). 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The command object can send SQL queries directly to the provider through the use of the CommandText property, send a parameterised query or stored procedure through the use of a Parameter object or Parameters collection or run a query and return the results to a dataset object via the Execute method. There are several other methods that can be used in the Command object relating to other objects, such as the Stream, RecordSet or Connection objects.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Recordset", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A recordset is a group of records, and can either come from a base table or as the result of a query to the table. The RecordSet object contains a Fields collection and a Properties collection. The Fields collection is a set of Field objects, which are the corresponding columns in the table. The Properties collection is a set of Property objects, which defines a particular functionality of an OLE DB provider. The RecordSet has numerous methods and properties for examining the data that exists within it. Records can be updated in the recordset by changing the values in the record and then calling on the Update or UpdateBatch method. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Immediate", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The recordset is locked using the adLockOptimistic or adLockPessimistic lock. The data are updated at the data source after the record is changed and the Update method is called.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Batch", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The recordset is locked using adLockBatchOptimistic and each time Update is called the data are updated in a temporary buffer. Finally, when UpdateBatch is called the data are completely updated back at the data source. This has the advantage of it all being done in memory, and if a problem occurs then UpdateCancel is called and the updates are not sent to the data source.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Transaction", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If the OLE DB provider allows it, transactions can be used. To start the transaction, the programmer invokes the BeginTrans method and does the required updates. When they are all done, the programmer invokes the CommitTrans method. RollbackTrans can be invoked to cancel any changes made inside the transaction and roll back the database to the state before the transaction began.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Record", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " This object represents one record in the database and contains a fields collection. A RecordSet consists of a collection of Record objects.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stream", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A stream, mainly used in a RecordSet object, is a means of reading and writing a stream of bytes. It is mostly used to save a recordset in an XML format, to send commands to an OLE DB provider as an alternative to the CommandText object and to contain the contents of a binary or text file.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Parameter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A parameter is a means of altering the behaviour of a common piece of functionality, for instance a stored procedure might have different parameters passed to it depending on what needs to be done; these are called parameterised commands.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [ 277251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Field", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Each Record object contains many fields, and a RecordSet object has a corresponding Field object also. The RecordSet object's Field object corresponds to a column in the database table that it references.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Property", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " This object is specific to the OLE DB provider and defines an ability that the provider has implemented. A property object can be either a built-in property — it is a well-defined property implemented by ADO already and thus cannot be altered — or can be a dynamic property — defined by the underlying data provider and can be changed", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Error", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " When an OLE DB provider error occurs during the use of ADO, an Error object will be created in the Errors collection. Other errors do not go into an Error object, however. For instance, any errors that occur when manipulating data in a RecordSet or Field object are stored in a Status property.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ADO objects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some basic steps are required in order to be able to access and manipulate data using ADO :", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Basic usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Create a connection object to connect to the database.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Basic usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Create a recordset object in order to receive data in.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Basic usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Open the connection", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Basic usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Populate the recordset by opening it and passing the desired table name or SQL statement as a parameter to open function.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Basic usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Do all the desired searching/processing on the fetched data.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Basic usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Commit the changes you made to the data (if any) by using Update or UpdateBatch methods.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Basic usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Close the recordset", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Basic usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Close the connection", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Basic usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Here is an ASP example using ADO to select the \"Name\" field, from a table called \"Phonebook\", where a \"PhoneNumber\" was equal to \"555-5555\". ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Basic usage", "target_page_ids": [ 2883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This is equivalent to the following ASP code, which uses plain SQL instead of the functionality of the Recordset object:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Basic usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "ADO is supported in any development language that supports binding to binary COM interfaces. These languages include ASP, Delphi, PowerBuilder, and Visual Basic for Applications (VBA). ADO support has now been added to dBase Plus 8 (With ADO)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Software support", "target_page_ids": [ 349208, 1611118, 32778, 209537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 129 ], [ 131, 143 ], [ 149, 178 ], [ 221, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ADO.NET has replaced ADO in the same way that C#/.NET replaced C/Win32 as the primary mode for targeting Windows application development. ADO.NET follows the same design pattern as ADO, enabling an ADO developer an easy path forward when moving to the .NET framework.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ADO.NET", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1434840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Comparison of ADO and ADO.NET", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Microsoft ADO page", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Database connection strings ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " DevGuru ADO Quick Reference", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Microsoft_application_programming_interfaces", "Data_access_technologies" ]

[ "ADO" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Superior may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Superior (hierarchy), something which is higher in a hierarchical structure of any kind", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 307680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior (proposed U.S. state), an unsuccessful proposal for the upper peninsula of Michigan to form a separate state", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 5634053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lake Superior, the largest of the North American Great Lakes, Canada, United States", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 17951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rickinghall Superior, England", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 3026604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior, Arizona", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 106764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior, Colorado", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 108410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior, Indiana", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 53921621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior, Iowa", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 113000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior Township, Chippewa County, Michigan", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 117314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior Township, Washtenaw County, Michigan", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 119237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior, Montana", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 123541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior, Nebraska", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 124093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior, West Virginia", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 27890274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior, Wisconsin, a city", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 288141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior (town), Wisconsin, a town adjacent to the city", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 260408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior (village), Wisconsin, a village adjacent to the city", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 260407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior, Wyoming", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 140218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior (RTA Rapid Transit station), a station on the RTA Red Line in Cleveland, Ohio", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 11658571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior Bay, a bay between Minnesota and Wisconsin", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 11754164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior Falls, a waterfall between Michigan and Wisconsin", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 6657425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An abbot or prior", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Religious titles", "target_page_ids": [ 1143, 5114012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 8 ], [ 12, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior general, a supervisory role in a religious order or congregation", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Religious titles", "target_page_ids": [ 4594011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Provincial superior, a supervisory role in a religious order or congregations", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Religious titles", "target_page_ids": [ 1263450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior (band), a progressive metal band from Germany", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 6168006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Superior\", a song by SpongeBob & The Hi-Seas from The Best Day Ever", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 7972135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior (album), a 2008 album by Tim Christensen", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 20391924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior (manga), a 2009 Manga created by Ichtys", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 12523450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior (comics), a creator-owned comic book series written by Mark Millar and illustrated by Leinil Francis Yu", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 29188606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Standard Superior, a German automobile brand built in the 1920s", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business", "target_page_ids": [ 834358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior (bus manufacturer), an Australian manufacturer of buses", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business", "target_page_ids": [ 39163917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior Coach Company, a former manufacturer of school buses and that currently builds hearses", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business", "target_page_ids": [ 1903926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior Helicopter, a heavy lift helicopter operator of Glendale, Oregon", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business", "target_page_ids": [ 15181678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior Industries, a conveyor manufacturer based in Morris, Minnesota", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business", "target_page_ids": [ 17696036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior Oil Company, defunct American oil company, now part of ExxonMobil", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business", "target_page_ids": [ 2711343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior Software, a video game publisher", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business", "target_page_ids": [ 1481924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior Airways, a chartered air service based in Red Lake, Ontario, Canada", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business", "target_page_ids": [ 11178291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Return of Race Science, a book (2019) by Angela Saini", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 15177404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roman Catholic Diocese of Superior, Wisconsin", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3590324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior multimineral process, a shale oil extraction technology developed by Superior Oil Company", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 23642093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior as an anatomical term of location", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 168041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior as a description of the relative position of a flower's ovary", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3449340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior (schooner), an 1816 schooner that operated on the Great Lakes", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 37659593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior (potato), a mid-season potato variety", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 34847608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Neil Superior (born 1963), American professional wrestler", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 54332416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superiority may refer to:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Superiority", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Air superiority, the dominance of one military's airborne forces over another in any given conflict", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Superiority", "target_page_ids": [ 537478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superiority complex, psychological condition", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Superiority", "target_page_ids": [ 1349524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Superiority\" (short story), a 1951 book by Arthur C. Clarke", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Superiority", "target_page_ids": [ 10676912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mother Superior (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Superior Aviation (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 51451018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior Bank (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18527575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior High School (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30835785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Superior Lake (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11305742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior Township (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18965401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Superia (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8481058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superior Township (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18965401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] } ]

[ "Stereotypes" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A mace is a blunt weapon, a type of club or virge that uses a heavy head on the end of a handle to deliver powerful strikes. A mace typically consists of a strong, heavy, wooden or metal shaft, often reinforced with metal, featuring a head made of stone, bone, copper, bronze, iron, or steel.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33496, 619798, 2272112, 574095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 36, 40 ], [ 44, 49 ], [ 116, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The head of a military mace can be shaped with flanges or knobs to allow greater penetration of plate armour. The length of maces can vary considerably. The maces of foot soldiers were usually quite short (two or three feet, or sixty to ninety centimetres). The maces of cavalrymen were longer and thus better suited for blows delivered from horseback. Two-handed maces could be even larger.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 271, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maces are rarely used today for actual combat, but many government bodies (for instance, the British House of Commons and the U.S. Congress), universities and other institutions have ceremonial maces and continue to display them as symbols of authority. They are often paraded in academic, parliamentary or civic rituals and processions.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13828, 31756, 19725260, 187092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 117 ], [ 126, 139 ], [ 142, 154 ], [ 183, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Middle English word \"mace\" comes from the French \"masse\" (short for \"Masse d'armes\") meaning ‘large hammer’, a hammer with a heavy mass at the end.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The mace was developed during the Upper Paleolithic from the simple club, by adding sharp spikes of flint or obsidian.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 1158651, 619798, 43701, 22721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 51 ], [ 68, 72 ], [ 100, 105 ], [ 109, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Europe, an elaborately carved ceremonial flint mace head was one of the artifacts discovered in excavations of the Neolithic mound of Knowth in Ireland, and Bronze Age archaeology cites numerous finds of perforated mace heads.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 21189, 1630612, 4620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 127 ], [ 137, 143 ], [ 160, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In ancient Ukraine, stone mace heads were first used nearly eight millennia ago. The others known were disc maces with oddly formed stones mounted perpendicularly to their handle. The Narmer Palette shows a king swinging a mace. See the articles on the Narmer Macehead and the Scorpion Macehead for examples of decorated maces inscribed with the names of kings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 31750, 440851, 13368694, 13377423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 184, 198 ], [ 253, 268 ], [ 277, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The problem with early maces was that their stone heads shattered easily and it was difficult to fix the head to the wooden handle reliably. The Egyptians attempted to give them a disk shape in the predynastic period (about 3850–3650BC) in order to increase their impact and even provide some cutting capabilities, but this seems to have been a short-lived improvement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A rounded pear form of mace head known as a \"piriform\" replaced the disc mace in the Naqada II period of pre-dynastic Upper Egypt (3600–3250BC) and was used throughout the Naqada III period (3250–3100BC). Similar mace heads were also used in Mesopotamia around 2450–1900BC. On a Sumerian Clay tablet written by the scribe Gar.Ama, the title Lord of the Mace is listed in the year 3100BC. The Assyrians used maces probably about nineteenth century BC and in their campaigns; the maces were usually made of stone or marble and furnished with gold or other metals, but were rarely used in battle unless fighting heavily armoured infantry.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An important, later development in mace heads was the use of metal for their composition. With the advent of copper mace heads, they no longer shattered and a better fit could be made to the wooden club by giving the eye of the mace head the shape of a cone and using a tapered handle.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Shardanas or warriors from Sardinia who fought for Ramses II against the Hittites were armed with maces consisting of wooden sticks with bronze heads. Many bronze statuettes of the times show Sardinian warriors carrying swords, bows and original maces.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 29376, 21476519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 39 ], [ 55, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Persians used a variety of maces and fielded large numbers of heavily armoured and armed cavalry (see Cataphract). For a heavily armed Persian knight, a mace was as effective as a sword or battle axe. In fact, Shahnameh has many references to heavily armoured knights facing each other using maces, axes, and swords. The enchanted talking mace Sharur made its first appearance in Sumerian/Akkadian mythology during the epic of Ninurta.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 24607, 231125, 16897, 1110369, 193608, 35784400, 249345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 102, 112 ], [ 143, 149 ], [ 189, 199 ], [ 210, 219 ], [ 344, 350 ], [ 427, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata describe the extensive use of the gada in ancient Indian warfare as gada-yuddha or 'mace combat'.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 543454, 44245, 19643, 37738415, 1876147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 17, 25 ], [ 30, 41 ], [ 76, 80 ], [ 92, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ancient Romans did not make wide use of maces, probably because of the influence of armour, and due to the nature of the Roman infantry's fighting style which involved the Pilum (spear) and the Gladius (short sword used in a stabbing fashion), though auxiliaries from Syria Palestina were armed with clubs and maces at the battles of Immae and Emesa in 272 AD. They proved highly effective against the heavily armoured horsemen of Palmyra.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 25507, 147287, 57986, 433323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 18 ], [ 176, 181 ], [ 198, 205 ], [ 272, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Middle Ages metal armour such as mail protected against the blows of edged weapons. Solid metal maces and war hammers proved able to inflict damage on well armoured knights, as the force of a blow from a mace is great enough to cause damage without penetrating the armour. Though iron became increasingly common, copper and bronze were also used, especially in iron-deficient areas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 18836, 6696, 33986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 44, 48 ], [ 117, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One example of a mace capable of penetrating armour is the flanged mace. The flanges allow it to dent or penetrate thick armour. Flange maces did not become popular until after knobbed maces. Although there are some references to flanged maces (bardoukion) as early as the Byzantine Empire c. 900 it is commonly accepted that the flanged mace did not become popular in Europe until the 12th century, when it was concurrently developed in Russia and Mid-west Asia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 45317, 2147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 83 ], [ 121, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maces, being simple to make, cheap, and straightforward in application, were quite common weapons.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is popularly believed that maces were employed by the clergy in warfare to avoid shedding blood (sine effusione sanguinis). The evidence for this is sparse and appears to derive almost entirely from the depiction of Bishop Odo of Bayeux wielding a club-like mace at the Battle of Hastings in the Bayeux Tapestry, the idea being that he did so to avoid either shedding blood or bearing the arms of war.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 113300, 44667, 49451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 239 ], [ 273, 291 ], [ 299, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1893 work Arms and Armour in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Paul Lacombe and Charles Boutell state that the mace was chiefly used for blows struck upon the head of an enemy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Maces were very common in eastern Europe, especially medieval Poland, Ukraine, and Russia. Eastern European maces often had pear shaped heads. These maces were also used by the Moldavian ruler Stephen the Great in some of his wars (see Bulawa).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 22936, 31750, 25391, 264208, 1269277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 68 ], [ 70, 77 ], [ 83, 89 ], [ 193, 210 ], [ 236, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mace is also the favourite weapon of Prince Marko, a hero in South Slavic epic poetry.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 231555, 812724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 53 ], [ 65, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The pernach was a type of flanged mace developed since the 12th century in the region of Kievan Rus', and later widely used throughout the whole of Europe. The name comes from the Slavic word pero (перо) meaning feather, reflecting the form of pernach that resembled a fletched arrow. Pernachs were the first form of the flanged mace to enjoy a wide usage. It was well suited to penetrate plate armour and chain mail. In the later times it was often used as a symbol of power by the military leaders in Eastern Europe.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 15767477, 21486360, 9239, 50873, 51513, 6696, 37403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ], [ 89, 100 ], [ 148, 154 ], [ 212, 219 ], [ 278, 283 ], [ 406, 416 ], [ 503, 517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The cultures of pre-Columbian America used clubs and maces extensively. The warriors of the Moche state and the Inca Empire used maces with bone, stone or copper heads and wooden shafts.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 423621, 15319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 97 ], [ 112, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maces in Asia were most often steel clubs with a spherical head. In Persia, the \"Gorz\"(spherical-head mace) served as a primary combat arm across many eras, most often being used by heavy infantry or Cataphracts. In India a form of these clubs was used by wrestlers to exercise the arms and shoulders. They have been known as gada since ancient times.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 37738415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 326, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Mughal era, the flanged mace of Persia was introduced to South Asia. The term shishpar is a Persian phrase which literally translates to \"six-wings\", to refer to the (often) six flanges on the mace. The shishpar mace was introduced by the Delhi Sultanate and continued to be utilized until the 18th century.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 295402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 250, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trench raiding clubs used during World War I were modern variations on the medieval mace. They were homemade mêlée weapons used by both the Allies and the Central Powers. Clubs were used during night time trench raiding expeditions as a quiet and effective way of killing or wounding enemy soldiers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 8450801, 4764461, 1370440, 2198871, 6673, 619798, 2820611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 33, 44 ], [ 109, 122 ], [ 140, 146 ], [ 155, 169 ], [ 171, 176 ], [ 205, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Makeshift maces were also found in the possession of some football hooligans in the 1980s.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 1138884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2020 China–India skirmishes personnel of People's Liberation Army Ground Force were seen using makeshift maces (batons wrapped in barbed wire and clubs embedded with nails).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development history", "target_page_ids": [ 63914196, 1289647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 30 ], [ 44, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maces have had a role in ceremonial practices over time, including some still in use today.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ceremonial use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ceremonial maces are important in many parliaments following the Westminster system. They are carried in by the sergeant-at-arms or some other mace-bearers and displayed on the clerks' table while parliament is in session to show that a parliament is fully constituted. They are removed when the session ends. The mace is also removed from the table when a new speaker is being elected to show that parliament is not ready to conduct business.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ceremonial use", "target_page_ids": [ 187092, 24406, 33782, 359220, 368586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 39, 49 ], [ 65, 83 ], [ 112, 128 ], [ 361, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ceremonial mace is a short, richly ornamented staff often made of silver, the upper part of which is furnished with a knob or other head-piece and decorated with a coat of arms. The ceremonial mace was commonly borne before eminent ecclesiastical corporations, magistrates, and academic bodies as a mark and symbol of jurisdiction.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ceremonial use", "target_page_ids": [ 187092, 651997, 306902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 236, 263 ], [ 265, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maces are also used as a parade item, rather than a tool of war, notably in military bands. Specific movements of the mace from the drum major will signal specific orders to the band they lead. The mace can signal anything from a step-off to a halt, from the commencement of playing to the cut off.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ceremonial use", "target_page_ids": [ 30065590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "University maces are employed in a manner similar to Parliamentary maces. They symbolize the authority and independence of a chartered university and the authority vested in the provost. They are typically carried in at the beginning of a convocation ceremony and are often less than half a meter high.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ceremonial use", "target_page_ids": [ 1261060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like many weapons from feudal times, maces have been used in heraldic blazons as either a charge on a shield or other item, or as external ornamentation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Heraldic use", "target_page_ids": [ 921126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus, in France:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Heraldic use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the city of Cognac (in the Charente département): Argent on a horse sable harnessed or a man proper vested azure with a cloak gules holding a mace, on a chief France modern", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Heraldic use", "target_page_ids": [ 1113125, 84322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 19 ], [ 28, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the city of Colmar (in Haut-Rhin): per pale gules and vert a mace per bend sinister or. Three maces, probably a canting device (Kolben means mace in German, cfr. Columbaria the Latin name of the city) appear on a 1214 seal. The arms in a 15th-century stained-glass window show the mace per bend on argent.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Heraldic use", "target_page_ids": [ 221013, 90600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 19 ], [ 24, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the duke of Retz (a pairie created in 1581 for Albert de Gondy) had Or two maces or clubs per saltire sable, bound gules", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Heraldic use", "target_page_ids": [ 4216040, 317217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 17 ], [ 21, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the Garde des sceaux ('keeper of the seals', still the formal title of the French Republic's Minister of Justice) places behind the shield, two silver and gilded maces in saltire, and the achievement is surmounted by a mortier (magistrate's hat)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Heraldic use", "target_page_ids": [ 623773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bulawa", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1269277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ceremonial maces in the British Isles", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 59348696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gada (weapon)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37738415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flail (weapon)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 362771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kanabō", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1145771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Horseman's pick", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1065179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mace of the United States House of Representatives", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8405782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Morning star (weapon)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 261757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shillelagh (club)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6082750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " War hammer", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dictionary of Medieval Knighthood and Chivalry by Bradford Broughton (NY, Greenwood Press, 1986, )", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 15687863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hafted Weapons in Medieval and Renaissance Europe: The Evolution of European Staff Weapons Between 1200 and 1650 by John Waldman (Brill, 2005, )", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 30874803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medieval Military Technology by Kelly DeVries (Broadview Press, 1998, 0-921149-74-3)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 11375871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 46 ] ] } ]

[ "Clubs_(weapon)" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Toktar Ongarbayuly Aubakirov ( (Toqtar Oñğarbaiūly Äubäkırov), , born on 27 July 1946) is a retired Kazakh Air Force officer and a former cosmonaut. He is the first person from Kazakhstan to go to space.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 211628, 664, 16642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 106 ], [ 138, 147 ], [ 177, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Toktar Aubakirov was born in Karkaraly district, Karaganda region, Kazakh SSR, which is now Kazakhstan. After graduating from the 8th grade of a secondary school he started working as a metal turner at the Temirtau foundry, whilst attending an evening school. In 1965 he joined the Armavir Military Aviation Institute of the Anti-Air Defence Pilots. He served as a fighter pilot in the Soviet Air Force on the Far East borders of the USSR until his acceptance into the Fedotov Test Pilot School in 1975.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 199446, 4030017, 229933, 57741714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 77 ], [ 365, 378 ], [ 386, 402 ], [ 469, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1976 and 1991 he served as a test pilot at the Mikoyan Experimental Design Bureau (MiG aircraft). During this time he tested over 50 types of aircraft. The first in the Soviet Union to make a nonstop flight crossing the North Pole and with two in-flight refueling, the first in the Soviet Union who took off from the aircraft-carrier Tbilisi (later named Kuznetsov) on a MiG 29K.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Test pilot career", "target_page_ids": [ 29307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 363, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1991, in accordance with an agreement between the governments of the USSR and the Kazakh SSR, started training at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center. On 2 October 1991 he launched with Russian cosmonaut Alexander Volkov as flight commander, and the Austrian research cosmonaut Franz Viehböck in Soyuz TM-13 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome spaceport, and spent over eight days in space. Their mission was the last launched by the Soviet Union, which dissolved shortly thereafter, with Aubakirov becoming a citizen of the independent Republic of Kazakhstan.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spaceflight experience", "target_page_ids": [ 745086, 606156, 850980, 180638, 179174, 16642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 225 ], [ 283, 297 ], [ 301, 312 ], [ 322, 341 ], [ 342, 351 ], [ 535, 557 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1993, he has been the general director of the National Aerospace Agency of Republic of Kazakhstan. He was a member of the Kazakhstan parliament. Now he is a pensioner and consultant.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2142843, 542306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 172 ], [ 177, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Toktar Aubakirov is married to Tatyana Aubakirova. They have two children: Timur (born in 1977) and Mikhail (born in 1982).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hero of Soviet Union (1988) – Test flights of MiG aircraft", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 400853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " People's Hero of Kazakhstan (Halyk Kaharmany) (1995)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 33331989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of Otan (Kazakhstan) (1995)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 56374809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of Lenin (1988)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 45137565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Honoured Test Pilot of the USSR (1990)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 34890058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR (1991)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 34837809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pilot-Cosmonaut of Kazakhstan #1", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Order of the Badge of Honour (1987)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 3371043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Decoration of Honour in Gold for Services to the Republic of Austria(Goldenes Ehrenzeichen), twice (1988 and 1993)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 26206547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of the October Revolution (1991)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 1036285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medal \"For Merit in Space Exploration\" (12 April 2011) – for outstanding contribution to the development of international cooperation in manned space flight", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 34715801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of astronauts by name", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 199464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aubakirov at Spacefacts", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Flying-Research Institute", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1946_births", "Living_people", "People_from_Karaganda", "Soviet_cosmonauts", "Soviet_Air_Force_officers", "Heroes_of_the_Soviet_Union", "Recipients_of_the_Order_of_Lenin", "Heroes_of_Kazakhstan", "Recipients_of_the_Decoration_of_Honour_for_Services_to_the_Republic_of_Austria", "Recipients_of_the_Medal_\"For_Merit_in_Space_Exploration\"", "Soviet_test_pilots", "Fedotov_TPS_alumni", "Kazakhstani_cosmonauts", "Mir_crew_members" ]

[ "Toktar Ongarbayuly Aubakirov" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Flash, flashes, or FLASH may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (DC Comics character), several DC Comics superheroes with super speed:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 31519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (Barry Allen)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 1257797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (Jay Garrick)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 1257798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wally West, the first Kid Flash and third adult Flash", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 1257796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bart Allen, the second Kid Flash who also became the adult hero for a time", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 1283897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (G.I. Joe), a character in the G.I. Joe universe", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 8981720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash, a robot in the video game Brave Saga 2", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 2923681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash, a character in the comedy film Daddy Day Care (2003)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 240907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash, a character in the TV science fiction drama Real Humans", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 34474802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash, a character in the 1989 American action comedy movie Speed Zone", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 3357475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash, a character in the TV sitcom Step by Step", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 2468961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash, a character in the film Zootopia (2016)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 42089078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash Gordon, the titular hero of science fiction comic strip", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 42085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash Sentry, in My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Flash Thompson, a Marvel comic book character", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 663186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (1997 film), Disney Channel", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 6528026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (2007 film), Malayalam", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 14289904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Flash (film), a US planned release", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 43563602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (pinball), a 1979 Williams pinball game designed by Steve Ritchie", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 20573777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Teen patti or Flash, a three-card poker-style game, popular in South Asia", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 6344477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Flash (video game), a 1991 action video game", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 6007454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash Comics, a 1940s anthology comic book", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 699837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Flash (DC Rebirth), a comic book in the DC Rebirth relaunch", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 57370901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Flash (comic book), an ongoing comic book featuring the titular DC Comics hero", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 24295276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (Krentz novel), a 1998 romance novel by Jayne Ann Krentz", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 46436742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (Modesitt novel), a 2004 science fiction novel by L. E. Modesitt", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 6436999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (newspaper), a community newspaper of Auckland City, New Zealand", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 36942103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (band), a 1970s progressive rock group", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 7964281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (Amoyamo album) (2013)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 40990974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (EP), a 2010 extended play album by Crystal Kay", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 27368019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (Jeff Beck album) (1985)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 12833080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (Electric Food album) (1970)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 21156574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (Flash album) (1972)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 54464633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (Moving Sidewalks album) (1968)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 5214021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (Towa Tei album) (2005)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 6782994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash, a 1996 album by Red Five", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 62803876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Flash\" (Iggy Azalea song), 2012", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 36282955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Flash\" (B.B.E. song), 1997", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 34516520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Flash\" (Perfume song), 2016", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 67006093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Flash\" (Queen song), 1980", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 2902919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Flash\" (Stéphanie song), 1986", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 17085454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Flash\" (X1 song), 2019", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 61552502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Flashes\" (song), a 1931 composition by Bix Beiderbecke", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 37792810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Flash (1990 TV series), a 1990 American superhero series", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 47488636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Flash (2014 TV series), a 2014 American superhero series", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 41844524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " FLASH (Z), a military message precedence designation", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Military", "target_page_ids": [ 1172827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " M202 FLASH, a rocket launcher", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Military", "target_page_ids": [ 11194827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Operation Flash, a May 1995 Croatian Army offensive in Western Slavonia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Military", "target_page_ids": [ 2398932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tactical recognition flash, a coloured patch worn on the arm of combat clothing to distinguish their regiment or corps", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Military", "target_page_ids": [ 18193079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (wrestler) (born 1957), masked professional wrestler", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 24789016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash Brown (born 1981), pornographic actor and basketball player", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 45331688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adam Flash (born 1971), American professional wrestler", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 21751995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash Flanagan (born 1974), American professional wrestler", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 21911551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Grandmaster Flash (born 1958), American hip hop musician and DJ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 23921203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Larry \"Flash\" Jenkins (born 1955), American actor, film director, producer, and screenwriter", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 14566251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Scott Norton (born 1961), American professional wrestler", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 1925353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash Terry (1934–2004), American guitarist and singer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 31784570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash, on the TV show American Gladiators", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 574951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gabriel Elorde (1935–1985), Filipino professional boxer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 3093236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Richard Flash (born 1976), English footballer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 17382723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash Hollett (1911–1999), Canadian ice hockey defenceman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 11088445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cordarrelle Patterson (born 1991), American football player", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 37484443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gordon Shedden (born 1979), British racing driver", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 5142063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dwyane Wade (born 1982), American basketball player", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 878666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lee Young-ho (born 1992), South Korean professional Starcraft player also known as \"Flash\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 24227352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George Flash (1909–1990), Israeli politician", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 23919174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sandy Flash (died 1778), American highwayman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 4933940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mark Kennedy (policeman), known undercover as Flash or Mark Stone", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 30403281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash, Staffordshire, England, a village", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 1382314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Flash (lake), a lake near Borras, Wales", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 31706837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adobe Flash (formerly Shockwave Flash and Macromedia Flash), multimedia platform software", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 20947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash memory, a kind of non-volatile computer memory", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 50595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash!, the bundled graphics package for the SAM Coupé", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 252218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (manufacturing), an excess material attached to a moulded product along a parting line", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 6554792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (photography), instantaneous illumination for picture taking", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 195752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " FLASH, a particle physics facility in Germany", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 15727524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash lightning, a lightning burst within a cloud (Intracloud)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 61344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " FlAsH-EDT2 or FlAsH tag, a fluorescent label for proteins", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 41280550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fly Castelluccio Flash, an Italian paramotor design", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 48350408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hook flash in telephony, often labelled on buttons as simply 'flash'", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 2086019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " M202 FLASH, a rocket launcher", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 11194827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tilbury Flash, an American racing monoplane built in the 1930s", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 39962530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fast low angle shot magnetic resonance imaging (FLASH), an MRI pulse-sequence", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 8769719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (juggling), a type of throwing and catching", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 956344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Delaware Blue Coats, originally the Utah Flash, an NBA Development League team", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 8237678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash Engineering, a Swedish motorsports team", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 23236664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash Stakes, a former Thoroughbred horse race", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 14313201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kent State Golden Flashes or just the Flashes, the athletics teams of Kent State University", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 8210771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Las Vegas Flash, an inline hockey team in 1994", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 10645861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Monterrey Flash, a Mexican indoor soccer team formed in 2011", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 40494870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rochester Flash, a former American Soccer League team", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 5449902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " San Diego Flash, a soccer team based in San Diego, California", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 1463479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Western New York Flash, an American women's soccer franchise", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 20699244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (cleaning product), the trading name of Mr. Clean in the UK and Ireland", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 736403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (lake), a body of water that forms where the land below it has subsided", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 60485952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (tattoo), a source pattern for body art", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3158570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash, to expose a person's private parts to another person in exhibitionism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 253192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash, a lightning bolt symbol, for example in Flash and Circle", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1097149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash Airlines, a private charter airline operating out of Cairo, Egypt", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 419230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash BRT, a bus rapid transit network in Montgomery County, Maryland", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 56272879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flash (magazine), a quarterly Australian photography magazine", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 4744731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flashing (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 218455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "Clustering can refer to the following:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In computing:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Computer cluster, the technique of linking many computers together to act like a single computer", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18949896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Data cluster, an allocation of contiguous storage in databases and file systems", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2906189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cluster analysis, the statistical task of grouping a set of objects in such a way that objects in the same group are placed closer together (such as the k-means clustering)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 669675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In hash tables, the mapping of keys to nearby slots", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In economics:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Business cluster, a geographic concentration of interconnected businesses, suppliers, and associated institutions in a particular field", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6330236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In graph theory:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The formation of clusters of linked nodes in a network, measured by the clustering coefficient", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1457636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cluster (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 55431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clustering", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "The Commonwealth Games, often referred to as the Friendly Games, are a quadrennial international multi-sport event among athletes from the Commonwealth of Nations. The event was first held in 1930, and, with the exception of 1942 and 1946 (cancelled due to World War II), have successively run every four years since. The Games were called the British Empire Games from 1930 to 1950, the British Empire and Commonwealth Games from 1954 to 1966, and British Commonwealth Games from 1970 to 1974. Athletes with a disability are included as full members of their national teams since 2002, making the Commonwealth Games the first fully inclusive international multi-sport event. In 2018, the Games became the first global multi-sport event to feature an equal number of men's and women's medal events and four years later they are the first global multi-sport event to have more events for women than men.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 53900, 21175158, 177520, 32927, 178733, 936056, 999483, 1005991, 1005999, 9393445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 114 ], [ 139, 162 ], [ 192, 196 ], [ 257, 269 ], [ 378, 382 ], [ 431, 435 ], [ 439, 443 ], [ 481, 485 ], [ 489, 493 ], [ 633, 642 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inspired by the Inter-Empire Championships, part of the 1911 Festival of Empire, Melville Marks Robinson founded the British Empire Games which were first held in Hamilton, Canada in 1930. As time progressed, the Games evolved, adding the Commonwealth Paraplegic Games for athletes with a disability (who were barred from competing from 1974 before being fully integrated by 1990) and the Commonwealth Youth Games for athletes aged 14 to 18. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17600098, 17600098, 3963970, 14288, 5042916, 34809655, 929173, 2604266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 42 ], [ 61, 79 ], [ 81, 104 ], [ 163, 171 ], [ 173, 179 ], [ 239, 268 ], [ 375, 379 ], [ 389, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Games are overseen by the Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF), which controls the sporting programme and selects host cities. The games movement consists of international sports federations (IFs), Commonwealth Games Associations (CGAs) and organising committees for each specific Commonwealth Games. Certain traditions, such as the hoisting of the Commonwealth Games flag and Queen's Baton Relay, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies, are unique to the Games. Over 4,500 athletes competed at the latest Commonwealth Games in 25 sports and over 250 medal events, including Olympic and Paralympic sports and those popular in Commonwealth countries: bowls and squash. Usually,the first, second and third-place finishers in each event are awarded gold, silver and bronze medals, respectively.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3594307, 8851868, 398336, 2749898, 650360, 4248, 52653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 59 ], [ 86, 104 ], [ 161, 193 ], [ 380, 399 ], [ 585, 614 ], [ 660, 665 ], [ 670, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "⁹", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although there are 56 members of the Commonwealth of Nations, there are 72 Commonwealth Games Associations. They are divided into 6 regions (Africa, Americas, Caribbean, Europe, Asia and Oceania) and each of them has a similar function to the National Olympic Committees in relation with their countries or territories. In some like India and South Africa, the CGA functions are assumed by their NOCs. One of the differences from other multisport events is that 15 CGAs participating in the Commonwealth Games do not send their delegations independently from the Olympic, Paralympic and other multisports competitions, as 13 are linked to the British Olympic Association, 1 is part of Australian Olympic Committee and another one is part of the New Zealand Olympic Committee as their Paralympic counterparts. They are: the four Home Nations of the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland), the British Overseas Territories (Anguilla, Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Montserrat, Saint Helena and Turks and Caicos Islands), the Crown Dependencies (Guernsey, Isle of Man, and Jersey), Niue and Norfolk Island send separate teams. It is expected that Gabon and Togo will send a team for the first time at the 2026 Commonwealth Games, as the two countries were admitted to the Commonwealth in June 2022 and they didn’t have time to organise their associations for the 2022 Games which was scheduled for the end of July.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4549821, 1217591, 14533, 17416221, 1270120, 2332307, 3240339, 971501, 31717, 9316, 26994, 69894, 21265, 207114, 1217, 7550182, 7607314, 19281, 26945, 30217, 346381, 12166, 14727, 15693, 21228, 21422, 12027, 30138, 47420316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 106 ], [ 243, 269 ], [ 333, 338 ], [ 343, 355 ], [ 643, 670 ], [ 685, 713 ], [ 745, 774 ], [ 828, 840 ], [ 848, 862 ], [ 864, 871 ], [ 873, 881 ], [ 883, 888 ], [ 893, 909 ], [ 916, 944 ], [ 946, 954 ], [ 956, 972 ], [ 974, 983 ], [ 985, 995 ], [ 997, 1009 ], [ 1014, 1038 ], [ 1045, 1063 ], [ 1065, 1073 ], [ 1075, 1086 ], [ 1092, 1098 ], [ 1101, 1105 ], [ 1110, 1124 ], [ 1166, 1171 ], [ 1176, 1180 ], [ 1224, 1247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "20 cities in nine countries (counting England, Scotland and Wales separately) have hosted the games. Australia has hosted the Commonwealth Games five times (1938, 1962, 1982, 2006 and 2018 and will host the next edition in 2026), more than any other nation. Two cities have hosted Commonwealth Games more than once: Auckland (1950, 1990) and Edinburgh (1970, 1986).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9316, 26994, 69894, 4689264, 178730, 999382, 1006015, 178745, 14159498, 47420316, 18660332, 178733, 929173, 9602, 1006029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 45 ], [ 47, 55 ], [ 60, 65 ], [ 101, 110 ], [ 157, 161 ], [ 163, 167 ], [ 169, 173 ], [ 175, 179 ], [ 184, 188 ], [ 212, 227 ], [ 316, 324 ], [ 326, 330 ], [ 332, 336 ], [ 342, 351 ], [ 359, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Only six nations have participated in every Commonwealth Games: Australia, Canada, England, New Zealand, Scotland and Wales. Of these six, Australia, England, Canada and New Zealand have each won at least one gold medal in every Games. Australia has been the highest achieving team for thirteen editions of the Games, England for seven, and Canada for one. These three teams also top the all-time Commonwealth Games medal table in that order.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26994, 69894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 113 ], [ 118, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most recent Commonwealth Games, the 22nd, were held in Birmingham from 28 July to 8 August 2022. The next Commonwealth Games will be the first games in history held in a decentralized way, as they are scheduled to be hosted across four cities in the Australian state of Victoria from 17 to 29 March 2026.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33752282, 47420316, 4689460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 34 ], [ 105, 128 ], [ 254, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A sporting competition bringing together the members of the British Empire was first proposed by John Astley Cooper in 1891, who wrote letters and articles for several periodicals suggesting a \"Pan Brittanic, Pan Anglican Contest every four years as a means of increasing goodwill and understan’ding of the British Empire.\" John Astley Cooper Committees were formed in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa to promote the idea and inspired Pierre de Coubertin to start the international Olympic Games movement.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4721, 1214, 4913064, 17416221, 25055, 22576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 74 ], [ 213, 221 ], [ 380, 391 ], [ 396, 408 ], [ 442, 461 ], [ 489, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1911, an Inter-Empire Championship was held alongside the Festival of Empire, at The Crystal Palace in London to celebrate the coronation of George V, and were championed by The Earl of Plymouth and Lord Desborough. Teams from Australasia (Australia and New Zealand), Canada, South Africa, and the United Kingdom competed in events for athletics, boxing, swimming and wrestling. Canada won the championships and was presented with a silver cup (gifted by Lord Lonsdale) which was high and weighed . A correspondent of the Auckland Star criticised the Games, calling them a \"grievous disappointment\" that were \"not worthy of the title of 'Empire Sports'\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 17600098, 81837, 56041249, 2614036, 2483560, 464275, 12132404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 79 ], [ 84, 102 ], [ 130, 152 ], [ 177, 197 ], [ 202, 217 ], [ 458, 471 ], [ 526, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Melville Marks Robinson, who went to the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam to serve as the manager of the Canadian track and field team, strongly lobbied for the proposal of organising the first British Empire Games in Hamilton in 1930.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3963970, 86224, 14288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ], [ 41, 61 ], [ 219, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1930 British Empire Games were the first of what later become known as the Commonwealth Games, and were held in Hamilton, in the province of Ontario in Canada from 16–23 August 1930 and opened by Lord Willingdon. Eleven countries: Australia, Bermuda, British Guyana, Canada, England, Northern Ireland, Newfoundland, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa and Wales, sent a total of 400 athletes to compete in athletics, boxing, lawn bowls, rowing, swimming and diving and wrestling. The opening and closing ceremonies as well as athletics took place at Civic Stadium. The cost of the Games were $97,973. Women competed in only the aquatic events. Canadian triple jumper Gordon Smallacombe won the first ever gold medal in the history of the Games.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 177520, 14288, 22218, 4175955, 3460, 199278, 21265, 697561, 26994, 69894, 772452, 49814583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ], [ 116, 124 ], [ 145, 152 ], [ 200, 215 ], [ 246, 253 ], [ 255, 269 ], [ 288, 304 ], [ 306, 318 ], [ 333, 341 ], [ 360, 365 ], [ 554, 567 ], [ 671, 689 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1934 British Empire Games were the second of what is now known as the Commonwealth Games, held in London, England. The host city was London, with the main venue at Wembley Park, although the track cycling events were in Manchester. The 1934 Games had originally been awarded to Johannesburg, but were given to London instead because of serious concerns about prejudice against Asian and black athletes in South Africa. The affiliation of Irish athletes at the 1934 Games representation remains unclear but there was no official Irish Free State team. Sixteen national teams took part, including new participants Hong Kong, India, Jamaica, Southern Rhodesia and Trinidad and Tobago.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 178225, 1425560, 20206, 58893, 6796269, 42953, 27413692, 4208015, 34475352, 284322, 3565457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ], [ 168, 180 ], [ 224, 234 ], [ 282, 294 ], [ 490, 505 ], [ 532, 548 ], [ 616, 625 ], [ 627, 632 ], [ 634, 641 ], [ 643, 660 ], [ 665, 684 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1938 British Empire Games were the third British Empire Games, which were held in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. They were timed to coincide with Sydney's sesqui-centenary (150 years since the foundation of British settlement in Australia). Held in the Southern Hemisphere for the first time, the III Games opening ceremony took place at the famed Sydney Cricket Ground in front of 40,000 spectators. Fifteen nations participated down under at the Sydney Games involving a total of 464 athletes and 43 officials. Fiji and Ceylon made their debuts. Seven sports were featured in the Sydney Games – athletics, boxing, cycling, lawn bowls, rowing, swimming and diving and wrestling.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 178730, 39173, 27862, 21654, 261273, 773497, 1975126, 12575013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ], [ 45, 65 ], [ 86, 92 ], [ 94, 109 ], [ 262, 281 ], [ 357, 378 ], [ 522, 526 ], [ 531, 537 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1950 British Empire Games were the fourth edition and was held in Auckland, New Zealand after a 12-year gap from the third edition of the games. The fourth games were originally awarded to Montreal, Canada and were to be held in 1942 but were cancelled due to the Second World War. The opening ceremony at Eden Park was attended by 40,000 spectators, while nearly 250,000 people attended the Auckland Games. Twelve countries sent a total of 590 athletes to Auckland. Malaya and Nigeria made their first appearances.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 178733, 18660332, 7954681, 32927, 1084597, 18660332, 304150, 21383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ], [ 70, 78 ], [ 193, 201 ], [ 268, 284 ], [ 310, 319 ], [ 461, 469 ], [ 471, 477 ], [ 482, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fifth edition of the Games, the 1954 British Empire and Commonwealth Games, were held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. These were the first Games since the name change from British Empire Games took effect in 1952. The fifth edition of the Games placed Vancouver on a world stage and featured memorable sporting moments as well as outstanding entertainment, technical innovation and cultural events. The 'Miracle Mile', as it became known, saw both the gold medallist, Roger Bannister of England and silver medallist John Landy of Australia, run sub-four-minute races in an event that was televised live across the world for the first time. Northern Rhodesia and Pakistan made their debuts and both performed well, winning eight and six medals respectively.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 936056, 32706, 39173, 32706, 100969, 887447, 284309, 23235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 78 ], [ 93, 102 ], [ 184, 204 ], [ 264, 273 ], [ 480, 495 ], [ 528, 538 ], [ 652, 669 ], [ 674, 682 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games were held in Cardiff, Wales. The sixth edition of the games marked the largest sporting event ever held in Wales and it was the smallest country ever to host a British Empire and Commonwealth Games. Cardiff had to wait 12 years longer than originally scheduled to become host of the Games, as the 1946 event was cancelled because of the Second World War. The Cardiff Games introduced the Queen's Baton Relay, which has been conducted as a prelude to every British Empire and Commonwealth Games ever since. Thirty-five nations sent a total of 1,122 athletes and 228 officials to the Cardiff Games and 23 countries and dependencies won medals, including for the first time, Singapore, Ghana, Kenya and the Isle of Man. In the run up to the Cardiff games, many leading sports stars including Stanley Matthews, Jimmy Hill and Don Revie were signatories in a letter to The Times on 17 July 1958 deploring the presence of white-only South African sports, opposing 'the policy of apartheid' in international sport and defending 'the principle of racial equality which is embodied in the Declaration of the Olympic Games'.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 996614, 5882, 69894, 5882, 32927, 2749898, 12067, 19605492, 14727, 151903, 22017974, 660931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 46 ], [ 60, 67 ], [ 69, 74 ], [ 246, 253 ], [ 384, 400 ], [ 435, 454 ], [ 730, 735 ], [ 737, 742 ], [ 751, 762 ], [ 836, 852 ], [ 854, 864 ], [ 869, 878 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games were held in Perth, Western Australia, Australia. Thirty-five countries sent a total of 863 athletes and 178 officials to Perth. Jersey was among the medal winners for the first time, while British Honduras, Dominica, Papua and New Guinea and St Lucia all made their inaugural Games appearances. Aden also competed by special invitation. Sarawak, North Borneo and Malaya competed for the last time before taking part in 1966 under the Malaysian flag. In addition, Rhodesia and Nyasaland competed in the Games as an entity for the first and only time.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 999382, 24355, 33613, 24355, 15693, 172710, 11898195, 8225016, 27208, 2573815, 36663377, 42431256, 304150, 417286, 20647727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 46 ], [ 60, 65 ], [ 67, 84 ], [ 169, 174 ], [ 176, 182 ], [ 237, 253 ], [ 255, 263 ], [ 265, 285 ], [ 290, 298 ], [ 343, 347 ], [ 385, 392 ], [ 394, 406 ], [ 411, 417 ], [ 482, 496 ], [ 511, 533 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games were held in Kingston, Jamaica. This was the first time that the Games had been held outside the so-called White Dominions. Thirty-four nations (including South Arabia) competed in the Kingston Games sending a total of 1,316 athletes and officials.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 999483, 37408, 25544562, 726986, 37408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 46 ], [ 60, 77 ], [ 154, 168 ], [ 202, 214 ], [ 232, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1970 British Commonwealth Games were held in Edinburgh, Scotland. This was the first time the name British Commonwealth Games was adopted, the first time metric units rather than imperial units were used in events, the first time the games were held in Scotland and also the first time that HM Queen Elizabeth II attended in her capacity as Head of the Commonwealth.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1005991, 9602, 26994, 39173, 44142, 15492, 26994, 12153654, 738298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 35 ], [ 49, 58 ], [ 60, 68 ], [ 103, 129 ], [ 158, 170 ], [ 183, 196 ], [ 257, 265 ], [ 304, 316 ], [ 345, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1974 British Commonwealth Games were held in Christchurch, New Zealand. The Games were officially named \"the friendly games\", and was also the first edition to feature a theme song. Following the massacre of Israeli athletes at the 1972 Munich Olympics, the tenth games at Christchurch were the first multi-sport event to place the safety of participants and spectators as its uppermost requirement. Security guards surrounded the athlete's village and there was an exceptionally high-profile police presence. Only 22 countries succeeded in winning medals from the total haul of 374 medals on offer, but first time winners included Western Samoa, Lesotho and Swaziland (since 2018 named Eswatini). The theme song for the 1974 British Commonwealth Games was called \"Join Together\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1005999, 628782, 20989, 83112, 628782, 53900, 27238, 17781, 27451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 35 ], [ 49, 61 ], [ 200, 228 ], [ 236, 256 ], [ 277, 289 ], [ 305, 322 ], [ 636, 649 ], [ 651, 658 ], [ 691, 699 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1978 Commonwealth Games were held in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. This event was the first to bear the current day name of the Commonwealth Games and also marked a new high as almost 1,500 athletes from 46 countries took part. They were boycotted by Nigeria in protest against New Zealand's sporting contacts with apartheid-era South Africa, as well as by Uganda in protest at alleged Canadian hostility towards the government of Idi Amin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1006008, 95405, 21383, 4913064, 2200527, 17416221, 31816, 70842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 41, 49 ], [ 252, 259 ], [ 279, 290 ], [ 316, 325 ], [ 330, 342 ], [ 358, 364 ], [ 432, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1982 Commonwealth Games were held in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Forty-six nations participated in the Brisbane Games with a new record total of 1,583 athletes and 571 officials. As hosts, Australia headed the medal table leading the way ahead of England, Canada, Scotland and New Zealand respectively. Zimbabwe made its first appearance at the Games, having earlier competed as Southern Rhodesia and as part of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The theme song for the 1982 Commonwealth Games was called \"You're Here To Win\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1006015, 192093, 59051, 192093, 26994, 34399, 20647727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 41, 49 ], [ 51, 61 ], [ 112, 120 ], [ 273, 281 ], [ 312, 320 ], [ 421, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1986 Commonwealth Games were held in Edinburgh, Scotland and were the second Games to be held in Edinburgh. Participation at the 1986 Games was affected by a boycott by 32 African, Asian and Caribbean nations in protest at British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's refusal to condemn sporting contacts of apartheid era South Africa in 1985, but the Games rebounded and continued to grow thereafter. Twenty-six nations did attend the second Edinburgh Games and sent a total of 1,662 athletes and 461 officials. The theme song for the 1986 Commonwealth Games was called \"Spirit Of Youth\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1006029, 9602, 26994, 9602, 1006029, 19831, 9602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 41, 50 ], [ 52, 60 ], [ 101, 110 ], [ 133, 143 ], [ 250, 267 ], [ 445, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1990 Commonwealth Games were held in Auckland, New Zealand. It was the fourteenth Commonwealth Games, the third to be hosted by New Zealand and Auckland's second. A new record of 55 nations participated in the second Auckland Games sending 2,826 athletes and officials. Pakistan returned to the Commonwealth in 1989 after withdrawing in 1972, and competed in the 1990 Games after an absence of twenty years. The theme song for the 1990 Commonwealth Games was called \"This Is The Moment\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 929173, 18660332, 16455340, 18660332, 18660332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 41, 49 ], [ 132, 143 ], [ 148, 156 ], [ 221, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1994 Commonwealth Games were held in Victoria, British Columbia, the fourth to take place in Canada. The games marked South Africa's return to the Commonwealth Games following the apartheid era, and over 30 years since the country last competed in the Games in 1958. Namibia made its Commonwealth Games debut. It was also Hong Kong's last appearance at the games before the transfer of sovereignty from Britain to China. Sixty-three nations sent 2,557 athletes and 914 officials. The theme song for the 1994 Commonwealth Games was called \"Let Your Spirit Take Flight\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 921902, 32388, 2200527, 996614, 21292, 2093431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 41, 49 ], [ 184, 193 ], [ 256, 269 ], [ 271, 278 ], [ 378, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1998 Commonwealth Games were held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. For the first time in its 68-year history, the Commonwealth Games were held in Asia. The sixteenth games were also the first Games to feature team sports – an overwhelming success that added large numbers to both participant and TV audience numbers. A new record of 70 countries sent a total of 5,065 athletes and officials to the Kuala Lumpur Games. The top five countries in the medal standing were Australia, England, Canada, Malaysia and South Africa. Nauru also achieved an impressive haul of three gold medals. Cameroon, Mozambique, Kiribati and Tuvalu debuted. The theme song for the 1998 Commonwealth Games was called \"Forever As One\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 585316, 16854, 3607937, 16854, 3607937, 21302, 5447, 19301, 16674, 30227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 41, 53 ], [ 55, 63 ], [ 396, 408 ], [ 494, 502 ], [ 521, 526 ], [ 582, 590 ], [ 592, 602 ], [ 604, 612 ], [ 617, 623 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2002 Commonwealth Games were held in Manchester, England. The 2002 Games were hosted in England for the first time since 1934 and hosted to coincide with the Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II, head of the Commonwealth. In terms of sports and events, the 2002 Games were until the 2010 edition the largest Commonwealth Games in history featuring 281 events across 17 sports. The final medal tally was led by Australia, followed by host England and Canada. The 2002 Commonwealth Games had set a new benchmark for hosting the Commonwealth Games and for cities wishing to bid for them with a heavy emphasis on legacy. The theme song for the 2002 Commonwealth Games was called \"Where My Heart Will Take Me\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 64202, 20206, 2065372, 21175158, 14668980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 41, 51 ], [ 162, 192 ], [ 206, 218 ], [ 674, 701 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2006 Commonwealth Games were held in Melbourne, Australia. The only difference between the 2006 games and the 2002 games was the absence of Zimbabwe, which withdrew from the Commonwealth of Nations. For the first time in the history of the Games the Queen's Baton visited every single Commonwealth nation and territory taking part in the Games, a journey of . Over 4000 athletes took part in the sporting competitions. Again the Top 3 on the medal table is Australia, followed by England and Canada. The theme song for the 2006 Commonwealth Games was called \"Together We Are One\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 178745, 17306237, 178745, 64202, 34399, 21175158, 2749898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 41, 50 ], [ 95, 105 ], [ 114, 124 ], [ 144, 152 ], [ 178, 201 ], [ 254, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2010 Commonwealth Games were held in Delhi, India. The Games cost $11 billion and are the most expensive Commonwealth Games ever. It was the first time that the Commonwealth Games were held in India, also the first time that a Commonwealth republic hosted the games and the second time they were held in Asia after Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in 1998. A total of 6,081 athletes from 71 Commonwealth nations and dependencies competed in 21 sports and 272 events. The final medal tally was led by Australia. The host nation India achieved its best performance ever in any sporting event, finishing second overall. Rwanda made its Games debut. The theme song for the 2010 Commonwealth Games was called \"Live, Rise, Ascend, Win\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 365813, 6076847, 16854, 3607937, 21175158, 28914618, 24090034, 14533, 24384478, 25645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 231, 252 ], [ 319, 331 ], [ 333, 341 ], [ 385, 422 ], [ 471, 482 ], [ 494, 503 ], [ 521, 526 ], [ 540, 583 ], [ 611, 617 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2014 Commonwealth Games were held in Glasgow, Scotland. It was the largest multi-sport event ever held in Scotland with around 4,950 athletes from 71 different nations and territories competing in 18 different sports, outranking the 1970 and 1986 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh, capital city of Scotland. Usain Bolt competed in the 4×100 metres relay of the 2014 Commonwealth Games and set a Commonwealth Games record with his teammates. The Games received acclaim for their organisation, attendance, and the public enthusiasm of the people of Scotland, with Commonwealth Games Federation chief executive Mike Hooper hailing them as \"the standout games in the history of the movement\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2403081, 68736, 53900, 26994, 9602, 26994, 4764846, 42235426, 2403081, 22697204, 3594307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 41, 48 ], [ 79, 96 ], [ 110, 118 ], [ 273, 282 ], [ 300, 308 ], [ 310, 320 ], [ 337, 355 ], [ 363, 386 ], [ 397, 422 ], [ 564, 593 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2018 Commonwealth Games were held in Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, the fifth time Australia hosted the Games. There were an equal number of events for men and women, the first time in history that a major multi-sport event had equality in terms of events.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14159498, 59251, 53900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 41, 51 ], [ 214, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2022 Commonwealth Games were held in Birmingham, England. They are be the third Commonwealth Games to be hosted in England following London 1934 and Manchester 2002.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 33752282, 13882056, 178225, 64202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 41, 51 ], [ 137, 148 ], [ 153, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2022 Commonwealth Games coincided with the Platinum Jubilee of Elizabeth II and the 10th anniversary of the 2012 Summer Olympics and the 2012 Summer Paralympics, both staged in London. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 65819376, 2176142, 497457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 79 ], [ 112, 132 ], [ 141, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 16 February 2022 it was announced that the 2026 Commonwealth Games will be held for a record sixth time in Australia, but for the first time they will be decentralised, as the state of Victoria signed as host city. The games will have 4 regional clusters mainly focused in Bendigo region and another 3 regional centres. It was also confirmed that the Commonwealth Games, scheduled for 2030 were likely to be awarded to Hamilton, Canada.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 47420316, 4689264, 4689460, 62578, 14288, 5042916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 69 ], [ 110, 119 ], [ 188, 196 ], [ 276, 283 ], [ 422, 430 ], [ 432, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The three nations to have hosted the Commonwealth Games the most times are Australia (5), Canada (4) and New Zealand (3). With the 2022 games, England increased its number to three and in 2026 Australia will have hosted six times. Six Games have taken place in the countries within the United Kingdom (Scotland (3) and Wales (1)), two in Asia (Malaysia (1) and India (1)) and one in the Caribbean (Jamaica (1)).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26994, 69894, 3607937, 14533, 15660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 302, 310 ], [ 319, 324 ], [ 344, 352 ], [ 361, 366 ], [ 398, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Commonwealth Paraplegic Games were an international, multi-sport event involving athletes with a disability from the Commonwealth countries. The event was sometimes referred to as the Paraplegic Empire Games and British Commonwealth Paraplegic Games. Athletes were generally those with spinal injuries or polio. The event was first held in 1962 and disestablished in 1974. The Games were held in the country hosting the Commonwealth Games for able-bodied athletes. The countries that had hosted the Commonwealth Paraplegic Games were Australia, Jamaica, Scotland and New Zealand in 1962, 1966, 1970 and 1974. Six countries – Australia, England, New Zealand, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales — had been represented at all Commonwealth Paraplegic Games. Australia and England had been the top-ranking nation two times each: 1962, 1974 and 1966, 1970.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 53900, 21175158, 1053949, 25107, 35988680, 55075835, 52203620, 55086631, 21265, 26994, 69894, 35988680, 55086631, 55075835, 52203620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 74 ], [ 121, 143 ], [ 290, 305 ], [ 309, 314 ], [ 586, 590 ], [ 592, 596 ], [ 598, 602 ], [ 607, 611 ], [ 662, 678 ], [ 680, 688 ], [ 693, 698 ], [ 830, 834 ], [ 836, 840 ], [ 845, 849 ], [ 851, 855 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athletes with a disability were then first included the 1994 Commonwealth Games in Victoria, British Columbia when this events was added to athletics and lawn bowls, As at 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, England, they were included as compulsory events, making them the first fully inclusive international multi-sport games. This meant that results were included in the medal count and the athletes are full members of each country delegation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 921902, 32388, 64202, 9393445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 79 ], [ 83, 109 ], [ 172, 195 ], [ 289, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 2007 General Assembly of the Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF) at Colombo, Sri Lanka, the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) and CGF signed a co-operative agreement to ensure a formal institutional relationship between the two bodies and secure the future participation of elite athletes with a disability (EAD) in future Commonwealth Games.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3594307, 56636, 26750, 67671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 69 ], [ 79, 86 ], [ 88, 97 ], [ 103, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Then,IPC President Philip Craven said during the General Assembly:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19203168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The co-operation agreement outlined the strong partnership between the IPC and the CGF. It recognised the IPC as the respective sport body and have the function to oversee the co-ordination and delivery of the Commonwealth Games EAD sports programme and committed both organisations to work together in supporting the growth of the Paralympic and Commonwealth Games Movements.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Commonwealth Winter Games was a multi-sport event comprising winter sports, last held in 1966. Three editions of the Games have been staged. The Winter Games were designed as a counterbalance to the Commonwealth Games, which focuses on summer sports, to accompany the Winter Olympics and Summer Olympic Games. The winter Games were founded by T.D. Richardson. The 1958 Commonwealth Winter Games were held in St. Moritz, Switzerland and was the inaugural games for the winter edition. The 1962 Games were also held in St. Moritz, complementing the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Perth, Australia, and the 1966 event was held in St. Moritz as well, following which the idea was discontinued.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6558782, 53900, 38950, 34069, 27566, 26314230, 305193, 26748, 999382, 24355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ], [ 36, 53 ], [ 65, 78 ], [ 272, 287 ], [ 292, 312 ], [ 347, 362 ], [ 412, 422 ], [ 424, 435 ], [ 551, 593 ], [ 597, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Commonwealth Youth Games is an international multi-sport event organised by the Commonwealth Games Federation. The Games are held every four years with the current Commonwealth Games format. The Commonwealth Games Federation discussed the idea of a Millennium Commonwealth Youth Games in 1997. In 1998 the concept was agreed on for the purpose of providing a Commonwealth multi-sport event for young people born in the calendar year 1986 or later. The first version was held in Edinburgh, Scotland from 10 to 14 August 2000. The age limitation of the athletes is 14 to 18.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 53900, 3594307, 3594307, 9602, 26994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 66 ], [ 84, 113 ], [ 199, 228 ], [ 482, 491 ], [ 493, 501 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF) is the international organisation responsible for the direction and control of the Commonwealth Games and Commonwealth Youth Games, and is the foremost authority in matters relating to the games. The Commonwealth House in London, England hosts the headquarters of CGF. The Commonwealth House also hosts the headquarters of the Royal Commonwealth Society and the Commonwealth Local Government Forum.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Commonwealth Games Federation", "target_page_ids": [ 2604266, 1902244, 16539747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 170 ], [ 367, 393 ], [ 402, 437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the International Olympic Committee the Commonwealth Games Movement is made of three major elements:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Commonwealth Games Federation", "target_page_ids": [ 15147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " International Federations (IFs) are the governing bodies that supervise a sport at an international level. For example, the International Basketball Federation (FIBA) is the international governing body for basketball.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Commonwealth Games Federation", "target_page_ids": [ 398336, 36847, 23676858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 41, 57 ], [ 162, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Commonwealth Games Associations (CGAs) represent and regulate the Commonwealth Games Movement within each country and perform similar functions as the National Olympic Committees. For example, the Commonwealth Games England (CGE) is the CGA of England. There are currently 72 CGAs recognised by the CGF.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Commonwealth Games Federation", "target_page_ids": [ 1217591, 29067101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 179 ], [ 198, 224 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Organising Committees for the Commonwealth Games (OCCWGs) are temporary committees responsible for the organisation of each Commonwealth Games. OCCWGs are dissolved after each Games once the final report is delivered to the CGF.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Commonwealth Games Federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "English is the official language of the Commonwealth. The other language used at each Commonwealth Games is the language of the host country (or languages, if a country has more than one official language apart from English). Every proclamation (such as the announcement of each country during the parade of nations in the opening ceremony) is spoken in these two (or more) languages. If the host country does this, it is their responsibility to chose the language{s) and their order.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Commonwealth Games Federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Queen's Baton Relay, is a relay around the world held prior to the beginning of the Commonwealth Games. The Baton carries a message from the Head of the Commonwealth, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The Relay traditionally begins at Buckingham Palace in London as a part of the city's Commonwealth Day festivities. The Queen entrusts the baton to the first relay runner. At the Opening Ceremony of the Games, the final relay runner hands the baton back to the Queen or her representative, who reads the message aloud to officially open the Games. The Queen's Baton Relay is similar to the Olympic Torch Relay.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Queen's Baton Relay", "target_page_ids": [ 738298, 12153654, 3969, 431132, 25068939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 169 ], [ 187, 199 ], [ 235, 252 ], [ 287, 303 ], [ 591, 610 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Relay was introduced at the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Cardiff, Wales. Up until, and including, the 1994 Games, the Relay only went through England and the host nation. The Relay for the 1998 Games in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia was the first to travel to other nations of the Commonwealth. The Gold Coast 2018 Queen's Baton Relay was the longest in Commonwealth Games history. Covering 230,000 km (150,000 miles) over 388 days, the Baton made its way through the six Commonwealth regions of Africa, the Americas, the Caribbean, Europe, Asia and Oceania. For the first time, the Queen's Baton was presented at the Commonwealth Youth Games during its sixth edition in 2017 which were held in Nassau, Bahamas.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Queen's Baton Relay", "target_page_ids": [ 996614, 5882, 921902, 585316, 3607937, 2749898, 2604266, 20315387, 21871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 74 ], [ 78, 85 ], [ 123, 133 ], [ 210, 220 ], [ 238, 246 ], [ 313, 348 ], [ 632, 656 ], [ 668, 681 ], [ 709, 715 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similar with the Olympic Games,various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Commonwealth Games.Is common,that the ceremony takes place before the first sporting events starts.Until the 2010 Games,the event typically started with the hoisting of the host country's flag, along the last host country and the next host country were also flown along the host country anthem. The host nation then presents artistic displays of music, singing, dance and theatre representative of its culture. The artistic presentations have grown in scale and complexity as successive hosts attempt to provide a ceremony that outlasts its predecessor's in terms of memorability. The opening ceremony of the Delhi Games reportedly cost $70 million, with much of the cost incurred in the artistic segment.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ceremonies", "target_page_ids": [ 22576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the artistic portion of the ceremony, the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation. The last hosting nation is traditionally the first nation to enter along their continental contigent. Nations then enter the stadium alphabetical or continental wise with the host country's athletes being the last to enter. Speeches are given, formally opening the Games. Finally, the Queen's Baton is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final baton carrier, often a successful Commonwealth athlete from the host nation, who hands it over to the Head of the Commonwealth or her representative.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ceremonies", "target_page_ids": [ 2749898, 738298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 385, 398 ], [ 570, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The closing ceremony of the Commonwealth Games takes place after all sporting events have concluded. Flag-bearers from each participating country enter the stadium, followed by the athletes who enter together, without any national distinction. The president of the organising committee and the CGF president make their closing speeches and the Games are officially closed. The CGF president also speaks about the conduct of the games. The mayor of the city that organised the Games transfers the CGF flag to the president of the CGF, who then passes it on to the mayor of the city hosting the next Commonwealth Games. The next host nation then also briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theatre representative of its culture. Many great artists and singers had performed at the ceremonies of the Commonwealth Games.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ceremonies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the closing ceremony of every Commonwealth Games the CGF President makes an award and presents a trophy to one athlete who has competed with particular distinction and honour both in terms of athletic performance and overall contribution to his or her team. Athletes are nominated by their Commonwealth Games Association at the end of the final day of competition and the winner is selected by a panel comprising the CGF President and representatives from each of the six Commonwealth Regions. The ‘David Dixon Award’ as it is called was introduced in Manchester 2002, after the late David Dixon, former Honorary Secretary of the CGF, in honour of his monumental contribution to Commonwealth sport for many years.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ceremonies", "target_page_ids": [ 4531019, 64202, 3594307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 502, 519 ], [ 555, 570 ], [ 633, 636 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A medal ceremony is held after each event is concluded. The winner, second and third-place competitors or teams stand on top of a three-tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals. After the medals are given out by a CGF member, the national flags of the three medallists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medallist's country plays. Volunteering citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal ceremonies, as they aid the officials who present the medals and act as flag-bearers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ceremonies", "target_page_ids": [ 234540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 302, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"God Save the Queen\" is an official or national anthem of multiple Commonwealth countries. As a result, and due to the countries of the United Kingdom competing individually, it is not played in some official events, medal ceremonies or before matches in team events.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ceremonies", "target_page_ids": [ 12334, 234540, 12334, 18508684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 39, 54 ], [ 58, 89 ], [ 119, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anthems used at the Commonwealth Games which differ from a currently-eligible country's national or official anthem(s):", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ceremonies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Updated after 2022 Commonwealth Games,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Medal table", "target_page_ids": [ 33752282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are a total of 23 sports (with three multi-disciplinary sports) and a further seven para-sports which are approved by the Commonwealth Games Federation. Core sports must be included in each program. Several optional sports may be picked by the host nation, which may consist of some team sports such as basketball. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Commonwealth sports", "target_page_ids": [ 37686, 3921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 101 ], [ 310, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, the Commonwealth Games Federation agreed large changes to the programme which increased the number of core sports, whilst removing a number of optionals, those removed are listed below.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Commonwealth sports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sports such as the following are sports which have been analyzed by the Commonwealth Games Federation but which are deemed to need expansion in areas such as participation levels within the Commonwealth both at a national (International Federation) and grassroots athletics level, Marketability, Television Rights, Equity, and Hosting Expenses, per Regulation 6 of the Commonwealth Games Constitution; host nations may not pick these sports for their program until the Federation's requirements are fulfilled.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Commonwealth sports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Only six teams have attended every Commonwealth Games: Australia, Canada, England, New Zealand, Scotland, and Wales. Australia has been the highest scoring team for thirteen games, England for seven, and Canada for one.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Very few Commonwealth dependencies and nations have yet to take part:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gabon and Togo, the most recent members to join the Commonwealth in 2022 have not as of that date instigated Commonwealth Games federations in their nation. It is expected both nations will make their debut in 2026.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [ 12027, 30138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 11, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tokelau, a dependency of New Zealand was expected to take part the for the first time at the 2010 Games in Delhi but did not do so.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [ 30148, 4913064, 27472096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 26, 37 ], [ 42, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ascension Island and Tristan da Cunha, former dependencies of Saint Helena and current parts of the British Overseas Territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, have never formed their own teams independent from the Saint Helena team.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [ 18962604, 31361, 26945, 24481846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 22, 38 ], [ 63, 75 ], [ 131, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Other states, territories, and territorial autonomies with native populations within the Commonwealth that may be eligible include Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (territories of Australia), Nevis (a federal entity of the Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis), Rodrigues (Outer Islands of Mauritius), and Zanzibar (a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [ 1636026, 5500, 5520, 4689096, 21503, 27198, 370471, 689658, 34414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 54 ], [ 132, 148 ], [ 157, 180 ], [ 182, 193 ], [ 209, 214 ], [ 240, 275 ], [ 278, 287 ], [ 289, 315 ], [ 322, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornwall, represented by the Cornwall Commonwealth Games Association (CCGA), sent a bid for participation in the 2006 Commonwealth Games in 2004. However, their application was rejected by the CGF, who stated that the constitutional status of Cornwall was not an issue that should be resolved through this medium.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [ 5648, 178745, 1474162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 114, 137 ], [ 219, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The British Indian Ocean Territory currently has no permanent population although there is a sizeable population who were born in the BIOT but currently live in Mauritius and the United Kingdom and so would be eligible to compete on birth criteria.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [ 18950601, 727770, 19201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 35 ], [ 103, 113 ], [ 162, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus has made applications to the CGF to send teams.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [ 271409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " It is also conceivable that any future members of the Commonwealth such as applicants (for example South Sudan, Sudan and Yemen) may participate in future games. The Colony of Aden and Federation of South Arabia, precursors to modern Yemen, participated before in 1962 and in 1966. Sudan was an Anglo-Egyptian protectorate until independence in 1956.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [ 21175158, 32350676, 27421, 350939, 2573815, 726986, 985801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 86 ], [ 100, 111 ], [ 113, 118 ], [ 123, 128 ], [ 167, 181 ], [ 186, 212 ], [ 296, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Pitcairn Islands' tiny population (currently 50 to 60 people) would appear to prevent this British overseas territory from competing.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [ 23450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The lack of a permanent population would seem to prevent the British overseas territories of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands and British Antarctic Territory, the New Zealand territory of Ross Dependency and the Australian external territories of Australian Antarctic Territory, Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Coral Sea Islands and Heard Island and McDonald Islands from competing.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [ 27380, 204418, 161693, 242046, 1227, 5541, 13383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 138 ], [ 143, 170 ], [ 201, 216 ], [ 260, 290 ], [ 292, 319 ], [ 321, 338 ], [ 343, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1934 British Empire Games, originally awarded in 1930 to Johannesburg, were moved to London after South Africa's pre-apartheid government refused to allow participants of colour.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 178225, 58893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ], [ 61, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2022 Commonwealth Games were originally awarded to Durban on 2 September 2015, at the CGF General Assembly in Auckland. It was reported in February 2017 that Durban may be unable to host the games due to financial constraints. On 13 March 2017, the CGF stripped Durban of their rights to host and reopened the bidding process for the 2022 games. Many cities from Australia, Canada, England and Malaysia expressed interest to host the games. However, the CGF received only one official bid and that was from Birmingham, England. On 21 December 2017, Birmingham was awarded for the 2022 Games as Durban's replacement host.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 33752282, 313650, 3594307, 18660332, 13882056, 13882056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 55, 61 ], [ 90, 93 ], [ 114, 122 ], [ 511, 521 ], [ 553, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Much like the Olympic Games, the Commonwealth Games have also experienced boycotts:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 22576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nigeria boycotted the 1978 Commonwealth Games at Edmonton in protest of New Zealand's sporting contacts with apartheid-era South Africa. Uganda also stayed away, in protest of alleged Canadian hostility towards the government of Idi Amin.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 21383, 1006008, 95405, 2200527, 31816, 70842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 22, 45 ], [ 49, 57 ], [ 109, 118 ], [ 137, 143 ], [ 229, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1986 Commonwealth Games at Edinburgh, a majority of the Commonwealth nations staged a boycott, so that the Games appeared to be a whites-only event. Thirty two of the eligible fifty nine countries—largely African, Asian and Caribbean states—stayed away because of the Thatcher government's policy of keeping Britain's sporting links with apartheid South Africa in preference to participating in the general sporting boycott of that country. Consequently, Edinburgh 1986 witnessed the lowest number of athletes since Auckland 1950. The boycotting nations were Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Bermuda, Belize, Cyprus, Dominica, Gambia, Ghana, Guyana, Grenada, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Sierra Leone, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Tanzania, Turks and Caicos Islands, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Bermuda was a particularly late withdrawal, as its athletes appeared in the opening ceremony and in the opening day of competition before the Bermuda Olympic Association decided to formally withdraw.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 1006029, 9602, 19831, 2200527, 951, 3455, 3451, 3454, 3460, 3458, 5593, 11898195, 65656, 12067, 17238691, 17238662, 14533, 15660, 188171, 3607937, 21383, 23235, 22943, 265083, 26750, 27228, 27308, 27198, 27208, 19201, 3565457, 30118, 30217, 31816, 34415, 34399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 34 ], [ 38, 47 ], [ 279, 287 ], [ 349, 371 ], [ 570, 589 ], [ 591, 599 ], [ 601, 608 ], [ 610, 620 ], [ 622, 629 ], [ 631, 637 ], [ 639, 645 ], [ 647, 655 ], [ 657, 663 ], [ 665, 670 ], [ 672, 678 ], [ 680, 687 ], [ 689, 694 ], [ 696, 703 ], [ 705, 710 ], [ 712, 720 ], [ 722, 729 ], [ 731, 739 ], [ 741, 757 ], [ 759, 774 ], [ 776, 785 ], [ 787, 817 ], [ 819, 831 ], [ 833, 852 ], [ 854, 863 ], [ 865, 874 ], [ 876, 895 ], [ 897, 905 ], [ 907, 931 ], [ 933, 939 ], [ 941, 947 ], [ 952, 960 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The estimated cost of the 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi were US$11 billion, according to Business Today magazine. The initial total budget estimated by the Indian Olympic Association in 2003 was US$250 million. In 2010, however, the official total budget soon escalated to an estimated US$1.8 billion, a figure which excluded non-sports-related infrastructure development. The 2010 Commonwealth Games are reportedly the most expensive Commonwealth Games ever.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Financial implications", "target_page_ids": [ 365813, 18283726, 1451586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 49 ], [ 92, 106 ], [ 159, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An analysis conducted by PricewaterhouseCoopers on the 2002, 2006, 2014 and 2018 Commonwealth Games found that each dollar spent by governments on operating costs, games venues and athletes’ villages generated $2 for the host city or state economies, with an average of more than 18,000 jobs generated by each of the events. Additionally, all four cities enjoyed long-term improvements to transport or other infrastructure through hosting the Games, while some also benefited from the revival of struggling precincts.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Financial implications", "target_page_ids": [ 148172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lawn bowler Willie Wood from Scotland was the first competitor to have competed in seven Commonwealth Games, from 1974 to 2002, a record equalled in 2014 by Isle of Man cyclist Andrew Roche. They have both been surpassed by David Calvert of Northern Ireland who in 2018 attended his 11th games.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable competitors", "target_page_ids": [ 5052451, 26994, 14727, 66755524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 23 ], [ 29, 37 ], [ 157, 168 ], [ 177, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sitiveni Rabuka was a Prime Minister of Fiji. Beforehand he represented Fiji in shot put, hammer throw, discus and the decathlon at the 1974 British Commonwealth Games held in Christchurch, New Zealand.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable competitors", "target_page_ids": [ 516580, 10707, 39173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 40, 44 ], [ 141, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Greg Yelavich, a sports shooter from New Zealand, has won 12 medals in seven games from 1986 to 2010.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable competitors", "target_page_ids": [ 4578715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lawn bowler Robert Weale has represented Wales in 8 Commonwealth Games, 1986–2014, winning 2 gold, 3 silver and 1 bronze.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable competitors", "target_page_ids": [ 5878024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nauruan weightlifter Marcus Stephen won twelve medals at the Games between 1990 and 2002, of which seven gold, and was elected President of Nauru in 2007. His performance has helped place Nauru (the smallest independent state in the Commonwealth, at and with a population of fewer than 9,400 in 2011) in twenty-second place on the all-time Commonwealth Games medal table.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable competitors", "target_page_ids": [ 3205046, 300806, 2548257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 35 ], [ 127, 145 ], [ 332, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australian swimmer Ian Thorpe has won 10 Commonwealth Games gold medals and 1 silver medal. At the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur, he won 4 gold medals. At the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, he won 6 gold medals and 1 silver medal.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable competitors", "target_page_ids": [ 147429, 585316, 64202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ], [ 99, 122 ], [ 169, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chad le Clos, South Africa's most decorated swimmer, has won 18 medals from four Commonwealth Games (2010, 2014, 2018 & 2022), seven of which are gold. At the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow, he won two gold medals, one silver medal, and four bronze medals. At the 2018 Commonwealth Games in Gold Coast, he won three golds, a silver and a bronze.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable competitors", "target_page_ids": [ 29053860, 2403081, 14159498, 59251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 159, 182 ], [ 268, 291 ], [ 295, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "English actor Jason Statham took part as a diver in the 1990 Commonwealth Games.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable competitors", "target_page_ids": [ 707815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 2022 Commonwealth Games in Birmingham, Australian singer Cody Simpson won a gold medal as a swimmer at the men's 4 × 100 metre freestyle relay.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable competitors", "target_page_ids": [ 33752282, 13882056, 27367390, 71431252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 30 ], [ 34, 44 ], [ 64, 76 ], [ 114, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brown, Geoff and Hogsbjerg, Christian. Apartheid is not a Game: Remembering the Stop the Seventy Tour campaign. London: Redwords, 2020. .", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Phillips, Bob. Honour of Empire, Glory of Sport: the history of athletics at the Commonwealth Games. Manchester: Parrswood Press, 2000. .", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF) at the Commonwealth website ", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Commonwealth Games\". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 9508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " insidethegames – the latest and most up to date news and interviews from the world of Olympic, Commonwealth and Paralympic Games", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ATR – Around the Rings – the Business Surrounding the Multi-sport events", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " GamesBids.com – An Authoritative Review of Games Bid Business (home of the BidIndex™)", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Commonwealth_Games", "Commonwealth_sports_competitions", "Events_in_the_British_Empire", "Multi-sport_events", "Politics_and_sports", "Quadrennial_sporting_events", "Recurring_sporting_events_established_in_1930" ]

[ "British Empire Games", "British Empire and Commonwealth Games", "British Commonwealth Games" ]

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"target_page_ids": [ 11396466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hartford, Vermont, a town", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 137458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hartford (village), Vermont, in the town", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 2824961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hartford, West Virginia", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 138493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hartford, Wisconsin, a city", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 141723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hartford (town), Wisconsin, neighboring the city", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 139939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hartford (surname)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 39233498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Hartford Financial Services Group, Inc., a company based in Hartford, Connecticut", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3902314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " USS Hartford (1858), Admiral David Farragut's flagship in the American Civil War", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1174146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " University of Hartford, a private university located in West Hartford, Connecticut", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 498528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hartford Blues, American football team that played in the NFL in 1926", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 239760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hartford Hawks, the athletic program of the University of Hartford", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 24573382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harford (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1333257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hartford City (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1215526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hertford (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27039295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " New Hartford (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 674594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Cuneiform is an ancient writing system originating in Mesopotamia.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 350137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cuneiform (from the Latin word for \"wedge-shaped\") may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cuneiform bones, in the human foot", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 350138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cuneiform cartilages, in the human larynx", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4197622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cuneiform Records, a music record label", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 350283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CuneiForm (software), an optical character recognition tool", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14679575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cuneiform (Unicode block)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7411226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cuneiform (programming language)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 51797637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "ReiserFS is a general-purpose, journaling file system initially designed and implemented by a team at Namesys led by Hans Reiser and licensed under GPLv2. Introduced in version 2.4.1 of the Linux kernel, it was the first journaling file system to be included in the standard kernel. ReiserFS was the default file system in Novell's SUSE Linux Enterprise until Novell decided to move to ext3 on October 12, 2006, for future releases.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23455133, 1042081, 350815, 18938683, 21347315, 169366, 39195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 53 ], [ 102, 109 ], [ 117, 128 ], [ 148, 153 ], [ 191, 203 ], [ 324, 330 ], [ 387, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Namesys considered ReiserFS version 3.6 which introduced a new on-disk format allowing bigger filesizes, now occasionally referred to as Reiser3, as stable and feature-complete and, with the exception of security updates and critical bug fixes, ceased development on it to concentrate on its successor, Reiser4. Namesys went out of business in 2008 after Reiser's conviction for murder. The product is now maintained as open source by volunteers. The reiserfsprogs 3.6.27 were released on 25 July 2017.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 412918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 303, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ReiserFS is currently supported on Linux without quota support. It has been discussed for removal from the Linux kernel since early 2022 due to a lack of maintenance upstream, and technical issues inherent to the filesystem, such as the fact it suffers from the year 2038 problem; it was deprecated in Linux 5.18, with removal planned for 2025.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6097297, 300127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 40 ], [ 262, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the time of its introduction, ReiserFS offered features that had not been available in existing Linux file systems. One example is tail packing—a scheme to reduce internal fragmentation. Tail packing can have a significant performance impact. Reiser4 may have improved this by packing tails where it does not negatively affect performance.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 10717583, 3909369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 146 ], [ 166, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ReiserFS stores file metadata (\"stat items\"), directory entries (\"directory items\"), inode block lists (\"indirect items\"), and tails of files (\"direct items\") in a single, combined B+ tree keyed by a universal object ID. Disk blocks allocated to nodes of the tree are \"formatted internal blocks\". Blocks for leaf nodes (in which items are packed end-to-end) are \"formatted leaf blocks\". All other blocks are \"unformatted blocks\" containing file contents. Directory items with too many entries or indirect items which are too long to fit into a node spill over into the right leaf neighbour. Block allocation is tracked by free space bitmaps in fixed locations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 5515027, 580170, 7077, 1326443, 24552509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 55 ], [ 85, 90 ], [ 136, 141 ], [ 181, 188 ], [ 625, 642 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By contrast, ext2 and other Berkeley FFS-like file systems of that time simply used a fixed formula for computing inode locations, hence limiting the number of files they may contain. Most such file systems also store directories as simple lists of entries, which makes directory lookups and updates linear time operations and degrades performance on very large directories. The single B+ tree design in ReiserFS avoids both of these problems due to better scalability properties.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 39194, 250992, 405944, 1326443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 17 ], [ 37, 40 ], [ 300, 311 ], [ 386, 393 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compared with ext2 and ext3 in version 2.4 of the Linux kernel, when dealing with files under 4KiB and with tail packing enabled, ReiserFS may be faster.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance", "target_page_ids": [ 39194, 39195, 3365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 18 ], [ 23, 27 ], [ 95, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before Linux 2.6.33, ReiserFS heavily used the big kernel lock (BKL)—a global kernel-wide lock—which does not scale well for systems with multiple cores, as the critical code parts are only ever executed by one core at a time.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance", "target_page_ids": [ 16951265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ReiserFS was the default file system in SuSE Linux since version 6.4 (released in 2000), until switching to ext3 in SUSE Linux Enterprise 10.2 and openSUSE 11, announced in 2006.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 39195, 2694626, 2399620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 112 ], [ 116, 137 ], [ 147, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jeff Mahoney of SUSE wrote a post on 14 September 2006 proposing to move from ReiserFS to ext3 for the default installation file system. Some reasons he mentioned were scalability, \"performance problems with extended attributes and ACLs\", \"a small and shrinking development community\", and that \"Reiser4 is not an incremental update and requires a reformat, which is unreasonable for most people.\" On October 4 he wrote a response comment on a blog in order to clear up some issues. He wrote that his proposal for the switch was unrelated to Hans Reiser being under trial for murder. Mahoney wrote he \"was concerned that people would make a connection where none existed\" and that \"the timing is entirely coincidental and the motivation is unrelated.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Usage", "target_page_ids": [ 39195, 3461936, 61589, 412918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 94 ], [ 208, 227 ], [ 232, 236 ], [ 296, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some directory operations (including (2)) are not synchronous on ReiserFS, which can result in data corruption with applications relying heavily on file-based locks (such as mail transfer agents qmail and Postfix) if the machine halts before it has synchronized the disk.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 28738, 20624, 198977, 1265916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 61 ], [ 174, 194 ], [ 195, 200 ], [ 205, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are no programs to specifically defragment a ReiserFS file system, although tools have been written to automatically copy the contents of fragmented files hoping that more contiguous blocks of free space can be found. However, a \"repacker\" tool was planned for the next Reiser4 file system to deal with file fragmentation. With the rise of Solid State Disks this problem became irrelevant.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 360339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The tree rebuild process of ReiserFS's fsck has attracted much criticism by the *nix community: If the file system becomes so badly corrupted that its internal tree is unusable, performing a tree rebuild operation may further corrupt existing files or introduce new entries with unexpected contents, but this action is not part of normal operation or a normal file system check and has to be explicitly initiated and confirmed by the administrator.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 79881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ReiserFS v3 images should not be stored on a ReiserFS v3 partition (e.g. backups or disk images for emulators) without transforming them (e.g., by compressing or encrypting) in order to avoid confusing the rebuild. Reformatting an existing ReiserFS v3 partition can also leave behind data that could confuse the rebuild operation and make files from the old system reappear. This also allows malicious users to intentionally store files that will confuse the rebuilder. As the metadata is always in a consistent state after a file system check, corruption here means that contents of files are merged in unexpected ways with the contained file system's metadata. The ReiserFS successor, Reiser4, fixes this problem.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 55380, 82921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 66 ], [ 84, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ReiserFS in versions of the Linux kernel before 2.4.16 were considered unstable by Namesys and not recommended for production use, especially in conjunction with NFS.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 51252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early implementations of ReiserFS (prior to that in Linux 2.6.2) were also susceptible to out-of-order write hazards. But the current journaling implementation in ReiserFS is now on par with that of ext3's \"ordered\" journaling level.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 39195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of file systems", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 760639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Comparison of file systems", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5356051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ReiserFS 3.6 at Linus Torvalds' Git repository – nowadays (2019) the main development resource of ReiserFS 3", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ReiserFS and Reiser4 wiki", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Reiserfsprogs", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " convertfs, a utility which performs in-place conversion between any two file systems with sparse file support", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gentoo Forum Link – Discussion on ReiserFS fragmentation, including a script for measuring fragmentation and defragmenting files", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Windows utilities to access ReiserFS: YAReG – Yet Another R(eiser)FStool GUI, rfsd – ReiserDriver.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "2001_software", "Disk_file_systems", "File_systems_supported_by_the_Linux_kernel" ]

[ "Reiser File System" ]

[ { "plaintext": "New Technology File System (NTFS) is a proprietary journaling file system developed by Microsoft. Starting with Windows NT 3.1, it is the default file system of the Windows NT family. It superseded File Allocation Table (FAT) as the preferred filesystem on Windows and is supported in Linux and BSD as well. NTFS reading and writing support is provided using a free and open-source kernel implementation known as NTFS3 in Linux and the NTFS-3G driver in BSD. By using the convert command, Windows can convert FAT32/16/12 into NTFS without the need to rewrite all files. NTFS uses several files typically hidden from the user to store metadata about other files stored on the drive which can help improve speed and performance when reading data. Unlike FAT and High Performance File System (HPFS), NTFS supports access control lists (ACLs), filesystem encryption, transparent compression, sparse files and file system journaling. NTFS also supports shadow copy to allow backups of a system while it is running, but the functionality of the shadow copies varies between different versions of Windows.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18934886, 23455133, 19001, 984882, 21291483, 53045, 18890, 6097297, 18932622, 1721496, 21347315, 8072127, 18932622, 21088110, 53045, 81598, 61589, 2631038, 23455133, 1516611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 50 ], [ 51, 73 ], [ 87, 96 ], [ 112, 126 ], [ 165, 175 ], [ 198, 219 ], [ 257, 264 ], [ 285, 290 ], [ 295, 298 ], [ 361, 381 ], [ 422, 427 ], [ 436, 443 ], [ 454, 457 ], [ 472, 479 ], [ 509, 514 ], [ 760, 788 ], [ 811, 830 ], [ 888, 899 ], [ 905, 927 ], [ 948, 959 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the mid-1980s, Microsoft and IBM formed a joint project to create the next generation of graphical operating system; the result was OS/2 and HPFS. Because Microsoft disagreed with IBM on many important issues, they eventually separated; OS/2 remained an IBM project and Microsoft worked to develop Windows NT and NTFS.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19001, 40379651, 22194, 22409, 81598, 21291483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 27 ], [ 32, 35 ], [ 102, 118 ], [ 135, 139 ], [ 144, 148 ], [ 301, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The HPFS file system for OS/2 contained several important new features. When Microsoft created their new operating system, they \"borrowed\" many of these concepts for NTFS. The original NTFS developers were Tom Miller, Gary Kimura, Brian Andrew, and David Goebel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 81598, 1032961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ], [ 206, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Probably as a result of this common ancestry, HPFS and NTFS use the same disk partition identification type code (07). Using the same Partition ID Record Number is highly unusual, since there were dozens of unused code numbers available, and other major file systems have their own codes. For example, FAT has more than nine (one each for FAT12, FAT16, FAT32, etc.). Algorithms identifying the file system in a partition type 07 must perform additional checks to distinguish between HPFS and NTFS.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 55380, 53045, 53045, 53045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 87 ], [ 339, 344 ], [ 346, 351 ], [ 353, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Microsoft has released five versions of NTFS:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The version number (e.g. v5.0 in Windows 2000) is based on the operating system version; it should not be confused with the NTFS version number (v3.1 since Windows XP).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although subsequent versions of Windows added new file system-related features, they did not change NTFS itself. For example, Windows Vista implemented NTFS symbolic links, Transactional NTFS, partition shrinking, and self-healing. NTFS symbolic links are a new feature in the file system; all the others are new operating system features that make use of NTFS features already in place.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2289648, 7441268, 4040791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 139 ], [ 152, 170 ], [ 173, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NTFS is optimized for 4KB clusters, but supports a maximum cluster size of 2MB. (Earlier implementations support up to 64KB) The maximum NTFS volume size that the specification can support is clusters, but not all implementations achieve this theoretical maximum, as discussed below.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scalability", "target_page_ids": [ 3365, 2906189, 3365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 25 ], [ 26, 34 ], [ 76, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The maximum NTFS volume size implemented in Windows XP Professional is clusters, partly due to partition table limitations. For example, using 64KB clusters, the maximum size Windows XP NTFS volume is 256TB minus 64KB. Using the default cluster size of 4KB, the maximum NTFS volume size is 16TB minus 4KB. Both of these are vastly higher than the 128GB limit in Windows XP SP1. Because partition tables on master boot record (MBR) disks support only partition sizes up to 2TB, multiple GUID Partition Table (GPT or \"dynamic\") volumes must be combined to create a single NTFS volume larger than 2TB. Booting from a GPT volume to a Windows environment in a Microsoft supported way requires a system with Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) and 64-bit support.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scalability", "target_page_ids": [ 3365, 3365, 3365, 33879, 2543892, 866065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 207 ], [ 216, 218 ], [ 351, 353 ], [ 363, 377 ], [ 487, 507 ], [ 703, 740 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The NTFS maximum theoretical limit on the size of individual files is 16EB ( or ) minus 1KB, which totals 18,446,744,073,709,550,592 bytes. With Windows 10 version 1709 and Windows Server 2019, the maximum implemented file size is 8PB minus 2MB or 9,007,199,252,643,840 bytes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scalability", "target_page_ids": [ 3365, 43989914, 56897306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 74 ], [ 145, 155 ], [ 173, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the different NTFS versions are for the most part fully forward- and backward-compatible, there are technical considerations for mounting newer NTFS volumes in older versions of Microsoft Windows. This affects dual-booting, and external portable hard drives. For example, attempting to use an NTFS partition with \"Previous Versions\" (Volume Shadow Copy) on an operating system that does not support it will result in the contents of those previous versions being lost. A Windows command-line utility called convert.exe can convert supporting file systems to NTFS, including HPFS (only on Windows NT 3.1, 3.5, and 3.51), FAT16 and FAT32 (on Windows 2000 and later).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interoperability", "target_page_ids": [ 305972, 4459, 1516611, 21088110, 81598, 53045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 69 ], [ 75, 94 ], [ 340, 358 ], [ 513, 524 ], [ 580, 584 ], [ 626, 631 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "FreeBSD 3.2 released in May 1999 included read-only NTFS support written by Semen Ustimenko. This implementation was ported to NetBSD by Christos Zoulas and Jaromir Dolecek and released with NetBSD 1.5 in December 2000. The FreeBSD implementation of NTFS was also ported to OpenBSD by Julien Bordet and offers native read-only NTFS support by default on i386 and amd64 platforms as of version 4.9 released 1 May 2011.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interoperability", "target_page_ids": [ 7580554, 28901365, 18949571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 127, 133 ], [ 274, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linux kernel versions 2.1.74 and later include a driver written by Martin von Löwis which has the ability to read NTFS partitions; kernel versions 2.5.11 and later contain a new driver written by Anton Altaparmakov (University of Cambridge) and Richard Russon which supports file read. The ability to write to files was introduced with kernel version 2.6.15 in 2006 which allows users to write to existing files but does not allow the creation of new ones. Paragon's NTFS driver (see below) has been merged into kernel version 5.15, and it supports read/write on normal, compressed and sparse files, as well as journal replaying.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interoperability", "target_page_ids": [ 21347315, 25978572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 216, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NTFS-3G is a free GPL-licensed FUSE implementation of NTFS that was initially developed as a Linux kernel driver by Szabolcs Szakacsits. It was re-written as a FUSE program to work on other systems that FUSE supports like macOS, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, Solaris, QNX, and Haiku and allows reading and writing to NTFS partitions. A performance enhanced commercial version of NTFS-3G, called \"Tuxera NTFS for Mac\", is also available from the NTFS-3G developers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interoperability", "target_page_ids": [ 8072127, 18938683, 20640, 18949571, 65184, 554281, 38914995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 18, 21 ], [ 222, 227 ], [ 246, 253 ], [ 264, 267 ], [ 273, 278 ], [ 392, 398 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Captive NTFS, a 'wrapping' driver that uses Windows' own driver , exists for Linux. It was built as a Filesystem in Userspace (FUSE) program and released under the GPL but work on Captive NTFS ceased in 2006.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interoperability", "target_page_ids": [ 1628542, 1219082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 102, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linux kernel versions 5.15 onwards carry NTFS3, a fully functional NTFS Read-Write driver which works on NTFS versions up to 3.1 and is maintained primarily by the Paragon Software Group with the source code found here.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interoperability", "target_page_ids": [ 16889689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mac OS X 10.3 included Ustimenko's read-only implementation of NTFS from FreeBSD. Then in 2006 Apple hired Anton Altaparmakov to write a new NTFS implementation for Mac OS X 10.6. Native NTFS write support is included in 10.6 and later, but is not activated by default, although workarounds do exist to enable the functionality. However, user reports indicate the functionality is unstable and tends to cause kernel panics.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interoperability", "target_page_ids": [ 293355, 14059031, 221277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 165, 178 ], [ 409, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paragon Software Group sells a read-write driver named NTFS for Mac OS X, which is also included on some models of Seagate hard drives. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interoperability", "target_page_ids": [ 16889689, 328029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 115, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The NetDrive package for OS/2 (and derivatives such as eComStation and ArcaOS) supports a plugin which allows read and write access to NTFS volumes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interoperability", "target_page_ids": [ 22409, 1645556, 54092256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 29 ], [ 55, 66 ], [ 71, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a free-for-personal-use read/write driver for MS-DOS by Avira called \"NTFS4DOS\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interoperability", "target_page_ids": [ 21291954, 30871197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 61 ], [ 65, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ahead Software developed a \"NTFSREAD\" driver (version 1.200) for DR-DOS 7.0x between 2002 and 2004. It was part of their Nero Burning ROM software.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Interoperability", "target_page_ids": [ 1488945, 66086, 30864422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 65, 71 ], [ 121, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NTFS uses access control lists and user-level encryption to help secure user data.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Security", "target_page_ids": [ 61589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In NTFS, each file or folder is assigned a security descriptor that defines its owner and contains two access control lists (ACLs). The first ACL, called discretionary access control list (DACL), defines exactly what type of interactions (e.g. reading, writing, executing or deleting) are allowed or forbidden by which user or groups of users. For example, files in the folder may be read and executed by all users but modified only by a user holding administrative privileges. Windows Vista adds mandatory access control info to DACLs. DACLs are the primary focus of User Account Control in Windows Vista and later.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Security", "target_page_ids": [ 13443417, 61589, 881518, 879900, 4359671, 2289648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 62 ], [ 103, 122 ], [ 154, 182 ], [ 498, 522 ], [ 569, 589 ], [ 593, 606 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The second ACL, called system access control list (SACL), defines which interactions with the file or folder are to be audited and whether they should be logged when the activity is successful, failed or both. For example, auditing can be enabled on sensitive files of a company, so that its managers get to know when someone tries to delete them or make a copy of them, and whether he or she succeeds.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Encrypting File System (EFS) provides user-transparent encryption of any file or folder on an NTFS volume. EFS works in conjunction with the EFS service, Microsoft's CryptoAPI and the EFS File System Run-Time Library (FSRTL). EFS works by encrypting a file with a bulk symmetric key (also known as the File Encryption Key, or FEK), which is used because it takes a relatively small amount of time to encrypt and decrypt large amounts of data than if an asymmetric key cipher is used. The symmetric key that is used to encrypt the file is then encrypted with a public key that is associated with the user who encrypted the file, and this encrypted data is stored in an alternate data stream of the encrypted file. To decrypt the file, the file system uses the private key of the user to decrypt the symmetric key that is stored in the data stream. It then uses the symmetric key to decrypt the file. Because this is done at the file system level, it is transparent to the user. Also, in case of a user losing access to their key, support for additional decryption keys has been built into the EFS system, so that a recovery agent can still access the files if needed. NTFS-provided encryption and NTFS-provided compression are mutually exclusive; however, NTFS can be used for one and a third-party tool for the other.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Security", "target_page_ids": [ 628391, 3302413, 53042, 24222, 24222, 24222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 166, 175 ], [ 269, 282 ], [ 453, 467 ], [ 560, 570 ], [ 759, 770 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The support of EFS is not available in Basic, Home, and MediaCenter versions of Windows, and must be activated after installation of Professional, Ultimate, and Server versions of Windows or by using enterprise deployment tools within Windows domains.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Security", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NTFS is a journaling file system and uses the NTFS Log ($LogFile) to record metadata changes to the volume. It is a feature that FAT does not provide and critical for NTFS to ensure that its complex internal data structures will remain consistent in case of system crashes or data moves performed by the defragmentation API, and allow easy rollback of uncommitted changes to these critical data structures when the volume is remounted. Notably affected structures are the volume allocation bitmap, modifications to Master File Table records such as moves of some variable-length attributes stored in MFT records and attribute lists, and indices for directories and security descriptors.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 23455133, 360339, 13443417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 32 ], [ 304, 319 ], [ 665, 684 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ($LogFile) format has evolved through several versions:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The incompatibility of the $LogFile versions implemented by Windows 8.1 and Windows 10 prevents Windows 8 (and earlier versions of Windows) from recognizing version 2.0 of the $LogFile. Backward compatibility is provided by downgrading the $LogFile to version 1.1 when an NTFS volume is cleanly dismounted. It is again upgraded to version 2.0 when mounting on a compatible version of Windows. However, when hibernating to disk in the logoff state (a.k.a. Hybrid Boot or Fast Boot, which is enabled by default), mounted file systems are not dismounted, and thus the $LogFiles of any active file systems are not downgraded to version 1.1. The inability to process version 2.0 of the $LogFile by versions of Windows older than 8.1 results in an unnecessary invocation of the CHKDSK disk repair utility. This is particularly a concern in a multi-boot scenario involving pre- and post-8.1 versions of Windows, or when frequently moving a storage device between older and newer versions. A Windows Registry setting exists to prevent the automatic upgrade of the $LogFile to the newer version. The problem can also be dealt with by disabling Hybrid Boot.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 38993942, 43989914, 24806506, 1909823, 494756, 1164933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 71 ], [ 76, 86 ], [ 96, 105 ], [ 772, 778 ], [ 836, 846 ], [ 984, 1000 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The USN Journal (Update Sequence Number Journal) is a system management feature that records (in $Extend\\$UsnJrnl) changes to files, streams and directories on the volume, as well as their various attributes and security settings. The journal is made available for applications to track changes to the volume. This journal can be enabled or disabled on non-system volumes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 12686083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The hard link feature allows different file names to directly refer to the same file contents. Hard links may link only to files in the same volume, because each volume has its own Master File Table.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 496957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hard links were originally included to support the POSIX subsystem in Windows NT.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 23305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Hard links use the same MFT record (inode) which records file metadata such as file size, modification date, and attributes, NTFS also caches this data in the directory entry as a performance enhancement. This means that when listing the contents of a directory using FindFirstFile/FindNextFile family of APIs, (equivalent to the POSIX opendir/readdir APIs) you will also receive this cached information, in addition to the name and inode. However, you may not see up-to-date information, as this information is only guaranteed to be updated when a file is closed, and then only for the directory from which the file was opened. This means where a file has multiple names via hard links, updating a file via one name does not update the cached data associated with the other name. You can always obtain up-to-date data using GetFileInformationByHandle (which is the true equivalent of POSIX stat function). This can be done using a handle which has no access to the file itself (passing zero to CreateFile for dwDesiredAccess), and closing this handle has the incidental effect of updating the cached information.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 580170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Windows uses hard links to support short (8.3) filenames in NTFS. Operating system support is needed because there are legacy applications that can work only with 8.3 filenames, but support can be disabled. In this case, an additional filename record and directory entry is added, but both 8.3 and long file name are linked and updated together, unlike a regular hard link.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 60247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The NTFS file system has a limit of 1024 hard links on a file.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 496957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alternate data streams allow more than one data stream to be associated with a filename (a fork), using the format \"filename:streamname\" (e.g., \"text.txt:extrastream\").", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2761533, 1418605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 54 ], [ 91, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NTFS Streams were introduced in Windows NT 3.1, to enable Services for Macintosh (SFM) to store resource forks. Although current versions of Windows Server no longer include SFM, third-party Apple Filing Protocol (AFP) products (such as GroupLogic's ExtremeZ-IP) still use this feature of the file system. Very small ADSs (named \"Zone.Identifier\") are added by Internet Explorer and recently by other browsers to mark files downloaded from external sites as possibly unsafe to run; the local shell would then require user confirmation before opening them. When the user indicates that they no longer want this confirmation dialog, this ADS is deleted.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 984882, 146655, 547707, 21798166, 21730228, 15215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 46 ], [ 96, 109 ], [ 191, 212 ], [ 237, 247 ], [ 250, 261 ], [ 361, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alternate streams are not listed in Windows Explorer, and their size is not included in the file's size. When the file is copied or moved to another file system without ADS support the user is warned that alternate data streams cannot be preserved. No such warning is typically provided if the file is attached to an e-mail, or uploaded to a website. Thus, using alternate streams for critical data may cause problems. Microsoft provides a tool called Streams to view streams on a selected volume. Starting with Windows PowerShell 3.0, it is possible to manage ADS natively with six cmdlets: Add-Content, Clear-Content, Get-Content, Get-Item, Remove-Item, Set-Content.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 14465871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 512, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Malware has used alternate data streams to hide code. As a result, malware scanners and other special tools now check for alternate data streams.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 20901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compression is enabled on a per-folder or per-file basis by setting the 'compressed' attribute. When compression is enabled on a folder, any files moved or saved to that folder will be automatically compressed using LZNT1 algorithm (a variant of LZ77). The compression algorithm is designed to support cluster sizes of up to 4KB; when the cluster size is greater than 4KB on an NTFS volume, NTFS compression is not available. Data is compressed in 16-cluster chunks (up to 64KB in size); if the compression reduces 64KB of data to 60KB or less, NTFS treats the unneeded 4KB pages like empty sparse file clusters—they are not written. This allows for reasonable random-access times as the OS merely has to follow the chain of fragments.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 8013, 75855, 2631038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 209 ], [ 246, 250 ], [ 591, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compression works best with files that have repetitive content, are seldom written, are usually accessed sequentially, and are not themselves compressed. Single-user systems with limited hard disk space can benefit from NTFS compression for small files, from 4KB to 64KB or more, depending on compressibility. Files smaller than approximately 900bytes are stored within the directory entry of the Master File Table.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Users of fast multi-core processors will find improvements in application speed by compressing their applications and data as well as a reduction in space used. Even when SSD controllers already compress data, there is still a reduction in I/Os since less data is transferred.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 3503207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to research by Microsoft's NTFS Development team, 50–60GB is a reasonable maximum size for a compressed file on an NTFS volume with a 4KB (default) cluster (block) size. This reasonable maximum size decreases sharply for volumes with smaller cluster sizes. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 3365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Large compressible files become highly fragmented since every chunk smaller than 64KB becomes a fragment. Flash memory, such as SSD drives do not have the head movement delays and high access time of mechanical hard disk drives, so fragmentation has only a smaller penalty.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 7366298, 32279697, 13777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 131 ], [ 185, 196 ], [ 211, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If system files that are needed at boot time (such as drivers, NTLDR, winload.exe, or BOOTMGR) are compressed, the system may fail to boot correctly, because decompression filters are not yet loaded. Later editions of Windows do not allow important system files to be compressed.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since Windows 10, Microsoft has introduced new file compression scheme based on the XPRESS algorithm with 4K/8K/16K block size and the LZX algorithm; both are variants of LZ77 updated with Huffman entropy coding and range coding, which LZNT1 lacked. These compression algorithms were taken from Windows Imaging Format (WIM file).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 43989914, 739430, 75855, 13883, 46120, 3632045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 16 ], [ 135, 138 ], [ 171, 175 ], [ 189, 211 ], [ 216, 228 ], [ 295, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The new compression scheme is used by CompactOS feature, which reduces disk usage by compressing Windows system files. CompactOS is not an extension of NTFS file compression and does not use the 'compressed' attribute; instead, it sets a reparse point on each compressed file with a WOF (Windows Overlay Filter) tag, but the actual data is stored in an alternate data stream named \"WofCompressedData\", which is decompressed on-the-fly by a WOF filesystem filter driver, and the main file is an empty sparse file. This design is meant purely for read-only access, so any writes to compressed files result in an automatic decompression.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 7414598, 654509, 2631038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 251 ], [ 444, 461 ], [ 500, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CompactOS compression is intended for OEMs who prepare OS images with the flag of the tool in Windows ADK, but it can also be manually turned on per file with the flag of the command. CompactOS algorithm avoids file fragmentation by writing compressed data in contiguously allocated chunks, unlike core NTFS compression.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 69922, 17921227, 17921227, 3909369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 41 ], [ 87, 91 ], [ 95, 106 ], [ 214, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CompactOS file compression is an improved version of WIMBoot feature introduced in Windows 8.1. WIMBoot reduces Windows disk usage by keeping system files in a compressed WIM image on a separate hidden disk partition. Similarly to CompactOS, Windows system directories only contain sparse files marked by a reparse point with a WOF tag, and Windows Overlay Filter driver decompresses file contents on-the-fly from the WIM image. WIMBoot is less effective than CompactOS though, as new updated versions of system files need to be written to the system partition, consuming disk space.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 38993942, 3632045, 55380, 2631038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 94 ], [ 160, 180 ], [ 202, 216 ], [ 282, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sparse files are files interspersed with empty segments for which no actual storage space is used. To the applications, the file looks like an ordinary file with empty regions seen as regions filled with zeros; the file system maintains an internal list of such regions for each sparse file. A sparse file does not necessarily include sparse zeros areas; the \"sparse file\" attribute just means that the file is allowed to have them.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2631038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Database applications, for instance, may use sparse files. As with compressed files, the actual sizes of sparse files are not taken into account when determining quota limits.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Volume Shadow Copy Service (VSS) keeps historical versions of files and folders on NTFS volumes by copying old, newly overwritten data to shadow copy via copy-on-write technique. The user may later request an earlier version to be recovered. This also allows data backup programs to archive files currently in use by the file system.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 1516611, 407603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 36 ], [ 158, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Windows Vista also introduced persistent shadow copies for use with System Restore and Previous Versions features. Persistent shadow copies, however, are deleted when an older operating system mounts that NTFS volume. This happens because the older operating system does not understand the newer format of persistent shadow copies.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2029255, 1516611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 82 ], [ 87, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of Windows Vista, applications can use Transactional NTFS (TxF) to group multiple changes to files together into a single transaction. The transaction will guarantee that either all of the changes happen, or none of them do, and that no application outside the transaction will see the changes until they are committed.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 4040791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It uses similar techniques as those used for Volume Shadow Copies (i.e. copy-on-write) to ensure that overwritten data can be safely rolled back, and a CLFS log to mark the transactions that have still not been committed, or those that have been committed but still not fully applied (in case of system crash during a commit by one of the participants).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 13911933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Transactional NTFS does not restrict transactions to just the local NTFS volume, but also includes other transactional data or operations in other locations such as data stored in separate volumes, the local registry, or SQL databases, or the current states of system services or remote services. These transactions are coordinated network-wide with all participants using a specific service, the DTC, to ensure that all participants will receive same commit state, and to transport the changes that have been validated by any participant (so that the others can invalidate their local caches for old data or rollback their ongoing uncommitted changes). Transactional NTFS allows, for example, the creation of network-wide consistent distributed file systems, including with their local live or offline caches.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 4560563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 397, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Microsoft now advises against using TxF: \"Microsoft strongly recommends developers utilize alternative means\" since \"TxF may not be available in future versions of Microsoft Windows\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Disk quotas were introduced in NTFS v3. They allow the administrator of a computer that runs a version of Windows that supports NTFS to set a threshold of disk space that users may use. It also allows administrators to keep track of how much disk space each user is using. An administrator may specify a certain level of disk space that a user may use before they receive a warning, and then deny access to the user once they hit their upper limit of space. Disk quotas do not take into account NTFS's transparent file-compression, should this be enabled. Applications that query the amount of free space will also see the amount of free space left to the user who has a quota applied to them.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 769280, 8013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 514, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Introduced in NTFS v3, NTFS reparse points are used by associating a reparse tag in the user space attribute of a file or directory. Microsoft includes several default tags including symbolic links, directory junction points and volume mount points. When the Object Manager parses a file system name lookup and encounters a reparse attribute, it will reparse the name lookup, passing the user controlled reparse data to every file system filter driver that is loaded into Windows. Each filter driver examines the reparse data to see whether it is associated with that reparse point, and if that filter driver determines a match, then it intercepts the file system request and performs its special functionality.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 7441268, 7441268, 13289509, 12320794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 196 ], [ 199, 223 ], [ 229, 247 ], [ 259, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Starting with Windows Vista Microsoft added the built-in ability to shrink or expand a partition. However, this ability does not relocate page file fragments or files that have been marked as unmovable, so shrinking a volume will often require relocating or disabling any page file, the index of Windows Search, and any Volume Shadow Copy used by System Restore. Various third-party tools are capable of resizing NTFS partitions.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Limitations", "target_page_ids": [ 2289648, 311193, 16575118, 2029255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 27 ], [ 272, 281 ], [ 296, 310 ], [ 347, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 2017, Microsoft requires the OneDrive file structure to reside on an NTFS disk. This is because OneDrive Files On-Demand feature uses NTFS reparse points to link files and folders that are stored in OneDrive to the local filesystem, making the file or folder unusable with any previous version of Windows, with any other NTFS file system driver, or any file system and backup utilities not updated to support it.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Limitations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NTFS is made up of several components including: a partition boot sector (PBS) that holds boot information; the master file table that stores a record of all files and folders in the filesystem; a series of meta files that help structure meta data more efficiently; data streams and locking mechanisms.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Internally, NTFS uses B-trees to index file system data. A file system journal is used to guarantee the integrity of the file system metadata but not individual files' content. Systems using NTFS are known to have improved reliability compared to FAT file systems.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 4674, 23455133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ], [ 59, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NTFS allows any sequence of 16-bit values for name encoding (e.g. file names, stream names or index names) except 0x0000. This means UTF-16 code units are supported, but the file system does not check whether a sequence is valid UTF-16 (it allows any sequence of short values, not restricted to those in the Unicode standard). In Win32 namespace, any UTF-16 code units are case insensitive whereas in POSIX namespace they are case sensitive. File names are limited to 255 UTF-16 code units. Certain names are reserved in the volume root directory and cannot be used for files. These are , , , , , (dot), , , , , , and . (dot) and are both directories; the others are files. The NT kernel limits full paths to 32,767 UTF-16 code units. There are some additional restrictions on code points and file names.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 40317, 14794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 139 ], [ 263, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This boot partition format is roughly based upon the earlier FAT filesystem, but the fields are in different locations. Some of these fields, especially the \"sectors per track\", \"number of heads\" and \"hidden sectors\" fields may contain dummy values on drives where they either do not make sense or are not determinable.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 53045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The OS first looks at the 8 bytes at 0x30 to find the cluster number of the $MFT, then multiplies that number by the number of sectors per cluster (1 byte found at 0x0D). This value is the sector offset (LBA) to the $MFT, which is described below.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 404839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In NTFS, all file, directory and Metafiles data—file name, creation date, access permissions (by the use of access control lists), and size—are stored as metadata in the Master File Table (MFT). This abstract approach allowed easy addition of file system features during Windows NT's development—an example is the addition of fields for indexing used by the Active Directory and the Windows Search. This also enables fast file search software to locate named local files and folders included in the MFT very quickly, without requiring any other index.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 61589, 2807, 16575118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 127 ], [ 358, 374 ], [ 383, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The MFT structure supports algorithms which minimize disk fragmentation. A directory entry consists of a filename and a \"file ID\" (analogous to the inode number), which is the record number representing the file in the Master File Table. The file ID also contains a reuse count to detect stale references. While this strongly resembles the W_FID of Files-11, other NTFS structures radically differ.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 8429119, 580170, 711539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 71 ], [ 148, 160 ], [ 349, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A partial copy of the MFT, called the MFT mirror, is stored to be used in case of corruption. If the first record of the MFT is corrupted, NTFS reads the second record to find the MFT mirror file. Locations for both files are stored in the boot sector.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NTFS contains several files that define and organize the file system. In all respects, most of these files are structured like any other user file ($Volume being the most peculiar), but are not of direct interest to file system clients. These metafiles define files, back up critical file system data, buffer file system changes, manage free space allocation, satisfy BIOS expectations, track bad allocation units, and store security and disk space usage information. All content is in an unnamed data stream, unless otherwise indicated.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 4473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 368, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These metafiles are treated specially by Windows, handled directly by the driver and are difficult to directly view: special purpose-built tools are needed. As of Windows 7, the NTFS driver completely prohibits user access, resulting in a BSoD whenever an attempt to execute a metadata file is made. One such tool is the nfi.exe (\"NTFS File Sector Information Utility\") that is freely distributed as part of the Microsoft \"OEM Support Tools\". For example, to obtain information on the \"$MFT\"-Master File Table Segment the following command is used: Another way to bypass the restriction is to use 7-Zip's file manager and go to the low-level NTFS path (where resembles any drive/partition). Here, 3 new folders will appear: , (a pseudo-folder that 7-Zip uses to attach files deleted from the file system to view), and (another pseudo-folder that contains all the NTFS metadata files). This trick can be used from removable devices (USB flash drives, external hard drives, SD Cards, etc.) inside Windows, but doing this on the active partition requires offline access (namely WinRE).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 18909256, 322689, 32073, 13777, 315794, 2550813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 240, 244 ], [ 599, 604 ], [ 938, 941 ], [ 956, 976 ], [ 978, 985 ], [ 1081, 1086 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For each file (or directory) described in the MFT record, there is a linear repository of stream descriptors (also named attributes), packed together in one or more MFT records (containing the so-called attributes list), with extra padding to fill the fixed 1KB size of every MFT record, and that fully describes the effective streams associated with that file.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Each attribute has an attribute type (a fixed-size integer mapping to an attribute definition in file $AttrDef), an optional attribute name (for example, used as the name for an alternate data stream), and a value, represented in a sequence of bytes. For NTFS, the standard data of files, the alternate data streams, or the index data for directories are stored as attributes.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to $AttrDef, some attributes can be either resident or non-resident. The $DATA attribute, which contains file data, is such an example. When the attribute is resident (which is represented by a flag), its value is stored directly in the MFT record. Otherwise, clusters are allocated for the data, and the cluster location information is stored as data runs in the attribute.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " For each file in the MFT, the attributes identified by attribute type, attribute name must be unique. Additionally, NTFS has some ordering constraints for these attributes.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " There is a predefined null attribute type, used to indicate the end of the list of attributes in one MFT record. It must be present as the last attribute in the record (all other storage space available after it will be ignored and just consists of padding bytes to match the record size in the MFT).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Some attribute types are required and must be present in each MFT record, except unused records that are just indicated by null attribute types.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " This is the case for the $STANDARD_INFORMATION attribute that is stored as a fixed-size record and contains the timestamps and other basic single-bit attributes (compatible with those managed by FAT in DOS or Windows 9x).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 735430, 53045, 454486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 122 ], [ 196, 199 ], [ 210, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Some attribute types cannot have a name and must remain anonymous.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " This is the case for the standard attributes, or for the preferred NTFS \"filename\" attribute type, or the \"short filename\" attribute type, when it is also present (for compatibility with DOS-like applications, see below). It is also possible for a file to contain only a short filename, in which case it will be the preferred one, as listed in the Windows Explorer.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The filename attributes stored in the attribute list do not make the file immediately accessible through the hierarchical file system. In fact, all the filenames must be indexed separately in at least one other directory on the same volume. There it must have its own MFT record and its own security descriptors and attributes that reference the MFT record number for this file. This allows the same file or directory to be \"hardlinked\" several times from several containers on the same volume, possibly with distinct filenames.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 13443417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 292, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The default data stream of a regular file is a stream of type $DATA but with an anonymous name, and the ADSs are similar but must be named.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " On the other hand, the default data stream of directories has a distinct type, but are not anonymous: they have an attribute name (\"$I30\" in NTFS 3+) that reflects its indexing format.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All attributes of a given file may be displayed by using the nfi.exe (\"NTFS File Sector Information Utility\") that is freely distributed as part of the Microsoft \"OEM Support Tools\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Windows system calls may handle alternate data streams. Depending on the operating system, utility and remote file system, a file transfer might silently strip data streams. A safe way of copying or moving files is to use the BackupRead and BackupWrite system calls, which allow programs to enumerate streams, to verify whether each stream should be written to the destination volume and to knowingly skip unwanted streams.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To optimize the storage and reduce the I/O overhead for the very common case of attributes with very small associated value, NTFS prefers to place the value within the attribute itself (if the size of the attribute does not then exceed the maximum size of an MFT record), instead of using the MFT record space to list clusters containing the data; in that case, the attribute will not store the data directly but will just store an allocation map (in the form of data runs) pointing to the actual data stored elsewhere on the volume. When the value can be accessed directly from within the attribute, it is called \"resident data\" (by computer forensics workers). The amount of data that fits is highly dependent on the file's characteristics, but 700 to 800 bytes is common in single-stream files with non-lengthy filenames and no ACLs.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 615799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 634, 652 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Some attributes (such as the preferred filename, the basic file attributes) cannot be made non-resident. For non-resident attributes, their allocation map must fit within MFT records.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Encrypted-by-NTFS, sparse data streams, or compressed data streams cannot be made resident.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The format of the allocation map for non-resident attributes depends on its capability of supporting sparse data storage. In the current implementation of NTFS, once a non-resident data stream has been marked and converted as sparse, it cannot be changed back to non-sparse data, so it cannot become resident again, unless this data is fully truncated, discarding the sparse allocation map completely.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " When a non-resident attribute is so fragmented, that its effective allocation map cannot fit entirely within one MFT record, NTFS stores the attribute in multiple records. The first one among them is called the base record, while the others are called extension records. NTFS creates a special attribute $ATTRIBUTE_LIST to store information mapping different parts of the long attribute to the MFT records, which means the allocation map may be split into multiple records. The $ATTRIBUTE_LIST itself can also be non-resident, but its own allocation map must fit within one MFT record.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " When there are too many attributes for a file (including ADS's, extended attributes, or security descriptors), so that they cannot fit all within the MFT record, extension records may also be used to store the other attributes, using the same format as the one used in the base MFT record, but without the space constraints of one MFT record.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 13443417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The allocation map is stored in a form of data runs with compressed encoding. Each data run represents a contiguous group of clusters that store the attribute value. For files on a multi-GB volume, each entry can be encoded as 5 to 7 bytes, which means a 1 KB MFT record can store about 100 such data runs. However, as the $ATTRIBUTE_LIST also has a size limit, it is dangerous to have more than 1 million fragments of a single file on an NTFS volume, which also implies that it is in general not a good idea to use NTFS compression on a file larger than 10GB.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The NTFS file system driver will sometimes attempt to relocate the data of some of the attributes that can be made non-resident into the clusters, and will also attempt to relocate the data stored in clusters back to the attribute inside the MFT record, based on priority and preferred ordering rules, and size constraints.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since resident files do not directly occupy clusters (\"allocation units\"), it is possible for an NTFS volume to contain more files on a volume than there are clusters. For example, a 74.5GB partition NTFS formats with 19,543,064 clusters of 4KB. Subtracting system files (a 64MB log file, a 2,442,888-byte Bitmap file, and about 25 clusters of fixed overhead) leaves 19,526,158 clusters free for files and indices. Since there are four MFT records per cluster, this volume theoretically could hold almost 4 × 19,526,158= 78,104,632 resident files.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Opportunistic file locks (oplocks) allow clients to alter their buffering strategy for a given file or stream in order to increase performance and reduce network use. Oplocks apply to the given open stream of a file and do not affect oplocks on a different stream.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Oplocks can be used to transparently access files in the background. A network client may avoid writing information into a file on a remote server if no other process is accessing the data, or it may buffer read-ahead data if no other process is writing data.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Windows supports four different types of oplocks:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Level 2 (or shared) oplock: multiple readers, no writers (i.e. read caching).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Level 1 (or exclusive) oplock: exclusive access with arbitrary buffering (i.e. read and write caching).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Batch oplock (also exclusive): a stream is opened on the server, but closed on the client machine (i.e. read, write and handle caching).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Filter oplock (also exclusive): applications and file system filters can \"back out\" when others try to access the same stream (i.e. read and write caching) (since Windows 2000)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Opportunistic locks have been enhanced in Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 with per-client oplock keys.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Windows NT and its descendants keep internal timestamps as UTC and make the appropriate conversions for display purposes; all NTFS timestamps are in UTC.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 25453500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For historical reasons, the versions of Windows that do not support NTFS all keep time internally as local zone time, and therefore so do all file systems – other than NTFS – that are supported by current versions of Windows. This means that when files are copied or moved between NTFS and non-NTFS partitions, the OS needs to convert timestamps on the fly. But if some files are moved when daylight saving time (DST) is in effect, and other files are moved when standard time is in effect, there can be some ambiguities in the conversions. As a result, especially shortly after one of the days on which local zone time changes, users may observe that some files have timestamps that are incorrect by one hour. Due to the differences in implementation of DST in different jurisdictions, this can result in a potential timestamp error of up to 4hours in any given 12months.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 47548, 655358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 391, 411 ], [ 463, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Comparison of file systems", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5356051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NTFSDOS", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6381133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ntfsresize", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2118862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " WinFS (a canceled Microsoft filesystem)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 521590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ReFS, a newer Microsoft filesystem", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31975089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] } ]

[ "Compression_file_systems", "Windows_disk_file_systems", "1993_software" ]

[ "New Technology File System" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Johan August Arfwedson (12 January 1792 28 October 1841) was a Swedish chemist who discovered the chemical element lithium in 1817 by isolating it as a salt.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5058739, 5636, 5659, 17561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 72 ], [ 73, 80 ], [ 100, 116 ], [ 117, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arfwedson belonged to a wealthy bourgeois family, the son of the wholesale merchant and factory owner Jacob Arfwedson and his spouse, Anna Elisabeth Holtermann. The younger Arfwedson matriculated as a student at the University of Uppsala in 1803 (at the time, matriculating at a young age was common for aristocratic and wealthy students), completed a degree in Law in 1809 and a second degree in mineralogy in 1812. In the latter year, he received an unpaid position in the Royal Board of Mines, where he advanced to the position of notary (still without a salary) in 1814.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 31801, 19883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 237 ], [ 397, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Stockholm, Arfwedson knew the chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius and received access to his private laboratory, where he discovered the element lithium in 1817, during analysis of the mineral petalite. The actual isolation of lithium metal would be done by others.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 26741, 23701666, 17561, 184331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 41, 61 ], [ 141, 148 ], [ 189, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1818 and 1819, Arfwedson made a European journey, partly in the society of Berzelius. After coming home, Arfwedson built his own laboratory on his estate. He spent the larger part of his remaining life administering and multiplying his inherited wealth.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1821.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 210815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rare mineral arfvedsonite was named after him.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and work", "target_page_ids": [ 19053, 1631738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 16 ], [ 17, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Humphry Davy", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Thomas Brande", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2162575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] } ]

[ "1792_births", "1841_deaths", "19th-century_Swedish_chemists", "Uppsala_University_alumni", "Discoverers_of_chemical_elements", "Members_of_the_Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences", "Lithium" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A semi-automatic rifle is an autoloading rifle that fires a single cartridge with each pull of the trigger, and uses part of the fired cartridge's energy to eject the case and load another cartridge into the chamber. For comparison, a bolt-action rifle requires the user to cycle the bolt manually before they can fire a second time, and a fully automatic rifle fires continuously until the trigger is released.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3032011, 79270, 4633039, 94166, 390237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 46 ], [ 67, 76 ], [ 99, 106 ], [ 235, 246 ], [ 340, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first design of a recoil-operated semi-automatic rifle is attributed to Ferdinand Mannlicher, who unveiled the design in 1885 based on work begun in 1883. Other non-gas operated semi-automatic models were the Model 85 and Mannlicher Models 91, 93 and 95 rifles. The designs were deeply flawed and never made past the conceptual/prototype stage due to issues inherent to the black powder used in their cartridges (based around the Austrian 11×58mmR M/77), such as insufficient velocity and excessive fouling; automatic firearms would only become feasible after smokeless powder became widespread. Mannlicher's designs were, nonetheless, the forerunner of automatic rifles and served as a base for a number of future weapons, such as Browning machine guns (M1917, M1919 and M2) and the Lewis gun. Furthermore, from the early 1890s up until his death in 1904, Mannlicher produced smokeless powder versions of his guns.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2503707, 12737, 43515219, 2862625, 860000, 148837, 1205661, 30863956, 246727, 240872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 96 ], [ 378, 390 ], [ 443, 456 ], [ 503, 510 ], [ 564, 580 ], [ 736, 744 ], [ 759, 764 ], [ 766, 771 ], [ 776, 778 ], [ 788, 797 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1903 and 1905, the Winchester Repeating Arms Company introduced the first low-power blowback (non-gas operated) semi-automatic rimfire and centerfire rifles. The Winchester Model 1903 and Winchester Model 1905 operated on the principle of blowback to function semi-automatically. Designed by T.C. Johnson, the Model 1903 achieved commercial success and continued to be manufactured until 1932, when the Winchester Model 63 replaced it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1533534, 1231618, 540296, 506294, 26658853, 20897815, 1231618, 19961821, 26658853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 55 ], [ 87, 95 ], [ 130, 137 ], [ 142, 152 ], [ 165, 186 ], [ 191, 212 ], [ 242, 250 ], [ 295, 307 ], [ 406, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the early 20th century, several manufacturers had introduced semi-automatic .22 rifles, including Winchester, Remington, Fabrique Nationale, and Savage Arms, all using the direct blowback system of operation. Winchester introduced a .351 Winchester Self-Loading semi-automatic rifle, the Model 1907, as an upgrade to the Model 1905, utilizing a blowback system of operation, offering more power than its .22 counterpart. Both the Model 1905 and Model 1907 saw limited military and police use.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12782585, 1533534, 506350, 300970, 732602, 13171429, 21036743, 821939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 82 ], [ 101, 111 ], [ 113, 122 ], [ 124, 142 ], [ 148, 159 ], [ 236, 264 ], [ 291, 301 ], [ 407, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1906, Remington Arms introduced the \"Remington Auto-loading Repeating Rifle\". Remington advertised this rifle, renamed the \"Model 8\" in 1911, as a sporting rifle. It was sold in Europe by FN Herstal as the \"FN Browning 1900\". This is a locked-breech, long recoil action designed by John Browning. The rifle was offered in .25, .30, .32, and .35 caliber models, and gained popularity among civilians as well as some law enforcement officials who appreciated the combination of a semi-automatic action and relatively powerful rifle cartridges. In 1936 the Model 81 superseded the Model 8, and was offered in .300 Savage as well as the original Remington calibers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 506350, 22658078, 300970, 30871279, 148837, 21139673, 15211025, 21165216, 10719968, 7857838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 23 ], [ 40, 78 ], [ 191, 201 ], [ 254, 265 ], [ 285, 298 ], [ 325, 328 ], [ 330, 333 ], [ 335, 338 ], [ 344, 355 ], [ 609, 620 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1908, General Manuel Mondragón patented the world's first gas-operated semi-automatic rifle, the Mondragón rifle, designated the M1908. The rifle was used by Mexican forces in the Mexican Revolution, making Mexico the first nation to use a semi-automatic rifle in battle, in 1911.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25462802, 12776713, 145401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 33 ], [ 100, 115 ], [ 183, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shortly after the Mondragón rifle was produced, France had its own semi-automatic rifle, the Fusil Automatique Modele 1917. This is a locked breech, gas-operated action which is similar in its mechanical principles to the subsequent American M1 Garand. The M1917 was fielded during the latter stages of World War I, where it did not receive a favorable reception among troops. However, its shortened and improved version, the Model 1918, gave complete satisfaction during the Moroccan Rif War from 1920 to 1926. Still, the bolt-action Lebel Model 1886 rifle remained the standard French infantry rifle until replaced in 1936 by the MAS-36, also a bolt action, despite the various semi-automatic rifles designed between 1918 and 1935.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30371371, 149051, 4764461, 5893557, 427222, 1990139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 122 ], [ 242, 251 ], [ 303, 314 ], [ 485, 492 ], [ 535, 557 ], [ 632, 638 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other nations experimented with self-loading rifles during the interwar period, including the United Kingdom, which had intended to replace the bolt-action Lee–Enfield with a self-loading rifle, but this plan had to be discarded when the Second World War became imminent, shifting its emphasis to speeding up re-armament with existing weapons.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 31717, 144484, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 108 ], [ 156, 167 ], [ 238, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1937, the American M1 Garand was historically significant as it was the first semi automatic service rifle. The gas-operated M1 Garand was developed by Canadian-born John Garand for the U.S. government at the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts. After years of research and testing, the first production model of the M1 Garand was unveiled in 1937. During World War II, the M1 Garand gave American infantrymen an advantage over their opponents, most of whom were issued slower firing bolt-action rifles. General George S. Patton described the M1 Garand as \"the greatest battle implement ever devised.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 149051, 3274489, 1811242, 286109, 558005, 92402, 32927, 42090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 31 ], [ 96, 109 ], [ 115, 127 ], [ 169, 180 ], [ 212, 230 ], [ 234, 260 ], [ 372, 384 ], [ 520, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Soviet AVS-36, SVT-38, and SVT-40, as well as the German Gewehr 43, were semi-automatic gas-operated rifles issued during World War II in relatively small numbers. In practice, they did not replace the bolt-action rifle as a standard infantry weapon of their respective nations - Germany produced 402,000 Gewehr 43 rifles, and over 14,000,000 of the Kar98k.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26779, 3069829, 444048, 332891, 1811242, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 11, 17 ], [ 19, 37 ], [ 61, 70 ], [ 92, 104 ], [ 126, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another gas-operated semi-automatic rifle developed toward the end of World War II was the SKS. Designed by Sergei Gavrilovich Simonov in 1945, it came equipped with a bayonet and could be loaded with ten rounds, using a stripper clip. It was the first widely issued rifle to use the 7.62×39mm cartridge, and the SKS, along with its Chinese copy, the Type 56, is one of the most popular semi-automatic rifles. By the end of World War II, however, semi-automatic rifles had been largely superseded in military usage by their fully automatic counterparts - weapons such as the AK-47, FN FAL and M16 limited the viability of widespread deployment of semi-automatic rifles. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 420128, 2249643, 53436, 1838554, 33588624, 1348, 94857, 19901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 94 ], [ 108, 134 ], [ 168, 175 ], [ 221, 234 ], [ 284, 293 ], [ 575, 580 ], [ 582, 588 ], [ 593, 596 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gradually, military doctrine placed less emphasis on individual marksmanship, as a large volume of fire was deemed more important - during World War II, American ground forces fired approximately 25,000 rounds for each enemy killed. In the Korean War, this was raised to 50,000, and in the Vietnam War it was 200,000. The first fully automatic rifle to see widespread usage was the German StG 44, which was well liked by troops, as the 30-round, selective fire rifle gave them much more flexibility than their service rifle, the bolt action Karabiner 98k. Ultimately, automatic rifles would become standard in military usage, as their firepower was superior to that of a semi-automatic rifle, but both semi-automatics and even bolt actions are still used worldwide in military service in specific roles, such as designated marksman rifles where the greater accuracy compared to automatics is valued. Furthermore, to accommodate for this greater firepower, battle rifles were mostly replaced by assault rifles, whose lighter bullets allowed more to be carried at once, but where semi-automatic rifles continue to be used, they are usually in higher calibers, such as the .50 BMG Barrett M82.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 16772, 32611, 240137, 3274489, 240194, 1956141, 1036892, 18950865, 246728, 1648387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 151 ], [ 240, 250 ], [ 290, 301 ], [ 389, 395 ], [ 510, 523 ], [ 541, 554 ], [ 812, 837 ], [ 956, 969 ], [ 994, 1008 ], [ 1170, 1177 ], [ 1178, 1189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Semi-automatic weapons use gas, blow-forward, blowback or recoil energy to eject the spent cartridge after the round has moved down the barrel, chambering a new cartridge from its magazine, and resetting the action. This enables another round to be fired once the trigger is depressed again.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 1811242, 30443609, 1231618, 30871279, 640755, 896497, 94287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 30 ], [ 32, 44 ], [ 46, 54 ], [ 58, 64 ], [ 136, 142 ], [ 180, 188 ], [ 208, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Semi-automatic rifles can be efficiently fed by an en-bloc clip, external magazine, or stripper clip.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 1181481, 896497, 1838554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 63 ], [ 65, 82 ], [ 87, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The self-loading design was a successor to earlier rifles that required manual cycling of the weapon after each shot, such as the bolt-action rifle or repeating rifles. The ability to automatically load the next round results in an increase in the rounds per minute the operator can fire.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 94166, 556375, 1286978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 147 ], [ 151, 166 ], [ 248, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The primary advantage of self-loading rifles is the possibility of increasing the number of effective shots fired within any given time period by avoiding the necessity for changing the aiming position of the rifle to manually chamber new cartridges. The actual number of hits per unit of time depends upon the magazine capacity and the availability of detachable magazines, but semi-automatic rifles can typically more than double the number of hits from comparable manually-loaded rifles at close range and increase the number of hits by about 50 percent at longer distances which require more precise aiming. Firing for prolonged periods may increase this advantage as the manual-loading process can cause fatigue. The additional weight of springs and fittings using a portion of the cartridge energy to reload self-loading rifles have the additional advantage of reducing recoil.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [ 235562, 210960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 709, 716 ], [ 876, 882 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The self-loading mechanism tuned for cartridges of specified dimensions and power may fail to reload dirty or bent cartridges that will otherwise fire satisfactorily. The self-loading mechanism may fail to extract empty low-power cartridge cases useful for training, and high-power cartridges useful at longer ranges may damage the self-loading mechanism. Some self-loading rifles require externally lubricated cartridges vulnerable to dirt adhesion. Any reliability problems causing failure of the self-loading mechanism to function as designed may eliminate the advantage of increased hits per unit of time, and may actually reduce the comparative rate of fire below what is possible with manually-loaded rifles if the self-loading rifle is not designed for convenient manual-loading. The United Kingdom regarded the reliable rate of fire from manually-loaded rifles to be nearly as high as self-loading rifles as recently as World War II.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [ 31717, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 791, 805 ], [ 928, 940 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Semi-automatic rifles are uniquely susceptible to slamfire malfunctions caused by abrupt cartridge acceleration during self-loading. Slamfire discharges are unlikely to hit the target, and may cause collateral damage.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [ 4861923, 2443, 136560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 58 ], [ 99, 111 ], [ 199, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The time required for changing or reloading magazines can weaken the effectiveness of a rifle, as it imposes an effective duration limit on the continuous rate of fire of any rifle. High-capacity magazines increase the weight of the rifle, and typically reduce feeding reliability due to the varying spring tension from a full to a nearly empty magazine. Detachable magazines in general are usually less durable than internal magazines.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The complexity of a self-loading mechanism makes self-loading rifles more expensive to manufacture and heavier than manually-loaded rifles. The semi-automatic M1 Garand weighs about 410 grams (0.9 lb) more (seven percent heavier) than the manually-loaded M1903 Springfield it replaced. American development of a self-loading infantry rifle began with the .276 Pedersen cartridge in recognition of the difficulties of producing reliable self-loading mechanisms for more powerful cartridges. Although the M1 Garand was ultimately adapted to fire the .30-06 Springfield cartridge at the insistence of General Douglas MacArthur, most subsequent self-loading rifles for infantry use have been chambered for less powerful cartridges to reduce weight making rifles easier to carry.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [ 149051, 397216, 1650530, 992873, 48596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 168 ], [ 255, 272 ], [ 355, 368 ], [ 548, 566 ], [ 606, 623 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Semi-automatic rifles are commonly used by civilians for sport shooting, hunting, and self-defense, as they are cheaper and less heavily regulated than their fully automatic counterparts.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Civilian uses for semi-automatic rifles", "target_page_ids": [ 28498, 38791, 215864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 71 ], [ 73, 80 ], [ 86, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Target shooting has a long history, pre-dating the firearm, as the first example of it would be archery, and as weapons that demanded user accuracy developed, so did their usage in competitions. Today, semi-automatic rifles are one of the more popular firearms in sport shooting. There are various types of sport shooting, ranging from rapid fire shooting, target shooting, which is predominantly accuracy based, and distance shooting. Shooting clubs in America became increasingly commonplace in the 1830s, and have since grown in popularity. Semi-automatic rifles are commonly used in sport shooting events because of their accuracy, versatility, and their light weight- which has invited more people, specifically women and children, to compete as well.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Civilian uses for semi-automatic rifles", "target_page_ids": [ 2007, 28498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 103 ], [ 264, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Semi-automatic rifles have grown in status among hunters. Many hunters are adopting semi-automatic rifles, particularly AR-15 style rifles to take advantage of their compact design and modularity. Effectively making it easier to traverse rugged terrain while tracking a target. And providing a large variety of customization ranging from scopes and muzzle devices, to different calibers. Semi-automatic fire greatly assists in maintaining one's sight picture, which is especially important when follow-up shots are required. Due to their demand, the manufacturers of semi-automatic firearms have greatly increased the effective firing distance of their products, compared to the first semi-automatics sold on the civilian market.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Civilian uses for semi-automatic rifles", "target_page_ids": [ 37903544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Semi-automatic rifles are sometimes used for self-defense. Most semi-automatic rifles are rather lightweight and simple to operate, without compromising accuracy. Semi-automatic rifles are able to quickly dispatch multiple targets in a home invasion. Most semi-automatic rifles also have sights which can be adjusted for range, providing versatility.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Civilian uses for semi-automatic rifles", "target_page_ids": [ 215864, 1181974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 57 ], [ 236, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Assault rifle (not to be confused with \"Assault weapon\")", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18950865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Assault weapon - certain semi-automatic rifles are classified as assault weapons in some jurisdictions", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 163205 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Firearm", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pistol", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9959000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Revolver", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Semi-automatic pistol", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 460100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AR-15 style rifle", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37903544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Personal defense weapon", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 769633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rifle", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Automatic rifle", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 390237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bolt-action rifle", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 94166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Semi-automatic firearm", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 375767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Semi-automatic pistol", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 460100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Semi-automatic shotgun", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 399655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shotgun", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Single-shot", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of semi-automatic rifles", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 45558615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early Semiauto Rifles", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Semi-automatic_rifles", "Austrian_inventions" ]

[ "Self loading rifle", "SLR" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Racquetball is a racquet sport and a team sport played with a hollow rubber ball on an indoor or outdoor court. Joseph Sobek invented the modern sport of racquetball in 1950, adding a stringed racquet to paddleball in order to increase velocity and control. Unlike most racquet sports, such as tennis and badminton, there is no net to hit the ball over, and, unlike squash, no tin (out of bounds area at the bottom of front wall) to hit the ball above. Also, the court's walls, floor, and ceiling are legal playing surfaces, with the exception of court-specific designated hinders being out-of-bounds.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 290339, 988407, 2547802, 34898833, 25538920, 290339, 29773, 3956, 52653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 30 ], [ 37, 47 ], [ 69, 80 ], [ 112, 124 ], [ 205, 215 ], [ 271, 285 ], [ 295, 301 ], [ 306, 315 ], [ 367, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Racquetball is played between various players on a team who try to bounce the ball with the racquet onto the ground so it hits the wall, so that an opposing team’s player cannot bounce it back to the wall.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 140801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sport is very similar to 40×20 American handball, which is played in many countries. It is also very similar to the British sport Squash 57, which was called racketball before 2016 (see Comparison to racketball for a comparison).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 465921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Joe Sobek is credited with inventing the sport of racquetball in the Greenwich, Connecticut, YMCA, though not with naming it. A professional tennis and American handball player, Sobek sought a fast-paced sport that was easy to learn and play. He designed the first strung paddle, devised a set of rules, based on those of squash, handball, and paddleball, and named his game paddle rackets.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 108693, 87241, 29773, 52653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 91 ], [ 93, 97 ], [ 141, 147 ], [ 322, 328 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 1952, Sobek founded the National Paddle Rackets Association (NPRA), codified the rules, and had the rules printed as a booklet. The new sport was rapidly adopted and became popular through Sobek's continual promotion of it; he was aided by the existence of some 40,000 handball courts in the country's YMCAs and Jewish Community Centers, wherein racquetball could be played.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 87241, 243642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 314, 318 ], [ 324, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1969, aided by Robert W. Kendler, the president-founder of the U.S. Handball Association (USHA), the International Racquetball Association (IRA) was founded using the name coined by Bob McInerney, a professional tennis player. That same year, the IRA assumed the national championship from the NPRA. In 1973, after a dispute with the IRA board of directors, Kendler formed a competing organization called the National Racquetball Club (NRC), which eventually became the dominant professional tour in the 1970s. For a period of time in the 1970s, the NRC and the IRA both offered competing \"Amateur\" and \"Professional\" tournaments, but by the late 1970s the NRC was focused on the professional game while the IRA became focused on the amateur side, and became recognized by the United States Olympic Committee as the official National Governing Body (NGB) of the sport.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 287713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 781, 812 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The IRA was a founding member of the International Racquetball Federation (IRF). Eventually, the IRA became the American Amateur Racquetball Association (AARA); in late 1995, it renamed itself as the United States Racquetball Association (USRA). In 2003, the USRA again renamed itself to USA Racquetball (USAR), to mirror other Olympic sports associations, even though Racquetball is not an Olympic sport.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 328, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kendler used his publication ACE to promote both handball and racquetball. Starting in the 1970s, and aided by the fitness boom of that decade, the sport's popularity increased to an estimated 3.1 million players by 1974. Consequent to increased demand, racquetball clubs and courts were founded and built, and sporting goods manufacturers began producing racquetball-specific equipment. This growth continued until the early 1980s, and declining in the decade's latter part when racquet clubs converted to physical fitness clubs, in service to a wider clientele, adding aerobics exercise classes and physical fitness and bodybuilding machines. Since then, the number of players has remained steady, an estimated 5.6 million.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 432986, 166394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 122 ], [ 572, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The NRC and Kendler ruled over professional racquetball throughout its early stages of growth, but upon his death in 1982 the organization declared bankruptcy and the professional men's tours fell into disarray. Several professional governing bodies ruled the Men's pro tour throughout the 1980s, and the Women broke away and self-organized their own professional tour in the same time period. Eventually, after the tour collapsed in the fall of 1988, a new men's tour called the International Racquetball Tour (IRT) was created by Oregon State President and popular tournament promotor Hank Marcus, which remains the primary men's professional sanctioning body to this day. The women's pro tour has gone by several names in the interim, but is currently known as the Ladies Professional Racquetball tour (LPRT) and has marketing partnerships with the USAR, IRT, and other sanctioning bodies to this day .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1976, Ian D.W. Wright created the sport of racketball based on U.S. racquetball. British racketball is played in a long by wide squash court – shorter and wider than the U.S. racquetball court–, using a smaller, less dynamic ball than the American racquetball. In racketball, the ceiling is out-of-bounds. The racketball is served after a bounce on the floor then struck into play with the racket. Scoring is like squash with point-a-rally scoring of up to 11 points. The British Racketball Association was formed on 13 February 1984, and confirmed by the English Sports Council as the sport's governing body on 30 October 1984. The first National Racketball Championship was held in London on 1 December 1984. The sport is now played in countries where squash is played, Australia, Bermuda, France, Germany, Malaysia, the Netherlands, New Zealand, South Africa, Argentina, Ireland and Sweden. Currently, racketball also is played in parts of North America.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "United Kingdom", "target_page_ids": [ 52653, 52653, 1405832, 17867, 4689264, 3460, 5843419, 11867, 3607937, 21148, 4913064, 17416221, 18951905, 147575, 5058739, 21139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 139 ], [ 420, 426 ], [ 562, 584 ], [ 690, 696 ], [ 778, 787 ], [ 789, 796 ], [ 798, 804 ], [ 806, 813 ], [ 815, 823 ], [ 829, 840 ], [ 842, 853 ], [ 855, 867 ], [ 869, 878 ], [ 880, 887 ], [ 892, 898 ], [ 949, 962 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1988, the British Racketball Association merged with the Squash Rackets Association. England Squash & Racketball is now recognised by Sport England as the English national governing body for the sports of squash and racketball. There is now an established UK Racketball Tournament Series consisting of 8 events around the UK, which forms the basis of the national rankings along with the National Racketball championships held annually at The Edgbaston Priory Club.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "United Kingdom", "target_page_ids": [ 27484315, 1405832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 115 ], [ 137, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016, World Squash Federation announced an international 're-branding' of racketball as Squash 57, the 57 referring to the diameter of the ball, in order to emphasise both its membership of the 'squash rackets' family, and its distinctiveness from the U.S. racquetball", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "United Kingdom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The International Racquetball Federation (IRF) governs the World Racquetball Championships, which were first held in 1981 in conjunction with the first World Games. The second World Championships were played in 1984, and since then have been held biennially in August. Players from the United States have won the most World Championship titles.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governing bodies", "target_page_ids": [ 14198629, 34073, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 90 ], [ 152, 163 ], [ 286, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The IRF also runs the World Junior Racquetball Championships that occur annually in either late October, or early to mid November, as well as the annual World Senior Racquetball Championships for players who are 35 years of age or older.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governing bodies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The sport has a high appeal in the Americas, and because of this racquetball has been included in the Pan American Games in 1995, 1999, 2003, 2011, 2015 and Lima 2019. And will be part of the games again in Santiago 2023. Racquetball has also been included in the World Games on five occasions: 1981, 1989, 1993, 2009 and 2013, and is on the program for 2022.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governing bodies", "target_page_ids": [ 283942, 22094249, 22094136, 22093984, 29577629, 45178377, 60374924, 49636858, 34073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 120 ], [ 124, 128 ], [ 130, 134 ], [ 136, 140 ], [ 142, 146 ], [ 148, 152 ], [ 157, 166 ], [ 207, 220 ], [ 264, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There men's and women's professional racquetball organizations. The International Racquetball Tour (IRT) is the men's professional organization, and the Ladies Professional Racquetball Tour (LPRT) is the women's professional organization. Both began in the 1980s.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governing bodies", "target_page_ids": [ 22591910, 22606461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 98 ], [ 153, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This court and equipment are required for playing racquetball:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A racquetball court; fully enclosed indoor or outdoor with a front wall. The standard racquetball court is rectangular: 40 feet long, 20 feet wide, and 20 feet high with red lines defining the service and serve reception areas. There are variations on the standard court with some courts having sidewalls that don't extend the full length of the court and some courts don't have any sidewalls.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 70048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"service box\" is formed by the short line (a solid red line running the court's width parallel to the front and back walls at a distance of 20 feet) and the service line (which runs parallel to the short line and is 15 feet from the front wall). Within the service box there are two sets of lines perpendicular to the short and service lines.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One set of lines is 18inches from, and parallel to, the side walls. Along with the short line, service line, and side wall these lines define the doubles box, where the non-serving doubles partner stands during the serve; 36inches from the side wall is another set of lines which, along with the short line and the service line, define an area that the server must not enter if he wishes to hit a drive serve between himself and the nearest side wall. The receiving line is a parallel dashed line 5 feet behind the short line.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other equipment needed:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A racquetball; a dynamic (bouncy) rubber ball of 2.25 in. (57mm) diameter", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A racquetball racquet; no longer than 22inches", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 52664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Racquetball eyeguards (mandatory during competitions; some recreational players play without eyeguards but this is not recommended, as being hit in the eye by the ball can cause serious injury and/or permanent vision damage).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Racquetball differs from other racquet sports as most competitive players wear a glove on their racquet hand for the purpose of getting a better grip on the racquet (similar to golfers using a glove when driving), but gloves are optional equipment. Also, players usually wear a comfortable short sleeved shirt and shorts, as well as racquetball court shoes designed for enabling quick lateral as well as forward and backward movement.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 290339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Racquetballs are manufactured in a variety of colors such as blue, green, purple, black, red, and pink, and some are for specific purposes (e.g., outdoor play and indoor play), but the differences are unlikely to matter for recreational play. Beginners are recommended to use a blue ball by Penn, Ektelon, or Wilson. The blue ball is the most commonly used and it is the most neutral ball for average speed and accuracy of contact. Green balls are similar to blue balls. In the United States the main choices of ball are blue and green for tournament play. In some cases the International Pro Racquetball Tour (IRT) will use a purple Penn HD ball as the official ball. A black ball is often used in tournaments for senior players because the ball is designed to be slower moving and allows for longer rallies. The red ball is the fastest in production, and they are known as Red Ektelon Fireballs. This ball is heavier and allows for a quicker pace.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ball colors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Balls do break occasionally, and will lose their bounce over time even without breaking. To keep balls around for a long time it is best to keep them in a room temperature setting and keep them out of extreme cold or heat because this will cause the balls to become less effective and lose their bounce.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ball colors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Play begins with the serve. The serving player must bounce the ball on the floor once and hit it directly to the front wall, making the ball hit the floor beyond the short line; otherwise the serve counts as a fault. The ball may touch one side wall, but not two, prior to hitting the floor; hitting both side walls after the front wall (but before the floor) is a \"three wall serve,\" and a fault. Also, serving the ball into the front wall so that it rebounds to the back wall without hitting the floor first is a long serve, and a fault.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rules", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other fault serves include a ceiling serve, in which the ball touches the ceiling after the front wall, and serving before the receiving player is ready. Also, the server must wait until the ball passes the short line before stepping out of the service box, otherwise it is a fault serve.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rules", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the server hits the ball directly to any surface other than the front wall the server immediately loses serve regardless of whether it was first or second serve.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rules", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After the ball bounces behind the short line, or passes the receiving line, the ball is in play and the opposing player(s) may play it.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rules", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Usually, the server is allowed two opportunities (called first serve and second serve) to put the ball into play (two serve rule), although elite level competitions often allow the server only one opportunity (one serve rule).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rules", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After a successful serve, players alternate hitting the ball against the front wall. The player returning the hit may allow the ball to bounce once on the floor or hit the ball on the fly. However, once the player returning the shot has hit the ball, it must strike the front wall before striking the floor. Unlike during the serve, a ball in play may touch as many walls, including the ceiling, as necessary so long as it reaches the front wall without striking the floor.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rules", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the server wins the rally, then the server scores one point and continues to serve. If the opposing player wins the rally, then no point is scored, but that player then takes over serving.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rules", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Several different scoring methods have been or are used in the sport.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rules", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "– Under USA Racquetball Amateur scoring rules, matches are best of three games with the first two games to 15 points and a third game to 11 points, if necessary. USA Racquetball rules do not require players to win by two, so a match score line could read 15–14, 14–15, 11–10.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rules", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "– Racquetball Canada matches are also the best of three format two games to 15, tiebreaker to 11, but require a winning margin of at least two points. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rules", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "– From 1981 to 2017, the IRT's scoring was best-of-five games to 11 points, requiring a two-point margin for victory. However, in December 2017 the tour announced they were modifying their scoring methods to be in line with USAR and IRF standards at the time, and converted to the standard two games to 15, tiebreaker to 11 format.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rules", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "– International competitions run by the International Racquetball Federation (IRF) also followed the two-games to 15, tiebreaker to 11 format from 1981 (inception) until 2022, when they announced that international competitions were going to move to Rally Scoring. IRF competitions will now be played best 3 of 5 games to 15, win by one except in the last game, with rally scoring. However, the IRF immediately modified its rally scoring limits and announced that the 2022 World games and World Juniors would be 3 out of 5 games to 11, win by two. The IRF cited several factors for this change: length of matches, confusing scoring system to casual fans, and the need for faster matches to accommodate more matches. IRF's pivot to rally scoring had an immediate reaction in the NGBs, as most IRF qualifying events in USAR, Racquetball Canada, and other NGBs are now played under the IRF's rally scoring rules.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rules", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the nature of the game, players often occupy the space their opponent(s) want(s) to occupy. This may result in a player blocking his opponent's ability to play the ball. Such occurrences are termed either hinders or penalty hinders. A hinder is a replay of the current rally (the server resumes play at the first serve), while a penalty hinder results in the player who caused the avoidable obstruction to lose the rally. A type of hinder is a screen in which the player is unable to see the ball prior to it passing the opponent.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rules", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The difference between a hinder and a penalty hinder (or formerly an avoidable hinder) is that in the latter case a player has missed out on a clear opportunity to make a rally-winning shot due to the obstruction by the player's opponent, while in the former case the opportunity missed would not clearly have led to a winning shot. This difference is almost always a judgment call by the referee (if available).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rules", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is also a \"court\" hinder in which some part of the playing field caused the ball to bounce untrue. Often this is the door frame or (recessed) handle or a flaw in the floor or walls. In this case, the rally is a re-serve.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rules", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Racquetball games can be played with two, three or four players, with doubles or singles matches being most common. Two player games are called singles or \"one-up\" (one vs. one for the entire game), while four player games are doubles with two pairs playing against each other (two vs. two for the entire game). Tournament competitions have divisions for singles or doubles or both.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rules", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Three-player games are most commonly called \"Cut-throat\" and sometimes \"Ironman\" (two-on-one for the entire game) where each player takes turns serving to the other two, who play as a team against the serving player. Another three-player game is \"California\", \"In-and-Out\", or \"King of the Court\" where play is 1 vs. 1 with the third player remaining in the back court out of play while the other two play a rally; the rally winner then serves to the player who was sitting out, and the rally loser stays out of play. Another three-player variation is \"Sevens\" in which one player plays against two players as a team, with the game being played to seven points; if the two player team gets to seven first, the game is over, but if the solo player gets to seven first then the game continues to 14; if the solo player again reaches 14 first, then the game continues to 21, where the game ends regardless of whether the solo player or the two player team reach 21 first.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Rules", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Serve style varies drastically from player to player. Generally, they are divided into two types: offensive and defensive. Most players use an offensive serve for the first serve, and a defensive serve if they need to hit a second serve. Of the offensive serves, the most common is the drive. The intention with this serve is for the ball to travel low and fast towards either back corner, and to bounce twice before striking either side wall or the back wall. If the opponent is adjusting to the drive serve, the server will throw in any variety of jam serves.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Shots of the game", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A jam serve is an offensive serve which attempts to catch the opponent off balance by making use of difficult angles and unfrequented play space. The most common jam serve is the Z-serve, which strikes the front wall close to a side wall. The ball bounces quickly off the side wall, then strikes the floor and then the opposite side wall about 30–35 feet back. Depending upon the spin the server gives the Z-serve, the resulting carom may prove unpredictable and difficult to return. Side spin may cause the ball to bounce parallel to the back wall.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Shots of the game", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A pinch serve is similar to a drive serve; however, the ball strikes a side wall very low and close to the serving box. With the appropriate spin, the ball has little bounce, and is difficult to return. It is possible that a successful serve would strike the sidewall before the short line, and land on the floor after the short line.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Shots of the game", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the player faults on the first serve, they will usually hit a defensive serve. Defensive serves do not usually garner aces, but they are designed to generate a weak return by the opponent, thereby setting up the server to win the point. Most defensive serves are any variety of lob serves. A plain lob serve is a ball hit with a long, high arch into either back corner. The goal is to hit the ball so that it lands as close as possible to the back wall, giving the opponent very little room to hit a solid return. A junk lob takes a shallower arch, and lands close to the side wall somewhere between the dotted line and the back wall. This lob is intended to deceive the opponent into thinking he has an easy kill. However, since the ball is in the deep zone, it will more likely set up the server for an offensive shot.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Shots of the game", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Straight-in shots are usually meant to hit the front wall as low as possible. If the ball contacts the front wall so low as to bounce twice before it reaches the service line it is called a \"kill\" shot. Straight-in shots are normally attempted with the idea of hitting toward the area of the court the opponent cannot cover.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Shots of the game", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Straight-in shots hit where the opponent cannot return them are called down-the-line and cross court passing shots. Often kill shots are returned very close to the back wall as the ball is moving towards the front wall.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Shots of the game", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pinches and splats are shots that strike the side wall before the front wall. This often makes the ball bounce twice quickly to end the rally. Pinches normally strike the side wall towards the front part of the court, often within a few inches from the front wall.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Shots of the game", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The \"splat\" shot is an elongated pinch that strikes the side wall towards the back part of the court. It often makes a distinctive splatting sound. The advantage to a splat shot, beyond an unpredictable angle, is that it creates a longer distance to travel forward for the opponent who is held between a tension of going forward and staying back because of velocity of passing shots.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Shots of the game", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pinches are classified as frontside or reverse. A right-handed player shooting a forehand shot to the right front corner is shooting a frontside pinch. A right-handed player shooting to the left front corner is a reverse pinch. A right-handed player shoots a backhand frontside pinch to the left corner and a reverse double pinch to the right corner. Everything for a left-handed player would be the opposite.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Shots of the game", "target_page_ids": [ 172644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The dink is another very effective offensive shot designed to end the point. It is a shot very low to the front wall hit very softly so as to bounce twice before the opponent can get to it. Dinks are most effective when the opponent is positioned deep in the court.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Shots of the game", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another important shot type is the \"Z\" shot. This shot is effective at confusing and tiring out an opponent. To hit a \"Z\" shot one hits the side wall hard and up high causing the ball to hit the front then the other side wall then back to the original side wall. If done correctly, the path of the ball will be Z shaped. This shot can have confusing bounces which can frustrate opponents. If done correctly, a \"Z\" shot will apply spin to the ball on the final bounce as well, causing it to rebound perpendicular to the second wall and fall parallel to the back wall, the closer the better. This makes the \"Z\" shot very difficult to return.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Shots of the game", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Defensive shots are defined as shots which are not returned low to the front wall.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Shots of the game", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ceiling ball shot is the primary defensive shot. This is a shot that strikes the ceiling at or near the front wall. The ball will bounce once in the forecourt and should then travel in a high arc to arrive as close to, and as vertical to, the back wall as possible. Often this is aimed at the corner which would require a backhand return by the opponent. This makes it difficult for the opponent to return the ball as he cannot make a full arc of the racquet. However, if the ball comes down too long or too short of the back wall, this can allow the opponent a kill shot.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Shots of the game", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another defensive shot is the high Z. Used when the defensive player is near the front wall, the high Z is hit ten feet high or higher into the front wall near a corner. The ball then bounces from the side wall all the way to the opposite side wall, usually traveling over the top of the opponent, hitting the opposite side wall with spin. The spin will cause the ball to leave the opposite wall almost perpendicular to it. This may confuse inexperienced opponents but importantly, if very close to and parallel to the rear wall, makes for a difficult return shot.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Shots of the game", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The \"around the world\" or \"3 wall\" defensive shot is hit like a pinch shot but high on the wall toward the ceiling. It travels around the court in a high trajectory and is an alternative to hitting a ceiling ball.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Shots of the game", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Two other defensive shots are used but are less effective. If the defensive player is in the backcourt but unable to position himself for a non-defensive shot, he may need to hit the ball off of the back wall. The ball often returns without much force and is easily returned. The round-the-world shot is hit high into the side wall first so the ball then hits the front wall and then the other side wall, effectively circling the court. It can be easily cut off and is rarely used anymore.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Shots of the game", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The primary strategy of racquetball is to command the center of the court just at or behind the dashed receiving line. This allows the player to move as quickly as possible to all areas of the court and limit open court areas which are difficult to defend. After a shot, players should return quickly to center court. The antithesis of this is to be against a wall which severely limits the player's movement and allows the opponent an open court.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Important tactics include keeping an eye on the opponent by glancing sideways to anticipate their return shot, learning the typical return shots of the opponent, and attempting to not be predictable with return shots.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other more obvious strategies are to keep the returned ball as low on the front wall as possible, keeping the ball moving fast (limiting reaction time) and to keep your opponent moving away from center court by the use of lobs, cross court shots, and dinks.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Organized competitive racquetball began in the 1970s. The best male players of that era were Charlie Brumfield and Marty Hogan, as well as Bud Muehleisen, Dan Southern, Jerry Hilecher, Steve Keeley, Davey Bledsoe, Steve Serot, and Steve Strandemo. Hogan continued to be a dominant player into the 1980s, and was rivaled on the scene by Brett Harnett, Dave Peck, and Mike Yellen.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Major competitions and players", "target_page_ids": [ 25532897, 13272167, 25649124, 31985397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 110 ], [ 115, 126 ], [ 139, 153 ], [ 185, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1990s, Ruben Gonzalez, Cliff Swain and Sudsy Monchik dominated pro tournaments, and other great players like Andy Roberts, John Ellis, and Drew Kachtik were often left out of the winner's circle. In the 2000s, Kane Waselenchuk, Jack Huczek, Jason Mannino, Ben Croft, and Rocky Carson have all excelled, but Waselenchuk has been dominant the last two seasons losing only once since September 2008.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Major competitions and players", "target_page_ids": [ 18277199, 6724373, 23616061, 23615722, 23706962, 29361687, 23615668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 41 ], [ 46, 59 ], [ 217, 233 ], [ 235, 246 ], [ 248, 261 ], [ 263, 272 ], [ 278, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first great woman player was Peggy Steding in the 1970s. She was succeeded by Shannon Wright, who was then rivaled by Heather McKay, a great Australian squash player who made the transition to racquetball when living in Canada. McKay then developed a great rivalry with Lynn Adams, and after McKay moved back to Australia, Adams dominated women's racquetball for the better part of the 1980s.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Major competitions and players", "target_page_ids": [ 457960, 4426914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 135 ], [ 274, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1990s belonged to Michelle Gould (née Gilman) whose drive serve was a huge weapon against her opponents. In the late 1990s and into the 2000s, Jackie Paraiso and then Cheryl Gudinas were the dominant players. Then in the mid-2000s, Christie Van Hees and Rhonda Rajsich were the dominant players, but Paola Longoria finished #1 at the end of the 2008–2009 and 2009–2010 seasons.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Major competitions and players", "target_page_ids": [ 23730107, 23752119, 23730265, 23730207, 23730726, 23737370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 36 ], [ 147, 161 ], [ 171, 185 ], [ 236, 253 ], [ 258, 272 ], [ 304, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The professional tours have been dominated by two players since the 2010 time frame. On the Men's side, Kane Waselenchuk has won 14 year-end #1 titles since 2004, which Paola Longoria has now won 13 year end pro titles dating to 2009, including the last 11 straight.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Major competitions and players", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Held annually in October, the US Open is the most prestigious professional racquetball event. First held in 1996, the US Open was in Memphis, Tennessee until 2010, when it moved to Minneapolis, Minnesota. In men's play, Kane Waselenchuk (Canada) has won the most US Open titles with thirteen ahead of Sudsy Monchik (US) with four, while Jason Mannino (US) and Cliff Swain (US) have both won the title twice, and Rocky Carson (US) once.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Major competitions and players", "target_page_ids": [ 23741693, 48607, 30395, 6097240, 19590, 23616061, 6724373, 23706962, 18277199, 23615668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 37 ], [ 133, 140 ], [ 142, 151 ], [ 181, 192 ], [ 194, 203 ], [ 220, 236 ], [ 301, 314 ], [ 338, 351 ], [ 361, 372 ], [ 413, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In women's play, Paola Longoria (Mexico) has the most US Open titles with five, Rhonda Rajsich (US) has four, one more than Christie Van Hees (Canada) with three. Michelle Gould (US), Cheryl Gudinas (US), and Jackie Paraiso (US) have each won two US Open titles. Kerri Wachtel (US) won the title once.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Major competitions and players", "target_page_ids": [ 23737370, 23730726, 23730207, 23730107, 23730265, 23752119, 26438637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 31 ], [ 80, 94 ], [ 124, 141 ], [ 164, 178 ], [ 185, 199 ], [ 210, 224 ], [ 264, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Racquetball is included in the Pan American Games, World Games and Central American and Caribbean Games. Also, the regional associations of the International Racquetball Federation organize their own continental championships: Asian Championships, European Championships and Pan American Championships.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Major competitions and players", "target_page_ids": [ 283942, 34073, 4454981, 14198555, 24146868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 49 ], [ 51, 62 ], [ 67, 103 ], [ 248, 270 ], [ 275, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Racquetball is very similar to the British sport of 'racketball', which was patterned on racquetball in 1976. The main differences are that the British ball is smaller, denser, and less bouncy; the British sport's court is a squash court, which is substantially shorter and somewhat wider; and the ceiling in the British game is out of bounds.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Comparison to racketball", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A racquetball court measures 20 feet wide, 20 feet high and 40 feet long, while a squash court is slightly smaller in height and length than a racquetball court, measuring 21 feet in width, 15 in height and 32 in length.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Comparison to racketball", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " American handball", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 465921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frontenis", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3102587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " International Racquetball Tour", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22591910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of racquetball players", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32248764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " One wall paddleball", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1473868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Racquets", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1567004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Squash", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tennis ball", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1577192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Official rules", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " International Racquetball Federation", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Racquetball Subscription Box", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Racquetball Videos", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " How To Play Racquetball", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Racquetball instructional articles and videos", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " How to Play Racquetball: Rules & Tips for Beginners", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Racquetball", "Games_and_sports_introduced_in_1950", "Indoor_sports", "Racket_sports", "Sports_originating_in_the_United_States", "Wall_and_ball_games" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "William Paul Thurston (October 30, 1946August 21, 2012) was an American mathematician. He was a pioneer in the field of low-dimensional topology and was awarded the Fields Medal for his contributions to the study of 3-manifolds in 1982.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18902, 621774, 10859, 1018257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 85 ], [ 120, 144 ], [ 165, 177 ], [ 216, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thurston was a professor of mathematics at Princeton University, University of California, Davis, and Cornell University. He was also a director of the Mathematical Sciences Research Institute.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23922, 31924, 7954422, 401367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 63 ], [ 65, 96 ], [ 102, 120 ], [ 152, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Thurston was born in Washington, D.C. to Margaret Thurston (), a seamstress, and Paul Thurston, an aeronautical engineer. William Thurston suffered from congenital strabismus as a child, causing issues with depth perception. His mother worked with him as a toddler to reconstruct three-dimensional images from two-dimensional ones.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 108956, 581456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 45 ], [ 172, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He received his bachelor's degree from New College in 1967 as part of its inaugural class. For his undergraduate thesis, he developed an intuitionist foundation for topology. Following this, he received a doctorate in mathematics from the University of California, Berkeley under Morris Hirsch, with his thesis Foliations of Three-Manifolds which are Circle Bundles in 1972.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 415907, 19513, 31922, 32523108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 50 ], [ 137, 149 ], [ 239, 273 ], [ 280, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After completing his Ph.D., Thurston spent a year at the Institute for Advanced Study, then another year at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as an assistant professor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 184179, 18879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 85 ], [ 112, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1974, Thurston was appointed a full professor at Princeton University. He moved to Berkeley, California to be the director of the Mathematical Sciences Research Institute (MSRI) from 1992 to 1997. He was on the faculty at UC Davis from 1996 until 2003, when he moved to Cornell University. He was planning to move back to UC Davis in the fall of 2012 for family reasons.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 23922, 4860, 401367, 31924, 7954422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 72 ], [ 86, 106 ], [ 133, 173 ], [ 225, 233 ], [ 273, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thurston was an early adopter of computing in pure mathematics research. He inspired Jeffrey Weeks to develop the SnapPea computing program.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1298792, 3025251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 98 ], [ 114, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During Thurston's directorship at MSRI, the institute introduced several innovative educational programs that have since become standard for research institutes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "His Ph.D. students include Danny Calegari, Richard Canary, David Gabai, William Goldman, Benson Farb, Richard Kenyon, Steven Kerckhoff, Yair Minsky, Igor Rivin, Oded Schramm, Richard Schwartz, William Floyd, and Jeffrey Weeks.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 21907908, 46914909, 6129609, 1298822, 32518776, 49980888, 2615145, 46905726, 36834470, 9605580, 1213887, 18986817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 41 ], [ 43, 57 ], [ 59, 70 ], [ 72, 87 ], [ 89, 100 ], [ 102, 116 ], [ 118, 134 ], [ 136, 147 ], [ 149, 159 ], [ 161, 173 ], [ 175, 191 ], [ 193, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His early work, in the early 1970s, was mainly in foliation theory. His more significant results include:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 371227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The proof that every Haefliger structure on a manifold can be integrated to a foliation (this implies, in particular, that every manifold with zero Euler characteristic admits a foliation of codimension one).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 21045118, 148420, 525149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 41 ], [ 149, 169 ], [ 192, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The construction of a continuous family of smooth, codimension-one foliations on the three-sphere whose Godbillon–Vey invariant (after Claude Godbillon and Jacques Vey) takes every real value.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 39782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " With John N. Mather, he gave a proof that the cohomology of the group of homeomorphisms of a manifold is the same whether the group is considered with its discrete topology or its compact-open topology.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 1343987, 194060, 13660, 56061, 726335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 20 ], [ 47, 57 ], [ 74, 87 ], [ 156, 173 ], [ 181, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In fact, Thurston resolved so many outstanding problems in foliation theory in such a short period of time that it led to an exodus from the field, where advisors counselled students against going into foliation theory, because Thurston was \"cleaning out the subject\" (see \"On Proof and Progress in Mathematics\", especially section 6).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "His later work, starting around the mid-1970s, revealed that hyperbolic geometry played a far more important role in the general theory of 3-manifolds than was previously realised. Prior to Thurston, there were only a handful of known examples of hyperbolic 3-manifolds of finite volume, such as the Seifert–Weber space. The independent and distinct approaches of Robert Riley and Troels Jørgensen in the mid-to-late 1970s showed that such examples were less atypical than previously believed; in particular their work showed that the figure-eight knot complement was hyperbolic. This was the first example of a hyperbolic knot.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 241291, 1018257, 1237700, 1233773, 64550014, 31074567, 59565, 1350120, 1248299, 1248299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 80 ], [ 139, 149 ], [ 248, 269 ], [ 301, 320 ], [ 366, 378 ], [ 383, 399 ], [ 537, 554 ], [ 555, 565 ], [ 570, 580 ], [ 615, 630 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inspired by their work, Thurston took a different, more explicit means of exhibiting the hyperbolic structure of the figure-eight knot complement. He showed that the figure-eight knot complement could be decomposed as the union of two regular ideal hyperbolic tetrahedra whose hyperbolic structures matched up correctly and gave the hyperbolic structure on the figure-eight knot complement. By utilizing Haken's normal surface techniques, he classified the incompressible surfaces in the knot complement. Together with his analysis of deformations of hyperbolic structures, he concluded that all but 10 Dehn surgeries on the figure-eight knot resulted in irreducible, non-Haken non-Seifert-fibered 3-manifolds. These were the first such examples; previously it had been believed that except for certain Seifert fiber spaces, all irreducible 3-manifolds were Haken. These examples were actually hyperbolic and motivated his next theorem.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 58046, 1227329, 311546, 3141418, 896174, 1240699, 1001293, 236567, 1631931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 134 ], [ 205, 215 ], [ 406, 411 ], [ 414, 428 ], [ 459, 481 ], [ 606, 620 ], [ 658, 669 ], [ 675, 680 ], [ 685, 700 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thurston proved that in fact most Dehn fillings on a cusped hyperbolic 3-manifold resulted in hyperbolic 3-manifolds. This is his celebrated hyperbolic Dehn surgery theorem.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 4450009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To complete the picture, Thurston proved a hyperbolization theorem for Haken manifolds. A particularly important corollary is that many knots and links are in fact hyperbolic. Together with his hyperbolic Dehn surgery theorem, this showed that closed hyperbolic 3-manifolds existed in great abundance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 9155837, 236567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 66 ], [ 71, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The hyperbolization theorem for Haken manifolds has been called Thurston's Monster Theorem, due to the length and difficulty of the proof. Complete proofs were not written up until almost 20 years later. The proof involves a number of deep and original insights which have linked many apparently disparate fields to 3-manifolds.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 1018257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 318, 328 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thurston was next led to formulate his geometrization conjecture. This gave a conjectural picture of 3-manifolds which indicated that all 3-manifolds admitted a certain kind of geometric decomposition involving eight geometries, now called Thurston model geometries. Hyperbolic geometry is the most prevalent geometry in this picture and also the most complicated. The conjecture was proved by Grigori Perelman in 2002–2003.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 220642, 225266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 64 ], [ 396, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thurston and Dennis Sullivan generalized Lipman Bers' density conjecture from singly degenerate Kleinian surface groups to all finitely generated Kleinian groups in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The conjecture states that every finitely generated Kleinian group is an algebraic limit of geometrically finite Kleinian groups, and was independently proven by Ohshika and Namazi–Souto in 2011 and 2012 respectively.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 7349608, 9335972, 31202113, 963042, 1362652, 31212031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ], [ 41, 52 ], [ 54, 72 ], [ 127, 145 ], [ 146, 160 ], [ 289, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his work on hyperbolic Dehn surgery, Thurston realized that orbifold structures naturally arose. Such structures had been studied prior to Thurston, but his work, particularly the next theorem, would bring them to prominence. In 1981, he announced the orbifold theorem, an extension of his geometrization theorem to the setting of 3-orbifolds. Two teams of mathematicians around 2000 finally finished their efforts to write down a complete proof, based mostly on Thurston's lectures given in the early 1980s in Princeton. His original proof relied partly on Richard S. Hamilton's work on the Ricci flow.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 293504, 293504, 758911, 288291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 71 ], [ 257, 273 ], [ 564, 583 ], [ 598, 608 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1976, Thurston and James Harris Simons shared the Oswald Veblen Prize in Geometry.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 2430844, 7085075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 41 ], [ 53, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thurston received the Fields Medal in 1982 for \"revolutioniz[ing] [the] study of topology in 2 and 3 dimensions, showing interplay between analysis, topology, and geometry\" and \"contribut[ing] [the] idea that a very large class of closed 3-manifolds carry a hyperbolic structure.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 10859, 1018257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 34 ], [ 238, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2005, Thurston won the first American Mathematical Society Book Prize, for Three-dimensional Geometry and Topology.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 198822, 70444084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 61 ], [ 62, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The prize \"recognizes an outstanding research book that makes a seminal contribution to the research literature\". He was awarded the 2012 Leroy P. Steele Prize by the American Mathematical Society for seminal contribution to research. The citation described his work as having \"revolutionized 3-manifold theory\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Awards and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 1252550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thurston and his first wife, Rachel Findley, had three children: Dylan, Nathaniel, and Emily. Thurston had two children with his second wife, Julian Muriel Thurston: Hannah Jade and Liam. His son Dylan Thurston is also a mathematician.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thurston died on August 21, 2012 in Rochester, New York, of a sinus mucosal melanoma that was diagnosed in 2011.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 126641, 716631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 55 ], [ 76, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Thurston, The geometry and topology of three-manifolds, Princeton lecture notes (1978–1981).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [ 31089296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Thurston, Three-dimensional geometry and topology. Vol. 1. Edited by Silvio Levy. Princeton Mathematical Series, 35. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1997. x+311 pp.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " William Thurston, Hyperbolic structures on 3-manifolds. I. Deformation of acylindrical manifolds. Ann. of Math. (2) 124 (1986), no. 2, 203–246.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [ 2785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Thurston, Three-dimensional manifolds, Kleinian groups and hyperbolic geometry, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.) 6 (1982), 357–381.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " William Thurston, On the geometry and dynamics of diffeomorphisms of surfaces. Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.) 19 (1988), no. 2, 417–431", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Epstein, David B. A.; Cannon, James W.; Holt, Derek F.; Levy, Silvio V. F.; Paterson, Michael S.; Thurston, William P. Word Processing in Groups. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Boston, Massachusetts, 1992. xii+330 pp.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [ 63150483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eliashberg, Yakov M.; Thurston, William P. Confoliations. University Lecture Series, 13. American Mathematical Society, Providence, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, 1998. x+66 pp.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " William Thurston, On proof and progress in mathematics. Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.) 30 (1994) 161–177", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " William P. Thurston, \"Mathematical education\". Notices of the AMS 37:7 (September 1990) pp 844–850", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Automatic group", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4224977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cannon–Thurston map", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 63553560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Circle packing theorem", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16648043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hyperbolic volume", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8158628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hyperbolic Dehn surgery", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4450009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thurston boundary", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31257075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Milnor–Thurston kneading theory", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16305705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Misiurewicz–Thurston points", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9612488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nielsen–Thurston classification", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1684758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Normal surface", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3141418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Orbifold notation", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2915678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thurston norm", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 51024718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thurston's double limit theorem", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31243775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thurston elliptization conjecture", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 235954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thurston's geometrization conjecture", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 220642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thurston's height condition", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10565476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thurston's orbifold theorem", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 293504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Earthquake theorem", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31112690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gabai, David; Kerckhoff, Steve (Coordinating Editors). \"William P. Thurston, 1946–2012\" (part 2), Notices of the American Mathematical Society, January 2015, Volume 63, Number 1, pp.31–41.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 4977512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thurston's page at Cornell", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tribute and remembrance page at Cornell", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Etienne Ghys : La géométrie et la mode", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1946_births", "2012_deaths", "New_College_of_Florida_alumni", "University_of_California,_Berkeley_alumni", "Topologists", "Differential_geometers", "Members_of_the_United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences", "20th-century_American_mathematicians", "21st-century_American_mathematicians", "Fields_Medalists", "Princeton_University_faculty", "University_of_California,_Berkeley_faculty", "Cornell_University_faculty", "University_of_California,_Davis_faculty", "Institute_for_Advanced_Study_visiting_scholars", "Mathematicians_from_Washington,_D.C." ]

[ "William Paul Thurston" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Leisure Suit Larry is an adult-themed video game series created by Al Lowe. It was published by Sierra from 1987 to 2009, then by Codemasters starting in 2009. The first six Leisure Suit Larry titles, along with Magna Cum Laude and Love for Sail Mobile, were distributed by Vivendi Games (now Activision Blizzard), while Box Office Bust and Reloaded were distributed by Codemasters. Currently the games are being published and distributed by Assemble Entertainment.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20603860, 1153177, 52814, 1108643, 6573837, 14527195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 37 ], [ 67, 74 ], [ 96, 102 ], [ 130, 141 ], [ 274, 287 ], [ 293, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The games follow Larry Laffer, a balding, double entendre-speaking, leisure suit-wearing man in his 40s. The stories generally revolve around his attempting, usually unsuccessfully, to seduce attractive young women. , the series has sold copies.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1778825, 75810, 1459952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 29 ], [ 42, 57 ], [ 68, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The series had its origins in Sierra's earlier Softporn Adventure, a 1981 text adventure created by designer Chuck Benton; the story and basic structure from that game were reused for the first \"Larry\" game. The \"Larry\" games were one of Sierra's most popular game series during the genre's heyday, when it was first released in the mid-1980s. The series contains the only games produced by Sierra that contain significant sexual themes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1545385, 14789, 2966250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 65 ], [ 74, 88 ], [ 184, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In general, the games follow the escapades of Larry Laffer as he attempts to persuade a variety of nubile women to sleep with him. A common link between the games are Larry's explorations of luxurious and cosmopolitan hotels, ships, beaches, resorts, and casinos. The character of Larry Laffer was voiced by Jan Rabson.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1778825, 3889832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 58 ], [ 308, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the first game, the seriesdespite becoming known for its lewd contentgained a reputation for not featuring as much sexual material as expected; this was particularly true of the middle games in the series, which were released at the same time as more explicit games, like Cobra Mission. At most, the raunchier moments were usually hidden as Easter eggs. Things became racier again toward the end of the series, particularly in the (original) final installment, Love for Sail!.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10462531, 239803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 279, 292 ], [ 348, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magna Cum Laude, a spin-off version of the series, featured a different protagonist and style of game play. It was developed by High Voltage Software and released by Sierra in 2004. In 2007, Vivendi Universal Games announced a mobile remake of Love for Sail! In 2008, Sierra Entertainment announced plans to release Box Office Bust. It was developed by Team17, and the publishing rights were offered to Codemasters, who published the game in 2009. Larry Lovage, the protagonist of Magna Cum Laude and Box Office Bust, was voiced by Tim Dadabo. Box Office Bust was panned by critics, including Al Lowe himself, who thanked VU Games for keeping him away from developing the game.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6573837, 293077, 30872538, 1108643, 10139999, 2742821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 215 ], [ 235, 241 ], [ 355, 361 ], [ 405, 416 ], [ 534, 544 ], [ 566, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2011, Replay Games announced on their blog that they had acquired a license for the Leisure Suit Larry series. Replay Games planned to re-release the titles it licensed. It was also announced that the series' creator, Al Lowe, would be involved with the development of the new releases. In April 2012, Replay Games initiated a Kickstarter project that finished funding on May 2, 2012, and secured a total of $674,598, for which the developers promised to add more story, additional dialogue, and one more character.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1153177, 27155990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 233 ], [ 335, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"HD\" game, titled Reloaded was originally announced to be released in late 2012, but it was delayed to mid-2013. In April 2013, Lowe said that early development had begun on a remake of Larry 2; Josh Mandel later confirmed the game's early development in a Kickstarter update.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11993592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leisure Suit Larry 4: The Missing Floppies is the name for a never-made fourth installment, often regarded as an in-joke. The name, used by official sources and fans, refers to rumors that the reason for the cancellation of the game was the losing of the game's original production floppies, after which the developers refused to remake the game from scratch. Other sources claim that it was nothing but an internal office prank. The franchise's installments were numbered as if this installment had been published; the actual fourth installment was Leisure Suit Larry 5: Passionate Patti Does a Little Undercover Work.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4214394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 423, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al Lowe gave two official reasons for the cancellation of Leisure Suit Larry 4. The first was that Sierra had begun work on a multiplayer installment for The Sierra Network, but the project failed mostly due to technical reasons. The second was that the ending of Larry 3 was definitive and somehow metafictional, since it showed Larry and Patti coming to the Sierra studios to make games based on their adventures, as well as living happily in a mountain cabin in Coarsegold. This completed a relatively cohesive trilogy, and was a dead-end for a new story arc. In 2012, Lowe discussed what happened to the fourth installment in a video made for a Kickstarter project, in which he said that the idea for skipping Larry 4 came as a flippant comment in the office, and became a \"real marketing coup\" when selling Larry 5 because buyers would immediately ask what happened to the fourth. It became \"one of software's big jokes\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 52814, 292910, 1886335, 27155990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 172 ], [ 299, 310 ], [ 465, 475 ], [ 649, 660 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to production notes given by Lowe, the following events must be assumed to have happened between Larry 3 and Larry 5 to connect the two games: Larry and Patti plan to marry; Patti leaves him at a Yosemite church to pursue her career, but Larry is gone when she returns; The villain of Larry 5, Julius Biggs, somehow steals the game disks and Larry suffers amnesia. The absence of the floppy disks was introduced as a plot element in the sequel to explain how Larry, as a computer generated character, came to suffer from amnesia. Larry 4 appears in several of the other games in the series, including being played in Leisure Suit Larry: Magna Cum Laude. Leisure Suit Larry: Love For Sale Mobile takes place during the Larry 4 development years, and a subplot for the best ending requires finding the lost disks. A folder named LSL4 could be found on the CD of Leisure Suit Larry Collection in which Al Lowe left a note in a readme file referencing the game and concluding \"who says sequels have to be done sequentially?\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "MAD Magazine proposed what Leisure Suit Larry 4 might have looked like in a 1990 issue spoofing video games. Their idea was \"the after effect of Larry's screwing around with the time coming for Larry having to pay the piper.\" They proposed the idea of Larry in a maze game similar to Berzerk, where he must steer clear of out-of-wedlock pregnancies he has caused, as well as private investigators, case workers and angry fathers wielding shotguns, making it extremely difficult for Larry to continue his infamous carefree attitude towards casual sex. On April 1, 2009, the abandonware site Abandonia released an alleged \"leaked copy\" for download. This turned out in fact to be an elaborate April Fools' Day prank: the screenshots were fakes, the review was fictional, and the \"game\" archive actually contained 55 identical copies of scanned front casing of Leisure Suit Larry: Box Office Bust.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21073, 391304, 18933176, 6448845, 11125478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 284, 291 ], [ 573, 584 ], [ 590, 599 ], [ 691, 707 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The game is a part of the plot of Roger Wilco and the Time Rippers, another Sierra title. In the game, LSL4 is labeled as the cause of a supercomputer virus that crippled Roger's home planet Xenon.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Leisure Suit Larry 8, tentatively subtitled Lust in Space (as well as Explores Uranus in some references), was in full development in 1998 until funding was cut. Shortly afterwards, Sierra's adventure games department was disbanded, and Al Lowe left Sierra on February 22, 1999. Like the canned Space Quest sequel, Larry 8 was to feature 3D computer graphics, but no more than a few test renders now survive. The game Leisure Suit Larry: Explores Uranus, as well as its teaser, was referenced in Leisure Suit Larry: Love for Sail! triggered with an Easter egg, as well as a teaser after completing the game. In 2013, Al Lowe pointed out that this title is still being considered, with support from series co-writer Josh Mandel. Lowe stated that even though he would like to complete the Reloaded series first, Leisure Suit Larry 8 is \"absolutely\" still in the works.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1153177, 52814, 28694, 10175073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 237, 244 ], [ 250, 256 ], [ 295, 306 ], [ 338, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leisure Suit Larry: Pocket Party was a canceled game meant to be released in the second half of 2005 for the N-Gage. The publishers were Vivendi and Nokia, while the developer was TKO-Software. In the game, players would explore a 3D college campus, while solving puzzles and engaging in risque activities. As they search for the ultimate good time, gamers bump into Rosie Palmer, the head cheerleader at Larry's college. Attempting to win over Rosie's heart, Larry is thoroughly embarrassed by her jock boyfriend Chuck Rockwell, but humiliation has never stopped Larry before and he is determined to do anything to be with Rosie. In addition to single-player game play, players could also wirelessly square off against an opponent in four different turn-based mini-games. Concept art and design document of the game are in hands of Jody Hicks, one of the game's developers. Also alive Alpha prototype was spotted at ObscureGamers forum in February 2021.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 292484, 21242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 115 ], [ 149, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In late 2005, Target department stores (through online vendor Amazon.com) began accepting pre-orders for a sequel to Leisure Suit Larry: Magna Cum Laude titled Leisure Suit Larry: Cocoa Butter. This new game was being developed for the PC, PS2, Xbox and PSP systems, but has since been canceled.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18581242, 90451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 20 ], [ 62, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several Larry collections have been compiled:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Larry 3-Pack (1991): This collection included the first three games that were available at the time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Leisure Suit Larry's Greatest Hits & Misses (1994): This CD collection included all the Larry games up to Larry 6, including both versions of the original game, the VGA floppy version of Larry 6, the Laffer Utilities and the original Softporn game. A limited edition print of the Leisure Suit Larry book was also included, titled \"My Scrapbook\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Leisure Suit Larry: Collection Series (1997): This two-CD collection included everything the previous collection contained, plus the VGA and SVGA CD-ROM versions of Larry 6, a Larry 7 preview, and Larry's Big Score: Pinball. This was the only collection to include The Official Book of LSL (Perfectbound Edition).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Leisure Suit Larry: The Ultimate Pleasure Pack (1999): This four-CD collection was, again, otherwise identical to the one before it except that it also included the 1998 Larry's Casino and the full version of Love for Sail!", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Leisure Suit Larry Collection (2006): This barebones collection contains only the first six Larry games originally released on floppies (substituting the Larry 1 VGA remake for the EGA original, and excluding the CD edition of Larry 6). According to www.Allowe.com, Vivendi Games excluded Love for Sail! from the collection in fear that the hidden Easter egg ending would give the collection an Adults Only rating. Unlike previous collections, this one does not come with any printed documentation (instead including PDF files containing the original manuals for copy protection purposes) and the games are loaded through DOSBox.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6573837, 24077, 219210, 946149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 267, 280 ], [ 518, 521 ], [ 564, 579 ], [ 623, 629 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Leisure Suit Larry: Greatest Hits and Misses! (2013): Downloadable release on GOG.com by Codemasters. It includes Larry 1–6 (including both EGA and VGA remake of Larry 1, and the VGA and SVGA CD versions of Larry 6) and Softporn Adventure. The SVGA version of Larry 6 was slipped in during an update. Softporn Adventure was removed from the pack on February 28, 2018, but still available for those who bought it previous to that date. Larry 7 is sold separately.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19496254, 1108643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 86 ], [ 90, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A limited-time release titled Leisure Suit Larry Collection Bundle Game Bundle ending November 24, 2021, offered by humblebundle.com includes up to nine games with two tiers: titles 1-3 for at least $1 and all nine for at least $10. The titles are: Leisure Suit Larry 1 - In the Land of the Lounge Lizards, Leisure Suit Larry 2 - Looking For Love (In Several Wrong Places), Leisure Suit Larry 3 - Passionate Patti in Pursuit of the Pulsating Pectorals, Leisure Suit Larry - Magna Cum Laude Uncut and Uncensored, Leisure Suit Larry 5 - Passionate Patti Does a Little Undercover Work, Leisure Suit Larry 6 - Shape Up Or Slip Out, Leisure Suit Larry 7 - Love for Sail, Leisure Suit Larry - Wet Dreams Don't Dry, Leisure Suit Larry - Wet Dreams Dry Twice.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 27311422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hoyle Book of Games, Volume I (1989). Larry Laffer is a character in the game and interacts and speaks with other players.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other software", "target_page_ids": [ 2857112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crazy Nick's Software Picks: Leisure Suit Larry's Casino (1992). It is part of the Crazy Nick's Software Picks series of games, includes slot machine, blackjack, and poker taken from the In the Land of the Lounge Lizards VGA remake and Larry 5.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Laffer Utilities (1992), a parody of the Norton Utilities package.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other software", "target_page_ids": [ 1198487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Leisure Suit Larry's Datebook (unreleased): Mentioned in a 1992 Sierra Catalogue as \"Larry speaks! Custom Larry screens pop on to tell you about meetings, birthdays, work habits, and hard-drive hygiene! Let Larry organize your life. Scary, huh?\" It was never released; according to Al Lowe, he did not even know it existed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Larry Pops Up! (1996): A non productivity utility program and screensaver released as a promo for Larry 7.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Leisure Suit Larry's Casino (1998) in which Larry Laffer is running a casino. The game offers five casino games, three party games, a full gift shop, three restaurants, three bars and a few surprises. It also featured an online component which allowed for players to upgrade their hotel room and participate in other online-only activities, but the servers have been taken offline.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Leisure Suit Larry: Kühle Drinks und heiße Girls (2004): a three-game mini-game pack released in Europe.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Leisure Suit Larry's Sexy Pinball (2005), a pinball game for mobile phones.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Leisure Suit Larry Bikini Beach Volley (2006), a beach volley game for mobile phones.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Leisure Suit Larry Love for Sail (2007), a mobile adventure game with an original story.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Leisure Suit Larry Magna Cum Laude (2008), a mobile game showing some mini games to play with the number pad.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " LarryCasino (2017), a gamified online casino, in which the player must help Larry to find all of the missing objects in order to move through the levels, all based around a new Larry Laffer adventure.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other software", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Official Book of Leisure Suit Larry (1990) (written by Al Lowe and Ralph Roberts, containing background information and hint guides). The book was revised and edited so that there was a second (1991), a third (1993), and a fourth (1997) edition, and Special Edition (released with Larry Collection).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other products", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Authorized Uncensored Leisure Suit Larry Bedside Companion (1990) (written by Peter Spear), containing the stories of the first three Leisure Suit Larry games, as well as detailed walkthroughs, point lists and maps. The book, like other Sierra books by Peter Spear such as The King's Quest Companion, was revised and edited so that there was a second edition (1991) covering Larry 5.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other products", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The series was ranked as the 85th top game of all time by Next Generation in 1996, for how \"the designers have managed to work in enough campy humor and bad puns to keep the game going through five more installments over nine years.\" The total sales of the first five Leisure Suit Larry games surpassed 2 million copies by 1996, as of Love for Sails release. , the series has sold copies.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 1460579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " LarryLaffer.net", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Al Lowe's Leisure Suit Larry page", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Leisure_Suit_Larry", "Adventure_games", "Erotic_video_games", "Leisure_Suit_Larry_games", "Obscenity_controversies_in_video_games", "Sierra_Entertainment_games", "Video_game_franchises_introduced_in_1987", "Video_game_franchises" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The ext2 or second extended file system is a file system for the Linux kernel. It was initially designed by French software developer Rémy Card as a replacement for the extended file system (ext). Having been designed according to the same principles as the Berkeley Fast File System from BSD, it was the first commercial-grade filesystem for Linux.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1010280, 6097297, 21346982, 1033226, 986581, 250992, 18932622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 56 ], [ 65, 70 ], [ 71, 77 ], [ 135, 144 ], [ 170, 190 ], [ 259, 284 ], [ 290, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The canonical implementation of ext2 is the \"ext2fs\" filesystem driver in the Linux kernel. Other implementations (of varying quality and completeness) exist in GNU Hurd, MINIX 3, some BSD kernels, in MiNT, Haiku and as third-party Microsoft Windows and macOS drivers.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13236, 5574880, 18932622, 377398, 554281, 18890, 20640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 169 ], [ 171, 178 ], [ 185, 188 ], [ 201, 205 ], [ 207, 212 ], [ 232, 249 ], [ 254, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ext2 was the default filesystem in several Linux distributions, including Debian and Red Hat Linux, until supplanted by ext3, which is almost completely compatible with ext2 and is a journaling file system. ext2 is still the filesystem of choice for flash-based storage media (such as SD cards and USB flash drives) because its lack of a journal increases performance and minimizes the number of writes, and flash devices can endure a limited number of write cycles. Since 2009, the Linux kernel supports a journal-less mode of ext4 which provides benefits not found with ext2, such as larger file and volume sizes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18212, 8242, 26072, 39195, 23455133, 50595, 315794, 400414, 21347315, 5767923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 61 ], [ 74, 80 ], [ 85, 98 ], [ 120, 124 ], [ 183, 205 ], [ 250, 255 ], [ 285, 292 ], [ 298, 313 ], [ 483, 495 ], [ 528, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The early development of the Linux kernel was made as a cross-development under the MINIX operating system. The MINIX file system was used as Linux's first file system. The Minix file system was mostly free of bugs, but used 16-bit offsets internally and thus had a maximum size limit of only 64 megabytes, and there was also a filename length limit of 14 characters. Because of these limitations, work began on a replacement native file system for Linux.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18977, 981057, 37085, 19918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 89 ], [ 112, 129 ], [ 210, 214 ], [ 296, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To ease the addition of new file systems and provide a generic file API, VFS, a virtual file system layer, was added to the Linux kernel. The extended file system (ext), was released in April 1992 as the first file system using the VFS API and was included in Linux version 0.96c. The ext file system solved the two major problems in the Minix file system (maximum partition size and filename length limitation to 14 characters), and allowed 2 gigabytes of data and filenames of up to 255 characters. But it still had problems: there was no support of separate timestamps for file access, inode modification, and data modification.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 27697009, 351131, 986581, 12570, 47697, 580170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 71 ], [ 73, 76 ], [ 164, 167 ], [ 444, 452 ], [ 561, 570 ], [ 589, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a solution for these problems, two new filesystems were developed in January 1993 for Linux kernel 0.99: xiafs and the second extended file system (ext2), which was an overhaul of the extended file system incorporating many ideas from the Berkeley Fast File System. ext2 was also designed with extensibility in mind, with space left in many of its on-disk data structures for use by future versions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4061562, 250992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 113 ], [ 242, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since then, ext2 has been a testbed for many of the new extensions to the VFS API. Features such as the withdrawn POSIX draft ACL proposal and the withdrawn extended attribute proposal were generally implemented first on ext2 because it was relatively simple to extend and its internals were well understood.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23305, 61589, 3461936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 119 ], [ 120, 138 ], [ 157, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On Linux kernels prior to 2.6.17, restrictions in the block driver mean that ext2 filesystems have a maximum file size of 2TiB.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "ext2 is still recommended over journaling file systems on bootable USB flash drives and other solid-state drives. ext2 performs fewer writes than ext3 because there is no journaling. As the major aging factor of a flash chip is the number of erase cycles, and as erase cycles happen frequently on writes, decreasing writes increases the life span of the solid-state device. Another good practice for filesystems on flash devices is the use of the noatime mount option, for the same reason.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7366298, 920765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 111 ], [ 449, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The space in ext2 is split up into blocks. These blocks are grouped into block groups, analogous to cylinder groups in the Unix File System. There are typically thousands of blocks on a large file system. Data for any given file is typically contained within a single block group where possible. This is done to minimize the number of disk seeks when reading large amounts of contiguous data.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ext2 data structures", "target_page_ids": [ 313667, 250992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 40 ], [ 124, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Each block group contains a copy of the superblock and block group descriptor table, and all block groups contain a block bitmap, an inode bitmap, an inode table, and finally the actual data blocks.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ext2 data structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The superblock contains important information that is crucial to the booting of the operating system. Thus backup copies are made in multiple block groups in the file system. However, typically only the first copy of it, which is found at the first block of the file system, is used in the booting.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ext2 data structures", "target_page_ids": [ 22194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The group descriptor stores the location of the block bitmap, inode bitmap, and the start of the inode table for every block group. These, in turn, are stored in a group descriptor table.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ext2 data structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Every file or directory is represented by an inode. The term \"inode\" comes from \"index node\" (over time, it became i-node and then inode). The inode includes data about the size, permission, ownership, and location on disk of the file or directory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ext2 data structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Example of ext2 inode structure:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ext2 data structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Quote from the Linux kernel documentation for ext2:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ext2 data structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"There are pointers to the first 12 blocks which contain the file's data in the inode. There is a pointer to an indirect block (which contains pointers to the next set of blocks), a pointer to a doubly indirect block and a pointer to a trebly indirect block.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ext2 data structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thus, there is a structure in ext2 that has 15 pointers. Pointers 1 to 12 point to direct blocks, pointer 13 points to an indirect block, pointer 14 points to a doubly indirect block, and pointer 15 points to a triply indirect block.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ext2 data structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Each directory is a list of directory entries. Each directory entry associates one file name with one inode number, and consists of the inode number, the length of the file name, and the actual text of the file name. To find a file, the directory is searched front-to-back for the associated filename. For reasonable directory sizes, this is fine. But for very large directories this is inefficient, and ext3 offers a second way of storing directories (HTree) that is more efficient than just a list of filenames.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ext2 data structures", "target_page_ids": [ 19763183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 456, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The root directory is always stored in inode number two, so that the file system code can find it at mount time. Subdirectories are implemented by storing the name of the subdirectory in the name field, and the inode number of the subdirectory in the inode field. Hard links are implemented by storing the same inode number with more than one file name. Accessing the file by either name results in the same inode number, and therefore the same data.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ext2 data structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The special directories \".\" (current directory) and \"..\" (parent directory) are implemented by storing the names \".\" and \"..\" in the directory, and the inode number of the current and parent directories in the inode field. The only special treatment these two entries receive is that they are automatically created when any new directory is made, and they cannot be deleted.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ext2 data structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When a new file or directory is created, ext2 must decide where to store the data. If the disk is mostly empty, then data can be stored almost anywhere. However, clustering the data with related data will minimize seek times and maximize performance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ext2 data structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "ext2 attempts to allocate each new directory in the group containing its parent directory, on the theory that accesses to parent and children directories are likely to be closely related. ext2 also attempts to place files in the same group as their directory entries, because directory accesses often lead to file accesses. However, if the group is full, then the new file or new directory is placed in some other non-full group.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ext2 data structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The data blocks needed to store directories and files can be found by looking in the data allocation bitmap. Any needed space in the inode table can be found by looking in the inode allocation bitmap.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ext2 data structures", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The reason for some limits of ext2 are the file format of the data and the operating system's kernel. Mostly these factors will be determined once when the file system is built. They depend on the block size and the ratio of the number of blocks and inodes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "File-system limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Linux the block size is limited by the architecture page size.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "File-system limits", "target_page_ids": [ 11254911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are also some userspace programs that cannot handle files larger than 2 GiB.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "File-system limits", "target_page_ids": [ 472105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If b is the block size, the maximal file size is limited to min( ((b/4)3 + (b/4)2 + b/4 + 12) × b, (232 − 1) × 512 ) due to the i_block structure (an array of direct/indirect EXT2_N_BLOCKS) and i_blocks (32-bit integer value) representing the number of 512-byte \"blocks\" in the file.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "File-system limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The maximal number of sublevel-directories is 31998, due to the link-count limit. Directory indexing is not available in ext2, so there are performance issues for directories with a large number of files (>10,000). The theoretical limit on the number of files in a directory is 1.3 × 1020, although this is not relevant for practical situations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "File-system limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Note: In Linux 2.4 and earlier, block devices were limited to 2TiB, limiting the maximal size of a partition, regardless of block size.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "File-system limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "e2compr is a modification to the ext2 driver in the Linux kernel to support compression and decompression of files by the file system, without any support by user applications. e2compr is a small patch against ext2.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Compression extension", "target_page_ids": [ 21347315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "e2compr compresses only regular files; the administrative data (superblock, inodes, directory files, etc.) are not compressed (mainly for safety reasons). Access to compressed blocks is provided for read and write operations. The compression algorithm and cluster size is specified on a per-file basis. Directories can also be marked for compression, in which case every newly created file in the directory will be automatically compressed with the same cluster size and the same algorithm that was specified for the directory.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Compression extension", "target_page_ids": [ 5515027, 7077, 313667, 8013, 2906189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 93 ], [ 94, 99 ], [ 176, 182 ], [ 230, 251 ], [ 256, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "e2compr is not a new file system. It is only a patch to ext2 made to support the EXT2_COMPR_FL flag. It does not require user to make a new partition, and will continue to read or write existing ext2 file systems. One can consider it as simply a way for the read and write routines to access files that could have been created by a simple utility similar to gzip or compress. Compressed and uncompressed files coexist nicely on ext2 partitions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Compression extension", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The latest e2compr-branch is available for current releases of Linux 2.4, 2.6, and 3.0. The latest patch for Linux 3.0 was released in August 2011 and provides multicore and High memory support. There are also branches for Linux 2.0 and 2.2.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Compression extension", "target_page_ids": [ 50318, 630304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 169 ], [ 174, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Access to ext2 partitions under Microsoft Windows is possible through an Installable File System, such as ext2ifs or ext2Fsd. Filesystem in Userspace can be used on macOS.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Under other operating systems", "target_page_ids": [ 654509, 40251760, 1219082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 96 ], [ 117, 124 ], [ 127, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "e2fsprogs", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5393840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "StegFS – a steganographic file system based on ext2", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4653825, 4653994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 11, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "cloop", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1120214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of file systems", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 760639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Comparison of file systems", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5356051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Orlov block allocator, Linux Kernel-determined default block allocator for ext2.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13770074, 21347315, 47922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 23, 35 ], [ 36, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sourceforge e2compr project", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sourceforge e2compr documentation", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sourceforge e3compr project page, ext3 compression, alpha", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dr. Dobb's Data Compression Newsletter Issue #46 - September 2003", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "ext2fs user-space tools", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ext2Fsd GPL ext2/ext3 file system driver for Windows 2000/XP/2003/VISTA/2008 (opensource, supports read & write, works with FreeOTFE)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1993_software", "Disk_file_systems", "File_systems_supported_by_the_Linux_kernel" ]

[ "second extended filesystem" ]

[ { "plaintext": "ext3, or third extended filesystem, is a journaled file system that is commonly used by the Linux kernel. It used to be the default file system for many popular Linux distributions. Stephen Tweedie first revealed that he was working on extending ext2 in Journaling the Linux ext2fs Filesystem in a 1998 paper, and later in a February 1999 kernel mailing list posting. The filesystem was merged with the mainline Linux kernel in November 2001 from 2.4.15 onward. Its main advantage over ext2 is journaling, which improves reliability and eliminates the need to check the file system after an unclean shutdown. Its successor is ext4.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23455133, 21347315, 1010280, 18212, 1031895, 39194, 23455133, 5767923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 62 ], [ 92, 104 ], [ 132, 143 ], [ 161, 180 ], [ 182, 197 ], [ 246, 250 ], [ 494, 504 ], [ 626, 630 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The performance (speed) of ext3 is less attractive than competing Linux filesystems, such as ext4, JFS, ReiserFS, and XFS, but ext3 has a significant advantage in that it allows in-place upgrades from ext2 without having to back up and restore data. Benchmarks suggest that ext3 also uses less CPU power than ReiserFS and XFS. It is also considered safer than the other Linux file systems, due to its relative simplicity and wider testing base.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [ 50487, 39183, 34203, 533867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 102 ], [ 104, 112 ], [ 118, 121 ], [ 224, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ext3 adds the following features to ext2:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A journal", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [ 23455133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Online file system growth", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " HTree indexing for larger directories", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [ 19763183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Without these features, any ext3 file system is also a valid ext2 file system. This situation has allowed well-tested and mature file system maintenance utilities for maintaining and repairing ext2 file systems to also be used with ext3 without major changes. The ext2 and ext3 file systems share the same standard set of utilities, e2fsprogs, which includes an fsck tool. The close relationship also makes conversion between the two file systems (both forward to ext3 and backward to ext2) straightforward.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [ 5393840, 79881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 333, 342 ], [ 362, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ext3 lacks \"modern\" filesystem features, such as dynamic inode allocation and extents. This situation might sometimes be a disadvantage, but for recoverability, it is a significant advantage. The file system metadata is all in fixed, well-known locations, and data structures have some redundancy. In significant data corruption, ext2 or ext3 may be recoverable, while a tree-based file system may not.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [ 580170, 1721756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 62 ], [ 78, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The maximum number of blocks for ext3 is 232. The size of a block can vary, affecting the maximum number of files and the maximum size of the file system:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [ 313667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are three levels of journaling available in the Linux implementation of ext3:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [ 23455133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Journal (lowest risk) Both metadata and file contents are written to the journal before being committed to the main file system. Because the journal is relatively continuous on disk, this can improve performance, if the journal has enough space. In other cases, performance gets worse, because the data must be written twice—once to the journal, and once to the main part of the filesystem.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ordered (medium risk) Only metadata is journaled; file contents are not, but it's guaranteed that file contents are written to disk before associated metadata is marked as committed in the journal. This is the default on many Linux distributions. If there is a power outage or kernel panic while a file is being written or appended to, the journal will indicate that the new file or appended data has not been \"committed\", so it will be purged by the cleanup process. (Thus appends and new files have the same level of integrity protection as the \"journaled\" level.) However, files being overwritten can be corrupted because the original version of the file is not stored. Thus it's possible to end up with a file in an intermediate state between new and old, without enough information to restore either one or the other (the new data never made it to disk completely, and the old data is not stored anywhere). Even worse, the intermediate state might intersperse old and new data, because the order of the write is left up to the disk's hardware.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [ 221277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 279, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Writeback (highest risk) Only metadata is journaled; file contents are not. The contents might be written before or after the journal is updated. As a result, files modified right before a crash can become corrupted. For example, a file being appended to may be marked in the journal as being larger than it actually is, causing garbage at the end. Older versions of files could also appear unexpectedly after a journal recovery. The lack of synchronization between data and journal is faster in many cases. JFS uses this level of journaling, but ensures that any \"garbage\" due to unwritten data is zeroed out on reboot. XFS also uses this form of journaling.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In all three modes, the internal structure of file system is assured to be consistent even after a crash. In any case, only the data content of files or directories which were being modified when the system crashed will be affected; the rest will be intact after recovery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Advantages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Because ext3 aims to be backward-compatible with the earlier ext2, many of the on-disk structures are similar to those of ext2. Consequently, ext3 lacks recent features, such as extents, dynamic allocation of inodes, and block sub-allocation. A directory can have at most 31998 subdirectories, because an inode can have at most 32,000 links (each direct subdirectory increases their parent folder inode link counter in the \"..\" reference).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [ 4459, 1721756, 580170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 43 ], [ 178, 185 ], [ 209, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On ext3, like for most current Linux filesystems, the system tool \"fsck\" should not be used while the filesystem is mounted for writing. Attempting to check a filesystem that is already mounted in read/write mode will (very likely) detect inconsistencies in the filesystem metadata. Where filesystem metadata is changing, and fsck applies changes in an attempt to bring the \"inconsistent\" metadata into a \"consistent\" state, the attempt to \"fix\" the inconsistencies will corrupt the filesystem.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [ 79881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is no online ext3 defragmentation tool that works on the filesystem level. There is an offline ext2 defragmenter, . However, may destroy data, depending on the feature bits turned on in the filesystem; it does not know how to handle many of the newer ext3 features.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [ 360339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are userspace defragmentation tools, like Shake and defrag. Shake works by allocating space for the whole file as one operation, which will generally cause the allocator to find contiguous disk space. If there are files which are used at the same time, Shake will try to write them next to one another. Defrag works by copying each file over itself. However, this strategy works only if the file system has enough free space. A true defragmentation tool does not exist for ext3.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, as the Linux System Administrator Guide states, \"Modern Linux filesystem(s) keep fragmentation at a minimum by keeping all blocks in a file close together, even if they can't be stored in consecutive sectors. Some filesystems, like ext3, effectively allocate the free block that is nearest to other blocks in a file. Therefore it is not necessary to worry about fragmentation in a Linux system.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While ext3 is resistant to file fragmentation, ext3 can get fragmented over time or for specific usage patterns, like slowly writing large files. Consequently, ext4 (the successor to ext3) has an online filesystem defragmentation utility e4defrag and currently supports extents (contiguous file regions).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [ 1721756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 270, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ext3 does not support the recovery of deleted files. The ext3 driver actively deletes files by wiping file inodes for crash safety reasons.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are still several techniques and some free and proprietary software for recovery of deleted or lost files using file system journal analysis; however, they do not guarantee any specific file recovery.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "e3compr is an unofficial patch for ext3 that does transparent compression. It is a direct port of e2compr and still needs further development. It compiles and boots well with upstream kernels, but journaling is not implemented yet.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [ 27681836, 8013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 30 ], [ 62, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike a number of modern file systems, ext3 does not have native support for snapshots, the ability to quickly capture the state of the filesystem at arbitrary times. Instead, it relies on less-space-efficient, volume-level snapshots provided by the Linux LVM. The Next3 file system is a modified version of ext3 which offers snapshots support, yet retains compatibility with the ext3 on-disk format.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [ 2135962, 2273532, 27654374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 87 ], [ 257, 260 ], [ 266, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ext3 does not do checksumming when writing to the journal. On a storage device with extra cache, if barrier=1 is not enabled as a mount option (in /etc/fstab), and if the hardware is doing out-of-order write caching, one runs the risk of severe filesystem corruption during a crash. This is because storage devices with write caches report to the system that the data has been completely written, even if it was written to the (volatile) cache.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [ 7538, 787836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 25 ], [ 147, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If hard disk writes are done out-of-order (due to modern hard disks caching writes in order to amortize write speeds), it is likely that one will write a commit block of a transaction before the other relevant blocks are written. If a power failure or unrecoverable crash should occur before the other blocks get written, the system will have to be rebooted. Upon reboot, the file system will replay the log as normal, and replay the \"winners\" (transactions with a commit block, including the invalid transaction above, which happened to be tagged with a valid commit block). The unfinished disk write above will thus proceed, but using corrupt journal data. The file system will thus mistakenly overwrite normal data with corrupt data while replaying the journal. If checksums had been used, where the blocks of the \"fake winner\" transaction were tagged with a mutual checksum, the file system could have known better and not replayed the corrupt data onto the disk. Journal checksumming has been added to ext4.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [ 236683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Filesystems going through the device mapper interface (including software RAID and LVM implementations) may not support barriers, and will issue a warning if that mount option is used. There are also some disks that do not properly implement the write cache flushing extension necessary for barriers to work, which causes a similar warning. In these situations, where barriers are not supported or practical, reliable write ordering is possible by turning off the disk's write cache and using the mount option. Turning off the disk's write cache may be required even when barriers are available.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [ 54695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Applications like databases expect a call to fsync() to flush pending writes to disk, and the barrier implementation doesn't always clear the drive's write cache in response to that call. There is also a potential issue with the barrier implementation related to error handling during events, such as a drive failure. It is also known that sometimes some virtualization technologies do not properly forward fsync or flush commands to the underlying devices (files, volumes, disk) from a guest operating system. Similarly, some hard disks or controllers implement cache flushing incorrectly or not at all, but still advertise that it is supported, and do not return any error when it is used. There are so many ways to handle fsync and write cache handling incorrectly, it is safer to assume that cache flushing does not work unless it is explicitly tested, regardless of how reliable individual components are believed to be.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [ 5210775, 18311356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 52 ], [ 355, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ext3 stores dates as Unix time using four bytes in the file header. 32 bits does not give enough scope to continue processing files beyond January 18, 2038 - the Year 2038 problem.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Disadvantages", "target_page_ids": [ 1006035, 300127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 30 ], [ 162, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On June 28, 2006, Theodore Ts'o, the principal developer of ext3, announced an enhanced version, called ext4. On October 11, 2008, the patches that mark ext4 as stable code were merged in the Linux 2.6.28 source code repositories, marking the end of the development phase and recommending its adoption.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "ext4", "target_page_ids": [ 1034724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2008, Ts'o stated that although ext4 has improved features such as being much faster than ext3, it is not a major advance, it uses old technology, and is a stop-gap; Ts'o believes that Btrfs is the better direction, because \"it offers improvements in scalability, reliability, and ease of management\". Btrfs also has \"a number of the same design ideas that reiser3/4 had\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "ext4", "target_page_ids": [ 12214168, 39183, 412918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 193 ], [ 360, 367 ], [ 368, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of file systems", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 760639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Comparison of file systems", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5356051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Extended file attributes", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3461936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ext2Fsd", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40251760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Next3, modified version of ext3 which snapshots", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27654374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " as of 2004-10-14.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Introducing ext3 – IBM developerWorks Advanced filesystem implementor's guide, Part 7", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Paragon ExtBrowser Free ext2/ext3 Windows driver", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ext2 File System For Windows GPL ext2/ext3 file system driver for Windows 2000/XP/2003/VISTA/2008 (opensource, supports read & write, supports inode of 256 bytes at maximum to access larger disks)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ext2 Installable File System For Windows ext2/ext3 file system driver for MS Windows NT4.0/2000/XP/Vista/7/8/8.1/Server 2003/2008/2008 R2/2012/2012 R2 (freeware, closed source, supports read & write, supports inodes of 256 bytes at maximum to access larger disks)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "EXT2 IFS ext2/ext3 file system driver (read only) for MS Windows NT/2000/XP (opensource), latest version in the web archive", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Explore2fs An explorer-like GUI tool for accessing ext2/ext3 filesystems under MS Windows", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Ext2read\" A windows application to read/copy ext2/ext3/ext4 files with extent and LVM2 support.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "UFS Explorer Standard Recovery version 4 Commercial data recovery and file undelete software for Ext2/Ext3 file systems.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "ext2/ext3 resizing tools", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Presentation on EXT3 Journaling Filesystem by Dr. Stephen Tweedie at the Ottawa Linux Symposium, 20 July 2000", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "State of the Art: Where we are with the Ext3 filesystem by Mingming Cao, Theodore Y. Ts'o, Badari Pulavarty, Suparna Bhattacharya, IBM Linux Technology Center, 2005", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tutorial – Determining Your EXT3 Size Limits", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "fuse-ext2 An open source ext2/ext3 file system driver for FUSE. (Supports Mac OS X 10.4 and later (Universal Binary), using MacFuse)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 1219082, 20640, 2005155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 62 ], [ 74, 82 ], [ 99, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Windows port of Ext2/Ext4 and other FS in CROSSMETA", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Red Hat Enterprise Linux, Chapter 22. Write Barriers.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Linux clockpocalypse in 2038 is looming and there's no 'serious plan'", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "2001_software", "Disk_file_systems", "File_systems_supported_by_the_Linux_kernel" ]

[ "third extended filesystem" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Corporate haven, corporate tax haven, or multinational tax haven is used to describe a jurisdiction that multinational corporations find attractive for establishing subsidiaries or incorporation of regional or main company headquarters, mostly due to favourable tax regimes (not just the headline tax rate), and/or favourable secrecy laws (such as the avoidance of regulations or disclosure of tax schemes), and/or favourable regulatory regimes (such as weak data-protection or employment laws).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 414411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the \"headline\" corporate tax rate in jurisdictions most often implicated in base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS) is always above zero (e.g. Netherlands at 25%, U.K. at 19%, Singapore at 17%, and Ireland at 12.5%), the \"effective\" tax rate (ETR) of multinational corporations, net of the BEPS tools, is closer to zero. To increase respectability, and access to tax treaties, some jurisdictions like Singapore and Ireland require corporates to have a \"substantive presence\", equating to an \"employment tax\" of approximately 2–3% of profits shielded and if these are real jobs, the tax is mitigated.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 44253151, 1917953, 446274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 114 ], [ 227, 238 ], [ 370, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In corporate tax haven lists, CORPNET's \"Orbis connections\", ranks the Netherlands, U.K., Switzerland, Ireland, and Singapore as the world's key corporate tax havens, while Zucman's \"quantum of funds\" ranks Ireland as the largest global corporate tax haven. In proxy tests, Ireland is the largest recipient of U.S. tax inversions (the U.K. is third, the Netherlands is fifth). Ireland's double Irish BEPS tool is credited with the largest build-up of untaxed corporate offshore cash in history. Luxembourg and Hong Kong and the Caribbean \"triad\" (BVI-Cayman-Bermuda), have elements of corporate tax havens, but also of traditional tax havens.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 57009357, 50532392, 57009357, 19667444, 29291654, 29291654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 59 ], [ 173, 181 ], [ 182, 200 ], [ 315, 329 ], [ 387, 399 ], [ 469, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike traditional tax havens, modern corporate tax havens reject they have anything to do with near-zero effective tax rates, due to their need to encourage jurisdictions to enter into bilateral tax treaties which accept the haven's BEPS tools. CORPNET show each corporate tax haven is strongly connected with specific traditional tax havens (via additional BEPS tool \"backdoors\" like the double Irish, the dutch sandwich, and single malt). Corporate tax havens promote themselves as \"knowledge economies\", and IP as a \"new economy\" asset, rather than a tax management tool, which is encoded into their statute books as their primary BEPS tool. This perceived respectability encourages corporates to use these IFCs as regional headquarters (i.e. Google, Apple, and Facebook use Ireland in EMEA over Luxembourg, and Singapore in APAC over Hong Kong/Taiwan.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18618102, 1917953, 446274, 48504953, 29291654, 14724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ], [ 106, 125 ], [ 196, 208 ], [ 409, 423 ], [ 429, 440 ], [ 513, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Economic Substance legislation introduced in recent years has identified that BEPS is not a material part of the financial services business for Cayman, BVI and Bermuda. While the legislation was originally resisted on extraterritoriality, human rights, privacy, international justice, jurisprudence and colonialism grounds, the introduction of these regulations have had the effect of putting these jurisdictions far ahead of onshore regulatory regimes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Modern corporate tax havens, such as Ireland, Singapore, the Netherlands and the U.K., are different from traditional \"offshore\" financial centres like Bermuda, the Cayman Islands or Jersey. Corporate havens offer the ability to reroute untaxed profits from higher-tax jurisdictions back to the haven; as long as these jurisdictions have bi-lateral tax treaties with the corporate haven. This makes modern corporate tax havens more potent than more traditional tax havens, who have more limited tax treaties, due to their acknowledged status. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Global BEPS hubs", "target_page_ids": [ 446274, 18618102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 350, 362 ], [ 463, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Cayman Islands, BVI, Bermuda, Jersey and Guernsey are more properly now known as IFCs or OFCs. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Global BEPS hubs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tax academics identify that extracting untaxed profits from higher-tax jurisdictions requires several components:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Global BEPS hubs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Once the untaxed funds are rerouted back to the corporate tax haven, additional BEPS tools shield against paying taxes in the haven. It is important these BEPS tools are complex and obtuse so that the higher-tax jurisdictions do not feel the corporate haven is a traditional tax haven (or they will suspend the bilateral tax treaties). These complex BEPS tools often have interesting labels:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Global BEPS hubs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Building the tools requires advanced legal and accounting skills that can create the BEPS tools in a manner that is acceptable to major global jurisdictions and that can be encoded into bilateral tax-treaties, and do not look like \"tax haven\" type activity. Most modern corporate tax havens therefore come from established financial centres where advanced skills are in-situ for financial structuring. In addition to being able to create the tools, the haven needs the respectability to use them. Large high-tax jurisdictions like Germany do not accept IP–based BEPS tools from Bermuda but do from Ireland. Similarly, Australia accepts limited IP–based BEPS tools from Hong Kong but accepts the full range from Singapore. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Global BEPS hubs", "target_page_ids": [ 6418587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 324, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tax academics identify a number of elements corporate havens employ in supporting respectability:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Global BEPS hubs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Whereas jurisdictions traditionally labelled as tax havens, often having marketed themselves as such, modern Offshore Financial Centres robustly refute the tax haven label. This is to ensure that other higher-tax jurisdictions, from which the corporate's main income and profits often derive, will sign bilateral tax-treaties with the haven, and also to avoid being black-listed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 18618102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This issue has caused debate on what constitutes a tax haven, with the OECD most focused on transparency (the key issue of traditional tax havens), but others focused on outcomes such as total effective corporate taxes paid. It is common to see the media, and elected representatives, of a modern corporate tax haven ask the question, \"Are we a tax haven ?\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 1917953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, when it was shown in 2014, prompted by an October 2013 Bloomberg piece, that the effective tax rate of U.S. multinationals in Ireland was 2.2% (using the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis method), it led to denials by the Irish Government and the production of studies claiming Ireland's effective tax rate was 12.5%. However, when the EU fined Apple in 2016, Ireland's largest company, €13 billion in Irish back taxes (the largest tax fine in corporate history), the EU stated that Apple's effective tax rate in Ireland was approximately 0.005% for the 2004-2014 period. The EU's position was found, on appeal in the EU's court, to be unsupported by the facts. However, the G7 leaders in the wake of reporting about a Microsoft subsidiary's level of taxation in 2020, have proposed an agreement on a global minimum corporate tax rate of 15%. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 218330, 57042327, 67313037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 199 ], [ 400, 431 ], [ 821, 847 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Activists in the Tax Justice Network propose that Ireland's effective corporate tax rate was not 12.5%, but closer to the BEA calculation. Studies cited by The Irish Times and other outlets suggest that the effective tax rate is close to the headline 12.5 percent rate – but this is a theoretical result based on a theoretical \"standard firm with 60 employees\" and no exports: in reality, multinational businesses and their corporate structures vary significantly. It is not just Ireland, however. The same BEA calculation showed that the ETRs of U.S. corporates in other jurisdictions was also very low: Luxembourg (2.4%), the Netherlands (3.4%) and the US for multinationals based in other parts of the World. When Gabriel Zucman, published a multi-year investigation into corporate tax havens in June 2018, showing that Ireland is the largest global corporate tax haven (having allegedly shielded $106 billion in profits in 2015), and that Ireland's effective tax rate was 4% (including all non-Irish corporates), the Irish Government countered that they could not be a tax haven as they are OECD-compliant.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 6850841, 50532392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 36 ], [ 720, 734 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is difficult to calculate the financial effect of tax havens in general due to the obfuscation of financial data. Most estimates have wide ranges (see financial effect of tax havens). By focusing on \"headline\" vs. \"effective\" corporate tax rates, researchers have been able to more accurately estimate the annual financial tax losses (or \"profits shifted\"), due to corporate tax havens specifically. This is not easy, however. As discussed above, havens are sensitive to discussions on \"effective\" corporate tax rates and obfuscate data that does not show the \"headline\" tax rate mirroring the \"effective\" tax rate.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 18618102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two academic groups have estimated the \"effective\" tax rates of corporate tax havens using very different approaches:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "They are summarised in the following table (BVI and the Caymans counted as one), as listed in Zucman's analysis (from Appendix, table 2).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Zucman used this analysis to estimate that the annual financial impact of corporate tax havens was $250 billion in 2015. This is beyond the upper limit of the OECD's 2017 range of $100–200 billion per annum for base erosion and profit shifting activities. These are the most credible and widely quoted sources of the financial impact of corporate tax havens. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 44253151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 212, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The World Bank, in its 2019 World Development Report on the future of work suggests that tax avoidance by large corporations limits the ability of governments to make vital human capital investments.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 45358446, 19244712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 28, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern corporate tax havens like Ireland, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands have become more popular for U.S. corporate tax inversions than leading traditional tax havens, even Bermuda. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 19667444, 18618102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 138 ], [ 165, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, corporate tax havens still retain close connections with traditional tax havens as there are instances where a corporation cannot \"retain\" the untaxed funds in the corporate tax haven, and will instead use the corporate tax haven like a \"conduit\", to route the funds to more explicitly zero-tax, and more secretive traditional tax havens. Google does this with the Netherlands to route EU funds untaxed to Bermuda (i.e. dutch sandwich to avoid EU withholding taxes), and Russian banks do this with Ireland to avoid international sanctions and access capital markets (i.e. Irish Section 110 SPVs).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 48504953, 2196805, 56873008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 430, 444 ], [ 457, 474 ], [ 582, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A study published in Nature in 2017 (see Conduit and Sink OFCs), highlighted an emerging gap between corporation tax haven specialists (called Conduit OFCs), and more traditional tax havens (called Sink OFCs). It also highlighted that each Conduit OFC was highly connected to specific Sink . For example, Conduit OFC Switzerland was highly tied to Sink OFC Jersey. Conduit OFC Ireland was tied to Sink OFC Luxembourg, while Conduit OFC Singapore was connected to Sink OFCs Taiwan and Hong Kong (the study clarified that Luxembourg and Hong Kong were more like traditional tax havens).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 43427, 57009357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 27 ], [ 41, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The separation of tax havens into Conduit OFCs and Sink OFCs, enables the corporate tax haven specialist to promote \"respectability\" and maintain OECD-compliance (critical to extracting untaxed profits from higher-taxed jurisdictions via cross-border intergroup IP charging), while enabling the corporate to still access the benefits of a full tax haven (via double Irish, dutch sandwich type BEPS tools), as needed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 29291654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 359, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "We increasingly find offshore magic circle law firms, such as Maples and Calder and Appleby, setting up offices in major Conduit OFCs, such as Ireland.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 5636576, 4928364, 5637150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 42 ], [ 62, 79 ], [ 84, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several modern corporate tax havens, such as Singapore and the United Kingdom, ask that in return for corporates using their IP-based BEPS tools, they must perform \"work\" on the IP in the jurisdiction of the haven. The corporation thus pays an effective \"employment tax\" of circa 2–3% by having to hire staff in the corporate tax haven. This gives the haven more respectability (i.e. not a \"brass plate\" location), and gives the corporate additional \"substance\" against challenges by taxing authorities. The OECD's Article 5 of the MLI supports havens with \"employment taxes\" at the expense of traditional tax havens.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 56890905, 54897608, 18618102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 393, 404 ], [ 535, 538 ], [ 609, 618 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Irish IP-based BEPS tools (e.g. the \"capital allowances for intangible assets\" BEPS scheme), have the need to perform a \"relevant trade\" and \"relevant activities\" on Irish-based IP, encoded in their legislation, which requires specified employment levels and salary levels (discussed here), which roughly equates to an \"employment tax\" of circa 2–3% of profits (based on Apple and Google in Ireland).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 29291654, 1917953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 77 ], [ 284, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, Apple employs 6,000 people in Ireland, mostly in the Apple Hollyhill Cork plant. The Cork plant is Apple's only self-operated manufacturing plant in the world (i.e. Apple almost always contracts to 3rd party manufacturers). It is considered a low-technology facility, building iMacs to order by hand, and in this regard is more akin to a global logistics hub for Apple (albeit located on the \"island\" of Ireland). No research is carried out in the facility. Unusually for a plant, over 700 of the 6,000 employees work from home (the largest remote percentage of any Irish technology company).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When the EU Commission completed their State aid investigation into Apple, they found Apple Ireland's ETR for 2004–2014, was 0.005%, on over €100bn of globally sourced, and untaxed, profits. The \"employment tax\" is, therefore, a modest price to pay for achieving very low taxes on global profits, and it can be mitigated to the extent that the job functions are real and would be needed regardless.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 57042327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Employment taxes\" are considered a distinction between modern corporate tax havens, and near-corporate tax havens, like Luxembourg and Hong Kong (who are classed as Sink OFCs). The Netherlands has been introducing new \"employment tax\" type regulations, to ensure it is seen as a modern corporate tax haven (more like Ireland, Singapore, and the U.K.), than a traditional tax haven (e.g. Hong Kong).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 57009357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The United Kingdom was traditionally a \"donor\" to corporate tax havens (e.g. the last one being Shire plc's tax inversion to Ireland in 2008). However, the speed at which the U.K. changed to becoming one of the leading modern corporate tax havens (at least up until pre-Brexit), makes it an interesting case (it still does not appear on all ).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 871579, 19667444, 41688778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 105 ], [ 108, 121 ], [ 270, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The U.K. changed its tax regime in 2009–2013. It lowered its corporate tax rate to 19%, brought in new IP-based BEPS tools, and moved to a territorial tax system. The U.K. became a \"recipient\" of U.S. corporate tax inversions, and ranked as one of Europe's leading havens. A major study now ranks the U.K. as the second largest global Conduit OFC (a corporate haven proxy). The U.K. was particularly fortunate as 18 of the 24 jurisdictions that are identified as Sink OFCs, the traditional tax havens, are current or past dependencies of the U.K. (and embedded into U.K. tax and legal statute books).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 57009357, 57009357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 337, 348 ], [ 466, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New IP legislation was encoded into the U.K. statute books and the concept of IP significantly broadened in U.K. law. The U.K.'s Patent Office was overhauled and renamed the Intellectual Property Office. A new U.K. Minister for Intellectual Property was announced with the 2014 Intellectual Property Act. The U.K. is now 2nd in the 2018 Global IP Index.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 1229733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The U.K.'s successful transformation from \"donor\" to corporate tax havens, to a major global corporate tax haven in its own right, was quoted as a blueprint for type of changes that the U.S. needed to make in the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 tax reforms (e.g. territorial system, lower headline rate, benefitial IP-rate).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 55697602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some leading modern corporate tax havens are synonymous with offshore financial centres (or OFCs), as the scale of the multinational flows rivals their own domestic economies (the IMF's sign of an OFC). The American Chamber of Commerce Ireland estimated that the value of U.S. investment in Ireland was €334bn, exceeding Irish GDP (€291bn in 2016). An extreme example was Apple's \"onshoring\" of circa $300 billion in intellectual property to Ireland, creating the leprechaun economics affair. However Luxembourg's GNI is only 70% of GDP. The distortion of Ireland's economic data from corporates using Irish IP-based BEPS tools (especially the capital allowances for intangible assets tool), is so great, that it distorts EU-28 aggregate data.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 27638957, 14724, 51127636, 29291654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 87 ], [ 419, 440 ], [ 466, 486 ], [ 647, 687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This distortion means that all corporate tax havens, and particularly smaller ones like Ireland, Singapore, Luxembourg and Hong Kong, rank at the top in global GDP-per-capita league tables. In fact, not being a county with oil & gas resources and still ranking in the top 10 of world GDP-per-capita league tables, is considered a strong proxy sign of a corporate (or traditional) tax haven. GDP-per-capita tables with identification of haven types are here .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 695403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ireland's distorted economic statistics, post leprechaun economics and the introduction of modified GNI, is captured on page 34 of the OECD 2018 Ireland survey:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [ 57057728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This distortion leads to exaggerated credit cycles. The artificial/distorted \"headline\" GDP growth increases optimism and borrowing in the haven, which is financed by global capital markets (who are misled by the artificial/distorted \"headline\" GDP figures and misprice the capital provided). The resulting bubble in asset/property prices from the build-up in credit can unwind quickly if global capital markets withdraw the supply of capital. Extreme credit cycles have been seen in several of the corporate tax havens (i.e. Ireland in 2009-2012 is an example). Traditional tax havens like Jersey have also experienced this.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Whereas traditional corporate tax havens facilitated avoiding domestic taxes (e.g. U.S. corporate tax inversion), modern corporate tax havens provide base erosion and profit shifting (or BEPS) tools, which facilitate avoiding taxes in all global jurisdictions in which the corporation operates. This is as long as the corporate tax haven has tax-treaties with the jurisdictions that accept \"royalty payment\" schemes (i.e. how the IP is charged out), as a deduction against tax. A crude indicator of a corporate tax haven is the amount of full bilateral tax treaties that it has signed. The U.K. is the leader with over 122, followed by the Netherlands with over 100.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 19667444, 44253151, 305567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 111 ], [ 150, 182 ], [ 392, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "BEPS tools abuse intellectual property (or IP), GAAP accounting techniques, to create artificial internal intangible assets, which facilitate BEPS actions, via:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 14724, 299146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 38 ], [ 106, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IP is described as the \"raw material\" of tax planning. Modern corporate tax havens have IP-based BEPS tools, and are in all their bilateral tax-treaties. IP is a powerful tax management and BEPS tool, with almost no other equal, for four reasons:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When corporate tax havens quote \"effective rates of tax\", they exclude large amounts of income not considered taxable due to the IP-based tools. Thus, in a self-fulfilling manner, their \"effective\" tax rates equal their \"headline\" tax rates. As discussed earlier (), Ireland claims an \"effective\" tax rate of circa 12.5%, while the IP-based BEPS tools used by Ireland's largest companies, mostly U.S. multinationals, are marketed with effective tax rates of <0-3%. These 0-3% rates have been verified in the EU Commission's investigation of Apple (see above), and other sources.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 1917953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 437, 456 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The creation of IP-based BEPS tools requires advanced legal and tax structuring capabilities, as well as a regulatory regime willing to carefully encode the complex legislation into the jurisdiction's statute books (note that BEPS tools bring increased risks of tax abuse by the domestic tax base in corporate tax haven's own jurisdiction, see for an example). Modern corporate tax havens, therefore, tend to have large global legal and accounting professional service firms in-situ (many classical tax havens lack this) who work with the government to build the legislation. In this regard, havens are accused of being captured states by their professional services firms. The close relationship between Ireland's International Financial Services Centre professional service firms and the State in Ireland, is often described as the \"green jersey agenda\". The speed at which Ireland was able to replace its double Irish IP-based BEPS tool, is a noted example.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 1099602, 57569094, 29291654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 719, 758 ], [ 839, 858 ], [ 913, 925 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is considered that this type of legal and tax work is beyond the normal trust-structuring of offshore magic circle-type firms. This is substantive and complex legislation that needs to integrate with tax treaties that involve G20 jurisdictions, as well as advanced accounting concepts that will meet U.S. GAAP, SEC and IRS regulations (U.S. multinationals are leading users of IP-based BEPS tools). It is also why most modern corporate tax havens started as financial centres, where a critical mass of advanced professional services firms develop around complex financial structuring (almost half of the main 10 corporate tax havens are in the 2017 top 10 Global Financial Centres Index, see ).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 5636576, 6418587, 15231621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 117 ], [ 463, 480 ], [ 661, 691 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The EU Commission has been trying to break the close relationship in the main EU corporate tax havens (i.e. Ireland, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Malta and Cyprus; the main Conduit and Sink OFCs in the EU-28, post Brexit), between law and accounting advisory firms, and their regulatory authorities (including taxing and statistical authorities) from a number of approaches:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 57009357, 41688778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 194 ], [ 214, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern corporate havens present IP-based BEPS tools as \"innovation economy\", \"new economy\" or \"knowledge economy\" business activities (e.g. some use the term \"knowledge box\" or \"patent box\" for a class of IP-based BEPS tools, such as in Ireland and in the U.K.), however, their development as a GAAP accounting entry, with few exceptions, is for the purposes of tax management. A lawyer said \"Intellectual property (IP) has become the leading tax-avoidance vehicle.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 1917953, 38108305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 172 ], [ 178, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Apple \"onshored\" $300 billion of IP to Ireland in 2015 (leprechaun economics), the Irish Central Statistics Office suppressed its regular data release to protect the identity of Apple (unverifiable for 3 years, until 2018), but then described the artificial 26.3% rise in Irish GDP as \"meeting the challenges of a modern globalised economy\". The behaviour of the CSO was described as putting on the \"green jersey\". Leprechaun economics an example of how Ireland was able to meet with the OECD's transparency requirements (and score well in the Financial Secrecy Index), and still hide the largest BEPS action in history.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 51127636, 546187, 57569094, 33301271, 44253151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 81 ], [ 94, 119 ], [ 389, 418 ], [ 550, 573 ], [ 603, 607 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As noted earlier (), the U.K. has a Minister for Intellectual Property and an Intellectual Property Office, as does Singapore (Intellectual Property Office of Singapore). The top 10 list of the 2018 Global Intellectual Property Center IP Index, the leaders in IP management, features the five largest modern corporate tax havens: United Kingdom (#2), Ireland (#6), the Netherlands (#7), Singapore (#9) and Switzerland (#10). This is despite the fact that patent-protection has traditionally been synonymous with the largest, and longest established, legal jurisdictions (i.e. mainly older G7-type countries).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 1229733, 25534589, 26595024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 106 ], [ 127, 168 ], [ 200, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2017, the German Federal Council approved a new law called an IP \"Royalty Barrier\" (Lizenzschranke) that restricts the ability of corporates to deduct intergroup cross-border IP charges against German taxation (and also encourage corporates to allocate more employees to Germany to maximise German tax-relief). The law also enforces a minum \"effective\" 25% tax rate on IP. While there was initial concern amongst global corporate tax advisors (who encode the IP legislation) that a \"Royalty Barrier\" was the \"beginning of the end\" for IP-based BEPS tools, the final law was instead a boost for modern corporate tax havens, whose OECD-compliant, and more carefully encoded and embedded IP tax regimes, are effectively exempted. More traditional corporate tax havens, which do not always have the level of sophistication and skill in encoding IP BEPS tools into their tax regimes, will fall further behind.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The German \"Royalty Barrier\" law exempts IP charged from locations which have:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One of Ireland's main tax law firms, Matheson, whose clients include some of the largest U.S. multinationals in Ireland, issued a note to its clients confirming that the new German \"Royalty Barrier\" will have little effect on their Irish IP-based BEPS structures - despite them being the primary target of the law. In fact, Matheson notes that that new law will further highlight Ireland's \"robust solution\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 57546653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The failure of the German \"Royalty Barrier\" approach is a familiar route for systems that attempt to curb corporate tax havens via an OECD-compliance type approach (see ), which is what modern corporate tax havens are distinctive in maintaining. It contrasts with the U.S. Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 (see ), which ignores whether a jurisdiction is OECD compliant (or not), and instead focuses solely on \"effective taxes paid\", as its metric. Had the German \"Royalty Barrier\" taken the U.S. approach, it would have been more onerous for havens. Reasons for why the barrier was designed to fail is discussed in complex agendas.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 55697602, 57709061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 274, 303 ], [ 615, 630 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sectors most associated with IP (e.g., technology and life sciences) are generally the some of the most profitable corporate sectors in the world. By using IP-based BEPS tools, these profitable sectors have become even more profitable on an after-tax basis by artificially suppressing profitability in higher-tax jurisdictions, and profit shifting to low-tax locations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For example, Google Germany should be even more profitable than the already very profitable Google U.S. This is because the marginal additional costs for firms like Google U.S. of expanding into Germany are very low (the core technology platform has been built). In practice, however, Google Germany is actually unprofitable (for tax purposes), as it pays intergroup IP charges back to Google Ireland, who reroutes them to Google Bermuda, who is extremely profitable (more so than Google U.S.). These intergroup IP charges (i.e. the IP-based BEPS tools), are artificial internal constructs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Commentators have linked the cyclical peak in U.S. corporate profit margins, with the enhanced after-tax profitability of the biggest U.S. technology firms.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For example, the definitions of IP in corporate tax havens such as Ireland has been broadened to include \"theoretical assets\", such as types of general rights, general know-how, general goodwill, and the right to use software. Ireland's IP regime includes types of \"internally developed\" intangible assets and intangible assets purchased from \"connected parties\". The real control in Ireland is that the IP assets must be acceptable under GAAP (older 2004 Irish GAAP is accepted), and thus auditable by an Irish International Financial Services Centre accounting firm.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 1099602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 515, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A broadening range of multinationals are abusing IP accounting to increase after-tax margins, via intergroup charge-outs of artificial IP assets for BEPS purposes, including:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It has been noted that IP-based BEPS tools such as the \"patent box\" can be structured to create negative rates of taxation for IP-heavy corporates.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Intellectual-property–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 38108305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern corporate tax havens further leverage their IP-based BEPS toolbox to enable international corporates to execute quasi-tax inversions, which could otherwise be blocked by domestic anti-inversion rules. The largest example was Apple's Q1 January 2015 restructuring of its Irish business, Apple Sales International, in a quasi-tax inversion, which led to the Paul Krugman labeled \"leprechaun economics\" affair in Ireland in July 2016 (see article).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "IP–based Tax inversions", "target_page_ids": [ 313701, 51127636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 364, 376 ], [ 386, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early 2016, the Obama Administration blocked the proposed $160 billion Pfizer-Allergan Irish corporate tax inversion, the largest proposed corporate tax inversion in history, a decision which the Trump Administration also upheld.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "IP–based Tax inversions", "target_page_ids": [ 19667444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, both Administrations were silent when the Irish State announced in July 2016 that 2015 GDP has risen 26.3% in one quarter due to the \"onshoring\" of corporate IP, and it was rumoured to be Apple. It might have been due to the fact that the Central Statistics Office (Ireland) openly delayed and limited its normal data release to protect the confidentiality of the source of the growth. It was only in early 2018, almost three years after Apple's Q1 2015 $300 billion quasi-tax inversion to Ireland (the largest tax inversion in history), that enough Central Statistics Office (Ireland) data was released to prove it definitively was Apple.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "IP–based Tax inversions", "target_page_ids": [ 546187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Financial commentators estimate Apple onshored circa $300 billion in IP to Ireland, effectively representing the balance sheet of Apple's non-U.S. business. Thus, Apple completed a quasi-inversion of its non-U.S. business, to itself, in Ireland, which was almost twice the scale of Pfizer-Allergan's $160 billion blocked inversion.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "IP–based Tax inversions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Apple used Ireland's new BEPS tool, and \"double Irish\" replacement, the \"capital allowances for intangible assets\" scheme. This BEPS tool enables corporates to write-off the \"arm's length\" (to be OECD-compliant), intergroup acquisition of offshored IP, against all Irish corporate taxes. The \"arm's length\" criteria are achieved by getting a major accounting firm in Ireland's International Financial Services Centre to conduct a valuation, and Irish GAAP audit, of the IP. The range of IP acceptable by the Irish Revenue Commissioners is very broad. This BEPS tool can be continually replenished by acquiring new offshore IP with each new \"product cycle\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "IP–based Tax inversions", "target_page_ids": [ 29291654, 29291654, 1099602, 34987394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 53 ], [ 73, 113 ], [ 379, 418 ], [ 517, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition, Ireland's 2015 Finance Act removed the 80% cap on this tool (which forced a minimum 2.5% effective tax rate), thus giving Apple a 0% effective tax rate on the \"onshored\" IP. Ireland then restored the 80% cap in 2016 (and a return to a minimum 2.5% effective tax rate), but only for new schemes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "IP–based Tax inversions", "target_page_ids": [ 1917953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus, Apple was able to achieve what Pfizer-Allergan could not, by making use of Ireland's advanced IP-based BEPS tools. Apple avoided any U.S regulatory scrutiny/blocking of its actions, as well as any wider U.S. public outcry, as Pfizer-Allergan incurred. Apple structured an Irish corporate effective tax rate of close to zero on its non-U.S. business, at twice the scale of the Pfizer-Allergan inversion.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "IP–based Tax inversions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While the focus of corporate tax havens continues to be on developing new IP-based BEPS tools (such as OECD-compliant knowledge/patent boxes), Ireland has developed new BEPS tools leveraging traditional securitisation SPVs, called Section 110 SPVs. Use of intercompany loans and loan interest was one of the original BEPS tools and was used in many of the early U.S. corporate tax inversions (was known as \"earnings-stripping\").", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Debt–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 30876141, 56873008, 19667444, 19667444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 217 ], [ 231, 247 ], [ 378, 391 ], [ 407, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Netherlands has been a leader in this area, using specifically worded legislation to enable IP-light companies further amplify \"earnings-stripping\". This is used by mining and resource extraction companies, who have little or no IP, but who use high levels of leverage and asset financing. Dutch tax law enables IP-light companies to \"overcharge\" their subsidiaries for asset financing (i.e. reroute all untaxed profits back to the Netherlands), which is treated as tax-free in the Netherlands. The technique of getting full tax-relief for an artificially high-interest rate in a foreign subsidiary, while getting additional tax relief on this income back home in the Netherlands, became known by the term, \"double dipping\". As with the Dutch sandwich, ex. Dutch Minister Joop Wijn is credited as its creator.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Debt–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 48504953, 5838155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 746, 760 ], [ 781, 790 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Irish Section 110 SPV uses complex securitisation loan structuring (including \"orphaning\" which adds confidentiality), to enable the profit shifting. This tool is so powerful, it inadvertently enabled US distressed debt funds avoid billions in Irish taxes on circa €80 billion of Irish investments they made in 2012-2016 (see Section 110 abuse). This was despite the fact that the seller of the circa €80 billion was mostly the Irish State's own National Asset Management Agency.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Debt–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 56873008, 5063160, 1428131, 56873008, 22368322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 82, 93 ], [ 209, 224 ], [ 331, 348 ], [ 452, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The global securitisation market is circa $10 trillion in size, and involves an array of complex financial loan instruments, structured on assets all over the world, using established securitization vehicles that are accepted globally (and whitelisted by the OECD). This is also helpful for concealing corporate BEPS activities, as demonstrated by sanctioned Russian banks using Irish Section 110 SPVs.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Debt–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This area is therefore an important new BEPS tool for EU corporate tax havens, Ireland and Luxembourg, who are also the EU's leading securitisation hubs. Particularly so, given the new anti-IP-based BEPS tool taxes of the U.S. Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 (TCJA), (i.e. the new GILTI tax regime and BEAT tax regime), and proposed EU Digital Services Tax (DST) regimes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Debt–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 55697602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The U.S. TCJA anticipates a return to debt-based BEPS tools, as it limits interest deductibility to 30% of EBITDA (moving to 30% of EBIT post 2021).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Debt–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While securitisation SPVs are important new BEPS tools, and acceptable under global tax-treaties, they suffer from \"substance\" tests (i.e. challenges by tax authorities that the loans are artificial). Irish Section 110 SPV's use of \"Profit Participation Notes\" (i.e. artificial internal intergroup loans), is an impediment to corporates using these structures versus established IP-based BEPS tools. Solutions such as the Orphaned Super-QIAIF have been created in the Irish tax code to resolve this.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Debt–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 30876141, 56873008, 56873008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 20 ], [ 234, 260 ], [ 424, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, while Debt-based BEPS tools may not feature with U.S. multinational technology companies, they have become attractive to global financial institutions (who do not need to meet the same \"substance\" tests on their financial transactions).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Debt–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2018, the Central Bank of Ireland upgraded the little-used Irish L-QIAIF regime to offer the same tax benefits as Section 110 SPVs but without the need for Profit Participation Notes and without the need to file public accounts with the Irish CRO (which had exposed the scale of Irish domestic taxes Section 110 SPVs had been used to avoid, see abuses).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Debt–based BEPS tools", "target_page_ids": [ 367292, 57799062, 526950, 56873008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 45 ], [ 77, 84 ], [ 255, 258 ], [ 357, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The study and identification of modern corporate tax havens are still developing. Traditional qualitative-driven IMF-OCED-Financial Secrecy Index type tax haven screens, which focus on assessing legal and tax structures, are less effective given the high levels of transparency and OECD-compliance in modern corporate tax havens (i.e. most of their BEPS tools are OECD-whitelisted).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ranking corporate tax havens", "target_page_ids": [ 33301271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More scientific, are the quantitative-driven studies (focused on empirical outcomes), such as the work by the University of Amsterdam's CORPNET in Conduit and Sink OFCs, and by University of Berkley's Gabriel Zucman. They highlight the following modern corporate tax havens, also called Conduit OFCs, and also highlight their \"partnerships\" with key traditional tax havens, called Sink OFCs:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ranking corporate tax havens", "target_page_ids": [ 57009357, 50532392, 57009357, 18618102, 57009357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 168 ], [ 201, 215 ], [ 288, 300 ], [ 363, 372 ], [ 382, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The only jurisdiction from the above list of major global corporate tax havens that makes an occasional appearance in OECD-IMF tax haven lists is Switzerland. These jurisdictions are the leaders in IP-based BEPS tools and use of intergroup IP charging and have the most sophisticated IP legislation. They have the largest tax treaty networks and all follow the approach.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ranking corporate tax havens", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The analysis highlights the difference between \"suspected\" onshore tax havens (i.e. major Sink OFCs Luxembourg and Hong Kong), which because of their suspicion, have limited/restricted bilateral tax treaties (as countries are wary of them), and the Conduit OFCs, which have less \"suspicion\" and therefore the most extensive bilateral tax treaties. Corporates need the broadest tax treaties for their BEPS tools, and therefore prefer to base themselves in Conduit OFCs (Ireland and Singapore), which can then route the corporate's funds to the Sink OFCs (Luxembourg and Hong Kong).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ranking corporate tax havens", "target_page_ids": [ 44253151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 401, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of the major Sink OFCs, they span a range between traditional tax havens (with very limited tax treaty networks) and near-corporate tax havens:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ranking corporate tax havens", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The above five corporate tax haven Conduit OFCs, plus the three general tax haven Sink OFCs (counting the Caribbean \"triad\" as one major Sink OFC), are replicated at the top 8-10 corporate tax havens of many independent lists, including the Oxfam list, and the ITEP list. (see ).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ranking corporate tax havens", "target_page_ids": [ 19698439, 29724210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 241, 246 ], [ 261, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gabriel Zucman's analysis differs from most other works in that it focuses on the total quantum of taxes shielded. He shows that many of Ireland's U.S. multinationals, like Facebook, don't appear on Orbis (the source for quantitative studies, including CORPNET's) or have a small fraction of their data on Orbis (Google and Apple).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ranking corporate tax havens", "target_page_ids": [ 50532392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Analysed using a \"quantum of funds\" method (not an \"Orbis corporate connections\" method), Zucman shows Ireland as the largest EU-28 corporate tax haven, and the major route for Zucman's estimated annual loss of 20% in EU-28 corporate tax revenues. Ireland exceeds the Netherlands in terms of \"quantum\" of taxes shielded, which would arguably make Ireland the largest global corporate tax haven (it even matches the combined Caribbean triad of Bermuda-British Virgin Islands-the Cayman Islands). See .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ranking corporate tax havens", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The rise of modern corporate tax havens, like the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Ireland and Singapore, contrasts with the failure of OECD initiatives to combat global corporate tax avoidance and BEPS activities. There are many reasons advocated for the OECD's failure, the most common being:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Failure of OECD BEPS Project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It has been noted in the OECD's defence, that G8 economies like the U.S. were strong supporters of the OECD's IP work, as they saw it as a tool for their domestic corporates (especially IP-heavy technology and life sciences firms), to charge-out US-based IP to international markets and thus, under U.S. bilateral tax treaties, remit untaxed profits back to the U.S. However, when U.S. multinationals perfected these IP-based BEPS tools and worked out how to relocate them to zero-tax places such as the Caribbean or Ireland, the U.S. became less supportive (i.e. U.S. 2013 Senate investigation into Apple in Bermuda).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Failure of OECD BEPS Project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, the U.S. lost further control when corporate havens such as Ireland, developed \"closed-loop\" IP-based BEPS systems, like the capital allowances for intangibles tool, which by-pass U.S. anti-Corporate tax inversion controls, to enable any U.S. firm (even IP-light firms) create a synthetic corporate tax inversion (and achieve 0-3% Irish effective tax rates), without ever leaving the U.S. Apple's successful $300 Q1 2015 billion IP-based Irish tax inversion (which came to be known as leprechaun economics), compares with the blocked $160 billion Pfizer-Allergan Irish tax inversion.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Failure of OECD BEPS Project", "target_page_ids": [ 29291654, 19667444, 1917953, 51127636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 168 ], [ 209, 222 ], [ 346, 365 ], [ 495, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"closed-loop\" element refers to the fact that the creation of the artificial internal intangible asset (which is critical to the BEPS tool), can be done within the confines of the Irish-office of a global accounting firm, and an Irish law firm, as well as the Irish Revenue Commissioners. No outside consent is needed to execute the BEPS tool (and use via Ireland's global tax-treaties), save for two situations:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Failure of OECD BEPS Project", "target_page_ids": [ 299146, 44253151, 34987394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 106 ], [ 133, 137 ], [ 270, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2017-18 U.S. and EU Commission taxation initiatives, deliberately depart from the OECD BEPS Project, and have their own explicit anti-IP BEPS tax regimes (as opposed to waiting for the OECD). The U.S. GILTI and BEAT tax regimes are targeted at U.S. multinationals in Ireland, while the EU's Digital Services Tax is also directed at perceived abuses by Ireland of the EU's transfer pricing systems (particularly in regard to IP-based royalty payment charges).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Failure of OECD BEPS Project", "target_page_ids": [ 51333003, 305567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 103 ], [ 438, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, the new U.S. GILTI regime forces U.S. multinationals in Ireland to pay an effective corporate tax rate of over 12%, even with a full Irish IP BEPS tool (i.e. \"single malt\", whose effective Irish tax rate is circa 0%). If they pay full Irish \"headline\" 12.5% corporate tax rate, the effective corporate tax rate rises to over 14%. This is compared to a new U.S. FDII tax regime of 13.125% for U.S.-based IP, which reduces to circa 12% after the higher U.S. tax relief.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Failure of OECD BEPS Project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "U.S. multinationals like Pfizer announced in Q1 2018, a post-TCJA global tax rate for 2019 of circa 17%, which is very similar to the circa 16% expected by past U.S. multinational Irish tax inversions, Eaton, Allergan, and Medtronic. This is the effect of Pfizer being able to use the new U.S. 13.125% FDII regime, as well as the new U.S. BEAT regime penalising non-U.S. multinationals (and past tax inversions) by taxing income leaving the U.S. to go to low-tax corporate tax havens like Ireland.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Failure of OECD BEPS Project", "target_page_ids": [ 19667444, 39197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 199 ], [ 464, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other jurisdictions, such as Japan, are also realising the extent to which IP-based BEPS tools are being used to manage global corporate taxes.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Failure of OECD BEPS Project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While the IRS has traditionally been seen as the main loser to global corporate tax havens, the 15.5% repatriation rate of the Trump administration Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 changes this calculus.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Failure of OECD BEPS Project", "target_page_ids": [ 23430752, 52231341, 55697602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 13 ], [ 127, 147 ], [ 148, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IP-heavy American corporations are the main users of BEPS tools. Studies show that as most other major economies run \"territorial\" tax systems, their corporates did not need to profit shift. They could just sell their IP to foreign markets from their home jurisdiction at low tax rates (e.g. 5% in Germany for German corporations). For example, there are no non-U.S./non-U.K. foreign corporates in Ireland's top 50 firms by revenues, and only one by employees, German retailer Lidl (whereas 14 of Ireland's top 20 firms are American multinationals). The British firms are mainly pre . (discussed here).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Failure of OECD BEPS Project", "target_page_ids": [ 21470795, 1917953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 480, 484 ], [ 601, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Had American multinationals not used IP-based BEPS tools in corporate tax havens, and paid the circa 25% corporation tax (average OECD rate) abroad, the IRS would have only received an additional 10% in tax, to bring the total effective American worldwide tax rate to 35%. However, after the TCJA, the IRS is now getting more tax, at the higher 15.5% rate, and American corporations have avoided the 25% foreign taxes and therefore will have brought more capital back to America as result.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Failure of OECD BEPS Project", "target_page_ids": [ 55697602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 292, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This is at the expense of higher-tax Europe and Asian countries, who received no taxes from American corporations, as the corporations used IP-based BEPS tools from bases in corporate tax havens, while German corporations are charged 5% tax by their regulator.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Failure of OECD BEPS Project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "President Trump did not sign the OECD's June 2017 Multilateral Convention to Implement Tax Treaty Related Measures to Prevent Base Erosion and Profit Shifting, as it felt that it had low exposure to profit shifting. An American official said at a transfer pricing conference that they did not sign the tax treaty inked by 68 [later 70] countries in Paris 7 June 2017 \"because the U.S. tax treaty network has a low degree of exposure to base erosion and profit shifting issues.\" This beneficial effect of global tax havens to the IRS was predicted by Hines and Rice in 1994 in which the authors said: \"some American business operations are drawn offshore by the lure of low tax rates in tax havens; nevertheless, the policies of tax havens may, on net, enhance the U.S. Treasury's ability to collect tax revenue from American corporations.\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Failure of OECD BEPS Project", "target_page_ids": [ 54897608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before 2015, many lists are of general tax havens (i.e. individual and corporate). Post 2015, quantitative studies (e.g. CORPNET and Gabriel Zucman), have highlighted the greater scale of corporate tax haven activity. The OECD, who only list one jurisdiction in the world as a tax haven, Trinidad and Tobago, note the scale of corporate tax haven activity. Note that the IMF list of offshore financial centres (\"OFC\") is often cited as the first list to include the main corporate tax havens and the term OFC and corporate tax haven are often used interchangeably.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [ 50532392, 27638957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 148 ], [ 386, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Regardless of method, most corporate tax haven lists consistently repeat ten jurisdictions (sometimes the Caribbean \"triad\" is one group), which comprise: ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Note four of these ten jurisdictions have financial centres that appear in 2017 top 10 Global Financial Centres Index: London, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Zurich. Luxembourg was in the top 15.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [ 6418587, 15231621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 59 ], [ 87, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Note also from Conduit and Sink OFCs, that the latter groups (ii ex. Switzerland, and iii), rely on the first group (i), to act as a conduit in rerouting corporate untaxed income. In this regard, Ireland, the Netherlands, Singapore and the U.K., are considered the most important corporate tax havens, and the \"source\" of most global corporate tax avoidance.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [ 57009357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of their larger size, it is not uncommon to see Switzerland and the United Kingdom dropped from more informal references to the main tax havens, for example:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "James R. Hines Jr. is a founder of research into tax havens. His area of expertise is the U.S. corporate taxation system, and much of his research is on U.S. multinational use of tax havens. In 2010, Hines produced a table of U.S. multinational investment in havens, and produced the following ranking of the ten largest U.S. corporate tax havens:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [ 58119634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tax haven academic Gabriel Zucman's (et alia) June 2018 list calculates the actual quantum of actual taxes shielded (versus counting legal Orbis database connections, or company subsidiaries) by profit shifting. Ireland now exceeds the aggregate Caribbean complex (ex. Bermuda), in terms of being the largest overall global corporate tax haven (see ). Ireland is also the largest EU-28 corporate tax haven. The study estimates Ireland's effective tax rate is really 4%. The U.K. is a notable absence. (slide 68).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [ 50532392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the 2017 investigation, published in Nature, into Conduit and Sink OFCs, comes CORPNET's top 5 Conduit OFCs (i.e. corporate tax haven proxy), and top 5 Sink OFCs (i.e. traditional tax haven proxy), as calculated by analysing over 71 million global corporate connections on the Orbis database (i.e. it is by number of connections, not specifically by quantum of taxes shielded). Even though the method is different, CORPNET captures all of Zucman's list but separated into Conduits and Sinks (and breaks out the Caribbean), however, Zucman's list has a different ranking:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [ 43427, 57009357, 57009357, 57009357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 48 ], [ 55, 76 ], [ 100, 112 ], [ 157, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conduit OFCs (by the number of corporate connections), 2017:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [ 57009357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sink OFCs (by the number of corporate connections), 2017:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [ 57009357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy list (Figure 1, page 11), is based on the % of Fortune 500 companies with subsidiaries in the corporate tax haven in 2016. The drawback of the list is that it is a U.S. focused list, and focuses on the number of connections (i.e. or subsidiaries) rather than the scale of taxes shielded. Contains all of Zucman's list, but with Mauritius and Panama added as well.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [ 29724210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Percentage of Fortune 500 companies with subsidiaries in the jurisdiction, 2016:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The second Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy list (Figure 4, page 16), is based on the reported profits of U.S. Fortune 500 controlled subsidiaries in 2013. It tries to capture the scale of taxes shielded by looking at reported profits as a proxy. Ireland now jumps to 2nd place, only just behind the Netherlands. The Netherlands-Ireland-Bermuda are usually the jurisdictions behind most \"double Irish with a Dutch sandwich\" BEPS schemes. Identical list to Zucman's list but with the Caribbean broken out into individual jurisdictions (the Caymans, Bermuda, Bahamas and the BVI).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [ 29724210, 29291654, 48504953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 52 ], [ 399, 411 ], [ 419, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Size of profits routed by Fortune 500 companies via subsidiaries in the jurisdiction, 2016:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Oxfam list is based on a qualitative and quantitative data in 2016. The list is not focused on just scale, it is also looking for particularly loose jurisdictions. However, it still effectively contains all of Zucman's list with the addition of Curaco and Cyprus, who scored particularly poorly on qualitative aspects of their tax regimes (i.e. very loose controls but not used to the same scale as other jurisdictions).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [ 19698439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oxfam ranking of global corporate tax havens, 2016:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A simple but effective proxy are the destinations to where U.S. multinationals execute tax inversions (i.e. an important test of the attractiveness of a corporate tax haven). However, cases like inversions to Canada could reflect more of a \"relative-tax\" view (i.e. Canada offers lower taxes than the U.S. and it is close by and less controversial), than an \"absolute-tax\" view on the best global locations for a corporate tax haven. The list still captures much of Zucman's list, particularly for the EU and the Caribbean. It captures the popularity of Ireland and the rise of the U.K.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [ 19667444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Destinations for the 85 U.S. corporate inversions, since the first inversion in 1982, to the most recent inversion in 2016:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Corporate tax haven lists", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One of the simpler, but effective, methods proposed of identifying tax havens (both corporate and traditional) is by tracking the distortion that the tax-driven accounting flows make on national economic flows. This is an effect that is particularly pronounced for corporate tax havens due to the larger scale of accounting flows from the larger and . The following tables of the world's top 15 GDP-per-capita jurisdictions are taken from the List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita for 2017 (from the IMF) and 2016 (from the World Bank).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "GDP-per-capita tax haven proxy", "target_page_ids": [ 695403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 446, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Corporate tax inversion", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19667444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Corporate tax in the Netherlands", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22358475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Corporation tax in the Republic of Ireland", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1917953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Double Irish IP-based BEPS tool", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 29291654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Single Malt IP-based BEPS tool", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 29291654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Capital Allowances for Intangible Assets IP-based BEPS tool", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 29291654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dutch sandwich IP-based BEPS tool", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 48504953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ireland as a tax haven", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 57709061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Irish Section 110 Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) Debt-based BEPS tool", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 56873008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Offshore financial centre", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27638957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Qualifying investor alternative investment fund (QIAIF) Tax-free shelters", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 57799062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Taxation in Switzerland", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18892406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "United Kingdom corporation tax", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 594441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Matheson (law firm) Ireland's largest U.S. tax advisor", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 57546653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Feargal O'Rourke architect of Ireland's BEPS tools", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 57272099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Financial Centres Forum (IFC Forum)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "IMF Offshore Financial Centres", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Taxing Corporations, the Tax Justice Network", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Corporate Tax Havens, the Guardian", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "International_taxation", "Tax_avoidance", "Business_terms", "Corporate_law", "Corporate_tax_avoidance", "Global_issues" ]

[ "corporate tax haven", "tax haven", "multinational tax haven", "company tax haven" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Green Mountain Boys were a militia organization first established in 1770 in the territory between the British provinces of New York and New Hampshire, known as the New Hampshire Grants and later in 1777 as the Vermont Republic (which later became the state of Vermont). Headed by Ethan Allen and members of his extended family, it was instrumental in resisting New York's attempts to control the territory, over which it had won de jure control in a territorial dispute with New Hampshire.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 486947, 483269, 489560, 538613, 32578, 9333, 9160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 136 ], [ 141, 154 ], [ 169, 189 ], [ 215, 231 ], [ 265, 272 ], [ 285, 296 ], [ 434, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some companies served in the American Revolutionary War, including notably when the Green Mountain Boys led by Ethan Allen captured Fort Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain on May 10, 1775; and invaded Canada later in 1775. In early June 1775, Ethan Allen and his then subordinate, Seth Warner, induced the Continental Congress at Philadelphia to create a Continental Army ranger regiment from the then New Hampshire Grants. Having no treasury, the Congress directed that New York's revolutionary Congress pay for the newly authorized regiment. In July 1775, Allen's militia was granted support from the New York revolutionary Congress.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 771, 337140, 18201, 291174, 1602561, 38322, 168210, 489560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 55 ], [ 123, 148 ], [ 152, 166 ], [ 188, 202 ], [ 276, 287 ], [ 301, 321 ], [ 350, 366 ], [ 397, 417 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Green Mountain Boys disbanded more than a year before Vermont declared its independence in 1777 from Great Britain \"as a separate, free and independent jurisdiction or state\". The Vermont Republic operated for 14 years, before being admitted in 1791 to the United States as the 14th state.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 538613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The remnants of the Green Mountain Boys militia were largely reconstituted as the Green Mountain Continental Rangers. Command of the newly formed regiment passed from Allen to Seth Warner. Allen joined the staff of the Northern Army of New York's Major General Philip Schuyler and was given the rank of lieutenant colonel. Under Warner the regiment fought at the battles of Hubbardton and Bennington in 1777. The regiment was disbanded in 1779.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 308181, 1277014, 39204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 278 ], [ 377, 387 ], [ 392, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Green Mountain Boys mustered again during the War of 1812, the Civil War, the Spanish–American War, the Vietnam War, the Afghanistan War and the Iraq War. Today it is the informal name of the Vermont National Guard, which comprises both the Army and Air National Guards.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 34059, 863, 28265, 32611, 1749346, 5043324, 4562275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 61 ], [ 67, 76 ], [ 82, 102 ], [ 108, 119 ], [ 125, 140 ], [ 149, 157 ], [ 196, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The original Green Mountain Boys were a militia organized in what is now southwestern Vermont in the decade prior to the American Revolutionary War. They comprised settlers and land speculators who held New Hampshire titles to lands between the Connecticut River and Lake Champlain, an area then known as the New Hampshire Grants, that is now modern Vermont. New York was given legal control of the area by a decision of the British crown and refused to respect the New Hampshire titles and town charters. Although a few towns with New York land titles, notably Brattleboro on the Connecticut River, supported the change, the vast majority of the settlers in the sparsely populated frontier region rejected the authority of New York. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32578, 771, 536698, 21134, 252145, 18201, 489560, 8210131, 31717, 260268, 50344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 93 ], [ 121, 147 ], [ 164, 171 ], [ 203, 216 ], [ 245, 262 ], [ 267, 281 ], [ 309, 329 ], [ 359, 367 ], [ 425, 432 ], [ 562, 573 ], [ 682, 690 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With several hundred members, the Green Mountain Boys effectively controlled the area where New Hampshire grants had been issued. They were led by Ethan Allen, his brother Ira Allen, and their cousins Seth Warner and Remember Baker. They were based at the Catamount Tavern in Bennington. By the 1770s, the Green Mountain Boys had become an armed military force and de facto government, which was also a militia, that prevented New York from exercising its authority in the northeast portion of the Province of New York. New York authorities had standing warrants for the arrest of the leaders of the rebellious Vermonters but were unable to exercise them. New York surveyors and other officials attempting to exercise their authority were prevented from doing so and in some cases were severely beaten, and settlers arriving to clear and work land under New York–issued grants were forced off their land, and sometimes had their possessions destroyed. At the same time, New York sought to extend its authority over the territory. During an event once known as the Westminster massacre, anti-Yorkers occupied the courthouse in Westminster to prevent a New York judge from holding court, and two men were killed in the ensuing standoff. Ethan Allen then went to Westminster with a band of Boys and organized a convention calling for the territory's independence from New York.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9333, 1352752, 1602561, 2260789, 3939823, 260210, 43594, 486947, 209287, 60891, 30502589, 260272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 158 ], [ 172, 181 ], [ 201, 212 ], [ 217, 231 ], [ 256, 272 ], [ 276, 286 ], [ 365, 373 ], [ 498, 518 ], [ 554, 561 ], [ 665, 673 ], [ 1064, 1084 ], [ 1126, 1137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the American Revolutionary War started in 1775, Ethan Allen and a troop of his men, along with Connecticut Colonel Benedict Arnold, marched up to Lake Champlain and captured the strategically important British military posts at Fort Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and Fort George, all in New York. The Boys also briefly held St. John's in Québec, but retreated on word of arriving British regulars. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 771, 6466, 2989328, 417858, 337140, 1975776, 7480093, 7954867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 35 ], [ 100, 111 ], [ 112, 119 ], [ 120, 135 ], [ 233, 249 ], [ 251, 262 ], [ 268, 279 ], [ 339, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Summer 1775, the Green Mountain Boys became the basis for the Green Mountain Rangers, a regiment in the Continental Army that selected colonel Seth Warner as its leader. Some of the Green Mountain Boys preferred to remain with Ethan Allen and were taken prisoners along with Allen in August 1775 in a bungled attempt to capture the city of Montreal. Among them were Congressman Matthew Lyon and Lieutenant Benjamin Tucker. Tucker joined the British army after his capture; because of this, his name was rebuked by Ethan Allen and his men.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 168210, 2224059, 7954681, 223225, 620571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 123 ], [ 305, 331 ], [ 344, 352 ], [ 370, 381 ], [ 382, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vermont eventually declared itself an independent nation in January 1777, and organized a government based in Windsor. The armed forces of the Vermont Republic was based upon the Green Mountain Boys. Although Vermont initially supported the American Revolutionary War and sent troops to fight John Burgoyne's British invasion from Quebec in battles at Hubbardton and Bennington in 1777, Vermont eventually adopted a more neutral stance and became a haven for deserters from both the British and colonial armies. George Washington, who had more than sufficient difficulties with the British, brushed off Congressional demands that he subdue Vermont. During the Haldimand Affair, some members of the Green Mountain Boys became involved in secret negotiations with British officials about restoring the Crown's rule over the territory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 137475, 538613, 771, 163208, 1277014, 39204, 488824, 11968, 25798444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 117 ], [ 143, 159 ], [ 241, 267 ], [ 293, 306 ], [ 352, 362 ], [ 367, 377 ], [ 459, 467 ], [ 512, 529 ], [ 660, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Vermont Army version of the Green Mountain Boys faded away after Vermont joined the United States as the 14th U.S. state in 1791, although the Green Mountain Boys mustered for the War of 1812, The Civil War, the Spanish–American War, and following World War I as the Vermont National Guard.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3434750, 18618239, 34059, 863, 28265, 4764461, 4562275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 101 ], [ 114, 124 ], [ 184, 195 ], [ 197, 210 ], [ 216, 236 ], [ 252, 263 ], [ 271, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ebenezer Allen – militia member (lieutenant) (Ethan Allen's cousin)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3351993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ethan Allen – militia leader (general)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ira Allen – militia leader, and the founder of The University of Vermont (Ethan Allen's brother)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1352752, 287800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 52, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Remember Baker – militia member (captain) (Ethan Allen's cousin)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2260789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jabez William Clay – militia member and founder of the secret/social men's fraternity Phi Sigma Kappa", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 42528808, 1114737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 86, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Fassett Jr., Vermont Supreme Court Justice, 1778–1786, diarist who chronicled the Green Mountain Boys’ 1775 expedition to Canada.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 47048509, 5042916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 128, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "David Fay, Vermont Supreme Court Justice, adjutant general of the Vermont Militia", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40689896, 37520813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 42, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jonas Fay, regimental surgeon and political leader of early Vermont", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 47653075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jonas Galusha - militia leader (captain), future Governor of Vermont", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 672338, 253092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 49, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Matthew Lyon – militia member (second lieutenant), and future congressman", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 620571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "David Robinson, son of Captain Samuel Robinson, a founder of Bennington", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 50542670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Moses Robinson, Colonel in Vermont Militia during American Revolution, 2nd Governor of Vermont Republic, one of the first two senators from Vermont.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1654561, 1973, 538613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 50, 69 ], [ 87, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Rowley – poet, militia member and spokesman, known as the \"Bard of the Green Mountains\" who \"Set the Hills on Fire\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5595089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elishama Tozer - militia member (lieutenant)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32363446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Seth Warner – militia leader (colonel)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1602561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joab Hoisington - Militia Leader, Hoisington's Rangers, (Major), served in the French-Indian War, and participated in the Battle for Crown Point.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 47193152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A remnant of a Green Mountain Boys flag, believed to have belonged to John Stark, is owned by the Bennington Museum. It still exists as one of the few regimental flags from the time of the American Revolution. Although Stark was at the Battle of Bennington and likely flew this flag, the battle has become more commonly associated with the Bennington flag, which is believed to be a 19th-century banner.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Flag", "target_page_ids": [ 11123710, 173016, 45486684, 39204, 12165621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 39 ], [ 70, 80 ], [ 98, 115 ], [ 236, 256 ], [ 340, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Vermont Army National Guard and Vermont Air National Guard are collectively known as the Vermont National Guard or \"Green Mountain Boys.\" Both units use the original Green Mountain Boys battle flag as their banner.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vermont National Guard", "target_page_ids": [ 306054, 265572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 31 ], [ 44, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Battle of Bennington", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Battle of Hubbardton", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1277014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fort Ticonderoga", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 46710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Invasion of Canada (1775)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 291174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pennamite–Yankee War, a conflict between settlers from Connecticut and Pennsylvania.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2768773, 6466, 23332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 56, 67 ], [ 72, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saratoga campaign", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 240612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Army of the Republic of Texas", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47060547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Texian Army", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17996159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Texas Navy", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7294268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nauvoo Legion", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 739369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " California Republic (Bear Flaggers)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 327441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vermont National Guard", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4562275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Green Mountain Anarchist Collective", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2274182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of United States militia units in the American Revolutionary War", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11686829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shalhope, Robert. (1996). Bennington and the Green Mountain Boys: The Emergence of Liberal Democracy in Vermont, 1760-1850. Johns Hopkins University Press", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ethan Allen History: Green Mountain Boys", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Novel: Memoir of a Green Mountain Boy", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Soldiers of the Revolutionary War buried in Vermont", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1764_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies", "Pre-statehood_history_of_Vermont", "Vermont_Republic", "Ethan_Allen", "History_of_the_Thirteen_Colonies", "1760s_establishments_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies", "Vermont_militiamen_in_the_American_Revolution", "American_filibusters_(military)", "United_States_militia_in_the_American_Revolution", "Vermont_in_the_American_Revolution", "Military_history_of_Vermont", "Vermont_culture" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Mark the Evangelist (; ; ; ), also known as Saint Mark, is the person who is traditionally ascribed to be the author of the Gospel of Mark. According to Church tradition, Mark founded the episcopal see of Alexandria, which was one of the five most important sees of early Christianity. His feast day is celebrated on April 25, and his symbol is the winged lion.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12490, 199657, 6744485, 2125024, 14117, 180283, 3654908, 31622159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 138 ], [ 188, 201 ], [ 205, 215 ], [ 238, 257 ], [ 266, 284 ], [ 290, 299 ], [ 335, 341 ], [ 349, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to William Lane (1974), an \"unbroken tradition\" identifies Mark the Evangelist with John Mark, and John Mark as the cousin of Barnabas. However, Hippolytus of Rome in On the Seventy Apostles distinguishes Mark the Evangelist (2 Tim 4:11), John Mark (Acts 12:12, 25; 13:5, 13; 15:37), and Mark the cousin of Barnabas (Col 4:10; Phlm 1:24). According to Hippolytus, they all belonged to the \"Seventy Disciples\" who were sent out by Jesus to disseminate the gospel (Luke 10:1ff.) in Judea.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mark's identity", "target_page_ids": [ 37194396, 2619697, 4607, 73313, 28833886, 1095706, 12627, 12491, 21491730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 25 ], [ 94, 103 ], [ 136, 144 ], [ 155, 173 ], [ 298, 325 ], [ 440, 445 ], [ 465, 471 ], [ 473, 477 ], [ 490, 495 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Eusebius of Caesarea (Eccl. Hist. 2.9.1–4), Herod Agrippa I, in his first year of reign over the whole of Judea (AD 41), killed James, son of Zebedee and arrested Peter, planning to kill him after the Passover. Peter was saved miraculously by angels, and escaped out of the realm of Herod (Acts 12:1–19). Peter went to Antioch, then through Asia Minor (visiting the churches in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia, as mentioned in 1 Peter 1:1), and arrived in Rome in the second year of Emperor Claudius (AD 42; Eusebius, Eccl, Hist. 2.14.6). Somewhere on the way, Peter encountered Mark and took him as travel companion and interpreter. Mark the Evangelist wrote down the sermons of Peter, thus composing the Gospel according to Mark (Eccl. Hist. 15–16), before he left for Alexandria in the third year of Claudius (AD 43).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mark's identity", "target_page_ids": [ 10172, 68601, 171625, 31665644, 23059, 19404136, 36900, 854, 79629, 12744, 79642, 1241242, 77427, 25458, 6140, 203221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 33 ], [ 57, 72 ], [ 141, 162 ], [ 176, 181 ], [ 214, 222 ], [ 256, 261 ], [ 332, 339 ], [ 354, 364 ], [ 391, 397 ], [ 399, 406 ], [ 408, 418 ], [ 420, 424 ], [ 430, 438 ], [ 485, 489 ], [ 512, 528 ], [ 698, 704 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Acts 15:39, Mark went to Cyprus with Barnabas after the Council of Jerusalem.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mark's identity", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to tradition, in AD 49, about 19 years after the Ascension of Jesus, Mark travelled to Alexandria and founded the Church of Alexandria – today, the Coptic Orthodox Church, the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria, and the Coptic Catholic Church trace their origins to this original community. Aspects of the Coptic liturgy can be traced back to Mark himself. He became the first bishop of Alexandria and he is honored as the founder of Christianity in Africa.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mark's identity", "target_page_ids": [ 59068, 3080, 6744485, 7601, 8158009, 277220, 4092, 5334607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 77 ], [ 97, 107 ], [ 124, 144 ], [ 158, 180 ], [ 186, 221 ], [ 231, 253 ], [ 388, 394 ], [ 461, 467 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Eusebius (Eccl. Hist. 2.24.1), Mark was succeeded by Anianus as the bishop of Alexandria in the eighth year of Nero (62/63), probably, but not definitely, due to his coming death. Later Coptic tradition says that he was martyred in 68.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mark's identity", "target_page_ids": [ 642593, 21632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 73 ], [ 124, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some modern Bible scholars argue the Gospel of Mark was written by an anonymous author, rather than direct witnesses to the reported events.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mark's identity", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Evidence for Mark the Evangelist's authorship of the Gospel that bears his name originates with Papias. Scholars of the Trinity Evangelical Divinity School are \"almost certain\" that Papias is referencing John Mark. Modern mainstream Bible scholars discard Papias's information as unreliable. Eusebius had a \"low esteem of Papias' intellect\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Biblical and traditional information", "target_page_ids": [ 102354, 1813461, 2619697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 102 ], [ 120, 155 ], [ 204, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Identifying Mark the Evangelist with John Mark also led to identifying him as the man who carried water to the house where the Last Supper took place (Mark 14:13), or as the young man who ran away naked when Jesus was arrested (Mark 14:51–52).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Biblical and traditional information", "target_page_ids": [ 2619697, 1720795, 30667, 41463563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 46 ], [ 107, 122 ], [ 127, 138 ], [ 174, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Coptic Church accords with identifying Mark the Evangelist with John Mark, as well as that he was one of the Seventy Disciples sent out by Christ (Luke 10:1), as Hippolytus confirmed. Coptic tradition also holds that Mark the Evangelist hosted the disciples in his house after Jesus's death, that the resurrected Jesus Christ came to Mark's house (John 20), and that the Holy Spirit descended on the disciples at Pentecost in the same house. Furthermore, Mark is also believed to have been among the servants at the Marriage at Cana who poured out the water that Jesus turned to wine (John 2:1–11).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Biblical and traditional information", "target_page_ids": [ 7601, 2619697, 73313, 14379, 45971, 733975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 68, 77 ], [ 166, 176 ], [ 375, 386 ], [ 417, 426 ], [ 520, 536 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Coptic tradition, Mark was born in Cyrene, a city in the Pentapolis of North Africa (now Libya). This tradition adds that Mark returned to Pentapolis later in life, after being sent by Paul to Colossae (Colossians 4:10; Philemon 24. Some, however, think these actually refer to Mark the Cousin of Barnabas), and serving with him in Rome (2 Tim 4:11); from Pentapolis he made his way to Alexandria. When Mark returned to Alexandria, the pagans of the city resented his efforts to turn the Alexandrians away from the worship of their traditional gods. In AD 68, they placed a rope around his neck and dragged him through the streets until he was dead.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Biblical and traditional information", "target_page_ids": [ 85738, 75451, 17633, 24140, 6846, 9951, 9963, 28833886, 3080, 7491899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 58 ], [ 74, 100 ], [ 106, 111 ], [ 202, 206 ], [ 210, 218 ], [ 220, 230 ], [ 237, 245 ], [ 295, 322 ], [ 403, 413 ], [ 550, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Feast of St Mark is observed on April 25 by the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. For those Churches still using the Julian Calendar, April 25 according to it aligns with May 8 on the Gregorian Calendar until the year 2099. The Coptic Orthodox Church observes the Feast of St Mark on Parmouti 30 according to the Coptic Calendar which always aligns with April 25 on the Julian Calendar or May 8 on the Gregorian Calendar.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Veneration", "target_page_ids": [ 3369403, 15651, 23306251, 87473, 15651, 23306251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 127, 142 ], [ 194, 212 ], [ 323, 338 ], [ 380, 395 ], [ 412, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Where John Mark is distinguished from Mark the Evangelist, John Mark is celebrated on September 27 (as in the Roman Martyrology) and Mark the Evangelist on April 25.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Veneration", "target_page_ids": [ 2619697, 7950310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 15 ], [ 110, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mark is remembered in the Church of England and in much of the Anglican Communion, with a Festival on 25 April.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Veneration", "target_page_ids": [ 4476440, 5955, 7164924, 2733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 18 ], [ 26, 43 ], [ 90, 98 ], [ 102, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mark the Evangelist is most often depicted writing or holding his gospel. In Christian tradition, Mark the Evangelist is symbolized by a lion.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In art", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mark the Evangelist attributes are the lion in the desert; he can be depicted as a bishop on a throne decorated with lions; as a man helping Venetian sailors. He is often depicted holding a book with pax tibi Marce written on it or holding a palm and book. Other depictions of Mark show him as a man with a book or scroll, accompanied by a winged lion. The lion might also be associated with Jesus' Resurrection because lions were believed to sleep with open eyes, thus a comparison with Christ in his tomb, and Christ as king.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In art", "target_page_ids": [ 18955999, 4092, 32616, 26414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 57 ], [ 83, 89 ], [ 141, 149 ], [ 399, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mark the Evangelist can be depicted as a man with a halter around his neck and as rescuing Christian slaves from Saracens.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In art", "target_page_ids": [ 46689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Basilica di San Marco (Venice, Italy)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Major shrines", "target_page_ids": [ 211329, 32616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 24, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral (Alexandria, Egypt)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Major shrines", "target_page_ids": [ 12830633, 3080, 8087628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ], [ 41, 51 ], [ 53, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saint Mark's Church (Serbian Orthodox) in Belgrade, Serbia", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Major shrines", "target_page_ids": [ 4773442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral (Cairo, Egypt)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Major shrines", "target_page_ids": [ 2210451, 6293, 8087628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ], [ 41, 46 ], [ 48, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " St. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery, New York City", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Major shrines", "target_page_ids": [ 5123720, 645042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ], [ 34, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Baucalis", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38250994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Feast of Saint Mark", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3369403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gospel of John", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gospel of Luke", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gospel of Mark", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gospel of Matthew", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John the Evangelist", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Luke the Evangelist", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rogation days", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 541568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saint Mark the Evangelist, patron saint archive", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"St. Mark in the New Testament\", \"St. Mark in Early Tradition\"; two articles by Henry Barclay Swete", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 11661216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 100 ] ] } ]

[ "12_births", "68_deaths", "1st-century_Popes_and_Patriarchs_of_Alexandria", "1st-century_Christian_martyrs", "1st-century_writers", "Burials_at_Saint_Mark's_Coptic_Orthodox_Cathedral_(Alexandria)", "Christian_missionaries_in_Africa", "Early_Jewish_Christians", "Gospel_of_Mark", "Saints_from_Roman_Egypt", "People_in_Acts_of_the_Apostles", "Christian_writers", "Seventy_disciples", "Year_of_birth_unknown", "Four_Evangelists", "Body_snatching", "Anglican_saints" ]

[ "Saint Mark", "Mark", "Marcus", "Markus" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Telugu (; , ) is a Dravidian language spoken by Telugu people predominantly living in the Telugu states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, where it is also the official language. It is the most widely spoken member of the Dravidian language family and one of the twenty-two scheduled languages of the Republic of India. It is one of the few languages that has primary official status in more than one Indian state, alongside Hindi and Bengali. Telugu is one of six languages designated as a classical language (of India) by the Government of India.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7922, 3569761, 63369017, 2377, 990267, 193178, 7922, 419710, 375986, 13652, 21378419, 275047, 553883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 37 ], [ 48, 61 ], [ 90, 103 ], [ 107, 121 ], [ 126, 135 ], [ 158, 175 ], [ 220, 245 ], [ 272, 316 ], [ 399, 411 ], [ 423, 428 ], [ 433, 440 ], [ 489, 507 ], [ 526, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu is also a linguistic minority in the states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, West Bengal, and the union territories of Puducherry and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is also spoken by members of the Telugu diaspora spread across countries like United States, Australia, United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand in the Anglosphere; Myanmar, Malaysia, South Africa, Mauritius; and the Arabian Gulf countries of UAE, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia etc.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16880, 29918, 20629, 47734, 250724, 34040, 68143, 47898, 38019488, 61774095, 14903617, 31717, 18690262, 4913064, 250762, 2773899, 26134088, 8424173, 19201, 220950, 69328, 7515890, 349303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 63 ], [ 65, 75 ], [ 77, 88 ], [ 90, 102 ], [ 104, 110 ], [ 112, 123 ], [ 154, 164 ], [ 169, 196 ], [ 234, 249 ], [ 279, 292 ], [ 294, 303 ], [ 305, 319 ], [ 321, 327 ], [ 329, 340 ], [ 348, 359 ], [ 361, 368 ], [ 370, 378 ], [ 380, 392 ], [ 394, 403 ], [ 413, 425 ], [ 439, 442 ], [ 444, 450 ], [ 452, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With nearly 81 million native speakers as per the 2011 census, Telugu is the fourth most spoken language in India and 15th in the world in the Ethnologue list of languages by number of native speakers. It is also the fastest-growing language in the United States, where there is a large Telugu-speaking community. It is also a protected language in South Africa and is offered as an optional third language in schools in the KwaZulu-Natal province. Roughly 10,000 pre-colonial inscriptions exist in the Telugu language.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 263257, 26787409, 10302, 405385, 3434750, 17416221, 193596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 38 ], [ 50, 61 ], [ 143, 153 ], [ 162, 200 ], [ 249, 262 ], [ 349, 361 ], [ 425, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Speakers of Telugu refer to it as simply Telugu or Telugoo. Older forms of the name include Teluṅgu, Tenuṅgu and Teliṅga. Atharvana Acharya in the 13th century wrote a grammar of Telugu, calling it the Trilinga Śabdānusāsana (or Trilinga Grammar). Appa Kavi in the 17th century explicitly wrote that Telugu was derived from Trilinga. Scholar Charles P. Brown made a comment that it was a \"strange notion\" since the predecessors of Appa Kavi had no knowledge of such a derivation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "George Abraham Grierson and other linguists doubt this derivation, holding rather that Telugu was the older term and Trilinga must be the later Sanskritisation of it. If so the derivation itself must have been quite ancient because Triglyphum, Trilingum and Modogalingam are attested in ancient Greek sources, the last of which can be interpreted as a Telugu rendition of \"Trilinga\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 5343300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another view holds that tenugu is derived from the Proto-Dravidian word *ten (\"south\") to mean \"the people who lived in the south/southern direction\" (relative to Sanskrit and Prakrit-speaking peoples). The name Telugu, then, is a result of an \"n\" to \"l\" alternation established in Telugu.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 2628367, 24497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 66 ], [ 176, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to linguist Bhadriraju Krishnamurti, Telugu, as a Dravidian language, descends from Proto-Dravidian, a proto-language. Linguistic reconstruction suggests that Proto-Dravidian was spoken around the third millennium BCE. According to the Russian linguist Mikhail S. Andronov, Telugu split from the Proto-Dravidian language between 1000 and 1500 BCE.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12683833, 2628367, 9930002, 4651912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 45 ], [ 94, 109 ], [ 113, 127 ], [ 129, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prakrit Inscriptions with some Telugu words dating back to between 400 BCE and 100 BCE have been discovered in Bhattiprolu in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. The English translation of an inscription reads, \"gift of the slab by venerable Midikilayakha\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 24497, 5623280, 3360215, 2377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 111, 122 ], [ 130, 145 ], [ 149, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"The Bhattiprolu stone Buddhist casket in proto Telugu belongs to BCE 300, the Erragudi Asokan Rock Edict in Proto Telugu belongs to 257 BCE (DC Sarkar’s Ashokan Studies, Calcutta 1979 pages 7–8), the Ghantasala Brahmin inscription and the pillar inscription of Vijaya Satakarni, Vijayapuri, Nagarjunakonda etc., belongs to First Century CE. Further, Tummalagudem inscription of Vishnukundinas belongs to 5th Century CE. (Epigraphia Andhrika, Vol.ii pages 9 to 14)\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One of the first words in the Telugu language, \"Nagabu\", was found in a Sanskrit inscription of the 1st century BCE at Amaravathi (not to be confused with the newly planned city of Amaravati). Telugu words were also found in the Dharmasila inscription of Emperor Ashoka. A number of Telugu words were found in the Sanskrit and Prakrit inscriptions of the Satavahanas, Vishnukundinas, and Ikshwakas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1747349, 45348469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 129 ], [ 181, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Telugu lore, its grammar has a prehistoric past. The Sage Kanva was said to be the language's first grammarian. A. Rajeswara Sarma discussed the historicity and content of Kanva's grammar. He cited twenty grammatical aphorisms ascribed to Kanva, and concluded that Kanva wrote an ancient Telugu Grammar which was lost.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5017626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The coin legends of the Satavahanas, in all areas and all periods, used a Prakrit dialect without exception. Some reverse coin legends are in Tamil, and Telugu languages.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 24497, 29919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 81 ], [ 142, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The period from 4th century CE to 1022 CE corresponds to the second phase of Telugu history, after the Andhra Ikshvaku period. This is evidenced by the first inscription that is entirely in Telugu, dated 575CE, which was found in the Rayalaseema region and is attributed to the Renati Cholas, who broke with the prevailing custom of using Sanskrit and began writing royal proclamations in the local language. During the next fifty years, Telugu inscriptions appeared in Anantapuram and other neighbouring regions. The Madras Museum plates of Balliya-Choda dated to the mid-ninth century CE are the earliest copper plate grants in the Telugu language.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4658300, 990295, 4610629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 118 ], [ 234, 245 ], [ 278, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Certain exploration and excavation missions conducted by the Archaeological Department in and around the Keesaragutta temple have brought to light, a number of brick temples, cells and other structures encompassed by brick prakaram along with coins, beads, stucco figures, garbhapatra, pottery, and Brahmi label inscriptions datable to 4th and 5th centuries CE. On top of one of the rock-cut caves, an early Telugu label inscription reading as 'Thulachuvanru' can be noticed. On the basis of palaeography, the inscription is dated around the 4th to 5th centuries CE.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32870471, 24566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 231 ], [ 492, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu was more influenced by Sanskrit and Prakrit during this period, which corresponded to the advent of Telugu literature. Telugu literature was initially found in inscriptions and poetry in the courts of the rulers, and later in written works such as Nannayya's Mahabharatam (1022CE). During the time of Nannayya, the literary language diverged from the popular language. It was also a period of phonetic changes in the spoken language.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 238762, 19643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 255, 263 ], [ 266, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The third phase is marked by further stylization and sophistication of the literary languages. During this period the split of the Telugu from Kannada alphabets took place. Tikkana wrote his works in this script.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 533562, 44972, 238763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 137 ], [ 143, 159 ], [ 173, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Vijayanagara Empire gained dominance from 1336 to the late 17th century, reaching its peak during the rule of Krishnadevaraya in the 16th century, when Telugu literature experienced what is considered its Golden Age.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 478684, 1201387, 31497818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 114, 129 ], [ 209, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A distinct dialect developed in present-day Telangana region, due to Persian/Arabic influence: the Delhi Sultanate of the Tughlaq dynasty was established earlier in the northern Deccan Plateau during the 14th century. In the latter half of the 17th century, the Mughal Empire extended further south, culminating in the establishment of the Hyderabad State by the dynasty of the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1724. This heralded an era of Persian influence on the Telugu language, especially Hyderabad State. The effect is also evident in the prose of the early 19th century, as in the kaifiyats.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 990267, 11600, 803, 295402, 1646781, 459370, 24217897, 298492, 907292, 462477, 71560800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 53 ], [ 69, 76 ], [ 77, 83 ], [ 99, 114 ], [ 122, 137 ], [ 178, 192 ], [ 262, 275 ], [ 340, 355 ], [ 378, 396 ], [ 430, 437 ], [ 577, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the princely Hyderabad State, the Andhra Mahasabha was started in 1921 with the main intention of promoting Telugu language, literature, its books and historical research led by Madapati Hanumantha Rao (the founder of the Andhra Mahasabha), Komarraju Venkata Lakshmana Rao (Founder of Library Movement in Hyderabad State), Suravaram Pratapareddy and others.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 298492, 21871010, 50158083, 9910238, 7921358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 31 ], [ 37, 53 ], [ 181, 204 ], [ 244, 275 ], [ 326, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 16th-century Venetian explorer Niccolò de' Conti, who visited the Vijayanagara Empire, found that the words in the Telugu language end with vowels, just like those in Italian, and hence referred to it as \"The Italian of the East\"; a saying that has been widely repeated.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1988090, 478684, 14708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 52 ], [ 70, 89 ], [ 171, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 19th and the early 20th centuries, the influence of the English language was seen, and modern communication/printing press arose as an effect of British rule, especially in the areas that were part of the Madras Presidency. Literature from this time had a mix of classical and modern traditions and included works by such scholars as Gidugu Venkata Ramamoorty, Kandukuri Veeresalingam, Gurazada Apparao, Gidugu Sitapati and Panuganti Lakshminarasimha Rao.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8569916, 4208015, 1122619, 8936300, 1173316, 1967332, 8715120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 84 ], [ 157, 169 ], [ 217, 234 ], [ 346, 371 ], [ 373, 396 ], [ 398, 414 ], [ 436, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the 1930s, what was considered an \"elite\" literary form of the Telugu language has now spread to the common people with the introduction of mass media like movies, television, radio and newspapers. This form of the language is also taught in schools and colleges as a standard.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Telugu is one of the 22 languages with official status in India", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 419710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Andhra Pradesh Official Language Act, 1966, declares Telugu the official language of the state that is currently divided into Andhra Pradesh and Telangana", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Telugu also has official language status in the Yanam district of the union territory of Puducherry", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7835330, 26024465, 68143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 63 ], [ 71, 86 ], [ 90, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu Language Day is celebrated every year on 29 August on behalf of the birthday of Telugu poet Gidugu Venkata Ramamurthy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 43576762, 8936300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 99, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The fourth World Telugu Conference was organised in Tirupati in the last week of December 2012 and deliberated at length on issues related to Telugu language policy", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 37864666, 2892130, 38876833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 35 ], [ 53, 61 ], [ 143, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Telugu is the 4th most spoken Indian language in India after Hindi, Bengali and Marathi.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13652, 21378419, 20617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 67 ], [ 69, 76 ], [ 81, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The American Community Survey has said that data for 2016 which were released in September 2017 say Telugu is the third most widely spoken Indian language in the US. Hindi tops the list followed by Gujarati, as of the 2010 census.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3448729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 219, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu is natively spoken in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and Yanam district of Puducherry. Telugu speakers are also found in the neighboring states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, some parts of Jharkhand and the Kharagpur region of West Bengal in India. Many Telugu immigrants are also found in the states of Gujarat, Goa, Bihar, Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. At 7.2% of the population, Telugu is the fourth-most-spoken language in the Indian subcontinent after Hindi, Bengali and Marathi. In Karnataka, 7.0% of the population speak Telugu, and 5.6% in Tamil Nadu.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geographic distribution", "target_page_ids": [ 2377, 990267, 1404939, 68143, 29918, 16880, 20629, 250724, 47734, 197225, 1112228, 34040, 53707, 40010153, 442482, 17337, 231623, 24717, 14189, 26291, 13652, 21378419, 20617, 16880, 29918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 57 ], [ 62, 71 ], [ 76, 81 ], [ 94, 104 ], [ 166, 176 ], [ 178, 187 ], [ 189, 200 ], [ 202, 208 ], [ 210, 222 ], [ 238, 247 ], [ 256, 265 ], [ 276, 287 ], [ 353, 360 ], [ 362, 365 ], [ 367, 372 ], [ 374, 381 ], [ 383, 396 ], [ 398, 404 ], [ 406, 413 ], [ 418, 427 ], [ 531, 536 ], [ 538, 545 ], [ 550, 557 ], [ 562, 571 ], [ 622, 632 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are more than 1,000,000 Telugu Americans in the United States, with the highest concentration in Central New Jersey, also known as Little Andhra. As of 2018, Telugu is the fastest-growing language in the United States, with the number of Telugu speakers in the United States increasing by 86% between 2010 and 2017. Minority Telugus are also found in Australia, New Zealand, Bahrain, Canada, Fiji, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Mauritius, Myanmar, Europe (Italy, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Trinidad and Tobago, and the United Arab Emirates.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geographic distribution", "target_page_ids": [ 61774095, 3434750, 927064, 21648, 63881, 4689264, 4913064, 18933277, 5042916, 10707, 3607937, 26750, 27318, 19201, 19457, 9239, 14532, 31717, 17416221, 3565457, 69328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 46 ], [ 54, 67 ], [ 103, 110 ], [ 111, 121 ], [ 194, 223 ], [ 357, 366 ], [ 368, 379 ], [ 381, 388 ], [ 390, 396 ], [ 398, 402 ], [ 404, 412 ], [ 414, 423 ], [ 425, 434 ], [ 436, 445 ], [ 447, 454 ], [ 456, 462 ], [ 464, 469 ], [ 475, 489 ], [ 491, 503 ], [ 505, 524 ], [ 534, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu is the official language of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. It is one of the 22 languages under schedule 8 of the constitution of India. It is one of the official languages of the union territories of Puducherry. Telugu is a protected language in South Africa. According to the Constitution of South Africa, the Pan South African Language Board must promote and ensure respect for Telugu along with other languages. The Government of South Africa announced that Telugu will be re-included as the official subject in the South African schools after it was removed from the curriculum in state schools.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legal status", "target_page_ids": [ 193178, 2377, 990267, 419710, 68143, 17416221, 441610, 9482258, 1536221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 31 ], [ 55, 69 ], [ 74, 83 ], [ 102, 160 ], [ 226, 236 ], [ 272, 284 ], [ 303, 331 ], [ 337, 369 ], [ 445, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition, with the creation in October 2004 of a legal status for classical languages by the Government of India and following a political campaign supported by several Tamil associations. Soon, on 8 August 2008, Telugu was also given the classical language status due to several campaigns.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legal status", "target_page_ids": [ 553883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the famous Japanese Historian Noboru Karashima who served as the President of the Epigraphical Society of India in 1985, calculated that there are approximately 10,000 inscriptions which exist in the Telugu language as of the year 1996 making it one of the most densely inscribed languages. Telugu inscriptions are found in all the districts of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. They are also found in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, and Chhattisgarh. According to recent estimates by ASI (Archaeological Survey of India) the number of inscriptions in the Telugu language goes up to 14,000.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Epigraphical records", "target_page_ids": [ 38304892, 2377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 59 ], [ 358, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Namely Adilabad, Nizamabad, Hyderabad, Anantapur, and Chittoor – produced no more than a handful of Telugu inscriptions in the Kakatiya era between 1175 CE and 1324 CE.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Epigraphical records", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Andhra is characterised as having its own mother tongue, and its territory has been equated with the extent of the Telugu language. The equivalence between the Telugu linguistic sphere and the geographical boundaries of Andhra is also brought out in an eleventh-century description of Andhra boundaries. Andhra, according to this text, was bounded in north by Mahendra mountain in the modern Ganjam district in Odisha and to the south by Srikalahasteeswara temple in Chittoor district. However, Andhra extended westwards as far as Srisailam in Kurnool district, about halfway across the modern state. According to other sources in the early sixteenth century, the northern boundary is Simhachalam and the southern limit is Tirumala of the Telugu Nation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geographical influence", "target_page_ids": [ 1857310, 250724, 1349311, 3360126, 2377, 5810214, 3360219, 2444480, 222409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 392, 407 ], [ 411, 417 ], [ 438, 463 ], [ 467, 484 ], [ 495, 501 ], [ 531, 540 ], [ 544, 560 ], [ 685, 696 ], [ 723, 731 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu place names are present all around Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Common suffixes are -ooru, -pudi, -pedu, -peta, -patnam, -wada, -giri, -cherla, -seema, -gudem, -palle, -palem and -palli. Examples that use this are Nellore, Tadepalligudem, Guntur, Chintalapudi, Yerpedu, Narasaraopeta, Sattenapalle, Visakapatnam, Vizianagaram, Ananthagiri, Vijayawada, Vuyyuru, Macherla, Poranki, Ramagundam, Warangal, Mancherial, Peddapalli, Siddipet, Banswada, Miryalaguda etc.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geographical influence", "target_page_ids": [ 312477, 3784982, 3501136, 11411696, 10615189, 5803752, 22505611, 238760, 1459637, 38355272, 750441, 6367470, 5799957, 16924694, 3520587, 995245, 5800930, 10390111, 3604400, 9664513, 978823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 222, 229 ], [ 231, 245 ], [ 247, 253 ], [ 255, 267 ], [ 269, 276 ], [ 278, 291 ], [ 293, 305 ], [ 307, 319 ], [ 321, 333 ], [ 335, 346 ], [ 348, 358 ], [ 360, 367 ], [ 369, 377 ], [ 379, 386 ], [ 388, 398 ], [ 400, 408 ], [ 410, 420 ], [ 422, 432 ], [ 434, 442 ], [ 444, 452 ], [ 454, 465 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are four major dialects in Modern Telugu:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Dialects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Northern: The old ten districts of Telangana, except for Mahabubnagar which for the most part goes with the Southern Dialect.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Dialects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Southern: The old four districts of Rayalaseema together with the old Nellore and Prakasam districts.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Dialects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Eastern: The old Vishakapatnam, Vijayanagaram and Srikakulam districts.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Dialects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Central: The old districts of Guntur, Krishna, West Godavari and East Godavari.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Dialects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Colloquially, Telangana, Rayalaseema and Coastal Andhra dialects are considered the three telugu dialects and regions ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Dialects", "target_page_ids": [ 990267, 990295, 990249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 23 ], [ 25, 36 ], [ 41, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Waddar, Chenchu, and Manna-Dora are all closely related to Telugu. Other dialects of Telugu are Berad, Dasari, Dommara, Golari, Kamathi, Komtao, Konda-Reddi, Salewari, Vadaga, Srikakula, Vishakhapatnam, East Godaveri, Rayalseema, Nellore, Guntur, Vadari and Yanadi.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Dialects", "target_page_ids": [ 12576237, 2513610, 12576226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 8, 15 ], [ 21, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Roman transliteration used for transcribing the Telugu script is the National Library at Kolkata romanisation.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [ 417288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu words generally end in vowels. In Old Telugu, this was absolute; in the modern language m, n, y, w may end a word. Atypically for a Dravidian language, voiced consonants were distinctive even in the oldest recorded form of the language. Sanskrit loans have introduced aspirated and murmured consonants as well.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu does not have contrastive stress, and speakers vary on where they perceive stress. Most place it on the penultimate or final syllable, depending on word and vowel length.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [ 171782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The table below lists the consonantal phonemes of Telugu, along with the symbols used in the transliteration of the Telugu script used here.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The aspirated and breathy-voiced consonants occur mostly in Sanskrit and Prakrit loanwords, additionally /tʰ/ is used to substitute /θ/ in English loans, the only aspirate which occurs natively is /dʱ/ which occurs only in a few compound numbers e.g. /pɐddʱenimidi/ \"18\" likely a result of the proto Dravidian laryngeal */H/ there is also an unaspirated /pɐddenimidi/ version which is used more commonly. All of the fricatives except for native also only occurs in loanwords.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Perso-Arabic phonemes like /q, x, ɣ, z/ are substituted with /k, kʰ, ɡ, d͡ʒ/ similar to Hindi.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " /t͡s, d͡z/ occurs only in native words and doesn't have aspirated/breathy forms. Native words with /t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ/ before non front vowels became /t͡s, d͡z/, the change became phonemized after loaning words with /t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ/ from other languages. Intervocalically /d͡z/ can become [z] e.g. [rɐːzu, d͡zoːli, ɡudd͡zu].", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " /ʋ/ can be rounded to a [β̞ʷ] around rounded vowels.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The common Proto Dravidian approximant */ɻ/ merged with /ɖ/ in Telugu while it was preserved as /ɽ/ in the other Southern II branch languages.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Many of the old /ɳ/ and /ɭ/ merged with /n/ and /l/. The Telangana dialect might completely merge /ɳ/ and /ɭ/ with /n/ and /l/.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Most consonants contrast in length in word-medial position, meaning that there are long (geminated) and short phonetic renderings of the sounds. A few examples of words that contrast by length of word-medial consonants:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " /ɡɐdi/ gadi 'room' – /ɡɐdːi/ gaddi 'throne'", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " /ɐʈu/ aṭu 'that side' – /ɐʈːu/ aṭṭu 'pancake'", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " /moɡɐ/ moga 'male' – /moɡːɐ/ mogga 'bud' ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " /nɐmɐkɐmu/ namakamu 'a vedic hymn' – /nɐmːɐkɐmu/ nammakamu 'belief'", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " /kɐnu/ kanu 'to give birth to' – /kɐnːu/ kannu 'eye' ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " /kɐlɐ/ kala 'dream' – /kɐlːɐ/ kalla 'falsehood' ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " /mɐɾi/ mari 'again' – /mɐɾːi/ marri 'banyan tree'", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All retroflex consonants occur in intervocalic position and when adjacent to a retroflex consonant, for instance. /ʋɐːɳiː/ vāṇī 'tippet', /kɐʈɳɐm/ kaṭṇam 'dowry', /pɐɳɖu/ paṇḍu 'fruit'; /kɐɭɐ/ kaḷa 'art', /bɐːɭʈi/ bāḷṭi 'bucket' (from Portuguese balde 'bucket'). With the exception of /ɳ/ and /ɭ/, all occur word-initial in a few words, such as /ʈɐkːu/ ṭakku 'pretence', /ʈhiːʋi/ ṭhīvi 'grandeur', /ɖipːɐ/ ḍippā 'half of a spherical object', /ɖɦoːkɐː/ ḍhōkā 'danger', and /ʂoːku/ ṣōku 'fashionable appearance'.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [ 520591, 23915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 235, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The approximant /j/ occurs in word-initial position only in borrowed words, such as. /jɐnɡu/ yangu, from English 'young', /jɐʃɐsːu/ yaśassu from Sanskrit yaśas /jɑʃɑs/ 'fame'.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Vowels in Telugu contrast in length; there are short and long versions of all vowels except for /æ/, which only occurs as long. Long vowels can occur in any position within the word, but native Telugu words do not end in a long vowel. Short vowels occur in all positions of a word, with the exception of /o/, which does not occur word-finally. The vowels of Telugu are illustrated below, along with the Telugu script and romanization.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "{|class=\"wikitable\" style=text-align:center", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|+Vowels (అచ్చులు acchulu)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "!", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! colspan=\"2\" |Front", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [ 594845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "! colspan=\"2\" |Central", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [ 594848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "! colspan=\"2\" |Back", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [ 594850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "!Close", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [ 594771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|⠀ఇ⠀i||⠀ఈ⠀ī", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\" | ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|⠀ఉ⠀u||⠀ఊ⠀ū", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "!Mid", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [ 594778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|⠀ఎ⠀e||⠀ఏ⠀ē", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|⠀ఒ⠀o||⠀ఓ⠀ō", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "!Open", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [ 594780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| colspan=\"2\" | ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|⠀అ⠀a|| ~ ɐː⠀ఆ⠀ā", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| colspan=\"2\" | ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In most dialects, the vowel only occurs in loan words. In the Guntur dialect, is a frequent allophone of in certain verbs in the past tense.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [ 3501136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu has two diphthongs: ఐ ai and ఔ au.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu features a form of vowel harmony wherein the second vowel in disyllabic noun and adjective roots alters according to whether the first vowel is tense or lax. Also, if the second vowel is open (i.e., or ), then the first vowel is more open and centralized (e.g., 'goat', as opposed to 'nail'). Telugu words also have vowels in inflectional suffixes that are harmonized with the vowels of the preceding syllable.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [ 44902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The traditional study of Telugu Grammar is known as vyākaraṇam (వ్యాకరణం). The first treatise on Telugu grammar, the Āndhra Śabda Cinṭāmaṇi, was written in Sanskrit by Nannayya, considered the first Telugu poet and translator, in the 12th century CE. This grammar followed patterns described in grammatical treatises such as Aṣṭādhyāyī and Vālmīkivyākaranam, but unlike Pāṇini, Nannayya divided his work into five chapters, covering samjnā, sandhi, ajanta, halanta and kriya. Every Telugu grammatical rule is derived from Pāṇinian concepts.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Grammar", "target_page_ids": [ 238762, 8734471, 5604422, 5604422, 149336, 1550255, 5604422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 176 ], [ 325, 335 ], [ 340, 357 ], [ 370, 376 ], [ 441, 447 ], [ 457, 464 ], [ 522, 528 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 19th century, Chinnaya Suri wrote a condensed work on Telugu grammar called Bāla Vyākaraṇam, borrowing concepts and ideas from Nannayya's grammar.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Grammar", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Relations between participants in an event are coded in Telugu words through suffixation; there are no prefixes or infixes in the language. There are six word classes in Telugu: nominals (proper nouns, pronouns), verbs (actions or events), modifiers (adjectives, quantifiers, numerals), adverbs (modify the way in which actions or events unfold), and clitics.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Grammar", "target_page_ids": [ 5564386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu nouns are inflected for number (singular, plural), noun class (three classes traditionally termed masculine, feminine, and neuter) and case (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, vocative, instrumental, and locative).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Grammar", "target_page_ids": [ 18852, 42296, 22130, 12898, 21774, 2251, 12539, 8406, 32559, 284316, 72180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 26 ], [ 31, 37 ], [ 58, 68 ], [ 142, 146 ], [ 148, 158 ], [ 160, 170 ], [ 172, 180 ], [ 182, 188 ], [ 190, 198 ], [ 200, 212 ], [ 218, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The basic word order in Telugu is subject-object-verb (SOV).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Grammar", "target_page_ids": [ 725072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The example above can also be interpreted as 'Ambedkar will go to school', depending on the context, but it does not affect the SOV order.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Grammar", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As with other Dravidian languages, gender in Telugu follows a semantic system, in the sense that it is mostly the meaning of the word which defines the noun class to which it belongs. There are three noun classes: masculine (human males, he-gender), feminine (human females, she-gender), and neuter (all non-humans, it-gender). The gender of most nouns is encoded through agreement/indexation in pronominal suffixes rather than overtly on the noun. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Grammar", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In terms of the verbal agreement system, genders in marking on the Telugu verb only occurs in the third person.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Grammar", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Telugu gender system is different from Dravidian languages like Tamil given that the Telugu feminine shares indexation morphemes with the masculine plural (-ru) and with the neuter singular (-di). What characterizes the three-gender system is then the individual behavior of the singular-plural pairs of suffixes.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Grammar", "target_page_ids": [ 29919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu pronouns include personal pronouns (the persons speaking, the persons spoken to, or the persons or things spoken about); indefinite pronouns; relative pronouns (connecting parts of sentences); and reciprocal or reflexive pronouns (in which the object of a verb is acted on by the verb's subject).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Grammar", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In informal Telugu, personal pronouns distinguish masculine from non-masculine.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Grammar", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is a wide variety of demonstrative pronouns in Telugu, whose forms depend on both proximity to the speaker and the level of formality. The formal demonstratives may also be used as formal personal pronoun, that is, the polite forms for this woman or this man and that woman or that man can also simply mean she and he in more formal contexts.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Grammar", "target_page_ids": [ 380304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the singular, there are four levels of formality when speaking about males and females, although the most formal/polite form is the same for both human genders. In both singular and plural, Telugu distinguishes two levels of distance from speaker (like in English), basically this and that, and these and those.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Grammar", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the plural, there are no distinctions between formality levels, but once again masculine and feminine forms are the same, while the neuter demonstratives are different.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Grammar", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The nominative case (karta), the object of a verb (karma), and the verb are somewhat in a sequence in Telugu sentence construction. \"Vibhakti\" (case of a noun) and \"pratyāyamulu\" (an affix to roots and words forming derivatives and inflections) depict the ancient nature and progression of the language. The \"Vibhaktis\" of Telugu language \" డు [ɖu], ము [mu], వు [vu], లు [lu]\", etc., are different from those in Sanskrit and have been in use for a long time.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Grammar", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The lexicon of Telugu shows a pervasive influence of Sanskrit that goes back at least 1000 years; there is also evidence suggesting an earlier influence. It's estimated that 80% of Telugu's lexicon is derived from Sanskrit. Indologist David Shulman states that \"Telugu must have swallowed Sanskrit whole, as it were, even before Nannaya.\" He further notes that \"every Sanskrit word is potentially a Telugu word\" and that Telugu speech and literary texts are Sanskritized to an \"enormous degree\". During the period 1000–1100 CE, Nannaya's re-writing of the Mahābhārata in Telugu (మహాభారతము) established the liberal borrowing of Sanskrit words. Telugu absorbed tatsamas from Sanskrit.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Lexicon", "target_page_ids": [ 12533094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 659, 666 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The relexification of Dravidian languages by Indo-Iranian languages is not an uncommon occurrence. Likewise is the case of Brahui —a Dravidian language spoken in the Balochistan and upper Sindh regions of Pakistan— with Indo-Iranian (incl. Perso-Arabic) vocabulary accounting for 40% of its lexicon.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Lexicon", "target_page_ids": [ 2378958, 7922, 14541, 4702, 4687, 28972, 23235, 14541, 848217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 22, 31 ], [ 45, 57 ], [ 123, 129 ], [ 166, 177 ], [ 188, 193 ], [ 205, 213 ], [ 220, 232 ], [ 240, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The vocabulary of Telugu, especially in Telangana, has a trove of Persian–Arabic borrowings, which have been modified to fit Telugu phonology. This was due to centuries of Turkic rule in these regions, such as the erstwhile kingdoms of Golkonda and Hyderabad (e.g., కబురు, for Urdu , or జవాబు, for Urdu , ).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Lexicon", "target_page_ids": [ 990267, 846757, 2557417, 32231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 49 ], [ 172, 178 ], [ 236, 244 ], [ 278, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern Telugu vocabulary can be said to constitute a diglossia because the formal, standardised version of the language is either lexically Sanskrit or heavily influenced by Sanskrit, as taught in schools, and used by the government and Hindu religious institutions. However, everyday Telugu varies in such features depending upon region.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Lexicon", "target_page_ids": [ 361393, 18077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 62 ], [ 130, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Telugu script is an abugida consisting of 60 symbols— 16 vowels, 3 vowel modifiers, and 41 consonants. Telugu has a complete set of letters that follow a system to express sounds. The script is derived from the Brahmi script like those of many other Indian languages. The Telugu script is written from left to right and consists of sequences of simple and/or complex characters. The script is syllabic in nature—the basic units of writing are syllables. Since the number of possible syllables is very large, syllables are composed of more basic units such as vowels (\"acchu\" or \"swaram\") and consonants (\"hallu\" or \"vyanjanam\"). Consonants in consonant clusters take shapes that are very different from the shapes they take elsewhere. Consonants are presumed pure consonants, that is, without any vowel sound in them. However, it is traditional to write and read consonants with an implied \"a\" vowel sound. When consonants combine with other vowel signs, the vowel part is indicated orthographically using signs known as vowel \"mātras\". The shapes of vowel \"mātras\" are also very different from the shapes of the corresponding vowels.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Writing system", "target_page_ids": [ 878, 284553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 31 ], [ 215, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historically, a sentence used to end with either a single bar। (\"pūrna virāmam\") or a double bar॥ (\"dīrgha virāmam\"); in handwriting, Telugu words were not separated by spaces. However, in modern times, English punctuation (commas, semicolon, etc.) has virtually replaced the old method of punctuation.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Writing system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu has full-zero (anusvāra) ( ం ), half-zero (arthanusvāra or candrabindu) (ఁ) and visarga ( ః ) to convey various shades of nasal sounds. [la] and [La], [ra] and [Ra] are differentiated.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Writing system", "target_page_ids": [ 181974, 2018702, 21460080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 30 ], [ 66, 77 ], [ 87, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu has ĉ and ĵ, which are not represented in Sanskrit. Their pronunciation is similar to the \"s\" sound in the word treasure (i.e., the postalveolar voiced fricative) and \"z\" sound in zebra, i.e., the alveolar voiced fricative, respectively.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Writing system", "target_page_ids": [ 524875, 524864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 168 ], [ 200, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These are some examples of combining a consonant with different vowels.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Writing system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "క కా కి కీ కు కూ కృ కౄ కె కే కై కొ కో కౌ క్ కం కః", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Writing system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "ఖ ఖా ఖి ఖీ ఖు ఖూ ఖృ ఖౄ ఖె ఖే ఖై ఖొ ఖో ఖౌ ఖ్ ఖం ఖః", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Writing system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu has ten digits employed with the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. However, in modern usage, the Arabic numerals have replaced them.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Writing system", "target_page_ids": [ 3393371, 1786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 67 ], [ 99, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu is assigned Unicode codepoints: 0C00-0C7F (3072–3199).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Writing system", "target_page_ids": [ 31742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the earliest period Telugu literature existed in the form of inscriptions, precisely from 575 CE onward.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Prabandha Ratnavali (1918) & Pre-Nannayya Chandassu (Raja Raja Narendra Pattabhisekha Sanchika) by Veturi Prabhakara Sastry talk about the existence of Jain Telugu literature during 850-1000 CE. A verse from Telugu Jinendra Puranam by Pampa, a couple of verses from Telugu Adi Puranam by Sarvadeva and Kavijanasrayam by Malliya Rechana were all authored by Jain poet's and are the examples for Jain contribution to Telugu Literature.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 373252, 54397643, 54342401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 235, 240 ], [ 302, 316 ], [ 320, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historically, Vemulawada was a Jain knowledge hub and played a significant role in patronizing Jain literature and poets. Excavations in the 1980s around Vemulawada revealed and affirmed the existence of Telugu Jain literature.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Malliya Rechana is considered to be the first Telugu Author. P.V.Parabrahma Sastry, Nidadavolu Venkata Rao, P.V.P Sastry also pointed out that many Jain works could have been destroyed. Historical rivalry among Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism is well known.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 54342401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This is the period of Kavi Trayam or Trinity of Poets. Nannayya, Tikkana and Yerrapragada (or Errana) are known as the Kavi Trayam.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nannaya Bhattarakudu's (Telugu: నన్నయ) Andhra Mahabharatam, who lived around the 11th century, is commonly referred to as the first Telugu literary composition (aadi kaavyam). Although there is evidence of Telugu literature before Nannaya, he is given the epithet Aadi Kavi (\"the first poet\"). Nannaya Bhattu acknowledged the help extended to him by his friend Narayana Bhattu in his composition in fields like making choices of grammatical forms, metres, form of the book, etc. and compares it to that extended to Arjuna by God Sri Krishna in the Bharata war. Scholar and poet K. Ayyappa Paniker states that both Nannaya Bhattu and Narayana Bhattu were Kannada origin scholars. Nannaya was the first to establish a formal grammar of written Telugu. This grammar followed the patterns which existed in grammatical treatises like Aṣṭādhyāyī and Vālmīkivyākaranam but unlike Pāṇini, Nannayya divided his work into five chapters, covering samjnā, sandhi, ajanta, halanta and kriya.[14] Nannaya completed the first two chapters and a part of the third chapter of the Mahabharata epic, which is rendered in the Champu style.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 238762, 37445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 654, 661 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tikkana Somayaji (1205–1288 CE): Nannaya's Andhra Mahabharatam was almost completed by Tikanna Somayaji (Telugu: తిక్కన సోమయాజి) (1205–1288) who wrote chapters 4 to 18.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 238763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Yerrapragada: (Telugu: ఎర్రాప్రగడ) who lived in the 14th century, finished the epic by completing the third chapter. He mimics Nannaya's style in the beginning, slowly changes tempo and finishes the chapter in the writing style of Tikkana. These three writers – Nannaya, Tikanna and Yerrapragada – are known as the Kavitraya (\"three great poets\") of Telugu. Other such translations like Marana's Markandeya Puranam, Ketana's Dasakumara Charita, Yerrapragada's Harivamsam followed. Many scientific[relevant?] works, like Ganitasarasangrahamu by Pavuluri Mallana and Prakirnaganitamu by Eluganti Peddana, were written in the 12th century.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 238764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sumati Shatakam, which is a neeti (\"moral\"), is one of the most famous Telugu Shatakams. Shatakam is composed of more than a 100 padyalu (poems). According to many literary critics Sumati Shatakam was composed by Baddena Bhupaludu (Telugu: బద్దెన భూపాల) (CE 1220–1280). He was also known as Bhadra Bhupala. He was a Chola prince and a vassal under the Kakatiya empress Rani Rudrama Devi, and a pupil of Tikkana. If we assume that the Sumati Shatakam was indeed written by Baddena, it would rank as one of the earliest Shatakams in Telugu along with the Vrushadhipa Satakam of Palkuriki Somanatha and the Sarveswara Satakam of Yathavakkula Annamayya. The Sumatee Shatakam is also one of the earliest Telugu works to be translated into a European language, as C. P. Brown rendered it in English in the 1840s.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Palkuriki Somanatha: Important among his Telugu language writings are the Basava Purana, Panditaradhya charitra, Malamadevipuranamu and Somanatha Stava–in dwipada metre (\"couplets\"); Anubhavasara, Chennamallu Sisamalu, Vrishadhipa Shataka and Cheturvedasara–in verses; Basavodharana in verses and ragale metre (rhymed couplets in blank verse); and the Basavaragada.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 21201780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gona Budda Reddy: His Ranganatha Ramayanam was a pioneering work in the Telugu language on the theme of the Ramayana epic. Most scholars believe he wrote it between 1300 and 1310 A.D., possibly with help from his family. The work has become part of cultural life in Andhra Pradesh and is used in puppet shows.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 9384638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Telugu literature Tikkana was given agraasana (top position) by many famous critics.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 238763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paravastu Chinnayya Soori (1807–1861) is a well-known Telugu writer who dedicated his entire life to the progress and promotion of Telugu language and literature. Sri Chinnayasoori wrote the Bala Vyakaranam in a new style after doing extensive research on Telugu grammar. Other well-known writings by Chinnayasoori are Neethichandrika, Sootandhra Vyaakaranamu, Andhra Dhatumoola, and Neeti Sangrahamu.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 10768915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kandukuri Veeresalingam (1848–1919) is generally considered the father of modern Telugu literature. His novel Rajasekhara Charitamu was inspired by the Vicar of Wakefield. His work marked the beginning of a dynamic of socially conscious Telugu literature and its transition to the modern period, which is also part of the wider literary renaissance that took place in Indian culture during this period. Other prominent literary figures from this period are Gurajada Appa Rao, Viswanatha Satyanarayana, Gurram Jashuva, Rayaprolu Subba Rao, Devulapalli Krishnasastri and Srirangam Srinivasa Rao, popularly known as Mahakavi Sri Sri. Sri Sri was instrumental in popularising free verse in spoken Telugu (vaaduka bhasha), as opposed to the pure form of written Telugu used by several poets in his time. Devulapalli Krishnasastri is often referred to as the Shelley of Telugu literature because of his pioneering works in Telugu Romantic poetry.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 1173316, 629023, 1967332, 30872874, 1147116, 25862329, 1173234, 372912, 20502020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ], [ 152, 170 ], [ 457, 474 ], [ 476, 500 ], [ 502, 516 ], [ 518, 537 ], [ 539, 564 ], [ 569, 592 ], [ 853, 860 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Viswanatha Satyanarayana won India's national literary honour, the Jnanpith Award for his magnum opus Ramayana Kalpavrukshamu. C. Narayana Reddy won the Jnanpith Award in 1988 for his poetic work, Viswambara. Ravuri Bharadhwaja won the 3rd Jnanpith Award for Telugu literature in 2013 for Paakudu Raallu, a graphic account of life behind the screen in film industry. Kanyasulkam, the first social play in Telugu by Gurajada Appa Rao, was followed by the progressive movement, the free verse movement and the Digambara style of Telugu verse. Other modern Telugu novelists include Unnava Lakshminarayana (Maalapalli), Bulusu Venkateswarulu (Bharatiya Tatva Sastram), Kodavatiganti Kutumba Rao and Buchi Babu.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 30872874, 1110943, 1144291, 1110943, 15396651, 1110943, 649481, 47850053, 1967332, 2604340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 67, 81 ], [ 127, 144 ], [ 153, 167 ], [ 209, 227 ], [ 240, 254 ], [ 352, 365 ], [ 367, 378 ], [ 415, 432 ], [ 665, 690 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu input, display, and support were initially provided on the Microsoft Windows platform. Subsequently, various browsers, computer applications, operating systems, and user interfaces were localized in Telugu Language for Windows and Linux platforms by vendors and free and open-source software volunteers. Telugu-capable smart phones were also introduced by vendors in 2013.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 18890, 6097297, 1721496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 83 ], [ 238, 243 ], [ 269, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 15 February 2018, Apple devices were experiencing crashes of apps and device shutdowns when two particular characters from the Telugu language (specifically జ్ఞా) was rendered on the display. Reports show that this has affected iOS, MacOS, tvOS and watchOS. On 20 February, Apple announced that the bug was fixed with the iOS 11.2.6 update.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Telugu grammar", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32208610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Telugu language day", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 43576762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Telugu people", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3569761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Telugu states", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 63369017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Telugu years", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 35043850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Indian languages by total speakers", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 650743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Telugu-language television channels", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2942390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " States of India by Telugu speakers", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18951001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Telugu language policy", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38876833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Albert Henry Arden, A Progressive Grammar of the Telugu Language (1873).", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Charles Philip Brown, English–Telugu dictionary (1852; revised ed. 1903); ", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Linguistic Legacy of Indo-Guyanese The Linguistic Legacy of Indian-Guyanese", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Languages of Mauritius Languages of Mauritius – Mauritius Attractions", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Charles Philip Brown, A Grammar of the Telugu Language (1857)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " P. Percival, Telugu–English dictionary: with the Telugu words printed in the Roman as well as in the Telugu Character (1862, Internet Archive edition)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gwynn, J. P. L. (John Peter Lucius). A Telugu–English Dictionary Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press (1991; online edition).", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Uwe Gustafsson, An Adiwasi Oriya–Telugu–English dictionary, Central Institute of Indian Languages Dictionary Series, 6. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Language (1989).", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Callā Rādhākr̥ṣṇaśarma, Landmarks in Telugu Literature: A Short Survey of Telugu Literature (1975).", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Telugu language at Encyclopædia Britannica'' ", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 9508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hints and resources for learning Telugu", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " English to Telugu online dictionary", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 'Telugu to English' and 'English to Telugu' Dictionary", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dictionary of mixed Telugu By Charles Philip Brown", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Origins of Telugu Script", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Online English – Telugu dictionary portal that includes many popular dictionaries", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " English–Telugu Dictionary", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Telugu Hindu literature", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Telugu_language", "Classical_Language_in_India", "Dravidian_languages", "Languages_of_Andhra_Pradesh", "Languages_of_Telangana", "Languages_of_Puducherry", "Languages_of_Tamil_Nadu", "Official_languages_of_India", "Languages_attested_from_the_6th_century", "Agglutinative_languages", "Subject–object–verb_languages", "Vowel-harmony_languages", "Ancient_languages", "Languages_of_Karnataka", "Languages_of_Malaysia", "Languages_of_Maharashtra", "Languages_of_Odisha", "Languages_of_Sri_Lanka", "Languages_of_South_Asia", "Languages_of_South_Africa", "Languages_of_Asia", "Languages_of_Mauritius", "Languages_of_West_Bengal", "Languages_of_Bahrain", "Languages_of_Qatar", "Languages_of_Kuwait", "Languages_of_Kerala", "Languages_written_in_Indic_scripts" ]

[ "Telugu language", "Telungu", "Andhra bhasha", "Tenugu", "te" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Battle of Bennington was a battle of the American Revolutionary War, part of the Saratoga campaign, that took place on August 16, 1777, in Walloomsac, New York, about from its namesake, Bennington, Vermont. A rebel force of 2,000 men, primarily New Hampshire and Massachusetts militiamen, led by General John Stark, and reinforced by Vermont militiamen led by Colonel Seth Warner and members of the Green Mountain Boys, decisively defeated a detachment of General John Burgoyne's army led by Lieutenant Colonel Friedrich Baum, and supported by additional men under Lieutenant Colonel Heinrich von Breymann.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 771, 240612, 8011679, 260210, 21134, 1645518, 20622, 148537, 173016, 32578, 2989328, 1602561, 39199, 163208, 33576304, 1141301, 379627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 71 ], [ 85, 102 ], [ 143, 163 ], [ 191, 210 ], [ 250, 263 ], [ 268, 281 ], [ 282, 289 ], [ 301, 308 ], [ 309, 319 ], [ 339, 346 ], [ 365, 372 ], [ 373, 384 ], [ 404, 423 ], [ 469, 482 ], [ 497, 515 ], [ 516, 530 ], [ 589, 610 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baum's detachment was a mixed force of 700, composed primarily of dismounted Brunswick dragoons, Canadians, Loyalists and Indians. He was sent by Burgoyne to raid Bennington in the disputed New Hampshire Grants area for horses, draft animals, provisions, and other supplies. Believing the town to be only lightly defended, Burgoyne and Baum were unaware that Stark and 1,500 militiamen were stationed there. After a rain-caused standoff, Stark's men enveloped Baum's position, taking many prisoners, and killing Baum. Reinforcements for both sides arrived as Stark and his men were mopping up, and the battle restarted, with Warner and Stark driving away Breymann's reinforcements with heavy casualties.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 56352968, 5042916, 1146288, 21217, 489560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 86 ], [ 97, 106 ], [ 108, 117 ], [ 122, 129 ], [ 190, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The battle was a major strategic success for the American cause and is considered part of the turning point of the Revolutionary War; it reduced Burgoyne's army in size by almost 1,000 men, led his Native American supporters to largely abandon him, and deprived him of much-needed supplies, such as mounts for his cavalry regiments, draft animals and provisions, all factors that contributed to Burgoyne's eventual defeat at Saratoga. The victory galvanized colonial support for the independence movement, and played a key role in bringing France into the war on the rebel side. The battle's anniversary is celebrated in the state of Vermont as Bennington Battle Day.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 67425, 5843419, 11868051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 415, 433 ], [ 540, 546 ], [ 645, 666 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the American Revolutionary War two years old, the British changed their plans. Giving up on the rebellious New England colonies, they decided to split the Thirteen Colonies and isolate New England from what the British believed to be the more loyal southern colonies. The British command devised a grand plan to divide the colonies via a three-way pincer movement towards Albany. The western pincer, proceeding eastward from Lake Ontario under the command of Barry St. Leger, was repulsed when the Siege of Fort Stanwix failed, and the southern pincer, which was to progress up the Hudson valley from New York City, never started since General William Howe decided instead to capture Philadelphia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 771, 21531764, 34681, 1146288, 158244, 401338, 19540170, 218883, 4332104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 35 ], [ 112, 123 ], [ 160, 177 ], [ 248, 253 ], [ 354, 369 ], [ 465, 480 ], [ 504, 525 ], [ 650, 662 ], [ 682, 702 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The northern pincer, proceeding southward from Montreal, enjoyed the most success. After the British victories at Fort Ticonderoga, Hubbardton, and Fort Anne, General John Burgoyne proceeded with the Saratoga campaign, with the goal of capturing Albany and gaining control of the Hudson River Valley, where Burgoyne's force could (as the plan went) meet the other pincers, dividing the colonies in two.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 448121, 1277014, 4428079, 163208, 240612, 52106, 47911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 131 ], [ 133, 143 ], [ 149, 158 ], [ 168, 181 ], [ 201, 218 ], [ 247, 253 ], [ 281, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Burgoyne's progress towards Albany had initially met with some success, including the scattering of Seth Warner's men in the Battle of Hubbardton. However, his advance had slowed to a crawl by late July, due to logistical difficulties, exacerbated by the American destruction of a key road, and the army's supplies began to dwindle. Burgoyne's concern over supplies was magnified in early August when he received word from Howe that he (Howe) was going to Philadelphia, and was not in fact going to advance up the Hudson River valley. In response to a proposal first made on July 22 by the commander of his German troops, Baron Riedesel, Burgoyne sent a detachment of about 800 troops under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Friedrich Baum from Fort Miller on a foraging mission to acquire horses for the German dragoons, draft animals to assist in moving the army, and to harass the enemy. Baum's detachment was primarily made up of dismounted Brunswick Army dragoons of the Prinz Ludwig regiment. Along the way it was joined by local companies of Loyalists, some Canadians and about 100 Indians, and a company of British sharpshooters. Baum was originally ordered to proceed to the Connecticut River valley where they believed horses could be procured for the dragoons. However, as Baum was preparing to leave, Burgoyne verbally changed the goal to be a supply depot at Bennington, which was believed to be guarded by the remnants of Warner's brigade, about 400 colonial militia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 1602561, 1277014, 18535868, 269602, 1141301, 28163329, 2729585, 56352968, 8767, 1146288, 23888587, 252145, 260210, 20622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 111 ], [ 125, 145 ], [ 607, 613 ], [ 622, 636 ], [ 725, 739 ], [ 745, 756 ], [ 822, 834 ], [ 945, 959 ], [ 960, 967 ], [ 1049, 1058 ], [ 1123, 1135 ], [ 1184, 1201 ], [ 1373, 1383 ], [ 1474, 1481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unknown to Burgoyne, the citizens of the New Hampshire Grants territory (now Vermont, which was then disputed between New York and the Vermont Republic) had appealed to the states of New Hampshire and Massachusetts for protection from the invading army following the British capture of Ticonderoga. New Hampshire responded on July 18 by authorizing John Stark to raise a militia for the defense of the people \"or the annoyance of the enemy\". Using funds provided by John Langdon, Stark raised 1,500 New Hampshire militiamen in the space of six days, more than 10% of New Hampshire's male population over the age of sixteen. They were first marched to the Fort at Number 4 (modern Charlestown, New Hampshire), then crossed the Connecticut river border into the Grants and stopped at Manchester, where Stark conferred with Warner. While in Manchester, General Benjamin Lincoln, whose promotion in preference to Stark had been the cause for Stark's resignation from the Continental Army, attempted to assert Army authority over Stark and his men. Stark refused, stating that he was solely responsible to the New Hampshire authorities. Stark then went on to Bennington with Warner as a guide, while Warner's men remained in Manchester. Lincoln returned to the American camp at Stillwater, where he and General Philip Schuyler hatched a plan for Lincoln, with 500 men, to join with Stark and Warner in actions to harass Burgoyne's communications and supply lines at Skenesboro. Baum's movements significantly altered these plans.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 489560, 538613, 21134, 1645518, 173016, 465479, 3543223, 2827565, 259617, 252145, 260212, 399060, 168210, 260019, 308181, 28275156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 61 ], [ 135, 151 ], [ 183, 196 ], [ 201, 214 ], [ 349, 359 ], [ 467, 479 ], [ 500, 524 ], [ 656, 672 ], [ 681, 707 ], [ 727, 751 ], [ 783, 793 ], [ 859, 875 ], [ 968, 984 ], [ 1274, 1284 ], [ 1307, 1322 ], [ 1462, 1472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baum's Germans left Burgoyne's camp at Fort Edward on August 9 and marched to Fort Miller, where they waited until they were joined by the Indians and a company of British marksmen. The company marched off toward Bennington on August 11. In minor skirmishes along the way they learned from prisoners taken that a sizable force was in place at Bennington. On August 14 Baum's men encountered a detachment of Stark's men that had been sent out to investigate reports of Indians in the area. Stark's men retreated, destroying a bridge to delay Baum's advance. Stark, on receiving word of the approaching force, sent a request to Manchester for support, and then moved his troops out of Bennington toward Baum's force, setting up a defensive line. Baum sent a message to Burgoyne following the first contact indicating that the American force was larger than expected, but that it was likely to retreat before him. He then advanced a few miles further until he neared Stark's position. He then realized that at least part of his first message was incorrect, so he sent a second message to Burgoyne, requesting reinforcements.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Prelude", "target_page_ids": [ 28163294, 14468192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 50 ], [ 153, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It rained for the next day and a half, preventing battle. During this time, Baum's men constructed a small redoubt at the crest of the hill and hoped that the weather would prevent the Americans from attacking before reinforcements arrived. Stark sent out skirmishers to probe the German lines, and managed to kill thirty Indians in spite of the difficulties of keeping their gunpowder dry. Reinforcements for both sides marched out on the 15th; travel was quite difficult due to the heavy rains. Burgoyne sent 550 men under Heinrich von Breymann, while Warner's company of about 350 Green Mountain Boys came south from Manchester under Lieutenant Samuel Safford's command.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Prelude", "target_page_ids": [ 2404394, 12737, 379627, 39199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 114 ], [ 376, 385 ], [ 525, 546 ], [ 584, 603 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Late on the night of August 15, Stark was awakened by the arrival of Parson Thomas Allen and a band of Massachusetts militiamen from nearby Berkshire County who insisted on joining his force. In response to the minister's fiery threat that his men would never come out again if they were not allowed to participate, Stark is reported to have said, \"Would you go now on this dark and rainy night? Go back to your people and tell them to get some rest if they can, and if the Lord gives us sunshine to-morrow and I do not give you fighting enough, I will never call on you to come again.\" Stark's forces again swelled the next day with the arrival of some Stockbridge Indians, bringing his force (excluding Warner's men) to nearly 2,000 men.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Prelude", "target_page_ids": [ 3822276, 1645518, 6274965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 88 ], [ 103, 116 ], [ 654, 673 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stark was not the only beneficiary of unexpected reinforcements. Baum's force grew by almost 100 when a group of local Loyalists arrived in his camp on the morning of August 16.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Prelude", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On the afternoon of August 16, the weather cleared, and Stark ordered his men to be ready to attack. Stark is reputed to have rallied his troops by saying they were here to fight for their \"natural born rights as Englishmen\" and he added \"There are your enemies, the Red Coats and the Tories. They are ours, or this night Molly Stark sleeps a widow.\" Upon hearing that the militia had melted away into the woods, Baum assumed that the Americans were retreating or redeploying. However, Stark had decided to capitalize on weaknesses in the German's widely distributed position, and had sent sizable flanking parties to either side of his lines. These movements were assisted by a ruse employed by Stark's men that enabled them to get closer safely without alarming the opposing forces. The Germans, most of whom spoke no English, had been told that soldiers with bits of white paper in their hats were Loyalists, and should not be fired on; Stark's men had also heard this and many of them had suitably adorned their hats.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 4366781, 1146288, 4278470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 267, 276 ], [ 285, 291 ], [ 322, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the fighting broke out around 3:00 PM the German position was immediately surrounded by gunfire, which Stark described as \"the hottest engagement I have ever witnessed, resembling a continual clap of thunder.\" The Loyalists and Indian positions were overrun, causing many of them to flee or surrender. This left Baum and his Brunswick dragoons trapped alone on the high ground. The Germans fought valiantly even after running low on powder and the destruction of their ammunition wagon. In desperation the dragoons led a sabre charge in an attempt to break through the enveloping forces. The charge failed horrendously, resulting in massive German casualties and gaining no ground on the rebels. Baum was mortally wounded in this final charge, and the remaining Germans surrendered.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 75971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 526, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the battle ended, while Stark's militiamen were busy disarming the prisoners and looting their supplies, Breymann arrived with his reinforcements. Seeing the Americans in disarray, they immediately pressed their attack. After hastily regrouping, Stark's forces tried to hold their ground against the new German onslaught, but began to fall back. Before their lines collapsed, Warner's men arrived on the scene to reinforce Stark's troops. Pitched battle continued until dark, when both sides disengaged. Breymann began a hasty retreat; he had lost one quarter of his force and all of his artillery pieces.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Battle", "target_page_ids": [ 2732324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 445, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Total German and British losses at Bennington were recorded at 207 dead and 700 captured; American losses included 30 Americans dead and 40 wounded. The battle was at times particularly brutal when Loyalists met Patriots, as in some cases they came from the same communities. The prisoners, who were first kept in Bennington, were eventually marched to Boston.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Burgoyne's army was readying to cross the Hudson at Fort Edward on August 17 when the first word of the battle arrived. Believing that reinforcements might be necessary, Burgoyne marched the army toward Bennington until further word arrived that Breymann and the remnants of his force were returning. Stragglers continued to arrive throughout the day and night, while word of the disaster spread within the camp.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The effect on Burgoyne's campaign was significant. Not only had he lost nearly 1,000 men, of which half were regulars, but he also lost the crucial Indian support. In a council following the battle, many of the Indians (who had traveled with him from Quebec) decided to go home. This loss severely hampered Burgoyne's reconnaissance efforts in the days to come. The failure to bring in nearby supplies meant that he had to rely on supply lines that were already dangerously long, and that he eventually broke in September. The shortage of supplies was a significant factor in his decision to surrender at Saratoga, following which France entered the war.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 12928085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American Patriots reacted to news of the battle with optimism. Especially after Burgoyne's Indian screen left him, small groups of local Patriots began to emerge to harass the fringes of British positions. A significant portion of Stark's force returned home and did not again become influential in the campaign until appearing at Saratoga on October 13 to complete the encirclement of Burgoyne's army.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "John Stark's reward from the New Hampshire General Assembly for \"the Memorable Battle of Bennington\" was \"a compleat suit of Clothes becoming his Rank\". A reward that Stark likely valued the highest was a message of thanks from John Hancock, president of the Continental Congress, which included a commission as \"brigadier in the army of the United States\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 16324, 38322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 240 ], [ 259, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The battle forces are generally described as in Morrissey. His numbers are generally consistent with other sources on the British units, although there is disagreement across a wide array of sources on the number of troops under Breymann, which are generally listed at either approximately 550 or 650. Morrissey is also incorrect in identifying some of the American units. He identifies William Gregg as having a separate command; Gregg apparently led several companies in Nichols' regiment. Morrissey also failed to include the Massachusetts militia, and misidentified Langdon's company, erroneously believing they may have been from Worcester, Massachusetts. (Militia companies from the Worcester area marched on Bennington, with some companies arriving the day after the battle.) Langdon originally raised his company in 1776, but it did not become a cavalry unit until 1778.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [ 99312, 6816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 635, 659 ], [ 854, 861 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New Hampshire militia regiments", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hobart's Regiment of Militia 150", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [ 3787933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nichols' Regiment of Militia 550", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [ 3788051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stickney's Regiment of Militia 150", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [ 3787856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Langdon's Company of Light Horse Volunteers (number unknown, were infantry at the time)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [ 3846359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Additional New Hampshire militia 1,000", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Vermont militia regiments", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Herrick's Regiment 300", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Additional Vermont Rangers 200", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Massachusetts militia regiments", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Simonds' Regiment of Militia (number unknown)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [ 3822276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Continental Regiments", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Warner's additional Continental Regiment (Green Mountain Boys, commanded by Safford) 350", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [ 39199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baum's forces", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Prinz Ludwig Dragoons 205", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Grenadiers 24", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Light infantry 57", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Line infantry (from regiments of Riedesel, Specht, and Rhetz) 37", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hesse-Hanau artillery 13", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Queen's Loyal Rangers (Peters) over 150", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "British Marksmen 48", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [ 14468192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Local Loyalists (Pfister, Covel) over 150", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Canadians 56", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Indians (Lanaudière, Campbell) over 100", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Breymann's forces", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Grenadiers 353", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Light infantry 277", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hesse-Hanau artillery 20", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Order of battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "August 16 is a legal holiday in Vermont, known as Bennington Battle Day. The battlefield, now a New York state historic site, was designated a National Historic Landmark on January 20, 1961, and added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. In the 1870s, the local historic society in Bennington commissioned the design and construction of the Bennington Battle Monument, which was complete in 1889 and dedicated in 1891 with ceremonies attended by President Benjamin Harrison. The Monument, an obelisk high, is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Although the monument was not ready in time to mark the centennial of the battle, the 100th anniversary of the battle was marked by speeches attended by President Rutherford B. Hayes.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Commemorations", "target_page_ids": [ 52396, 11868051, 13187443, 404013, 64065, 2158576, 24113, 7766419, 101600, 24113, 19729241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 28 ], [ 50, 71 ], [ 96, 124 ], [ 143, 169 ], [ 208, 244 ], [ 369, 395 ], [ 474, 483 ], [ 484, 501 ], [ 520, 527 ], [ 748, 757 ], [ 758, 777 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Every year on Bennington Battle Day there is a firing of the Molly Stark Cannon, the oldest firing cannon in the United States. The cannon was captured at the Battle of Bennington.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Commemorations", "target_page_ids": [ 11868051, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 35 ], [ 113, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of American Revolutionary War battles", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 623644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American Revolutionary War § British northern strategy fails. Places 'Battle of Bennington' in overall sequence and strategic context.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – aircraft carrier named in honor of the battle", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Battle of Bennington: An American Victory, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Official Battlefield page from New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Riflemen's Song at Bennington", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bennington Battlefield on the Historical Marker Database", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1777_in_the_United_States", "Conflicts_in_1777", "Bennington_County,_Vermont", "Rensselaer_County,_New_York", "Battles_of_the_Saratoga_campaign", "Battles_involving_Great_Britain", "Battles_involving_the_United_States", "New_Hampshire_in_the_American_Revolution", "Battles_of_the_American_Revolutionary_War_in_New_York_(state)", "Vermont_in_the_American_Revolution", "Bennington,_Vermont", "1777_in_New_York_(state)" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Asian Games, also known as Asiad, is a continental multi-sport event held every four years among athletes from all over Asia. The Games were regulated by the Asian Games Federation (AGF) from the first Games in New Delhi, India, until the 1978 Games. Since the 1982 Games, they have been organized by the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA), after the breakup of the Asian Games Federation. The Games are recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and are described as the second largest multi-sport event after the Olympic Games.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19630739, 53900, 154164, 689, 19041248, 51585, 14533, 3285377, 3285384, 3285568, 15147, 22576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 52 ], [ 55, 72 ], [ 101, 108 ], [ 124, 128 ], [ 162, 184 ], [ 215, 224 ], [ 226, 231 ], [ 243, 253 ], [ 265, 275 ], [ 309, 332 ], [ 421, 452 ], [ 527, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There have been nine nations that have hosted the Asian Games. Forty-six nations have participated in the Games, including Israel, which was excluded from the Games altogether after Israel managed to win a silver medal (in their last participation) at the 1974 Asian Games in Iran. The most recent games was held in Jakarta and Palembang, Indonesia from 18 August to 2 September 2018. The next games are scheduled to be held in Hangzhou, China.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26337485, 526647, 3285370, 24151504, 16275, 204226, 30364680, 158185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 129 ], [ 206, 218 ], [ 256, 280 ], [ 286, 303 ], [ 316, 323 ], [ 328, 337 ], [ 389, 399 ], [ 428, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 2010, host cities manage both the Asian Games and the Asian Para Games, the latter an event for athletes with disabilities to compete with each other. The Asian Para Games are held immediately following the Asian Games, but the exclusion of Asian Para Games from any Asian Games host city contract means that both events will run independently of each other.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23078239, 56285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 76 ], [ 116, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Far Eastern Championship Games existed previous to the Asian Games, the former mooted in 1912 for a location set between Japan, the Philippines, and China. The inaugural Far Eastern Games were held in Manila in 1913 with 6 participating nations. There were ten Far Eastern Games held by 1934. The second Sino-Japanese War in 1934, and Japan's insistence on including the Manchu Empire as a competitor nation in the Games, brought China to announce its withdrawal from participation. The Far Eastern Games scheduled for 1938 were cancelled. The organization was discontinued.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3294560, 183897, 30385148, 33167689, 184334, 3285450, 3285488, 69980, 55273, 7426140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 34 ], [ 125, 130 ], [ 136, 147 ], [ 153, 158 ], [ 205, 211 ], [ 215, 219 ], [ 291, 295 ], [ 301, 325 ], [ 375, 388 ], [ 523, 527 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After World War II, several areas in Asia became sovereign states. Many of these countries sought to exhibit Asian prowess without violence. At the London 1948 Summer Olympics, a conversation started amongst China and the Philippines to restore the idea of the Far Eastern Games. Guru Dutt Sondhi, the Indian International Olympic Committee representative, believed that the restoration of the Far Eastern Games would sufficiently display the spirit of unity and level of achievement taking place in Asian sports. He proposed the idea of a new competition – which came to be the Asian Games. The Asian Athletic Federation would eventually be formed. A preparatory committee was set up to draft the charter for this new body. On 13 February 1949, the Asian Athletic Federation was formally inaugurated in and New Delhi, announced as the inaugural host city to be held in 1950.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23604120, 42196, 8433435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 65 ], [ 155, 175 ], [ 280, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1962, the Games were hit by several crises. The host country Indonesia, refused to permit the participation of Israel and Taiwan due to political recognition issues. The IOC terminated its sponsorship of the Games and terminated Indonesia's membership in the IOC. The Asian Football Confederation (AFC), International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF) and International Weightlifting Federation (IWF), also removed their recognition of the Games.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3275432, 715249, 86444, 3228206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 7 ], [ 271, 299 ], [ 307, 349 ], [ 361, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "South Korea renounced its plan to host the 1970 Asian Games on the grounds of a national security crisis; the main reason was due to a financial crisis. The previous host, Thailand, would host the Games in Bangkok using funds transferred from South Korea. Japan was asked to host but declined the opportunity as they were already committed to Expo '70 in Osaka. This edition marked the Games' inaugural television broadcasting, world-wide. In Tehran, in 1974, the Games formally recognized the participation of China, North Korea and Mongolia. Israel was allowed to participate despite the opposition from the Arab world, while Taiwan was permitted to continue taking part (as \"Chinese Taipei\") although its status was abolished in general meeting on 16 November 1973 by Games Federation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3285368, 56615, 828122, 52230, 3285370, 159433, 261888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 59 ], [ 206, 213 ], [ 343, 351 ], [ 355, 360 ], [ 454, 458 ], [ 610, 620 ], [ 678, 692 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to the 1978 Games, Pakistan retracted its plan to host the 1975 Games due to a financial crisis and political issues. Thailand offer to host and the Games were held in Bangkok. As in 1962, Taiwan and Israel were refused the participation by Games Federation, amid political issues and security fears. Several governing bodies protested the ban. The IAAF threatened to bar the participating athletes from the 1980 Summer Olympics. Several nations withdraw prior to the Games opening.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3285377, 23235, 142331, 86444, 82785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 23 ], [ 25, 33 ], [ 106, 122 ], [ 355, 359 ], [ 414, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These events led the National Olympic Committees in Asia to revise the constitution of the Asian Games Federation. The Olympic Council of Asia was created in November 1981, excluding Israel. India was scheduled to host in 1982 and the OCA decided not to drop the old AGF timetable. The OCA formally started to supervise the Games with the South Korea 1986 Asian Games. In the succeeding Games, Taiwan (Republic of China) was re-admitted, under pressure by the People's Republic of China to compete as Chinese Taipei.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3285384, 3285386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 222, 226 ], [ 351, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1994, the Games included the inaugural participation of the former republics of the Soviet Union: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. It was also the inaugural Games held in a host country outside its capital city. However, Iraq was suspended from the Games due to the 1990 Persian Gulf War. North Korea boycotted the Games due to political issues. The Games were hampered during the opening ceremony by the death of Nareshkumar Adhikari, the chief of the Nepalese delegation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3285394, 26950, 181337, 18653058, 182000, 25020543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 7 ], [ 70, 99 ], [ 234, 246 ], [ 257, 261 ], [ 307, 323 ], [ 325, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1998 Games marked the fourth time the Games were held in Bangkok, Thailand. The opening ceremony was on 6 December; the previous three were on 9 December. King Bhumibol Adulyadej opened the Games; the closing ceremony was on 20 December (the same date as all the previous games hosted by Thailand).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3285402, 203756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 159, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Asian Games Movement uses symbols to represent the ideals embodied in the Asian Games charter. The Asian Games motto is \"Ever Onward\" which was designed and proposed by Guru Dutt Sondhi upon the creation of the Asian Games Federation in 1949. The Asian Games symbol is a bright sun in red with 16 rays and a white circle in the middle of its disc which represents the ever glimmering and warm spirit of the Asian people.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 658161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the 1982 Asian Games in New Delhi, India, the Asian Games have had a mascot, usually an animal native to the area or occasionally human figures representing the cultural heritage.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 3285384, 51585, 14533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ], [ 30, 39 ], [ 41, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All 45 members affiliated to the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA) are eligible to participate in the Games.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [ 3285568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to membership in the OCA, transcontinental Kazakhstan participates in the Asian Games but Egypt does not as a country with Asian minor region in Sinai, participating in the African Games instead. Various countries participating in the European Games rather than the Asian Games whose major geographical parts located in Asian continent: Turkey and Russia/Soviet Union; almost completely in Asia: Azerbaijan and Georgia; wholly in Asia: Cyprus, Armenia, and Israel.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [ 1775678, 16642, 27644, 3253221, 37869695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 52 ], [ 53, 63 ], [ 155, 160 ], [ 183, 196 ], [ 245, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In history, 46 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) have sent competitors to the Games. Israel has been excluded from the Games since 1976, the reason cited as being due to security reasons. Israel requested to participate in the 1982 Games, but the request was rejected by the organizers due to the Munich massacre. Israel is now a member of the European Olympic Committees (EOC) and competes at the European Games.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [ 18750385, 20989, 7393552, 37869695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 92 ], [ 298, 313 ], [ 345, 372 ], [ 399, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Taiwan, Palestine, Hong Kong, and Macau participate in the Asian Games according to membership in OCA. Due to its continuing ambiguous political status, Taiwan participates in the Games under the flag of Chinese Taipei since 1990. Macau NOC is allowed to compete as one of the NOCs in Asian Games, despite not being recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) for participation in the Olympic Games.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [ 261888, 18582945, 22576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 218 ], [ 231, 240 ], [ 397, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, the President of OCA, Sheikh Ahmed Al-Fahad Al-Ahmed Al-Sabah, rejected the proposal to allow Australia to participate in the Games. He stated that while Australia would add good value to the Asian Games, it would be unfair to the Oceania National Olympic Committees (ONOC). Being members of ONOC, Australia and New Zealand participate in Pacific Games since 2015. This motion was mooted again in 2017 after Australia's participation in the 2017 Asian Winter Games as they are in discussions to become a full Asian Games member from 2022 or 2026. However, the Australian Olympic Committee announced that Australia would be allowed a small contingent of athletes for the 2022 Games, as long as the qualification for Summer Olympics events such as basketball and volleyball are through Asia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [ 7886670, 2332307, 9197722, 3702884, 30364427, 2332307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 70 ], [ 103, 112 ], [ 240, 282 ], [ 348, 361 ], [ 450, 473 ], [ 569, 597 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are only seven countries, namely India, Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Singapore and Thailand that have competed in all editions of the games.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Participation", "target_page_ids": [ 26136937, 26337466, 26137195, 26337639, 26337674, 26337664, 26337700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 44 ], [ 46, 55 ], [ 57, 62 ], [ 68, 79 ], [ 81, 90 ], [ 92, 101 ], [ 106, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The average for the edition of events by the edition of the Asian Games is of nearly 260 events with 24 sports by edition.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fifty-one sports, spanning 39 different disciplines and nearly 400 events, have been part of the Asian Games program at one point or another, including the 2018 Games in Indonesia. The edition where the largest number of events was the Guangzhou 2010 Games, where 476 events in 42 sports were disputed. The number of events varies according to edition and the demands of the local organizing committee, along with those of the host country. It was established in 2011, that the Games program would respect the eventual changes to the Olympic Games program along with this, eight extremely popular sports in Asia are in the program, plus up to 7 chosen by the local organization.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 24151504, 14579, 3285435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 166 ], [ 170, 179 ], [ 236, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of the 46 National Olympic Committees participating throughout the history of the Games, 43 nations have won at least a single medal in the competition, leaving three nations: Bhutan, Maldives and Timor-Leste yet to win a single medal. 38 nations have won at least one gold medal (only Japan and India have done so at every Asian Games), while Japan and China became the only two nations in history to emerge as overall champions.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Medal count", "target_page_ids": [ 26337431, 26337568, 26337706, 26137195, 26136937, 26137195, 24914454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 182 ], [ 184, 192 ], [ 197, 208 ], [ 286, 291 ], [ 296, 301 ], [ 344, 349 ], [ 354, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most valuable player (MVP) award was introduced since 1998 Games in Bangkok, Thailand. Below is the list of winners:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Most valuable player award", "target_page_ids": [ 235000, 56615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ], [ 72, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 8 November 2012, the OCA decided at its 31st General Assembly in Macau to create a special multi-sport event called Asian Games Centennial Festival in celebration of the 100th anniversary of the Oriental Games (later became Far Eastern Championship Games). OCA awarded the Philippines the hosting rights as it was also the host 100 years previous. The event was originally scheduled to be held in Boracay, Malay, Aklan on 27 to 29 November 2013 but due to the events surrounding Typhoon Haiyan, it was moved to January 2014.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Centennial Festival", "target_page_ids": [ 346074, 2050658, 40996363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 400, 407 ], [ 409, 421 ], [ 482, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Asian Beach Games", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8415024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Asian Winter Games", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6511088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24165217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Asian Youth Games", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20145439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Olympic Council of Asia: Games", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Asian_Games", "Asian_international_sports_competitions", "Recurring_sporting_events_established_in_1951", "Quadrennial_sporting_events", "Olympic_Council_of_Asia", "1951_establishments_in_Asia" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Business is the activity of making one's living or making money by producing or buying and selling products (such as goods and services). It is also \"any activity or enterprise entered into for profit.\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 29678, 240410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 98 ], [ 99, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having a business name does not separate the business entity from the owner, which means that the owner of the business is responsible and liable for debts incurred by the business. If the business acquires debts, the creditors can go after the owner's personal possessions. A business structure does not allow for corporate tax rates. The proprietor is personally taxed on all income from the business.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 230404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term is also often used colloquially (but not by lawyers or by public officials) to refer to a company, such as a corporation or cooperative.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4918223, 7485, 89313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 106 ], [ 118, 129 ], [ 133, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Corporations, in contrast with sole proprietors and partnerships, are a separate legal entity and provide limited liability for their owners/members, as well as being subject to corporate tax rates. A corporation is more complicated and expensive to set up, but offers more protection and benefits for the owners/members.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 668326, 222783, 1138182, 912407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 47 ], [ 52, 63 ], [ 106, 123 ], [ 178, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Forms of business ownership vary by jurisdiction, but several common entities exist:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 16392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sole proprietorship: A sole proprietorship, also known as a sole trader, is owned by one person and operates for their benefit. The owner operates the business alone and may hire employees. A sole proprietor has unlimited liability for all obligations incurred by the business, whether from operating costs or judgments against the business. All assets of the business belong to a sole proprietor, including, for example, a computer infrastructure, any inventory, manufacturing equipment, or retail fixtures, as well as any real property owned by the sole proprietor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 668326, 314993, 1210255, 7501668, 161979, 18934838, 182655, 39388, 183515, 1360491, 47707505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 43 ], [ 180, 189 ], [ 223, 232 ], [ 292, 306 ], [ 311, 319 ], [ 347, 352 ], [ 454, 463 ], [ 465, 478 ], [ 493, 499 ], [ 500, 508 ], [ 525, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Partnership: A partnership is a business owned by two or more people. In most forms of partnerships, each partner has unlimited liability for the debts incurred by the business. The three most prevalent types of for-profit partnerships are general partnerships, limited partnerships, and limited liability partnerships.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 222783, 1730791, 1548943, 662415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 28 ], [ 242, 261 ], [ 264, 283 ], [ 290, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Corporation: The owners of a corporation have limited liability and the business has a separate legal personality from its owners. Corporations can be either government-owned or privately owned, and they can organize either for profit or as nonprofit organizations. A privately owned, for-profit corporation is owned by its shareholders, who elect a board of directors to direct the corporation and hire its managerial staff. A privately owned, for-profit corporation can be either privately held by a small group of individuals, or publicly held, with publicly traded shares listed on a stock exchange.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 7485, 1138182, 808982, 204768, 72487, 146081, 4822, 1499655, 262293, 867877, 28168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 42 ], [ 48, 65 ], [ 98, 115 ], [ 161, 177 ], [ 244, 266 ], [ 327, 338 ], [ 353, 371 ], [ 486, 500 ], [ 537, 550 ], [ 573, 579 ], [ 592, 606 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cooperative: Often referred to as a \"co-op\", a cooperative is a limited-liability business that can organize as for-profit or not-for-profit. A cooperative differs from a corporation in that it has members, not shareholders, and they share decision-making authority. Cooperatives are typically classified as either consumer cooperatives or worker cooperatives. Cooperatives are fundamental to the ideology of economic democracy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 89313, 4132201, 1456771, 38802668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 59 ], [ 316, 337 ], [ 341, 359 ], [ 410, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Limited liability Partnerships (LLP), limited liability partnerships, and other specific types of business organization protect their owners or shareholders from business failure by doing business under a separate legal entity with certain legal protections. In contrast, a general partnership or persons working on their own are usually not as protected.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 283083, 12963496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ], [ 163, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Franchises: A franchise is a system in which entrepreneurs purchase the rights to open and run a business from a larger corporation. Franchising in the United States is widespread and is a major economic powerhouse. One out of twelve retail businesses in the United States are franchised and 8 million people are employed in a franchised business.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 11616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A company limited by guarantee: Commonly used where companies are formed for non-commercial purposes, such as clubs or charities. The members guarantee the payment of certain (usually nominal) amounts if the company goes into insolvent liquidation, but otherwise, they have no economic rights in relation to the company. This type of company is common in England. A company limited by guarantee may be with or without having share capital.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 10087470, 565034, 9316, 6232594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 31 ], [ 229, 250 ], [ 358, 365 ], [ 428, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A company limited by shares: The most common form of the company used for business ventures. Specifically, a limited company is a \"company in which the liability of each shareholder is limited to the amount individually invested\" with corporations being \"the most common example of a limited company.\" This type of company is common in England and many English-speaking countries. A company limited by shares may be a", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 30862930, 9316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 28 ], [ 338, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " publicly traded company or a", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 262293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " privately held company", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 1499655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A company limited by guarantee with a share capital: A hybrid entity, usually used where the company is formed for non-commercial purposes, but the activities of the company are partly funded by investors who expect a return. This type of company may no longer be formed in the UK, although provisions still exist in law for them to exist.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A limited liability company: \"A company—statutorily authorized in certain states—that is characterized by limited liability, management by members or managers, and limitations on ownership transfer\", i.e., L.L.C. LLC structure has been called \"hybrid\" in that it \"combines the characteristics of a corporation and of a partnership or sole proprietorship\". Like a corporation, it has limited liability for members of the company, and like a partnership, it has \"flow-through taxation to the members\" and must be \"dissolved upon the death or bankruptcy of a member\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 283083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " An unlimited company with or without a share capital: A hybrid entity, a company where the liability of members or shareholders for the debts (if any) of the company are not limited. In this case, the doctrine of a veil of incorporation does not apply.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 2911102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Less common types of companies are:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Companies formed by letters patent: Most corporations by letters patent are corporations sole and not companies as the term is commonly understood today.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 249204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charter corporations: Before the passing of modern companies legislation, these were the only types of companies. Now they are relatively rare, except for very old companies that still survive (of which there are still many, particularly many British banks), or modern societies that fulfill a quasi-regulatory function (for example, the Bank of England is a corporation formed by a modern charter).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 100943, 4484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 341, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Statutory companies: Relatively rare today, certain companies have been formed by a private statute passed in the relevant jurisdiction.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Note that \"Ltd after the company's name signifies limited company, and PLC (public limited company) indicates that its shares are widely held.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 25109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In legal parlance, the owners of a company are normally referred to as the \"members\". In a company limited or unlimited by shares (formed or incorporated with a share capital), this will be the shareholders. In a company limited by guarantee, this will be the guarantors. Some offshore jurisdictions have created special forms of offshore company in a bid to attract business for their jurisdictions. Examples include \"segregated portfolio companies\" and restricted purpose companies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 146081, 27638957, 515409, 5073345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 205 ], [ 277, 299 ], [ 330, 346 ], [ 419, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are, however, many, many sub-categories of types of company that can be formed in various jurisdictions in the world.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Companies are also sometimes distinguished into public companies and private companies for legal and regulatory purposes. Public companies are companies whose shares can be publicly traded, often (although not always) on a stock exchange which imposes listing requirements/Listing Rules as to the issued shares, the trading of shares and a future issue of shares to help bolster the reputation of the exchange or particular market of exchange. Private companies do not have publicly traded shares, and often contain restrictions on transfers of shares. In some jurisdictions, private companies have maximum numbers of shareholders.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 25109, 1499655, 28168, 13322752, 29358465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 64 ], [ 69, 86 ], [ 223, 237 ], [ 252, 272 ], [ 273, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A parent company is a company that owns enough voting stock in another firm to control management and operations by influencing or electing its board of directors; the second company being deemed as a subsidiary of the parent company. The definition of a parent company differs by jurisdiction, with the definition normally being defined by way of laws dealing with companies in that jurisdiction.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 146080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Agriculture, such as the domestication of fish, animals, and livestock, as well as lumber, oil, vegetables, fruits, etc.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Classifications", "target_page_ids": [ 627, 25160767, 49165880, 994887, 5791492, 10843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 62, 71 ], [ 84, 90 ], [ 92, 95 ], [ 97, 107 ], [ 109, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mining businesses that extract natural resources and raw materials, such as wood, petroleum, natural gas, ores, metals or minerals.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Classifications", "target_page_ids": [ 20381, 33550, 23195, 22131, 22595, 19042, 19053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 77, 81 ], [ 83, 92 ], [ 94, 105 ], [ 107, 110 ], [ 113, 119 ], [ 123, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Service businesses offer intangible goods or services and typically charge for labor or other services provided to government, to consumers, or to other businesses. Interior decorators, beauticians, hair stylists, make-up artists, tanning salons, laundromats, dry cleaners, and pest controllers are service businesses.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Classifications", "target_page_ids": [ 14551, 12229, 7818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 115, 125 ], [ 130, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Financial services businesses include banks, brokerage firms, credit unions, credit cards, insurance companies, asset and investment companies such as private-equity firms, private-equity funds, real estate investment trusts, sovereign wealth funds, pension funds, mutual funds, index funds, hedge funds, stock exchanges, and other companies that generate profits through investment and management of capital.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Classifications", "target_page_ids": [ 433425, 19360669, 397129, 246079, 17182301, 15176, 2152436, 2389106, 13240432, 2903346, 417044, 11420440, 43615, 226597, 106012, 14412, 28168, 181293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 39, 43 ], [ 46, 60 ], [ 63, 75 ], [ 78, 90 ], [ 92, 111 ], [ 113, 118 ], [ 123, 143 ], [ 152, 171 ], [ 174, 193 ], [ 196, 224 ], [ 227, 248 ], [ 251, 263 ], [ 266, 277 ], [ 280, 290 ], [ 293, 303 ], [ 306, 320 ], [ 402, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Transportation businesses such as railways, airlines, and shipping companies deliver goods and individuals to their destinations for a fee.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Classifications", "target_page_ids": [ 18580879, 4629336, 1942, 28769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 34, 42 ], [ 44, 51 ], [ 58, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Utilities produce public services such as water, electricity, waste management or sewage treatment. These industries are usually operated under the charge of a public government.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Classifications", "target_page_ids": [ 171136, 1291782, 33306, 9550, 210555, 16079692, 204768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 19, 33 ], [ 43, 48 ], [ 50, 61 ], [ 63, 79 ], [ 83, 99 ], [ 168, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Entertainment companies and mass media agencies generate profits primarily from the sale of intellectual property. They include film studios and production houses, mass media companies such as cable television networks, online digital media agencies, talent agencies, mobile media outlets, newspapers, book and magazine publishing houses.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Classifications", "target_page_ids": [ 9262, 19641, 14724, 21557170, 1377973, 7587, 53723, 2067198, 4613436, 68761, 68761, 21001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 29, 39 ], [ 93, 114 ], [ 129, 140 ], [ 146, 162 ], [ 194, 218 ], [ 228, 241 ], [ 252, 267 ], [ 269, 281 ], [ 291, 301 ], [ 303, 307 ], [ 312, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sports organizations are involved in producing, facilitating, promoting, or organizing any activity, experience, or business enterprise focused on sports. They make their profits by selling goods and services that are sports related.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Classifications", "target_page_ids": [ 16760410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Industrial manufacturers produce products, either from raw materials or from component parts, then export the finished products at a profit. They include tangible goods such as cars, buses, medical devices, glass, or aircraft.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Classifications", "target_page_ids": [ 39388, 240410, 216167, 19417927, 596459, 580039, 163778, 16258497, 60212212, 14730177, 79610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 25 ], [ 34, 42 ], [ 56, 68 ], [ 134, 140 ], [ 155, 163 ], [ 164, 169 ], [ 178, 182 ], [ 184, 189 ], [ 191, 206 ], [ 208, 213 ], [ 218, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Real estate businesses sell, invest, construct and develop properties, including land, residential homes, and other buildings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Classifications", "target_page_ids": [ 47707435, 47707505, 40083369, 249429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 60, 70 ], [ 82, 86 ], [ 100, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Retailers, wholesalers, and distributors act as middlemen and get goods produced by manufacturers to the intended consumers; they make their profits by marking up their prices. Most stores and catalog companies are distributors or retailers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Classifications", "target_page_ids": [ 183515, 63103, 239863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 12, 23 ], [ 29, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Accounting is the measurement, processing, and communication of financial information about economic entities such as businesses and corporations. The modern field was established by the Italian mathematician Luca Pacioli in 1494. Accounting, which has been called the \"language of business\", measures the results of an organization's economic activities and conveys this information to a variety of users, including investors, creditors, management, and regulators. Practitioners of accounting are known as accountants. The terms \"accounting\" and \"financial reporting\" are often used as synonyms.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 2726024, 7485, 385155, 18473, 332730, 601598, 19881, 2782814, 58216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 109 ], [ 133, 144 ], [ 187, 194 ], [ 209, 221 ], [ 418, 426 ], [ 429, 437 ], [ 440, 450 ], [ 456, 466 ], [ 510, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finance is a field that deals with the study of money and investments. It includes the dynamics of assets and liabilities over time under conditions of different degrees of uncertainty and risk. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 11162, 63121, 18934838, 23409418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 58, 69 ], [ 99, 104 ], [ 110, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the context of business and management, finance deals with the problems of ensuring that the firm can safely and profitably carry out its operational and financial objectives; i.e. that it: (1) has sufficient cash flow for ongoing and upcoming operational expenses, and (2) can service both maturing short-term debt repayments, and scheduled long-term debt payments. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 11162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finance also deals with the long term objective of maximizing the value of the business, while also balancing risk and profitability; this includes the interrelated questions of (1) capital investment, which businesses and projects to invest in; (2) capital structure, deciding on the mix of funding to be used; and (3) dividend policy, what to do with \"excess\" capital.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 63121, 866603, 33400178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 200 ], [ 250, 267 ], [ 321, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Manufacturing is the production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. The term may refer to a range of human activity, from handicraft to high tech, but is most commonly applied to industrial production, in which raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 39388, 697240, 1650227, 51462, 30677, 49690, 27452465, 39388, 216167, 6553782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 35, 46 ], [ 69, 75 ], [ 80, 87 ], [ 90, 94 ], [ 203, 213 ], [ 217, 226 ], [ 260, 270 ], [ 292, 304 ], [ 327, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marketing is defined by the American Marketing Association as \"the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large.\" The term developed from the original meaning which referred literally to going to a market to buy or sell goods or services. Marketing tactics include advertising as well as determining product pricing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 1802886, 2861, 239887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 58 ], [ 403, 414 ], [ 446, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the rise in technology, marketing is further divided into a class called digital marketing. It is marketing products and services using digital technologies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 9933471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Research and development refer to activities in connection with corporate or government innovation. Research and development constitute the first stage of development of a potential new service or product. Research and development are very difficult to manage since the defining feature of the research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Injuries cost businesses billions of dollars annually. Studies have shown how company acceptance and implementation of comprehensive safety and health management systems reduce incidents, insurance costs, and workers' compensation claims. New technologies, like wearable safety devices and available online safety training, continue to be developed to encourage employers to invest in protection beyond the \"canary in the coal mine\" and reduce the cost to businesses of protecting their employees.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 15176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sales are activity related to selling or the number of goods or services sold in a given time period. Sales are often integrated with all lines of business and are key to a companies' success.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The efficient and effective operation of a business, and study of this subject, is called management. The major branches of management are financial management, marketing management, human resource management, strategic management, production management, operations management, service management, and information technology management. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Management", "target_page_ids": [ 1578179, 19881, 11162, 59252, 1156823, 239450, 39388, 1993994, 909187, 1098368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 51 ], [ 90, 100 ], [ 139, 159 ], [ 161, 170 ], [ 183, 208 ], [ 210, 230 ], [ 232, 253 ], [ 255, 276 ], [ 278, 296 ], [ 302, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Owners may manage their businesses themselves, or employ managers to do so for them. Whether they are owners or employees, managers administer three primary components of the business' value: financial resources, capital (tangible resources), and human resources. These resources are administered in at least six functional areas: legal contracting, manufacturing or service production, marketing, accounting, financing, and human resources.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Management", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In recent decades, states modeled some of their assets and enterprises after business enterprises. In 2003, for example, China modeled 80% of its state-owned enterprises on a company-type management system. Many state institutions and enterprises in China and Russia have transformed into joint-stock companies, with part of their shares being listed on public stock markets.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Management", "target_page_ids": [ 18934838, 5405, 204768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 53 ], [ 121, 126 ], [ 146, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Business process management (BPM) is a holistic management approach focused on aligning all aspects of an organization with the wants and needs of clients. BPM attempts to improve processes continuously. It can, therefore, be described as a \"process optimization process\". It is argued that BPM enables organizations to be more efficient, effective and capable of change than a functionally focused, traditional hierarchical management approach. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Management", "target_page_ids": [ 68483249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most legal jurisdictions specify the forms of ownership that a business can take, creating a body of commercial law for each type.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 16392, 77444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 23 ], [ 101, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The major factors affecting how a business is organized are usually:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The size and scope of the business firm and its structure, management, and ownership, broadly analyzed in the theory of the firm. Generally, a smaller business is more flexible, while larger businesses, or those with wider ownership or more formal structures, will usually tend to be organized as corporations or (less often) partnerships. In addition, a business that wishes to raise money on a stock market or to be owned by a wide range of people will often be required to adopt a specific legal form to do so.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 1337683, 52328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 129 ], [ 397, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The sector and country. Private profit-making businesses are different from government-owned bodies. In some countries, certain businesses are legally obliged to be organized in certain ways.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tax advantages. Different structures are treated differently in tax law and may have advantages for this reason.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 1028140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Disclosure and compliance requirements. Different business structures may be required to make less or more information public (or report it to relevant authorities) and may be bound to comply with different rules and regulations.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Control and coordination requirements. In function of the risk and complexity of the tasks to organize, a business is organized through a set of formal and informal mechanisms. In particular, contractual and relational governance can help mitigate opportunism as well as support communication and information sharing.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 19280537, 2396037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 201 ], [ 249, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many businesses are operated through a separate entity such as a corporation or a partnership (either formed with or without limited liability). Most legal jurisdictions allow people to organize such an entity by filing certain charter documents with the relevant Secretary of State or equivalent and complying with certain other ongoing obligations. The relationships and legal rights of shareholders, limited partners, or members are governed partly by the charter documents and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where the entity is organized. Generally speaking, shareholders in a corporation, limited partners in a limited partnership, and members in a limited liability company are shielded from personal liability for the debts and obligations of the entity, which is legally treated as a separate \"person\". This means that unless there is misconduct, the owner's own possessions are strongly protected in law if the business does not succeed.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 146081, 1210255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 389, 400 ], [ 705, 723 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Where two or more individuals own a business together but have failed to organize a more specialized form of vehicle, they will be treated as a general partnership. The terms of a partnership are partly governed by a partnership agreement if one is created, and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located. No paperwork or filing is necessary to create a partnership, and without an agreement, the relationships and legal rights of the partners will be entirely governed by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located. A single person who owns and runs a business is commonly known as a sole proprietor, whether that person owns it directly or through a formally organized entity. Depending on the business needs, an adviser can decide what kind is proprietorship will be most suitable.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A few relevant factors to consider in deciding how to operate a business include:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " General partners in a partnership (other than a limited liability partnership), plus anyone who personally owns and operates a business without creating a separate legal entity, are personally liable for the debts and obligations of the business.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Generally, corporations are required to pay tax just like \"real\" people. In some tax systems, this can give rise to so-called double taxation, because first the corporation pays tax on the profit, and then when the corporation distributes its profits to its owners, individuals have to include dividends in their income when they complete their personal tax returns, at which point a second layer of income tax is imposed.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 1152018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In most countries, there are laws that treat small corporations differently from large ones. They may be exempt from certain legal filing requirements or labor laws, have simplified procedures in specialized areas, and have simplified, advantageous, or slightly different tax treatment.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Going public\" through a process known as an initial public offering (IPO) means that part of the business will be owned by members of the public. This requires the organization as a distinct entity, to disclose information to the public, and adhering to a tighter set of laws and procedures. Most public entities are corporations that have sold shares, but increasingly there are also public LLC's that sell units (sometimes also called shares), and other more exotic entities as well, such as, for example, real estate investment trusts in the US, and unit trusts in the UK. A general partnership cannot \"go public\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 63879, 283083, 417044, 2286907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 69 ], [ 394, 399 ], [ 510, 538 ], [ 555, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A very detailed and well-established body of rules that evolved over a very long period of time applies to commercial transactions. The need to regulate trade and commerce and resolve business disputes helped shape the creation of law and courts. The Code of Hammurabi dates back to about 1772 BC for example and contains provisions that relate, among other matters, to shipping costs and dealings between merchants and brokers. The word \"corporation\" derives from the Latin corpus, meaning body, and the Maurya Empire in Iron-Age India accorded legal rights to business entities.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 7604, 28362, 397129, 554578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 268 ], [ 370, 378 ], [ 420, 426 ], [ 505, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many countries, it is difficult to compile all the laws that can affect a business into a single reference source. Laws can govern the treatment of labour and employee relations, worker protection and safety, discrimination on the basis of age, gender, disability, race, and in some jurisdictions, sexual orientation, and the minimum wage, as well as unions, worker compensation, and working hours and leave.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 361308, 17626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 210 ], [ 355, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some specialized businesses may also require licenses, either due to laws governing entry into certain trades, occupations or professions, that require special education or to raise revenue for local governments. Professions that require special licenses include law, medicine, piloting aircraft, selling liquor, radio broadcasting, selling investment securities, selling used cars, and roofing. Local jurisdictions may also require special licenses and taxes just to operate a business.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some businesses are subject to ongoing special regulation, for example, public utilities, investment securities, banking, insurance, broadcasting, aviation, and health care providers. Environmental regulations are also very complex and can affect many businesses.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 171136, 113604, 58422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 88 ], [ 133, 145 ], [ 147, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " When businesses need to raise money (called capital), they sometimes offer securities for sale.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 181293, 42162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 52 ], [ 76, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Capital may be raised through private means, by an initial public offering or IPO on a stock exchange, or in other ways.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 63879, 28168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 74 ], [ 87, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Major stock exchanges include the Shanghai Stock Exchange, Singapore Exchange, Hong Kong Stock Exchange, New York Stock Exchange and NASDAQ (the USA), the London Stock Exchange (UK), the Tokyo Stock Exchange (Japan), and Bombay Stock Exchange (India). Most countries with capital markets have at least one.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 1372161, 840432, 378691, 21560, 21559, 197867, 191354, 491715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 57 ], [ 59, 77 ], [ 79, 103 ], [ 105, 128 ], [ 133, 139 ], [ 155, 176 ], [ 187, 207 ], [ 221, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Businesses that have gone public are subject to regulations concerning their internal governance, such as how executive officers' compensation is determined, and when and how information is disclosed to shareholders and to the public. In the United States, these regulations are primarily implemented and enforced by the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Other western nations have comparable regulatory bodies. The regulations are implemented and enforced by the China Securities Regulation Commission (CSRC) in China. In Singapore, the regulatory authority is the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS), and in Hong Kong, it is the Securities and Futures Commission (SFC).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The proliferation and increasing complexity of the laws governing business have forced increasing specialization in corporate law. It is not unheard of for certain kinds of corporate transactions to require a team of five to ten attorneys due to sprawling regulation. Commercial law spans general corporate law, employment and labor law, health-care law, securities law, mergers and acquisitions, tax law, employee benefit plans, food and drug regulation, intellectual property law on copyrights, patents, trademarks, telecommunications law, and financing.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other types of capital sourcing include crowdsourcing on the Internet, venture capital, bank loans, and debentures.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Businesses often have important \"intellectual property\" that needs protection from competitors for the company to stay profitable. This could require patents, copyrights, trademarks, or preservation of trade secrets. Most businesses have names, logos, and similar branding techniques that could benefit from trademarking. Patents and copyrights in the United States are largely governed by federal law, while trade secrets and trademarking are mostly a matter of state law. Because of the nature of intellectual property, a business needs protection in every jurisdiction in which they are concerned about competitors. Many countries are signatories to international treaties concerning intellectual property, and thus companies registered in these countries are subject to national laws bound by these treaties. In order to protect trade secrets, companies may require employees to sign noncompete clauses which will impose limitations on an employee's interactions with stakeholders, and competitors.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 14724, 23273, 5278, 18935023, 29960, 30432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 54 ], [ 150, 156 ], [ 159, 168 ], [ 171, 180 ], [ 202, 214 ], [ 667, 675 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A trade union (or labor union) is an organization of workers who have come together to achieve common goals such as protecting the integrity of its trade, improving safety standards, achieving higher pay and benefits such as health care and retirement, increasing the number of employees an employer assigns to complete the work, and better working conditions. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members (rank and file members) and negotiates labor contracts (collective bargaining) with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is \"maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment\". This may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing, and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Organization and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 976102, 1052086, 18657, 253421, 314993, 359646, 35319154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 60 ], [ 341, 359 ], [ 495, 510 ], [ 512, 533 ], [ 660, 670 ], [ 709, 713 ], [ 818, 834 ] ] } ]

[ "Business", "Entrepreneurship", "Main_topic_articles", "Business_organizations" ]

[ "enterprise", "business affairs", "commerce", "business" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Commerce is the exchange of goods and services, especially on a large scale (between cities, countries or between parts of a country). More specifically, commerce includes all activities related to the distribution of goods and services from the producers to the consumers on a large scale. Commerce not only includes trade, which is the actual transaction, exchange or transfer of goods and services, but also the auxiliary services and means which facilitate such trade. These auxiliary services include transportation, communication, warehousing, insurance, banking, advertising, packaging, etc. In other words, commerce encompasses a wide array of political, logistical, legal, regulatory, social, and economic aspects of trade on a large scale. From a marketing perspective, commerce creates time and place utility by making goods and services available to the customers at the right place and at the right time by changing their location or placement. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1457128, 29678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 46 ], [ 318, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The English-language word commerce has been derived from the Latin word commercium, from com (\"together\") and merx (\"merchandise\").", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historian Peter Watson and Ramesh Manickam date the history of long-distance commerce from circa 150,000 years ago.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4912511, 1879507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ], [ 52, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In historic times, the introduction of currency as a standardized money facilitated the exchange of goods and services.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5665, 8983183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 47 ], [ 66, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banking systems developed in medieval Europe, facilitating financial transactions across national boundaries. Markets became a feature of town life, and were regulated by town authorities.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19360669, 9801859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 110, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bachelor of Business Administration", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 389487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bachelor of Commerce", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 248388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Master of Commerce", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3864337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Doctor of Commerce", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34814255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Business", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Capitalism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Commercial law", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 77444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Advertising", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Distribution (business)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 239863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wholesale", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 63103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Retailing", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 183515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cargo", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 396550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eco commerce", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4835058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Economy", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Electronic commerce", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Export", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 307592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fair", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 504805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Financial planning (business)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7498465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fishery", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 307491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harvest", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 772405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Import", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7515651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Laissez-faire", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 165451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Manufacturing", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Market (economics)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3736784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marketing", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 59252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marketplace", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9801859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mass production", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 63137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Master of Commerce", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3864337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Merchandising", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 697240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roman commerce", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 949245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trade", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 29678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " International trade", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Value (economics)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4095185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] } ]

[ "Trade" ]

[ "Commerce" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Philip Melanchthon (born Philipp Schwartzerdt; 16 February 1497 – 19 April 1560) was a German Lutheran reformer, collaborator with Martin Luther, the first systematic theologian of the Protestant Reformation, intellectual leader of the Lutheran Reformation, and an influential designer of educational systems. He stands next to Luther and John Calvin as a reformer, theologian, and moulder of Protestantism.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23371382, 1929054, 7567080, 30503, 37857, 37857, 15930, 25814008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 102 ], [ 103, 111 ], [ 131, 144 ], [ 167, 177 ], [ 185, 207 ], [ 236, 256 ], [ 339, 350 ], [ 393, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Melanchthon along with Luther denounced what they believed was the exaggerated cult of the saints, asserted justification by faith, and denounced what they considered to be the coercion of the conscience in the sacrament of penance (confession and absolution), which they believed could not offer certainty of salvation. Both rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation, i.e. that the bread and wine of the eucharist are converted by the Holy Spirit into the flesh and blood of Christ; however, they affirmed that Christ's body and blood are present with the elements of bread and wine in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. This Lutheran view of sacramental union contrasts with the understanding of the Catholic Church that the bread and wine cease to be bread and wine at their consecration (while retaining the appearances of both). Melanchthon made his distinction between law and gospel the central formula for Lutheran evangelical insight. By the \"law\", he meant God's requirements both in Old and New Testament; the \"gospel\" meant the free gift of grace through faith in Jesus Christ.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 58674, 30139998, 217480, 30907, 9767, 14379, 1095706, 9767, 741128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 130 ], [ 211, 220 ], [ 224, 231 ], [ 351, 369 ], [ 407, 416 ], [ 438, 449 ], [ 478, 484 ], [ 610, 623 ], [ 815, 826 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was born Philipp Schwartzerdt on 16 February 1497, at Bretten where his father Georg Schwarzerdt (1459-1508) was armorer to Philip, Count Palatine of the Rhine. The mother was Barbara Reuter (1476/77–1529). His birthplace, along with almost the whole city of Bretten, was burned in 1689 by French troops during the War of the Palatinate Succession. The town's Melanchthonhaus was built on its site in 1897.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 2882512, 4743878, 224589, 32345375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 64 ], [ 127, 162 ], [ 318, 350 ], [ 363, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1507 he was sent to the Latin school at Pforzheim, where the rector, Georg Simler of Wimpfen, introduced him to the Latin and Greek poets and to Aristotle. He was influenced by his great-uncle Johann Reuchlin, a Renaissance humanist; it was Reuchlin who suggested Philipp follow a custom common among humanists of the time and change his surname from \"Schwartzerdt\" (literally 'black earth'), into the Greek equivalent \"Melanchthon\" (Μελάγχθων).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 549161, 2578030, 308, 181116, 290237, 11887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 52 ], [ 88, 95 ], [ 148, 157 ], [ 196, 211 ], [ 215, 235 ], [ 405, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Philipp was only eleven when in 1508 both his grandfather (17 October) and father (27 October) died within eleven days. He and a brother were brought to Pforzheim to live with his maternal grandmother, Elizabeth Reuter, sister of Reuchlin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 549161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next year he entered the University of Heidelberg, where he studied philosophy, rhetoric, and astronomy/astrology, and became known as a scholar of Greek. Denied the master's degree in 1512 on the grounds of his youth, he went to Tübingen, where he continued humanistic studies but also worked on jurisprudence, mathematics, and medicine. While there he was also taught the technical aspects of astrology by Johannes Stöffler.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 100649, 13692155, 25447, 50650, 2122, 170346, 262301, 16366, 18831, 18957, 885810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 53 ], [ 72, 82 ], [ 84, 92 ], [ 98, 107 ], [ 108, 117 ], [ 170, 185 ], [ 234, 242 ], [ 301, 314 ], [ 316, 327 ], [ 333, 341 ], [ 412, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After gaining a master's degree in 1516 he began to study theology. Under the influence of Reuchlin, Erasmus, and others, he became convinced that true Christianity was something different from the scholastic theology as taught at the university. He became a conventor (repentant) in the contubernium and instructed younger scholars. He also lectured on oratory, on Virgil and on Livy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 30503, 10152, 5211, 39872, 65321703, 32359, 18049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 66 ], [ 101, 108 ], [ 152, 164 ], [ 198, 217 ], [ 288, 300 ], [ 366, 372 ], [ 380, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His first publications were a number of poems in a collection edited by Jakob Wimpfeling (), the preface to Reuchlin's Epistolae clarorum virorum (1514), an edition of Terence (1516), and a Greek grammar (1518).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 4254245, 30756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 88 ], [ 168, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Opposed as a reformer at Tübingen, he accepted a call to the University of Wittenberg from Martin Luther on the recommendation of his great-uncle, and became professor of Greek there at the age of 21. He studied the Scriptures, especially of Paul, and Evangelical doctrine. Attending the disputation of Leipzig (1519) as a spectator, he nonetheless participated with his comments. After his views were attacked by Johann Eck, Melanchthon replied based on the authority of Scripture in his Defensio contra Johannem Eckium (Wittenberg, 1519).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professor at Wittenberg", "target_page_ids": [ 33565249, 7567080, 3390, 24140, 37857, 16961349, 42136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 85 ], [ 91, 104 ], [ 216, 226 ], [ 242, 246 ], [ 252, 263 ], [ 288, 310 ], [ 414, 424 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following lectures on the Gospel of Matthew and the Epistle to the Romans, together with his investigations into Pauline doctrine, he was granted the degree of bachelor of theology, and transferred to the theological faculty. He married Katharina Krapp (Katharina article from the German Wikipedia), (1497–1557) daughter of Wittenberg's mayor, on 25 November 1520. They had four children: Anna (Anna article from the German Wikipedia), Philipp, Georg, and Magdalen.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Professor at Wittenberg", "target_page_ids": [ 12492, 9961, 3509246, 101146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 43 ], [ 52, 73 ], [ 160, 180 ], [ 337, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the beginning of 1521 in his Didymi Faventini versus Thomam Placentinum pro M. Luthero oratio (Wittenberg, n.d.), he defended Luther. He argued that Luther rejected only papal and ecclesiastical practises which were at variance with Scripture. But while Luther was absent at Wartburg Castle, during the disturbances caused by the Zwickau prophets, Melanchthon wavered.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theological disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 23056, 651997, 145308, 1015324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 178 ], [ 183, 195 ], [ 278, 293 ], [ 333, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The appearance of Melanchthon's Loci communes rerum theologicarum seu hypotyposes theologicae (Wittenberg and Basel, 1521) was of subsequent importance for Reformation. Melanchthon presented the new doctrine of Christianity under the form of a discussion of the \"leading thoughts\" of the Epistle to the Romans. Loci communes began the gradual rise of the Lutheran scholastic tradition, and the later theologians Martin Chemnitz, Mathias Haffenreffer, and Leonhard Hutter expanded upon it. Melanchthon continued to lecture on the classics.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theological disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 21282648, 4911, 6747443, 1799589, 22361008, 178194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 93 ], [ 110, 115 ], [ 355, 374 ], [ 412, 427 ], [ 429, 449 ], [ 455, 470 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On a journey in 1524 to his native town, he encountered the papal legate, Cardinal Lorenzo Campeggio, who tried to draw him from Luther's cause. In his Unterricht der Visitatorn an die Pfarherrn im Kurfürstentum zu Sachssen (1528) Melanchthon presented the evangelical doctrine of salvation as well as regulations for churches and schools.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theological disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 730694, 6221, 1792247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 72 ], [ 74, 82 ], [ 83, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1529 he accompanied the elector to the Diet of Speyer. His hopes of inducing the Holy Roman Empire party to a recognition of the Reformation were not fulfilled. A friendly attitude towards the Swiss at the Diet was something he later changed, calling Huldrych Zwingli's doctrine of the Lord's Supper \"an impious dogma\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theological disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 14056, 4704562, 13277, 26748, 13602, 9767, 44941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 34 ], [ 42, 56 ], [ 84, 101 ], [ 196, 201 ], [ 254, 270 ], [ 289, 302 ], [ 315, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The composition now known as the Augsburg Confession was laid before the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, and would come to be considered perhaps the most significant document of the Protestant Reformation. While the confession was based on Luther's Marburg and Schwabach articles, it was mainly the work of Melanchthon; although it was commonly thought of as a unified statement of doctrine by the two reformers, Luther did not conceal his dissatisfaction with its irenic tone. Indeed, some would criticize Melanchthon's conduct at the Diet as unbecoming of the principle he promoted, implying that faith in the truth of his cause should logically have inspired Melanchthon to a firmer and more dignified posture. Others point out that he had not sought the part of a political leader, suggesting that he seemed to lack the requisite energy and decision for such a role and may simply have been a lackluster judge of human nature.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Augsburg Confession", "target_page_ids": [ 23883384, 636645, 37857, 48296, 1096499, 4395648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 52 ], [ 73, 89 ], [ 176, 198 ], [ 243, 250 ], [ 255, 264 ], [ 459, 465 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Melanchthon then settled into the comparative quiet of his academic and literary labours. His most important theological work of this period was the Commentarii in Epistolam Pauli ad Romanos (Wittenberg, 1532), noteworthy for introducing the idea that \"to be justified\" means \"to be accounted just\", whereas the Apology had placed side by side the meanings of \"to be made just\" and \"to be accounted just\". Melanchthon's increasing fame gave occasion for prestigious invitations to Tübingen (September 1534), France, and England but consideration of the elector caused him to refuse them.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Augsburg Confession", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Melanchthon played an important role in discussions concerning the Lord's Supper which began in 1531. He approved fully of the Wittenberg Concord sent by Bucer to Wittenberg, and at the instigation of the Landgrave of Hesse discussed the question with Bucer in Kassel, at the end of 1534. He eagerly laboured for an agreement on this question, for his patristic studies and the Dialogue (1530) of Johannes Oecolampadius had made him doubt the correctness of Luther's doctrine. Moreover, after the death of Zwingli and the change of the political situation his earlier scruples in regard to a union lost their weight. Bucer did not go so far as to believe with Luther that the true body of Christ in the Lord's Supper is bitten by the teeth, but admitted the offering of the body and blood in the symbols of bread and wine. Melanchthon discussed Bucer's views with the most prominent adherents of Luther; but Luther himself would not agree to a mere veiling of the dispute. Melanchthon's relation to Luther was not disturbed by his work as a mediator, although Luther for a time suspected that Melanchthon was \"almost of the opinion of Zwingli\" nevertheless he desired to \"share his heart with him\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discussions on Lord's Supper and justification", "target_page_ids": [ 4220487, 153642, 317239, 38412, 42108, 2168500, 180741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 145 ], [ 154, 159 ], [ 205, 214 ], [ 218, 223 ], [ 261, 267 ], [ 352, 361 ], [ 397, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his sojourn in Tübingen in 1536 Melanchthon was heavily criticised by Cordatus, preacher in Niemeck, because he had taught that works are necessary for salvation. In the second edition of his Loci (1535), he abandoned his earlier strict doctrine of determinism which went even beyond that of Augustine of Hippo and in its place taught more clearly his so-called Synergism. He repudiated the criticism of Cordatus in a letter to Luther and his other colleagues stating that he had never departed from their common teachings on this subject and in the Antinomian Controversy of 1537 Melanchthon was in harmony with Luther.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discussions on Lord's Supper and justification", "target_page_ids": [ 36087163, 24972, 5951969, 2030, 524285, 226552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 85 ], [ 87, 95 ], [ 99, 106 ], [ 299, 317 ], [ 369, 378 ], [ 557, 579 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The final period of Melanchthon's life began with controversies over the Interims and the Adiaphora (1547). He rejected the Augsburg Interim, which the emperor sought to force upon the defeated Protestants. During negotiations concerning the Leipzig Interim he made controversial concessions. In agreeing to various Catholic usages, Melanchthon held the opinion that they are adiaphora, if nothing is changed in the pure doctrine and the sacraments which Jesus instituted. However he disregarded the position that concessions made under such circumstances have to be regarded as a denial of Evangelical convictions.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies with Flacius", "target_page_ids": [ 882141, 2741931, 70716, 17033930, 882141, 1095706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 99 ], [ 124, 140 ], [ 152, 159 ], [ 243, 258 ], [ 377, 386 ], [ 456, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Melanchthon himself regretted his actions.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies with Flacius", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After Luther's death he became seen by many as the \"theological leader of the German Reformation\" although the Gnesio-Lutherans with Matthias Flacius at their head accused him and his followers of heresy and apostasy. Melanchthon bore all accusations with patience, dignity, and self-control.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies with Flacius", "target_page_ids": [ 19877019, 255012, 20611083, 50023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 127 ], [ 133, 149 ], [ 197, 203 ], [ 208, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his controversy on justification with Andreas Osiander Melanchthon satisfied all parties. Melanchthon took part also in a controversy with Stancaro, who held that Christ was our justification only according to his human nature.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Disputes with Osiander and Stancaro", "target_page_ids": [ 759645, 29219049, 394052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 57 ], [ 142, 150 ], [ 181, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was also still a strong opponent of the Catholics, for it was by his advice that the Elector of Saxony declared himself ready to send deputies to a council to be convened at Trent, but only under the condition that the Protestants should have a share in the discussions, and that the Pope should not be considered as the presiding officer and judge. As it was agreed upon to send a confession to Trent, Melanchthon drew up the Confessio Saxonica which is a repetition of the Augsburg Confession, discussing, however, in greater detail, but with moderation, the points of controversy with Rome. Melanchthon on his way to Trent at Dresden saw the military preparations of Maurice of Saxony, and after proceeding as far as Nuremberg, returned to Wittenberg in March 1552, for Maurice had turned against the emperor. Owing to his act, the condition of the Protestants became more favourable and were still more so at the Peace of Augsburg (1555), but Melanchthon's labours and sufferings increased from that time.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Disputes with Osiander and Stancaro", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 45882, 23056, 37410, 1929890, 21287, 320616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 52 ], [ 177, 182 ], [ 287, 291 ], [ 632, 639 ], [ 673, 690 ], [ 723, 732 ], [ 920, 937 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The last years of his life were embittered by the disputes over the Interim and the freshly started controversy on the Lord's Supper. As the statement \"good works are necessary for salvation\" appeared in the Leipzig Interim, its Lutheran opponents attacked in 1551 Georg Major, the friend and disciple of Melanchthon, so Melanchthon dropped the formula altogether, seeing how easily it could be misunderstood.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Disputes with Osiander and Stancaro", "target_page_ids": [ 45138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 265, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "But all his caution and reservation did not hinder his opponents from continually working against him, accusing him of synergism and Zwinglianism. At the Colloquy of Worms in 1557 which he attended only reluctantly, the adherents of Flacius and the Saxon theologians tried to avenge themselves by thoroughly humiliating Melanchthon, in agreement with the malicious desire of the Catholics to condemn all heretics, especially those who had departed from the Augsburg Confession, before the beginning of the conference. As this was directed against Melanchthon himself, he protested, so that his opponents left, greatly to the satisfaction of the Catholics who now broke off the colloquy, throwing all blame upon the Protestants. The Reformation in the sixteenth century did not experience a greater insult, as Friedrich Nietzsche says. Nevertheless, Melanchthon persevered in his efforts for the peace of the church, suggesting a synod of the Evangelical party and drawing up for the same purpose the Frankfurt Recess, which he defended later against the attacks of his enemies.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Disputes with Osiander and Stancaro", "target_page_ids": [ 15515119, 5143246, 20611083, 10671, 75792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 145 ], [ 154, 171 ], [ 404, 412 ], [ 809, 828 ], [ 929, 934 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More than anything else the controversies on the Lord's Supper embittered the last years of his life. The renewal of this dispute was due to the victory in the Reformed Church of the Calvinistic doctrine and its influence upon Germany. To its tenets Melanchthon never gave his assent, nor did he use its characteristic formulas. The personal presence and self-impartation of Christ in the Lord's Supper were especially important for Melanchthon; but he did not definitely state how body and blood are related to this. Although rejecting the physical act of mastication, he nevertheless assumed the real presence of the body of Christ and therefore also a real self-impartation. Melanchthon differed from John Calvin also in emphasizing the relation of the Lord's Supper to justification.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Disputes with Osiander and Stancaro", "target_page_ids": [ 6024, 789880, 15930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 194 ], [ 557, 568 ], [ 704, 715 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Melanchthon viewed any veneration of saints rather critically but developed positive commentaries about Mary. In his Annotations in Evangelia commenting on Lk 2,52, he discusses the faith of Mary, \"she kept all things in her heart\" which to Melanchthon is a call to the church to follow her example. During the marriage at Cana, Melanchthon points out that Mary went too far, asking for more wine, misusing her position. But she was not upset, when Jesus gently scolded her. Mary was negligent, when she lost her son in the temple, but she did not sin. Mary was conceived with original sin like every other human being, but she was spared the consequences of it. Consequently, Melanchthon opposed the feast of the Immaculate Conception, which in his days, although not dogma, was celebrated in several cities and had been approved at the Council of Basel in 1439. He declared that the Immaculate Conception was an invention of monks. Mary is a representation (Typus) of the church and in the Magnificat, Mary spoke for the whole church. Standing under the cross, Mary suffered like no other human being. Consequently, Christians have to unite with her under the cross, in order to become Christ-like.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Marian views", "target_page_ids": [ 28436, 733975, 15256, 144596, 185681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 42 ], [ 311, 327 ], [ 714, 735 ], [ 838, 854 ], [ 992, 1002 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In lecturing on the Librorum de judiciis astrologicis of Ptolemy in 1535–1536, Melanchthon expressed to students his interest in Greek mathematics, astronomy and astrology. He considered that a purposeful God had reasons to exhibit comets and eclipses. He was the first to print a paraphrased edition of Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos in Basel, 1554. Natural philosophy, in his view, was directly linked to Providence, a point of view that was influential in curriculum change after the Protestant Reformation in Germany. In the period 1536–1539 he was involved in three academic innovations: the refoundation of Wittenberg along Protestant lines, the reorganization at Tübingen, and the foundation of the University of Leipzig.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Views on natural philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 23979, 1503369, 50650, 2122, 5962, 9770, 1853101, 415601, 37857, 340454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 64 ], [ 129, 146 ], [ 148, 157 ], [ 162, 171 ], [ 232, 237 ], [ 243, 250 ], [ 314, 325 ], [ 398, 408 ], [ 478, 500 ], [ 697, 718 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before these theological dissensions were settled, Melanchthon died. Only a few days before his death, he had written a note which gave his reasons for not fearing death. On the left of the note were the words, \"You will be delivered from sins, and be freed from the acrimony and fury of theologians\"; on the right, \"You will go to the light, see God, look upon his Son, learn those wonderful mysteries which you have not been able to understand in this life.\" The immediate cause of death was a severe cold which he had contracted on a journey to Leipzig in March 1560, followed by a fever that consumed his strength. His body had already been weakened by many sufferings. He was pronounced dead on 19 April 1560.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 17955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 548, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Melanchthon's last moments, he continued to worry over the desolate condition of the church. He strengthened himself in almost uninterrupted praying and in listening to passages of Scripture. The words of John 1:11-12 were especially significant to him. \"His own received him not; but as many as received him, to them gave he power to become the sons of God.\" When Caspar Peucer, his son-in-law, asked him if he wanted anything, he replied, \"Nothing but heaven.\" His body was buried beside Luther's in the Schloßkirche in Wittenberg.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 535770, 15034869, 48827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 368, 381 ], [ 509, 521 ], [ 525, 535 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He is commemorated in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod on 16 February, his birthday, and in the calendar of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America on 25 June, the date of the presentation of the Augsburg Confession.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 4629503, 158300, 248255, 23883384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 44 ], [ 52, 82 ], [ 140, 178 ], [ 227, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Melanchthon's importance for the Reformation lay essentially in the fact that he systematized Luther's ideas, defended them in public, and made them the basis of a religious education. These two figures, by complementing each other, could be said to have harmoniously achieved the results of the Reformation. Melanchthon was impelled by Luther to work for the Reformation; his own inclinations would have kept him a student. Without Luther's influence Melanchthon would have been \"a second Erasmus\", although his heart was filled with a deep religious interest in the Reformation. While Luther scattered the sparks among the people, Melanchthon by his humanistic studies won the sympathy of educated people and scholars for the Reformation. Besides Luther's strength of faith, Melanchthon's many-sidedness and calmness, as well as his temperance and love of peace, had a share in the success of the movement.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Both were aware of their mutual position and they thought of it as a divine necessity of their common calling. Melanchthon wrote in 1520, \"I would rather die than be separated from Luther\", whom he afterward compared to Elijah, and called \"the man full of the Holy Ghost\". In spite of the strained relations between them in the last years of Luther's life, Melanchthon exclaimed at Luther's death, \"Dead is the horseman and chariot of Israel who ruled the church in this last age of the world!\"", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 9840, 14379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 226 ], [ 260, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the other hand, Luther wrote of Melanchthon, in the preface to Melanchthon's Kolosserkommentar (1529), \"I had to fight with rabble and devils, for which reason my books are very warlike. I am the rough pioneer who must break the road; but Master Philip comes along softly and gently, sows and waters heartily, since God has richly endowed him with gifts.\" Luther also did justice to Melanchthon's teachings, praising one year before his death in the preface to his own writings Melanchthon's revised Loci above them and calling Melanchthon \"a divine instrument which has achieved the very best in the department of theology to the great rage of the devil and his scabby tribe.\" It is remarkable that Luther, who vehemently attacked men like Erasmus and Bucer, when he thought that truth was at stake, never spoke directly against Melanchthon, and even during his melancholy last years conquered his temper.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 8539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The strained relation between these two men never came from external things, such as human rank and fame, much less from other advantages, but always from matters of church and doctrine, and chiefly from the fundamental difference of their individualities; they repelled and attracted each other \"because nature had not formed out of them one man.\" It cannot be denied, however, that Luther was the more magnanimous, for however much he was at times dissatisfied with Melanchthon's actions, he never uttered a word against his private character; however Melanchthon sometimes evinced a lack of confidence in Luther. In a letter to Carlowitz, before the Diet of Augsburg, he protested that Luther on account of his hot-headed nature exercised a personally humiliating pressure upon him.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As a reformer, Melanchthon was characterized by moderation, conscientiousness, caution, and love of peace; but these qualities were sometimes said to only be lack of decision, consistence, and courage. Often, however, his actions are shown stemming not from anxiety for his own safety, but from regard for the welfare of the community and for the quiet development of the church. Melanchthon was not said to lack personal courage, but rather he was said to be less of an aggressive than of a passive nature. When he was reminded how much power and strength Luther drew from his trust in God, he answered, \"If I myself do not do my part, I can not expect anything from God in prayer.\" His nature was seen to be inclined to suffer with faith in God that he would be released from every evil rather than to act valiantly with his aid. The distinction between Luther and Melanchthon is well brought out in Luther's letters to the latter (June 1530):", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 5042765, 11064, 9897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 587, 590 ], [ 734, 739 ], [ 784, 788 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another trait of his character was his love of peace. He had an innate aversion to quarrels and discord; yet, often he was very irritable. His irenical character often led him to adapt himself to the views of others, as may be seen from his correspondence with Erasmus and from his public attitude from the Diet of Augsburg to the Interim. It was said not to be merely a personal desire for peace, but his conservative religious nature that guided him in his acts of conciliation. He never could forget that his father on his death-bed had besought his family \"never to leave the church.\" He stood toward the history of the church in an attitude of piety and reverence that made it much more difficult for him than for Luther to be content with the thought of the impossibility of a reconciliation with the Catholic Church. He laid stress upon the authority of the Fathers, not only of Augustine, but also of the Greek Fathers.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 2030, 33643361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 886, 895 ], [ 913, 926 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His attitude in matters of worship was conservative, and in the Leipsic Interim he was said by Cordatus and Schenk even to be Crypto-Catholic. He never strove for a reconciliation with Catholicism at the price of pure doctrine. He attributed more value to the external appearance and organization of the Church than Luther did, as can be seen from his whole treatment of the \"doctrine of the church\". The ideal conception of the church, which the reformers opposed to the organization of the Roman Church, which was expressed in his Loci of 1535, lost for him after 1537 its former prominence, when he began to emphasize the conception of the true visible church as it may be found among the Protestants.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 6675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He believed that the relation of the church to God was that the church held the divine office of the ministry of the Gospel. The universal priesthood was for Melanchthon as for Luther no principle of an ecclesiastical constitution, but a purely religious principle. In accordance with this idea Melanchthon tried to keep the traditional church constitution and government, including the bishops. He did not want, however, a church altogether independent of the state, but rather, in agreement with Luther, he believed it the duty of the secular authorities to protect religion and the church. He looked upon the consistories as ecclesiastical courts which therefore should be composed of spiritual and secular judges, for to him the official authority of the church did not lie in a special class of priests, but rather in the whole congregation, to be represented therefore not only by ecclesiastics, but also by laymen. Melanchthon in advocating church union did not overlook differences in doctrine for the sake of common practical tasks.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 40964735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 612, 624 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The older he grew, the less he distinguished between the Gospel as the announcement of the will of God, and right doctrine as the human knowledge of it. Therefore, he took pains to safeguard unity in doctrine by theological formulas of union, but these were made as broad as possible and were restricted to the needs of practical religion.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As a scholar Melanchthon embodied the entire spiritual culture of his age. At the same time he found the simplest, clearest, and most suitable form for his knowledge; therefore his manuals, even if they were not always original, were quickly introduced into schools and kept their place for more than a century. Knowledge had for him no purpose of its own; it existed only for the service of moral and religious education, and so the teacher of Germany prepared the way for the religious thoughts of the Reformation. He was, alongside other luminaries such as Erasmus, an important figure in the movement sometimes called Christian humanism, which has exerted a lasting influence upon scientific life in Germany. His works were not always new and original, but they were clear, intelligible, and answered their purpose. His style is natural and plain, better, however, in Latin and Greek than in German. He was not without natural eloquence, although his voice was weak.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 1084026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 622, 640 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Melanchthon wrote numerous treatises dealing with education and learning that present some of his key thoughts on learning, including his views on the basis, method, and goal of reformed education. In his \"Book of Visitation\", Melanchthon outlines a school plan that recommends schools to teach Latin only. Here he suggests children should be broken up into three distinct groups: children who are learning to read, children who know how to read and are ready to learn grammar, and children who are well-trained in grammar and syntax. Melanchthon also believed that the disciplinary system of the classical \"seven liberal arts\", and the sciences studied in the higher faculties could not encompass the new revolutionary discoveries of the age in terms of either content or method. He expanded the traditional categorization of science in several directions, incorporating not only history, geography and poetry but also the new natural sciences in his system of scholarly disciplines.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As a theologian, Melanchthon did not show so much creative ability, but rather a genius for collecting and systematizing the ideas of others, especially of Luther, for the purpose of instruction. He kept to the practical, and cared little for connection of the parts, so his Loci were in the form of isolated paragraphs. The fundamental difference between Luther and Melanchthon lies not so much in the latter's ethical conception, as in his humanistic mode of thought which formed the basis of his theology and made him ready not only to acknowledge moral and religious truths outside of Christianity, but also to bring Christian truth into closer contact with them, and thus to mediate between Christian revelation and ancient philosophy.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 1084026, 13692155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 442, 452 ], [ 729, 739 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Melanchthon's views differed from Luther's only in some modifications of ideas. Melanchthon looked upon the law as not only the correlate of the Gospel, by which its effect of salvation is prepared, but as the unchangeable order of the spiritual world which has its basis in God himself. He furthermore reduced Luther's much richer view of redemption to that of legal satisfaction. He did not draw from the vein of mysticism running through Luther's theology, but emphasized the ethical and intellectual elements.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After giving up determinism and absolute predestination and ascribing to man a certain moral freedom, he tried to ascertain the share of free will in conversion, naming three causes as concurring in the work of conversion, the Word, the Spirit, and the human will, not passive, but resisting its own weakness. Since 1548 he used the definition of freedom formulated by Erasmus, \"the capability of applying oneself to grace.\" ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 47921, 26556255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 146 ], [ 417, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His definition of faith lacks the mystical depth of Luther. In dividing faith into knowledge, assent, and trust, he made the participation of the heart subsequent to that of the intellect, and so gave rise to the view of the later orthodoxy that the establishment and acceptation of pure doctrine should precede the personal attitude of faith. To his intellectual conception of faith corresponded also his view that the Church also is only the communion of those who adhere to the true belief and that her visible existence depends upon the consent of her unregenerated members to her teachings.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Finally, Melanchthon's doctrine of the Lord's Supper, lacking the profound mysticism of faith by which Luther united the sensual elements and supersensual realities, demanded at least their formal distinction.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The development of Melanchthon's beliefs may be seen from the history of the Loci. In the beginning Melanchthon intended only a development of the leading ideas representing the Evangelical conception of salvation, while the later editions approach more and more the plan of a text-book of dogma. At first he uncompromisingly insisted on the necessity of every event, energetically rejected the philosophy of Aristotle, and had not fully developed his doctrine of the sacraments. In 1535 he treated for the first time the doctrine of God and that of the Trinity; rejected the doctrine of the necessity of every event and named free will as a concurring cause in conversion. The doctrine of justification received its forensic form and the necessity of good works was emphasized in the interest of moral discipline. The last editions are distinguished from the earlier ones by the prominence given to the theoretical and rational element.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 308, 30511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 409, 418 ], [ 554, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In ethics Melanchthon preserved and renewed the tradition of ancient morality and represented the Protestant conception of life. His books bearing directly on morals were chiefly drawn from the classics, and were influenced not so much by Aristotle as by Cicero. His principal works in this line were Prolegomena to Cicero's De officiis (1525); Enarrationes librorum Ethicorum Aristotelis (1529); Epitome philosophiae moralis (1538); and Ethicae doctrinae elementa (1550).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 6046, 1369659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 255, 261 ], [ 325, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his Epitome philosophiae moralis Melanchthon treats first the relation of philosophy to the law of God and the Gospel. Moral philosophy, it is true, does not know anything of the promise of grace as revealed in the Gospel, but it is the development of the natural law implanted by God in the heart of man, and therefore representing a part of the divine law. The revealed law, necessitated because of sin, is distinguished from natural law only by its greater completeness and clearness. The fundamental order of moral life can be grasped also by reason; therefore the development of moral philosophy from natural principles must not be neglected. Melanchthon therefore made no sharp distinction between natural and revealed morals.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 9258, 28307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 138 ], [ 404, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His contribution to Christian ethics in the proper sense must be sought in the Augsburg Confession and its Apology as well as in his Loci, where he followed Luther in depicting the Protestant ideal of life, the free realization of the divine law by a personality blessed in faith and filled with the spirit of God.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Melanchthon's formulation of the authority of Scripture became the norm for the following time. The principle of his hermeneutics is expressed in his words: \"Every theologian and faithful interpreter of the heavenly doctrine must necessarily be first a grammarian, then a dialectician, and finally a witness.\" By \"grammarian\" he meant the philologist in the modern sense who is master of history, archaeology, and ancient geography. As to the method of interpretation, he insisted with great emphasis upon the unity of the sense, upon the literal sense in contrast to the four senses of the scholastics. He further stated that whatever is looked for in the words of Scripture, outside of the literal sense, is only dogmatic or practical application.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 70603, 52813, 23193, 10772350, 18951655, 18963910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 129 ], [ 272, 281 ], [ 339, 350 ], [ 388, 395 ], [ 397, 408 ], [ 422, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His commentaries, however, are not grammatical, but are full of theological and practical matter, confirming the doctrines of the Reformation, and edifying believers. The most important of them are those on Genesis, Proverbs, Daniel, the Psalms, and especially those on the New Testament, on Romans (edited in 1522 against his will by Luther), Colossians (1527), and John (1523). Melanchthon was the constant assistant of Luther in his translation of the Bible, and both the books of the Maccabees in Luther's Bible are ascribed to him. A Latin Bible published in 1529 at Wittenberg is designated as a common work of Melanchthon and Luther.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 12667, 4388, 4333, 24203, 21433, 9961, 9951, 12493, 163320, 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 214 ], [ 216, 224 ], [ 226, 232 ], [ 238, 244 ], [ 274, 287 ], [ 292, 298 ], [ 344, 354 ], [ 367, 371 ], [ 488, 497 ], [ 539, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the sphere of historical theology the influence of Melanchthon may be traced until the seventeenth century, especially in the method of treating church history in connection with political history. His was the first Protestant attempt at a history of dogma, Sententiae veterum aliquot patrum de caena domini (1530) and especially De ecclesia et auctoritate verbi Dei (1539).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 508383, 221737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 162 ], [ 182, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Melanchthon exerted a wide influence in the department of homiletics, and has been regarded as the author, in the Protestant church, of the methodical style of preaching. He himself keeps entirely aloof from all mere dogmatizing or rhetoric in the Annotationes in Evangelia (1544), the Conciones in Evangelium Matthaei (1558), and in his German sermons prepared for George of Anhalt. He never preached from the pulpit; and his Latin sermons (Postilla) were prepared for the Hungarian students at Wittenberg who did not understand German. In this connection may be mentioned also his Catechesis puerilis (1532), a religious manual for younger students, and a German catechism (1549), following closely Luther's arrangement.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 25447, 11884, 13275, 295855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 232, 240 ], [ 338, 344 ], [ 474, 483 ], [ 665, 674 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From Melanchthon came also the first Protestant work on the method of theological study, so that it may safely be said that by his influence every department of theology was advanced even if he was not always a pioneer.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As a philologist and pedagogue Melanchthon was the spiritual heir of the South German Humanists, of men like Reuchlin, Jakob Wimpfeling, and Rodolphus Agricola, who represented an ethical conception of the humanities. The liberal arts and a classical education were for him paths, not only towards natural and ethical philosophy, but also towards divine philosophy. The ancient classics were for him in the first place the sources of a purer knowledge, but they were also the best means of educating the youth both by their beauty of form and by their ethical content. By his organizing activity in the sphere of educational institutions and by his compilations of Latin and Greek grammars and commentaries, Melanchthon became the founder of the learned schools of Evangelical Germany, a combination of humanistic and Christian ideals. In philosophy also Melanchthon was the teacher of the whole German Protestant world. The influence of his philosophical compendia ended only with the rule of the Leibniz-Wolff school.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 181116, 4254245, 25857, 9258, 53132, 18674, 9252, 12569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 117 ], [ 119, 135 ], [ 141, 159 ], [ 180, 185 ], [ 206, 216 ], [ 222, 234 ], [ 251, 260 ], [ 681, 688 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He started from scholasticism; but with the contempt of an enthusiastic Humanist he turned away from it and came to Wittenberg with the plan of editing the complete works of Aristotle. Under the dominating religious influence of Luther his interest abated for a time, but in 1519 he edited the Rhetoric and in 1520 the Dialectic.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 39872, 1692816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 29 ], [ 294, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The relation of philosophy to theology is characterized, according to him, by the distinction between Law and Gospel. The former, as a light of nature, is innate; it also contains the elements of the natural knowledge of God which, however, have been obscured and weakened by sin. Therefore, renewed promulgation of the Law by revelation became necessary and was furnished in the Decalogue; and all law, including that in the form of natural philosophy, contains only demands, shadowings; its fulfillment is given only in the Gospel, the object of certainty in theology, by which also the philosophical elements of knowledge – experience, principles of reason, and syllogism – receive only their final confirmation. As the law is a divinely ordered pedagogue that leads to Christ, philosophy, its interpreter, is subject to revealed truth as the principal standard of opinions and life.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 48046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 665, 674 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Besides Aristotle's Rhetoric and Dialectic he published De dialecta libri iv (1528), Erotemata dialectices (1547), Liber de anima (1540), Initia doctrinae physicae (1549), and Ethicae doctrinae elementa (1550).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There have been preserved original portraits of Melanchthon by three famous painters of his time – by Hans Holbein the Younger one of them in the Royal Gallery of Hanover, by Albrecht Dürer (made in 1526, and by Lucas Cranach the Elder. Melanchthon was dwarfish, misshapen, and physically weak, although he is said to have had a bright and sparkling eye, which kept its colour till the day of his death.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 48321, 14197, 2402, 79884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 126 ], [ 164, 171 ], [ 176, 190 ], [ 214, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was never in perfectly sound health, and managed to perform as much work as he did only by reason of the extraordinary regularity of his habits and his great temperance. He set no great value on money and possessions; his liberality and hospitality were often misused in such a way that his old faithful Swabian servant had sometimes difficulty in managing the household. His domestic life was happy. He called his home \"a little church of God\", always found peace there, and showed a tender solicitude for his wife and children. To his great astonishment a French scholar found him rocking the cradle with one hand, and holding a book in the other.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 616237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 307, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His noble soul showed itself also in his friendship for many of his contemporaries; \"there is nothing sweeter nor lovelier than mutual intercourse with friends\", he used to say. His most intimate friend was Joachim Camerarius, whom he called the half of his soul. His extensive correspondence was for him not only a duty, but a need and an enjoyment. His letters form a valuable commentary on his whole life, as he spoke out his mind in them more unreservedly than he was wont to do in public life. A peculiar example of his sacrificing friendship is furnished by the fact that he wrote speeches and scientific treatises for others, permitting them to use their own signature. But in the kindness of his heart he was said to be ready to serve and assist not only his friends, but everybody. His whole nature adapted him especially to the intercourse with scholars and men of higher rank, while it was more difficult for him to deal with the people of lower station. He never allowed himself or others to exceed the bounds of nobility, honesty, and decency. He was very sincere in the judgment of his own person, acknowledging his faults even to opponents like Flacius, and was open to the criticism even of such as stood far below him. In his public career he sought not honour or fame, but earnestly endeavoured to serve the church and the cause of truth. His humility and modesty had their root in his personal piety. He laid great stress upon prayer, daily meditation on the Bible, and attendance of public service.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Estimation of his works and character", "target_page_ids": [ 190920, 255012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 225 ], [ 1160, 1167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gottlob Frege, notable descendant of Melanchthon", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 48416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Erasmus's correspondents", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1828442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dimitrije Ljubavić", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 51052106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Philippists", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6610742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ubiquitarians", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2593129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " This article incorporates material from this public-domain publication.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " This article incorporates material from this public-domain publication.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Works at Open Library", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Examen eorum, qui oudiuntur ante ritum publicae ordinotionis, qua commendatur eis ministerium Evangelli: Traditum Vuitebergae, Anno 1554, at Opolska Biblioteka Cyfrowa", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1497_births", "1560_deaths", "16th-century_German_Protestant_theologians", "16th-century_male_writers", "16th-century_Latin-language_writers", "Burials_at_All_Saints'_Church,_Wittenberg", "Critics_of_the_Catholic_Church", "German_astrologers", "16th-century_astrologers", "16th-century_German_astronomers", "16th-century_German_Lutheran_clergy", "German_Lutheran_theologians", "German_male_non-fiction_writers", "German_Protestant_Reformers", "German_Renaissance_humanists", "German_evangelicals", "Heidelberg_University_alumni", "Lay_theologians", "Lutheran_biblical_scholars", "Lutheran_sermon_writers", "People_celebrated_in_the_Lutheran_liturgical_calendar", "People_from_Bretten", "People_from_the_Margraviate_of_Baden", "Philippists", "Translators_of_the_Bible_into_German", "University_of_Wittenberg_faculty", "16th-century_Lutheran_theologians", "Lutheran_saints" ]

[ "Philip Melanchthon", "Philipp Schwartzerdt" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Albury–Wodonga is the broad settlement incorporating the twin Australian cities of Albury and Wodonga, which are separated geographically by the Murray River and politically by a state border: Albury on the north of the river is part of New South Wales, while Wodonga on the south bank is in Victoria.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 214432, 59047, 59049, 19811, 21654, 4689460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 79 ], [ 83, 89 ], [ 94, 101 ], [ 145, 157 ], [ 237, 252 ], [ 292, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Albury-Wodonga is located on the lands of the Dyinningmiddhang people of the Dhudhuroa language group.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14258261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 1970s Albury–Wodonga was selected as the primary focus of the Whitlam Federal Labor government's scheme to arrest the uncontrolled growth of Australia's large metropolitan areas (in particular Sydney and Melbourne) by encouraging decentralisation. The National Urban Growth Centres initiative, which was Australia’s closet attempt to replicate the 'New Towns' strategy of post-war European models, had grand plans to turn Albury–Wodonga into a major inland city. Albury–Wodonga, it was said, was 'central to the most ambitious plan for deliberate Commonwealth government intervention in regional development since the founding of Canberra as the National Capital'.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12454, 27862, 17306237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 82 ], [ 206, 212 ], [ 217, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Embarking on what was deemed 'an exciting adventure', the Albury–Wodonga pilot scheme involved three governments – the Commonwealth, NSW and Victoria. On 25 January 1973 the Premier of New South Wales, Sir Robert Askin, the Premier of Victoria, Rupert Hamer and the Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam signed the initial agreement for the accelerated development of Albury–Wodonga. According to some, it was a unique cross-border agreement that illustrated a 'spirit of cooperative federalism'.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Under Whitlam’s newly established Department of Urban and Regional Development (DURD), the ambition to decentralise Australia and promote new growth centres was further demonstrated in the budget allocations of 1973/4 and 1974/75 – a provision of $33 million and $223 million for urban growth centres consecutively. In 1973/74, $9 million of the $33 million was allocated to the urban growth centre of Albury–Wodonga. The remaining $24 million was distributed between six other nominated growth centres.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, due to the subsequent Fraser Government's repudiation of Labor's decentralisation policies, the plan to populate inland areas and cities other than the State capitals was abandoned. No other Commonwealth Government since, either Coalition or Labor, has made any attempt at repopulating inland areas. Thus the current Albury–Wodonga population is far below the 300,000 projected by Gough Whitlam in the 1970s.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1051313, 1495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 247 ], [ 251, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The population increased by 1.1% per year on average from 81,540 in 2008 to 86,274 in 2013. Further increasing to 89,007 by the 2016 census, giving an average annual growth rate of 1.04%.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 55417368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Albury–Wodonga’s national growth centre experience derived from Australia’s decentralisation processes in the post-war era. Australia, at the time was seen to be borrowing the idea from British town and country planning which had developed from the Garden City concept. The 'New Towns' approach, as it was known, was a popular form of planning used in 1940–50’s UK to aid national decentralisation. The main features of the concept were the strengthening of neighbourhoods and civic centres, development of industrial zones and greenbelts. Meanwhile, in Australia, some began to term the new development as 'satellite towns' and emphasised the improved conditions around housing, more open spaces and easier access to the countryside. Soon after, elements of the 'new towns' could be found in metropolitan planning strategies in Australian cities such as Canberra and Elizabeth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Albury-Wodonga's National Growth Centre Experience", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By the 1970’s the concept was adopted by the Whitlam government who took up the idea as a national urban development policy, and nominated a range of cities to be affected, some pre-existing (Albury–Wodonga, Bathurst-Orange) and others to be developed (Monarto). ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Albury-Wodonga's National Growth Centre Experience", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Both the Commonwealth and State governments were involved in the strategies to accelerate the growth of Albury–Wodonga. Together they established the Albury–Wodonga Development Corporation which held mandates for local land development, economic and community planning and reafforestation and for the overall implementation of the project.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Albury-Wodonga's National Growth Centre Experience", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From a Commonwealth perspective there was a desire to relocate public servants from larger cities such as Canberra and Sydney to Albury–Wodonga due to concerns around rising costs in highly populated urban areas. Further support came from the AWDC who, in turn, offered high standard rental housing and support for key transferred public servants and developed an innovative newcomer program to help those transferred and their families. Despite these efforts, a high-level of public service relocation did not take place. However Albury–Wodonga was, successful in establishing an Australia Tax Office bureau and today still has a large number of defence jobs as a result of a major logistics centre development and training school set up by the federal government.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Albury-Wodonga's National Growth Centre Experience", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Universities and corporate decentralisation were also seen as a way to grow a prosperous urban area. The establishment of a university would not only increase the number of jobs but also expand the occupational breadth in the workforce. A university would provide access to tertiary education for rural and regional students and limit the loss of local school leavers from the region.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Albury-Wodonga's National Growth Centre Experience", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Similarly, attracting private enterprise was used as a mechanism to accelerate growth. Thus the AWDC developed an economic strategy focussed on the strengthening of distribution and manufacturing services in the region. Albury–Wodonga was to become a regional distribution hub. Moreover, the AWDC enticed new businesses to relocate by providing rental start-up factories, rental housing for employees and promoting the child-care and education facilities already available. To attract larger private enterprises (for example Mars Petcare and the Newsprint Mill at Ettamogah) the state and Commonwealth governments intervened, enforcing provisions such a social housing for employees, to help accelerate growth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Albury-Wodonga's National Growth Centre Experience", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Furthermore, similar to other places that fell under the 'New Towns' strategy, retaining green space was important for the Albury–Wodonga growth centre. In and around the area, the AWDC planted approximately 3 million trees and shrubs, becoming one of Australia’s biggest urban re-afforestation programs. Today Albury–Wodonga continues to exercise strong environmental leadership through its countless sustainability initiatives.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Albury-Wodonga's National Growth Centre Experience", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Christmas Eye, a seasonal epidemic of corneal ulceration which predominantly occurs only within a particular region of Australia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52688682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Albury City Council", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " City of Wodonga Council", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Albury,_New_South_Wales", "Twin_cities", "Wodonga" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Moog is a surname. People bearing the name include:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 72243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Andy Moog (born 1960), former NHL goaltender and current assistant coach of the Dallas Stars", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2422320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peter Moog (1871–1930), schizophrenic outsider artist", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1610589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Philipp Moog (born 1961), German television actor", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8053715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michael Moog (fl. 1990s), a moniker of music producer Peter Damien", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2336193, 2877300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robert Moog (1934–2005), a pioneer of electronic music and inventor of the Moog synthesizer", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William “Bill” C. Moog (died 1997), founder of Moog Inc., cousin of Robert Moog", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2052115, 2052144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 48, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Willy Moog (1888–1935), philosopher", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39304691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "Bangers and mash, also known as sausages and mash, is a traditional British dish, consisting of sausages served with mashed potatoes. It may consist of one of a variety of flavoured sausages made of pork, lamb, or beef (often specifically Cumberland sausage). The dish is usually served with onion gravy, but may also include fried onions and peas.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 78056, 482573, 20609697, 229275, 36968, 594198, 43745715, 6249509, 59407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 103 ], [ 117, 130 ], [ 199, 203 ], [ 205, 209 ], [ 214, 218 ], [ 239, 257 ], [ 292, 303 ], [ 326, 337 ], [ 343, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This dish, even when cooked at home, may be thought of as an example of pub grub, meaning it is relatively quick and easy to make in large quantities.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2009, the dish was listed as Britain's most popular comfort food in a survey commissioned by TV channel Good Food.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1286863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although it is sometimes stated that the term \"bangers\" has its origins in World War II, the term was actually in use at least as far back as 1919. The term \"bangers\" is attributed (in common usage in the UK) to the fact that sausages made during World War I, when there were meat shortages, were made with such a high water content that they were liable to pop under high heat when cooked.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of sausage dishes", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 42327866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] } ]

[ "Australian_cuisine", "Belgian_cuisine", "British_cuisine", "Dutch_cuisine", "French_cuisine", "German_cuisine", "Irish_cuisine", "New_Zealand_cuisine", "Swedish_cuisine", "Potato_dishes", "Sausage_dishes", "Meat_and_potatoes_dishes" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Donnybrook () is a district of Dublin, Ireland. It is situated on the southside of the city, in the Dublin 4 postal district, and is home to the Irish public service broadcaster Raidió Teilifís Éireann (RTÉ). It was once part of the Pembroke Township. Its neighbouring suburbs are Ballsbridge, Sandymount, Ranelagh and Clonskeagh.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8504, 14560, 382596, 382557, 23685141, 4684531, 39218, 418802, 944679, 1438564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 37 ], [ 39, 46 ], [ 70, 79 ], [ 100, 108 ], [ 178, 201 ], [ 233, 250 ], [ 281, 292 ], [ 294, 304 ], [ 306, 314 ], [ 319, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Donnybrook is also a civil parish mainly situated in the old barony of Dublin.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30113989, 4219233, 36238232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 33 ], [ 61, 67 ], [ 71, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Donnybrook Fair dates from a charter of King John of England in 1204 and was held annually until 1855. It began as a fair for livestock and agricultural produce but later declined, growing into more of a carnival and funfair. Drunkenness, fighting, and hasty marriages became commonplace and the people of Donnybrook were anxious that it should cease. Eventually, the fair's reputation for tumult was its undoing. From the 1790s on there were campaigns against the drunken brawl the fair had become. After a good deal of local fundraising, the patent was bought by a group of prominent residents and clergy, bringing about its demise. The Fair took place on lands now occupied by Donnybrook Rugby Ground and the Ever Ready Garage. The word donnybrook has since entered the English language to describe a rowdy brawl.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39697850, 16550, 8107735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 45, 60 ], [ 680, 703 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Donnybrook Castle was an Elizabethan mansion and residence of the Ussher family. James Ussher was appointed Archbishop of Armagh in the Church of Ireland by Queen Elizabeth I of England. The mansion was replaced in 1795 by the existing Georgian house. It is now occupied by the Religious Sisters of Charity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 52034, 17113262, 10128, 24675464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 93 ], [ 108, 128 ], [ 163, 185 ], [ 278, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Donnybrook Graveyard dates back to the 8th century and was once the location of a church founded by St Broc. It was also the site of Catholic and Church of Ireland churches, both called St Mary's. Those buried in it include Dr Bartholomew Mosse, the founder of the Rotunda Hospital, Sir Edward Lovett Pearce, architect of the Irish Houses of Parliament on College Green and Dr Richard Madden, biographer of the United Irishmen. It is possible that the wall on the south side of the cemetery is the oldest man-made structure still existing in Donnybrook. The brick chimney behind the cemetery was built on the site of a former marble works and later served as a Magdalene laundry. Two ancestors of Meghan Markle, Mary McCue and Thomas Bird, an English soldier, were married at St Mary's Church of Ireland church, Donnybrook, in 1860.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 168130, 1938518, 1168411, 219859, 491404, 336188, 11214029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 163 ], [ 265, 281 ], [ 287, 307 ], [ 326, 352 ], [ 411, 426 ], [ 661, 678 ], [ 697, 710 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The river Dodder runs through Donnybrook and at one time there was a ford here. It is subject to periodic serious flooding and in 1628 one of the Usshers of Donnybrook Castle was drowned while trying to cross.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 1044291, 30432825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Donnybrook is a civil parish consisting of sixteen townlands. All but four of these townlands are situated in the Barony of Dublin. Donnybrook is the single biggest parish in that barony. The most southerly townlands, Annefield, Simmonscourt and Priesthouse, belong to the barony of Rathdown. The smallest of these, Annefield, is itself an enclave of Simmonscourt which gives its name to a pavilion of the Royal Dublin Society. Today, the majority of Priesthouse is occupied by Elm Park Golf Club and the studios of RTÉ. The remaining townland of Sallymount - the parish's most westerly point - is in the barony of Uppercross.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 1187559, 41932608, 4848945, 1014961, 27024408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 59 ], [ 283, 291 ], [ 340, 347 ], [ 406, 426 ], [ 478, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The television and radio studios of the national broadcaster, RTÉ, are located in Priesthouse, Donnybrook. There is also a large Dublin Bus garage located in the area.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 30196592, 41306130, 23685141, 497845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 19, 24 ], [ 62, 65 ], [ 129, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Donnybrook is in the Dáil Éireann constituency of Dublin Bay South and the Pembroke local electoral area of Dublin City Council.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 40038072, 36426556, 1430911, 421656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 33 ], [ 50, 66 ], [ 84, 104 ], [ 108, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Donnybrook is home to the all-girls' Muckross Park College.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 9537255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " St. Mary's mixed primary school is located on Belmont Avenue.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Writers", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Patrick Kavanagh", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 674881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anthony Trollope", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 70159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flann O'Brien aka Myles na gCopaleen aka Brian O'Nolan, lived on Belmont Avenue", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 371150, 371150, 371150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 19, 37 ], [ 42, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Benedict Kiely", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 4384126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Padraic Colum", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 987549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brendan Behan", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 389496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Denis Johnston and his wife, the actress/director Shelah Richards", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 1007741, 61676936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 51, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Others", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jack B. Yeats", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 16130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 60004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Boyd Dunlop (pneumatic tyre inventor)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 434668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Guglielmo Marconi (wireless radio - lived in Montrose House, the family home of his mother's family the Jamesons of whiskey fame, now on the grounds of the national broadcaster RTÉ)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 12104, 4383270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 105, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Éamon de Valera (President of Ireland)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 42178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pádraig Pearse (a leader of the 1916 Easter Rising)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 23649833, 10350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 33, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The O'Rahilly (also a senior figure in the 1916 Easter Rising)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 2741781, 10350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 44, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michael Collins (Chairman of the Provisional Government and commander-in-chief of the National Army. killed during the Irish Civil War in 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 97509, 15214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 120, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George E. H. McElroy (WWI fighter ace RFC/RAF)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 4372393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Garret FitzGerald (former Taoiseach of Ireland)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 164986, 30814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 27, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Albert Reynolds (former Taoiseach of Ireland)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 146957, 30814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 25, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shane MacGowan (singer/lyricist for the Pogues)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 362699, 30514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 41, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Méav Ní Mhaolchatha (Singer, former Celtic Woman)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 3603041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frederick May (composer)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 26257639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Downes, 1st Baron Downes (eminent nineteenth-century judge)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 30338831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Richard Gibson - Actor - Played part of Herr Otto Flick in sitcom series 'Allo 'Allo!", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 2215334, 54421419, 430164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 41, 56 ], [ 74, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beatrice Doran, librarian, historian, and author", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 68587265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Donnybrook is the traditional home of rugby union in Leinster. The headquarters of the Irish Rugby Football Union Leinster Branch is located opposite Donnybrook Stadium, where the professional Leinster team played their home games until recently. Kiely's pub in Donnybrook village is a traditional social point for rugby fans. Most Leinster Schools Rugby Senior Cup games are hosted in Donnybrook Stadium. Some Junior Cup ties are also hosted on the grounds.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 25405, 74203, 375222, 985961, 8107735, 985961, 2002215, 8107735, 4389137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 49 ], [ 53, 61 ], [ 87, 113 ], [ 114, 129 ], [ 150, 168 ], [ 193, 201 ], [ 332, 365 ], [ 386, 404 ], [ 411, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rugby clubs Bective Rangers and Old Wesley have their home ground in Donnybrook Stadium. During the school year secondary schools such as St Conleth's College, Blackrock, Belvedere College, Wesley College, Clongowes, St. Michaels and many more play rugby in Donnybrook Stadium.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 4824639, 4707215, 25918723, 239508, 977628, 2603058, 969176, 1849040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 27 ], [ 32, 42 ], [ 138, 158 ], [ 160, 169 ], [ 171, 188 ], [ 190, 204 ], [ 206, 215 ], [ 217, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are several tennis clubs in Donnybrook, Donnybrook Lawn Tennis Club (LTC), St.Marys LTC and Bective LTC.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Belmont Football Club has its home ground in Herbert Park.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Merrion Cricket Club is located in Donnybrook, off Anglesea Road and backing onto the Dodder.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Donnybrook today", "target_page_ids": [ 28353699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of towns and villages in Ireland", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38203276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dictionary.com/Word of the Day Archive/donnybrook etymology of the noun", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dublins Famous People and Where They Lived by John Cowell", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Literary Guide To Dublin by Vivien Igoe", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Donnybrook Parish (Sacred Heart Church) Web Site", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Friends of Donnybrook (Community Forum) Web Site", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Donnybrook Tidy Towns Web Site", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Donnybrook,_Dublin", "Towns_and_villages_in_Dublin_(city)", "Civil_parishes_of_Rathdown,_County_Dublin", "Dublin_(barony)", "Civil_parishes_of_Uppercross" ]

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[ { "plaintext": "Ballsbridge () (from historic Ball's Bridge) is an affluent neighbourhood of the city of Dublin, the capital of Ireland. The area is largely north and west of a three-arch stone bridge across the River Dodder, on the south side of the city. The sign on the bridge still proclaims it as \"Ball's Bridge\", in recognition of the fact that the original bridge on that location was built and owned by the Ball family, a well-known Dublin merchant family in the 1500s and the 1600s. The current bridge was built in 1791.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8504, 1044291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 95 ], [ 196, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ballsbridge was once part of the Pembroke Township.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4684531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "18th-century maps show that the area of Dublin that is now Ballsbridge was originally mud-flats and marsh, with many roads converging on a small village located around the bridge, and known already as Ballsbridge. Situated on the Dodder, this village had a ready source of power for small industries, including by the 1720s a linen and cotton printers, and, by the 1750s, a paper-mill and a gunpowder factory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By the early 1800s, Ballsbridge was a small settlement on a major road linking Dublin city with the port at Dalkey, where most of the shipping freight was landed, due to the shallow waters of the Liffey estuary.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 416893, 183146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 114 ], [ 196, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The land around Ballsbridge was rural and mostly belonged to the Earl of Pembroke. After the Royal Dublin Society (RDS) moved into its present site near Ballsbridge in 1879, the Earl of Pembroke began to develop these lands into suburban residential housing. The RDS held their first show on their new premises in the early 1880s. In 1903 the land formerly known as the ‘Forty Acres’ was given to the city by the Earl of Pembroke to establish Herbert Park. (The Earl of Pembroke's surname was Herbert.) In 1907, the Dublin International Exhibition was held in Herbert Park.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 80984, 1014961, 7666664, 1755827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 81 ], [ 93, 113 ], [ 444, 456 ], [ 518, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until 1965, there was a well-known botanical garden on Landsdowne Road near Ballsbridge. The garden belonged to Trinity College, which had leased land from the Earl of Pembroke. In 1960, the original lease from the Pembroke Estate expired and was not renewed. After reducing their size considerably, Trinity decided, in 1965, to close the botanical gardens at that location and to open a new garden at Dartry. Two hotels now stand on the site.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 142298, 7943423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 127 ], [ 402, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1916, the Mount Street bridge, which spans the Grand Canal at the foot of Northumberland Road, was the site of an important battle during the Easter Rising. The O'Rahilly, one of the leaders of the Rising, lived at 40 Herbert Park. Another resistance leader, Eoin MacNeill, who refused to participate in the Rising, lived down the road at 19 Herbert Park. During the Irish war of independence, Michael Collins, Commander-in-Chief of the Irish National Army and later a government minister, had a study in the house of Miss Hoey at 5 Mespil Road, from where he carried out intelligence work.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10350, 2741781, 287109, 97509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 158 ], [ 160, 173 ], [ 262, 275 ], [ 397, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The date of 16 June 1904, now commemorated as Bloomsday, was chosen by the writer James Joyce for the setting of his novel Ulysses because it was the date on which he lost his virginity to his girlfriend Nora Barnacle - Joyce was renting a room at the time in a house at 60 Shelbourne Road.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 231159, 15600, 53930, 1027053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 55 ], [ 82, 93 ], [ 123, 130 ], [ 204, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1940s and 50s, the writer Brendan Behan lived in Ballsbridge, as did the poet Patrick Kavanagh, who lived at 62 Pembroke Road. Busts of Behan and Kavanagh are on display at two pubs along Pembroke Road, Searson's and the Wellington. Kavanagh wrote his famous poem On Raglan Road about a girl he met on that street in 1944.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 389496, 674881, 7416927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 46 ], [ 85, 101 ], [ 271, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The bridge itself forms the heart of the Ballsbridge suburb which extends northwards towards the Grand Canal along Northumberland Road up to Haddington Road and Shelbourne Road, southwards along the Merrion Road towards Merrion and along Anglesea Road towards Donnybrook, and westwards to encompass the area around Pembroke Road, Clyde Road, Elgin Road and Herbert Park.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Buildings, structures and parks", "target_page_ids": [ 27014621, 28353699, 39217, 7666568, 7666664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 211 ], [ 238, 251 ], [ 260, 270 ], [ 330, 340 ], [ 357, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Herbert Park, a public park, is thirty-two acres in size and is divided by a road, also called Herbert Park, and forms part of Ballsbridge's nebulous border with Donnybrook.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Buildings, structures and parks", "target_page_ids": [ 39217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Royal Dublin Society (RDS) has its grounds here, and the Lansdowne Road headquarters of the Irish Rugby Football Union (IRFU) is on the boundary between Ballsbridge and Irishtown. The corporate headquarters of Allied Irish Banks (AIB) are also located in Ballsbridge.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Buildings, structures and parks", "target_page_ids": [ 1014961, 375226, 375222, 3256529, 840830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ], [ 61, 75 ], [ 96, 122 ], [ 173, 182 ], [ 214, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ailesbury Road, along with adjacent Shrewsbury Road, contains the most expensive properties in Dublin, and the roads are featured in the Irish edition of the board-game Monopoly. Shrewsbury Road was the sixth most expensive street in the world in 2007.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Buildings, structures and parks", "target_page_ids": [ 8824418, 8504, 19692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 51 ], [ 95, 101 ], [ 170, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of Dublin's embassies and diplomatic residences are located in the southern part of Ballsbridge on and around Ailesbury Road. The British, American, Italian, Spanish, Dutch and Israeli embassies are all located in the Ballsbridge area of Dublin.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Buildings, structures and parks", "target_page_ids": [ 390642, 45681597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 129 ], [ 135, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The U.S. embassy, an iconic cylindrical building, is a major landmark in present-day Ballsbridge. It was designed in 1955 by John M. Johansen, Professor of Architecture at Yale University. The project was 9 years in incubation and the building was inaugurated in 1964. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Buildings, structures and parks", "target_page_ids": [ 11290316, 34273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 141 ], [ 172, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gurdwara Guru Nanak Darbar, the place of assembly and worship for the Irish Sikh community, is located on Serpentine Avenue. It is located on the site of the old Oscar Cinema which the community purchased in 1987.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Buildings, structures and parks", "target_page_ids": [ 32712924, 547845, 29405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 54, 61 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The DART train passes nearby, stopping at Lansdowne Road and Sandymount stations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 368505, 4457908, 4544880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ], [ 42, 56 ], [ 61, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ballsbridge is serviced by the following bus routes: ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 4 Ballymun to Monkstown", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 382639, 947085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 15, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 7 Cherrywood to Dublin", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 8738836, 8504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 13 ], [ 17, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 7a Loughlinstown to Dublin", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 8567041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 18 Palmerstown to Sandymount", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 1037480, 418802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 19, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 27X Clare Hall to Belfield", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 1037463, 918146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ], [ 19, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of services have been withdrawn due to Dublin Bus' Network Direct route restructuring programme.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 497845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aviva Stadium", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21508033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marian College", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36855185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sandymount", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 418802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " St Bartholomew's Church, Dublin", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19985080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of towns and villages in Ireland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38203276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] } ]

[ "Ballsbridge", "Towns_and_villages_in_Dublin_(city)", "Townlands_of_County_Dublin", "Dublin_(barony)" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS, also written ISIS) is a routing protocol designed to move information efficiently within a computer network, a group of physically connected computers or similar devices. It accomplishes this by determining the best route for data through a packet switching network.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10123059, 4122592, 25750, 43339, 4122592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 92 ], [ 143, 159 ], [ 268, 273 ], [ 293, 309 ], [ 310, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The IS-IS protocol is defined in ISO/IEC 10589:2002 as an international standard within the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference design. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) republished IS-IS in , but that RFC was later marked as historic by because it republished a draft rather than a final version of the (International Organization for Standardization) ISO standard, causing confusion.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22747, 15285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 120 ], [ 150, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IS-IS has been called \"the de facto standard for large service provider network backbones.\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 172734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IS-IS is an interior gateway protocol, designed for use within an administrative domain or network. This is in contrast to exterior gateway protocols, primarily Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), which is used for routing between autonomous systems (RFC 1930).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 30873746, 5345346, 38893, 312399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 37 ], [ 124, 149 ], [ 162, 185 ], [ 227, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IS-IS is a link-state routing protocol, operating by reliably flooding link state information throughout a network of routers. Each IS-IS router independently builds a database of the network's topology, aggregating the flooded network information. Like the OSPF protocol, IS-IS uses Dijkstra's algorithm for computing the best path through the network. Packets (datagrams) are then forwarded, based on the computed ideal path, through the network to the destination.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 159632, 43388, 45809, 40994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 38 ], [ 259, 263 ], [ 285, 305 ], [ 365, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The IS-IS protocol was developed by a team of people working at Digital Equipment Corporation as part of DECnet Phase V. It was standardized by the ISO in 1992 as ISO 10589 for communication between network devices that are termed Intermediate Systems (as opposed to end systems or hosts) by the ISO. The purpose of IS-IS was to make possible the routing of datagrams using the ISO-developed OSI protocol stack called CLNS.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7952, 77926, 14934, 22747, 23882, 824431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 93 ], [ 105, 111 ], [ 148, 151 ], [ 392, 395 ], [ 396, 410 ], [ 418, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IS-IS was developed at roughly the same time that the Internet Engineering Task Force IETF was developing a similar protocol called OSPF. IS-IS was later extended to support routing of datagrams in the Internet Protocol (IP), the Network Layer protocol of the global Internet. This version of the IS-IS routing protocol was then called Integrated IS-IS (RFC 1195)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15285, 43388, 15323, 85024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 90 ], [ 132, 136 ], [ 202, 219 ], [ 230, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IS-IS adjacency can be either broadcast or point-to-point.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Packet types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hello Packet", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Packet types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The IS-IS hello packets needs to be exchanged periodically between 2 routers to establish adjacency. Based on the negotiation, one of them will be selected as DIS (Designated IS). This hello packet will be sent separately for Level-1 or Level-2.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Packet types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "LSP", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Packet types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This contains the actual route information. This LSP can contain many type–length–values (TLVs). ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Packet types", "target_page_ids": [ 4094578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CSNP", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Packet types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This packet will be sent only by the DIS. By default for every 10 seconds, CSNP packet will be transmitted by DIS. This will contain the list of LSP IDs along with sequence number and checksum.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Packet types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "PSNP", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Packet types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the router which receives CSNP packet finds some discrepancy in its own database, it will send an PSNP request asking the DIS to send specific LSP back to it.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Packet types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Both IS-IS and Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) are link-state protocols, and both use the same Dijkstra algorithm for computing the best path through the network. As a result, they are conceptually similar. Both support Classless Inter-Domain Routing, can use multicast to discover neighboring routers using hello packets, and can support authentication of routing updates.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Comparison with OSPF", "target_page_ids": [ 43388, 45809, 38404, 20407, 25748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 39 ], [ 95, 113 ], [ 220, 250 ], [ 260, 269 ], [ 294, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "OSPF was natively built to route IP and is itself a protocol that runs on top of IP, and OSPFv2 is only able to build IPv4 routing tables. IS-IS is an OSI Layer 3 protocol initially defined for routing CLNS. However, IS-IS is neutral regarding the type of network addresses for which it can route, and was easily extended to support IPv4 routing, using mechanisms described in , and later IPv6 as specified in . To operate with IPv6 networks, the OSPF protocol was rewritten in OSPF v3 (as specified in ).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Comparison with OSPF", "target_page_ids": [ 15317, 85024, 824431, 15317, 15318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 122 ], [ 155, 162 ], [ 202, 206 ], [ 333, 337 ], [ 389, 393 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both OSPF and IS-IS routers build a topological representation of the network. This map indicates the subnets which each IS-IS router can reach, and the lowest-cost (shortest) path to a subnet is used to forward traffic.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Comparison with OSPF", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "IS-IS differs from OSPF in the way that \"areas\" are defined and routed between. IS-IS routers are designated as being: Level 1 (intra-area); Level 2 (inter area); or Level 1–2 (both). Routing information is exchanged between Level 1 routers and other Level 1 routers of the same area, and Level 2 routers can only form relationships and exchange information with other Level 2 routers. Level 1–2 routers exchange information with both levels and are used to connect the inter area routers with the intra area routers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Comparison with OSPF", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In OSPF, areas are delineated on the interface such that an area border router (ABR) is actually in two or more areas at once, effectively creating the borders between areas inside the ABR, whereas in IS-IS area borders are in between routers, designated as Level 2 or Level 1–2. The result is that an IS-IS router is only ever a part of a single area.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Comparison with OSPF", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "IS-IS also does not require Area 0 (Area Zero) to be the backbone area through which all inter-area traffic must pass. The logical view is that OSPF creates something of a spider web or star topology of many areas all attached directly to Area Zero and IS-IS, by contrast, creates a logical topology of a backbone of Level 2 routers with branches of Level 1–2 and Level 1 routers forming the individual areas.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Comparison with OSPF", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "IS-IS also differs from OSPF in the methods by which it reliably floods topology and topology change information through the network. However, the basic concepts are similar.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Comparison with OSPF", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "OSPF has a larger set of extensions and optional features specified in the protocol standards. However, IS-IS is easier to expand: its use of TLV data allows engineers to implement support for new techniques without redesigning the protocol. For example, in order to support IPv6, the IS-IS protocol was extended to support a few additional TLVs, whereas OSPF required a new protocol draft (OSPFv3). In addition to that, IS-IS is less \"chatty\" and can scale to support larger networks. Given the same set of resources, IS-IS can support more routers in an area than OSPF. This has contributed to IS-IS as an ISP-scale protocol.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Comparison with OSPF", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The TCP/IP implementation, known as \"Integrated IS-IS\" or \"Dual IS-IS\", is described in RFC 1195.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Comparison with OSPF", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "IS-IS is also used as the control plane for IEEE 802.1aq Shortest Path Bridging (SPB). SPB allows for shortest-path forwarding in an Ethernet mesh network context utilizing multiple equal cost paths. This permits SPB to support large Layer 2 topologies, with fast convergence, and improved use of the mesh topology. Combined with this is single point provisioning for logical connectivity membership. IS-IS is therefore augmented with a small number of TLVs and sub-TLVs, and supports two Ethernet encapsulating data paths, 802.1ad Provider Bridges and 802.1ah Provider Backbone Bridges. SPB requires no state machine or other substantive changes to IS-IS, and simply requires a new Network Layer Protocol Identifier (NLPID) and set of TLVs. This extension to IS-IS is defined in the IETF proposed standard RFC 6329.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 56938, 23094504, 23744268, 7597612, 15285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 48 ], [ 49, 79 ], [ 528, 535 ], [ 557, 564 ], [ 790, 794 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fabric Shortest Path First (FSPF)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Related protocols", "target_page_ids": [ 2038123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Transparent Interconnect of Lots of Links (TRILL)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Related protocols", "target_page_ids": [ 25002510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IS-IS standard (ISO/IEC 10589:2002, Second Edition) – free-of-charge PDF version", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " – Use of OSI IS-IS for Routing in TCP/IP and Dual Environments", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "OSPF and IS-IS: A Comparative Anatomy by Dave Katz, Juniper", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Collection of RFCs pertaining to IS-IS", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "IS-IS and OSPF difference discussion (Vishwas Manral, Manav Bhatia and Yasuhiro Ohara)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Google Quagga IS-IS implementation", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sample isisd.conf file: used with Quagga", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Routing_protocols", "ISO_standards", "Internet_Standards", "Internet_protocols", "OSI_protocols" ]

[ "IS-IS" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Amaterasu, also known as Amaterasu-Ōmikami () or Ōhirume-no-Muchi-no-Kami (), is the goddess of the sun in Japanese mythology. One of the major deities (kami) of Shinto, she is also portrayed in Japan's earliest literary texts, the Kojiki (c. 712 CE) and the Nihon Shoki (720 CE), as the ruler (or one of the rulers) of the heavenly realm Takamagahara and the mythical ancestress of the Imperial House of Japan via her grandson Ninigi. Along with her siblings, the moon deity Tsukuyomi and the impetuous storm god Susanoo, she is considered to be one of the \"Three Precious Children\" (, ), the three most important offspring of the creator god Izanagi.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27560, 425527, 17379, 28272, 316307, 316358, 4171283, 3177105, 1700793, 1151008, 153717, 402201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 103 ], [ 107, 125 ], [ 144, 151 ], [ 162, 168 ], [ 232, 238 ], [ 259, 270 ], [ 339, 351 ], [ 387, 410 ], [ 428, 434 ], [ 476, 485 ], [ 514, 521 ], [ 644, 651 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amaterasu's chief place of worship, the Grand Shrine of Ise in Ise, Mie Prefecture, is one of Shinto's holiest sites and a major pilgrimage center and tourist spot. As with other Shinto kami, she is also enshrined in a number of Shinto shrines throughout Japan.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 579053, 329088, 179772, 1059378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 59 ], [ 63, 66 ], [ 68, 82 ], [ 229, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The goddess is referred to as 'Amaterasu-Ōmikami' ( / ; historical orthography: , Amaterasu-Ohomikami; Old Japanese: Amaterasu Opomi1kami2) in the Kojiki, while the Nihon Shoki gives the following variant names:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [ 879983, 1004626, 1004626, 316307, 316358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 78 ], [ 103, 115 ], [ 132, 133 ], [ 147, 153 ], [ 165, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ōhirume-no-Muchi (; Man'yōgana: ; hist. orthography: , Ohohirume-no-Muchi; Old Japanese: Opopi1rume1-no2-Muti)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [ 877023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amaterasu Ō(mi)kami (; hist. orthography: , Amaterasu Oho(mi)kami)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Amaterasu-Ōhirume-no-Mikoto ()", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hi-no-Kami (; OJ: Pi1-no-Kami2)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "'Amaterasu' is thought to derive from the verb amateru \"to illuminate / shine in the sky\" (ama \"sky, heaven\" + teru \"to shine\") combined with the honorific auxiliary verb -su, while 'Ōmikami' means \"great [and] august deity\" (ō \"great\" + honorific prefix mi- + kami).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [ 89586, 17379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 170 ], [ 261, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Her other name, 'Ōhirume', is usually understood as meaning \"great woman of the sun / daytime\" (cf. hiru \"day(time), noon\", from hi \"sun, day\" + me \"woman, lady\"), though alternative etymologies such as \"great spirit woman\" (taking hi to mean \"spirit\") or \"wife of the sun\" (suggested by Orikuchi Shinobu, who put forward the theory that Amaterasu was originally conceived of as the consort or priestess of a male solar deity) had been proposed. A possible connection with the name Hiruko (the child rejected by the gods Izanagi and Izanami and one of Amaterasu's siblings) has also been suggested. To this name is appended the honorific muchi, which is also seen in a few other theonyms such as 'Ō(a)namuchi' or 'Michinushi-no-Muchi' (an epithet of the three Munakata goddesses).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [ 6698464, 661185, 402201, 670153, 53308533, 2649986, 3027662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 288, 304 ], [ 482, 488 ], [ 521, 528 ], [ 533, 540 ], [ 679, 686 ], [ 697, 708 ], [ 754, 778 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the ancestress of the imperial line, the epithet 'Sume(ra)-Ō(mi)kami' (, lit. \"great imperial deity\"; also read as 'Kōtaijin') is also applied to Amaterasu in names such as 'Amaterasu-Sume(ra)-Ō(mi)kami' (, also read as 'Tenshō Kōtaijin') and 'Amaterashimasu-Sume(ra)-Ōmikami' ().", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [ 37604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the medieval and early modern periods, the deity was also referred to as 'Tenshō Daijin' (the on'yomi of ) or 'Amateru Ongami' (an alternate reading of the same).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [ 37604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name 'Amaterasu-Ōmikami' has been translated into English in different ways. While a number of authors such as Donald Philippi rendered it as \"heaven-illuminating great deity,\" Basil Hall Chamberlain argued (citing the authority of Motoori Norinaga) that it is more accurately understood to mean \"shining in heaven\", and accordingly translated it as \"Heaven-Shining-Great-August-Deity\". Gustav Heldt's 2014 translation of the Kojiki, meanwhile, renders it as \"the great and mighty spirit Heaven Shining.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [ 747305, 1226464, 292149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 130 ], [ 181, 203 ], [ 236, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both the Kojiki (ca. 712 CE) and the Nihon Shoki (720 CE) agree in their description of Amaterasu as the daughter of the god Izanagi and the elder sister of Tsukuyomi, the deity of the moon, and Susanoo, the god of storms and seas. The circumstances surrounding the birth of these three deities, known as the \"Three Precious Children\" (, mihashira no uzu no miko or sankishi), however, vary between sources:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 316307, 316358, 402201, 1151008, 19331, 153717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 15 ], [ 37, 48 ], [ 125, 132 ], [ 157, 166 ], [ 185, 189 ], [ 195, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Kojiki, Amaterasu, Tsukuyomi and Susanoo were born when Izanagi went to \"[the plain of] Awagihara by the river-mouth of Tachibana in Himuka in [the island of] Tsukushi\" and bathed (misogi) in the river to purify himself after visiting Yomi, the underworld, in a failed attempt to rescue his deceased wife, Izanami. Amaterasu was born when Izanagi washed his left eye, Tsukuyomi was born when he washed his right eye, and Susanoo was born when he washed his nose. Izanagi then appoints Amaterasu to rule Takamagahara (the \"Plain of High Heaven\"), Tsukuyomi the night, and Susanoo the seas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 316307, 431437, 16914, 579393, 432273, 670153, 4171283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 13 ], [ 140, 146 ], [ 166, 174 ], [ 180, 186 ], [ 242, 246 ], [ 313, 320 ], [ 510, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main narrative of the Nihon Shoki has Izanagi and Izanami procreating after creating the Japanese archipelago; to them were born (in the following order) Ōhirume-no-Muchi (Amaterasu), Tsukuyomi, the 'leech-child' Hiruko, and Susanoo:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 316358, 30798432, 661185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 37 ], [ 80, 113 ], [ 217, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A variant legend recorded in the Shoki has Izanagi begetting Ōhirume (Amaterasu) by holding a bronze mirror in his left hand, Tsukuyomi by holding another mirror in his right hand, and Susanoo by turning his head and looking sideways.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 4724742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A third variant in the Shoki has Izanagi and Izanami begetting the sun, the moon, Hiruko, and Susanoo, as in the main narrative. Their final child, the fire god Kagutsuchi, caused Izanami's death (as in the Kojiki).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 4086035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A fourth variant relates a similar story to that found in the Kojiki, wherein the three gods are born when Izanagi washed himself in the river of Tachibana after going to Yomi.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One of the variant legends in the Shoki relates that Amaterasu ordered her brother Tsukuyomi to go down to the terrestrial world (Ashihara-no-Nakatsukuni, the \"Central Land of Reed-Plains\") and visit the goddess Ukemochi. When Ukemochi vomited foodstuffs out of her mouth and presented them to Tsukuyomi at a banquet, a disgusted and offended Tsukuyomi slew her and went back to Takamagahara. This act upset Amaterasu, causing her to split away from Tsukuyomi, thus separating night from day.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 11915828, 1151041, 30536683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 153 ], [ 212, 220 ], [ 236, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amaterasu then sent another god, Ame-no-Kumahito (), who found various food-crops and animals emerging from Ukemochi's corpse.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Amaterasu had the grains collected and sown for humanity's use and, putting the silkworms in her mouth, reeled thread from them. From this began agriculture and sericulture.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 627, 953081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 156 ], [ 161, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This account is not found in the Kojiki, where a similar story is instead told of Susanoo and the goddess Ōgetsuhime.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 1151041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Susanoo, the youngest of the three divine siblings, was expelled by his father Izanagi for his troublesome nature and incessant wailing on account of missing his deceased mother Izanami, he first went up to Takamagahara to say farewell to Amaterasu. A suspicious Amaterasu went out to meet him dressed in male clothing and clad in armor, at which Susanoo proposed a trial by pledge (ukehi) to prove his sincerity. In the ritual, the two gods each chewed and spat out an object carried by the other (in some variants, an item they each possessed). Five (or six) gods and three goddesses were born as a result; Amaterasu adopted the males as her sons and gave the females – later known as the three Munakata goddesses – to Susanoo.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 42191498, 3027662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 388, 393 ], [ 696, 720 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Susanoo, declaring that he had won the trial as he had produced deities of the required gender, then \"raged with victory\" and proceeded to wreak havoc by destroying his sister's rice fields and defecating in her palace. While Amaterasu tolerated Susanoo's behavior at first, his \"misdeeds did not cease, but became even more flagrant\" until one day, he bore a hole in the rooftop of Amaterasu's weaving hall and hurled the \"heavenly piebald horse\" (, ame no fuchikoma), which he had flayed alive, into it. One of Amaterasu's weaving maidens was alarmed and struck her genitals against a weaving shuttle, killing her. In response, a furious Amaterasu shut herself inside the Ame-no-Iwayato (, \"Heavenly Rock-Cave Door\", also known as Ama-no-Iwato), plunging heaven and earth into total darkness.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 1939119, 1865960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 587, 602 ], [ 674, 688 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main account in the Shoki has Amaterasu wounding herself with the shuttle when Susanoo threw the flayed horse in her weaving hall, while a variant account identifies the goddess who was killed during this incident as Wakahirume-no-Mikoto (, lit. \"young woman of the sun / day(time)\").", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Whereas the above accounts identify Susanoo's flaying of the horse as the immediate cause for Amaterasu hiding herself, yet another variant in the Shoki instead portrays it to be Susanoo defecating in her seat:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After Amaterasu hid herself in the cave, the gods, led by Omoikane, the god of wisdom, conceived a plan to lure her out:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 655873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inside the cave, Amaterasu is surprised that the gods should show such mirth in her absence. Ame-no-Uzume answered that they were celebrating because another god greater than her had appeared. Curious, Amaterasu slid the boulder blocking the cave's entrance and peeked out, at which Ame-no-Koyane and Futodama brought out the mirror (the Yata-no-Kagami) and held it before her. As Amaterasu, struck by her own reflection (apparently thinking it to be the other deity Ame-no-Uzume spoke of), approached the mirror, Ame-no-Tajikarao took her hand and pulled her out of the cave, which was then immediately sealed with a straw rope, preventing her from going back inside. Thus was light restored to the world.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 4779507, 2785152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 338, 352 ], [ 618, 628 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As punishment for his unruly conduct, Susanoo was then driven out of Takamagahara by the other gods. Going down to earth, he arrived at the land of Izumo, where he killed the monstrous serpent Yamata no Orochi to rescue the goddess Kushinadahime, whom he eventually married. From the serpent's carcass Susanoo found the sword Ame-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi (, \"Sword of the Gathering Clouds of Heaven\"), also known as Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi ( \"Grass-Cutting Sword\"), which he presented to Amaterasu as a reconciliatory gift.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 334112, 236826, 27021135, 248216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 153 ], [ 193, 209 ], [ 232, 245 ], [ 414, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After a time, Amaterasu and the primordial deity Takamimusubi (also known as Takagi-no-Kami) declared that Ashihara-no-Nakatsukuni, which was then being ruled over by Ōkuninushi (also known as Ō(a)namuchi), the descendant (Kojiki) or the son (Shoki) of Susanoo, should be pacified and put under the jurisdiction of their progeny, claiming it to be teeming with \"numerous deities which shone with a lustre like that of fireflies, and evil deities which buzzed like flies\". Amaterasu ordered Ame-no-Oshihomimi, the firstborn of the five male children born during her contest with Susanoo, to go down to earth and establish his rule over it. However, after inspecting the land below, he deemed it to be in an uproar and refused to go any further. At the advice of Omoikane and the other deities, Amaterasu then dispatched another of her five sons, Ame-no-Hohi. Upon arriving, however, Ame-no-Hohi began to curry favor with Ōkuninushi and did not send back any report for three years. The heavenly deities then sent a third messenger, Ame-no-Wakahiko, who also ended up siding with Ōkuninushi and marrying his daughter Shitateruhime. After eight years, a female pheasant was sent to question Ame-no-Wakahiko, who killed it with his bow and arrow. The blood-stained arrow flew straight up to Takamagahara at the feet of Amaterasu and Takamimusubi, who then threw it back to earth with a curse, killing Ame-no-Wakahiko in his sleep.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 17055, 65508055, 2649986, 65438567, 65446604, 65450750, 334415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 48 ], [ 49, 61 ], [ 167, 177 ], [ 490, 507 ], [ 845, 856 ], [ 1031, 1046 ], [ 1158, 1166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The preceding messengers having thus failed to complete their task, the heavenly gods finally sent the warrior deities Futsunushi and Takemikazuchi to remonstrate with Ōkuninushi. At the advice of his son Kotoshironushi, Ōkuninushi agreed to abdicate and left the physical realm to govern the unseen spirit world, which was given to him in exchange. The two gods then went around Ashihara-no-Nakatsukuni, killing those who resisted them and rewarding those who rendered submission, before going back to heaven.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 7579643, 36365871, 47811387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 129 ], [ 134, 147 ], [ 205, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the earth now pacified, Amaterasu and Takamimusubi again commanded Ame-no-Oshihomimi to descend and rule it. He, however, again demurred and suggested that his son Ninigi be sent instead. Amaterasu thus bequeathed to Ninigi Kusanagi, the sword Susanoo gave her, along with the two items used to lure her out of the Ame-no-Iwayato: the mirror Yata-no-Kagami and the jewel Yasakani no Magatama. With a number of gods serving as his retinue, Ninigi came down from heaven to Mount Takachiho in the land of Himuka and built his palace there. Ninigi became the ancestor of the emperors of Japan, while the mirror, jewel, and sword he brought with him became the three sacred treasures of the imperial house. Five of the gods who accompanied him in his descent - Ame-no-Koyane, Futodama, Ame-no-Uzume, Ishikoridome (the maker of the mirror), and Tamanoya (the maker of the jewel) - meanwhile became the ancestors of the clans involved in court ceremonial such as the Nakatomi and the .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 1700793, 412064, 459771, 431437, 3177105, 899407, 21441726, 66148305, 8845995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 175 ], [ 376, 396 ], [ 476, 491 ], [ 499, 513 ], [ 576, 593 ], [ 661, 683 ], [ 800, 812 ], [ 844, 852 ], [ 965, 973 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many years later, Ninigi's great-grandson, Kamuyamato-Iwarebiko (later known as Emperor Jimmu), decided to leave Himuka in search of a new home with his elder brother Itsuse. Migrating eastward, they encountered various gods and local tribes who either submitted to them or resisted them. After Itsuse died of wounds sustained during a battle against a chieftain named Nagasunehiko, Iwarebiko retreated and went to Kumano, located on the southern part of the Kii Peninsula. While there, he and his army were enchanted by a god in the shape of a giant bear and fell into a deep sleep. At that moment, a local named Takakuraji had a dream in which Amaterasu and Takamimusubi commanded the god Takemikazuchi to help Iwarebiko. Takemikazuchi then dropped his sword, Futsu-no-Mitama, into Takakuraji's storehouse, ordering him to give it to Iwarebiko. Upon waking up and discovering the sword inside the storehouse, Takakuraji went to where Iwarebiko was and presented it to him. The magic power of the Futsu-no-Mitama immediately exterminated the evil gods of the region and roused Iwarebiko and his men from their slumber.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 10130, 29468910, 686031, 802433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 93 ], [ 415, 421 ], [ 459, 472 ], [ 762, 777 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Continuing their journey, the army soon found themselves stranded in the mountains. Takamimusubi (so the Kojiki) or Amaterasu (Shoki) then told Iwarebiko in a dream that the giant crow Yatagarasu would be sent to guide them in their way. Soon enough, the bird appeared and led Iwarebiko and his men to safety. At length, Iwarebiko arrived at the land of Yamato (modern Nara Prefecture) and defeated Nagasunehiko, thereby avenging his brother Itsuse. He then established his palace-capital at Kashihara and ruled therein.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 3182619, 248574, 179765, 329284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 195 ], [ 346, 360 ], [ 369, 384 ], [ 492, 501 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An anecdote concerning Emperor Sujin relates that Amaterasu (via the Yata-no-Kagami and the Kusanagi sword) and Yamato-no-Ōkunitama, the tutelary deity of Yamato, were originally worshiped in the great hall of the imperial palace. When a series of plagues broke out during Sujin's reign, he \"dreaded [...] the power of these Gods, and did not feel secure in their dwelling together.\" He thus entrusted the mirror and the sword to his daughter Toyosukiirihime, who brought them to the village of Kasanuhi, and delegated the worship of Yamato-no-Ōkunitama to another daughter, Nunakiirihime. When the pestilence showed no sign of abating, he then performed divination, which revealed the plague to have been caused by Ōmononushi, the god of Mount Miwa. When the god was offered proper worship as per his demands, the epidemic ceased.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 10450, 24406132, 207848, 36146862, 47899425, 10597220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 36 ], [ 61, 106 ], [ 137, 151 ], [ 655, 665 ], [ 716, 726 ], [ 739, 749 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the reign of Sujin's son and successor, Emperor Suinin, custody of the sacred treasures were transferred from Toyosukiirihime to Suinin's daughter Yamatohime, who took them first to \"Sasahata in Uda\" to the east of Miwa. Heading north to Ōmi, she then eastwards to Mino and proceeded south to Ise, where she received a revelation from Amaterasu:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 10451, 6835833, 349056, 349066, 388118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 61 ], [ 154, 164 ], [ 245, 248 ], [ 272, 276 ], [ 300, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This account serves as the origin myth of the Grand Shrine of Ise, Amaterasu's chief place of worship.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 579053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later, when Suinin's grandson Prince Ousu (also known as Yamato Takeru) went to Ise to visit his aunt Yamatohime before going to conquer and pacify the eastern regions on the command of his father, Emperor Keikō, he was given the divine sword to protect him in times of peril. It eventually came in handy when Yamato Takeru was lured onto an open grassland by a treacherous chieftain, who then set fire to the grass to entrap him. Desperate, Yamato Takeru used the sword to cut the grass around him (a variant in the Shoki has the sword miraculously mow the grass of its own accord) and lit a counter-fire to keep the fire away. This incident explains the sword's name (\"Grass Cutter\"). On his way home from the east, Yamato Takeru – apparently blinded by hubris – left the Kusanagi in the care of his second wife, Miyazuhime of Owari, and went to confront the god of Mount Ibuki on his own. Without the sword's protection, he fell prey to the god's enchantment and became ill and died afterwards. Thus the Kusanagi stayed in Owari, where it was enshrined in the shrine of Atsuta.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 2376675, 201116, 10452, 14282, 96432, 1617134, 1148945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 70 ], [ 152, 167 ], [ 198, 211 ], [ 756, 762 ], [ 829, 834 ], [ 868, 879 ], [ 1063, 1079 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At one time, when Emperor Chūai was on a campaign against the Kumaso tribes of Kyushu, his consort Jingū was possessed by unknown gods who told Chūai of a land rich in treasure located on the other side of the sea that is his for the taking. When Chūai doubted their words and accused them of being deceitful, the gods laid a curse upon him that he should die \"without possessing this land.\" (The Kojiki and the Shoki diverge at this point: in the former, Chūai dies almost immediately after being cursed, while in the latter, he dies of a sudden illness a few months after.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 10454, 904536, 16914, 318180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 31 ], [ 62, 68 ], [ 79, 85 ], [ 99, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Chūai's death, Jingū performed divination to ascertain which gods had spoken to her husband. The deities identified themselves as Tsukisakaki-Izu-no-Mitama-Amazakaru-Mukatsuhime-no-Mikoto (, lit. \"The Awe-inspiring Spirit of the Planted Sakaki, the Lady of Sky-distant Mukatsu\", usually interpreted as the aramitama or 'violent spirit' of Amaterasu), Kotoshironushi, and the three gods of Sumie (Sumiyoshi): Uwatsutsunoo, Nakatsutsunoo, and Sokotsutsunoo. Worshiping the gods in accordance with their instructions, Jingū then set out to conquer the promised land beyond the sea: the three kingdoms of Korea.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 924975, 5592395, 5503609, 15725887, 316424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 243, 249 ], [ 312, 321 ], [ 402, 411 ], [ 414, 460 ], [ 589, 612 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Jingū returned victorious to Japan, she enshrined the deities in places of their own choosing; Amaterasu, warning Jingū not to take her aramitama along to the capital, instructed her to install it in Hirota, the harbor where the empress disembarked.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 1697500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "She is a virgin goddess and never engages in sexual relationships. However, according to Nozomu Kawamura, she was a consort to a sun god and some telling stories place Tsukuyomi as her husband.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 1151008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amaterasu has many siblings most notably Susanoo and Tsukiyomi. Basil Hall Chamberlain used the words \"elder brother\" to translate her dialog referring to Susanoo in the Kojiki, even though he noted that she was his elder sister. The word (which was also used by Izanami to address her elder brother and husband Izanagi) was nase (phonetically spelt in the Kojiki; modern dictionaries use the semantic spelling 汝兄, whose kanji literally mean \"thou[, my] elder brother\"), an ancient term used only by females to refer to their brothers, who had higher status than them. (As opposed to males using ( in the Kojiki) to refer to their sisters, who had lower status than them.) The Nihon Shoki used the Chinese word (\"younger brother\") instead.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 153717, 1151008, 1226464, 37604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 48 ], [ 54, 63 ], [ 65, 87 ], [ 423, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some tellings say she had a sister named Wakahirume who was a weaving maiden and helped Amaterasu weave clothes for the other kami in heaven. Wakahirume was later accidentally killed by Susanoo.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 67024787, 4171283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 52 ], [ 135, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other traditions say she had an older brother named Hiruko.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 661185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amaterasu has 5 sons Ame-no-oshihomimi, Ame-no-hohi, Amatsuhikone, Ikutsuhikone, and Kumanokusubi. Several figures and noble clans claim descent from Amaterasu most notably the Japanese imperial family through Emperor Jimmu who descended from her grandson Ninigi.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 65438567, 65446604, 65442780, 68962282, 3177105, 1700793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 38 ], [ 40, 51 ], [ 53, 65 ], [ 85, 97 ], [ 173, 201 ], [ 256, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Her son Amenohohi is considered the ancestral kami of clans in Izumo which includes the Haji clan, Sugawara clan, and the Senge clan. The legendary sumo wrestler Nomi no Sukune is believed to be a 14th generation descendant of Amenohohi.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 65446604, 17379, 334112, 68965106, 70929209, 51814, 15536076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 17 ], [ 46, 50 ], [ 63, 68 ], [ 88, 97 ], [ 99, 112 ], [ 148, 152 ], [ 162, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ise Grand Shrine ( Ise Jingū) located in Ise, Mie Prefecture, Japan, houses the inner shrine, Naiku, dedicated to Amaterasu. Her sacred mirror, Yata no Kagami, is said to be kept at this shrine as one of the Imperial regalia objects. A ceremony known as () is held every twenty years at this shrine to honor the many deities enshrined, which is formed by 125 shrines altogether. New shrine buildings are built at a location adjacent to the site first. After the transfer of the object of worship, new clothing and treasure and offering food to the goddess the old buildings are taken apart. The building materials taken apart are given to many other shrines and buildings to renovate. This practice is a part of the Shinto faith and has been practiced since the year 690 CE, but is not only for Amaterasu but also for many other deities enshrined in Ise Grand Shrine. Additionally, from the late 7th century to the 14th century, an unmarried princess of the Imperial Family, called \"Saiō\" () or itsuki no miko (), served as the sacred priestess of Amaterasu at the Ise Shrine upon every new dynasty.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Worship", "target_page_ids": [ 579053, 329088, 179772, 15573, 4779507, 899407, 6741455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 45, 48 ], [ 50, 64 ], [ 66, 71 ], [ 148, 162 ], [ 212, 236 ], [ 988, 992 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The in Takachiho, Miyazaki Prefecture, Japan is also dedicated to Amaterasu and sits above the gorge containing Ama-no-Iwato.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Worship", "target_page_ids": [ 459771, 221194, 15573, 1865960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 17 ], [ 19, 38 ], [ 40, 45 ], [ 113, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The worship of Amaterasu to the exclusion of other kami has been described as \"the cult of the sun.\" This phrase may also refer to the early pre-archipelagoan worship of the sun.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Worship", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Engishiki () and Sandai Jitsuroku () of the Heian period, the sun goddess had many shrines named \"Amateru\" or \"Amateru-mitama\", which were mostly located in the Kinki area. However, there have also been records of a shrine on Tsushima Island, coined as either \"Teruhi Gongen\" or the \"Shining Sun Deity\" during medieval times. It was later found that such a shrine was meant for a male sun deity named Ameno-himitama.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Worship", "target_page_ids": [ 20445938, 21530611, 154723, 175768, 1630110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 26 ], [ 34, 50 ], [ 61, 73 ], [ 178, 183 ], [ 243, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amaterasu was also once worshiped at Hinokuma shrines. The Hinokuma shrines were used to worship the goddess by the Ama people in the Kii Provinces. Because the Ama people were believed to have been fishermen, researchers have conjectured that the goddess was also worshiped for a possible connection to the sea.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Worship", "target_page_ids": [ 703936, 424944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 119 ], [ 134, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amaterasu, while primarily being the goddess of the sun, is also sometimes worshiped as having connections with other aspects and forms of nature. Amaterasu can also be considered a goddess of the wind and typhoons alongside her brother, and even possibly death. There are many connections between local legends in the Ise region with other goddesses of nature, such as a nameless goddess of the underworld and sea. It's possible that Amaterasu's name became associated with these legends in the Shinto religion as it grew throughout Japan.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Differences in worship", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In contrast, Amaterasu, while enshrined at other locations, also can be seen as the goddess that represents Japan and its ethnicity. The many differences in Shinto religion and mythology can be due to how different local gods and beliefs clashed. In the Meiji Era, the belief in Amaterasu fought against the Izumo belief in Ōkuninushi for spiritual control over the land of Japan. During this time, the religious nature of Okininushi may have been changed to be included in Shinto mythology. Osagawara Shouzo built shrines in other countries to mainly spread Japan's culture and Shinto religion. It, however, was usually seen as the worshiping of Japan itself, rather than Amaterasu. Most of these colonial and oversea shrines were destroyed after WWII.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Differences in worship", "target_page_ids": [ 2649986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 324, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Outside of being worshiped as a sun goddess, some have argued that Amaterasu was once related to snakes. There was a legend circulating among the Ise Priests that essentially described an encounter of Amaterasu sleeping with the Saiō every night in the form of a snake or lizard, evidenced by fallen scales in the priestess' bed. This was recorded by a medieval monk in his diary, which stated that \"in ancient times Amaterasu was regarded as a snake deity or as a sun deity.\" In the Ise kanjō, the god's snake form is considered an embodiment of the \"three poisons\", namely greed, anger, and ignorance. Amaterasu is also linked to a snake cult, which is also tied to the theory that the initial gender of the goddess was male.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Differences in worship", "target_page_ids": [ 6741455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In general, some of these Amaterasu-dragon associations have been in reference to Japanese plays. One example has been within the Chikubushima tradition in which the dragon goddess Benzaiten was the emanation of Amaterasu. Following that, in the Japanese epic, Taiheki, one of the characters, Nitta Yoshisada (), made comparisons with Amaterasu and a dragon with the quote: “I have heard that the Sun Goddess of Ise … conceals her true being in the august image of Vairocana, and that she has appeared in this world in the guise of a dragon god of the blue ocean.”", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Differences in worship", "target_page_ids": [ 20289468, 309079, 2074534, 462091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 142 ], [ 181, 190 ], [ 261, 268 ], [ 465, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another tradition of the Heavenly Cave story depicts Amaterasu as a \"dragon-fox\" (shinko or tatsugitsune) during her descent to the famed cave because it is a type of animal/kami that emits light from its entire body.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Differences in worship", "target_page_ids": [ 17379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because Amaterasu has the highest position among the Shinto deities, there has been debate on her influence and relation to women's positions in early Japanese society. Some scholars have argued that the goddess' presence and high stature within the kami system could suggest that early rulers in Japan were female. Others have argued the goddess' presence implies strong influences female priests had in Japanese politics and religion.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Relation to women's positions in early Japanese society", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "First sunrise", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 67250063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Himiko", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 334158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of solar deities", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1030331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zalmoxis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 83134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ōkami Amaterasu", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39322213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tokapcup-kamuy", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1830224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shinto in popular culture", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23883376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] } ]

[ "Ise_Grand_Shrine", "Japanese_goddesses", "Kumano_faith", "Shinto_kami", "Solar_goddesses", "Sky_and_weather_goddesses", "Wind_goddesses", "Personifications" ]

[ "Amaterasu Ōkami", "Amaterasu Ōmikami", "Ōhirume-no-Muchi-no-Kami", "Amaterasu-Ōhirume-no-Mikoto" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The thermodynamic free energy is a concept useful in the thermodynamics of chemical or thermal processes in engineering and science. The change in the free energy is the maximum amount of work that a thermodynamic system can perform in a process at constant temperature, and its sign indicates whether the process is thermodynamically favorable or forbidden. Since free energy usually contains potential energy, it is not absolute but depends on the choice of a zero point. Therefore, only relative free energy values, or changes in free energy, are physically meaningful.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 29952, 9251, 3616613, 425850, 23703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 71 ], [ 108, 119 ], [ 188, 192 ], [ 200, 220 ], [ 394, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The free energy is a thermodynamic state function, like the internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 341436, 340757, 10274, 9891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 49 ], [ 60, 75 ], [ 77, 85 ], [ 91, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The free energy is the portion of any first-law energy that is available to perform thermodynamic work at constant temperature, i.e., work mediated by thermal energy. Free energy is subject to irreversible loss in the course of such work. Since first-law energy is always conserved, it is evident that free energy is an expendable, second-law kind of energy. Several free energy functions may be formulated based on system criteria. Free energy functions are Legendre transforms of the internal energy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 166404, 3616613, 41789, 467047, 636094, 133017, 185427, 390273, 340757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 47 ], [ 98, 102 ], [ 115, 126 ], [ 151, 165 ], [ 194, 206 ], [ 333, 343 ], [ 446, 455 ], [ 460, 479 ], [ 487, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Gibbs free energy is given by , where H is the enthalpy, T is the absolute temperature, and S is the entropy. , where U is the internal energy, p is the pressure, and V is the volume. G is the most useful for processes involving a system at constant pressure p and temperature T, because, in addition to subsuming any entropy change due merely to heat, a change in G also excludes the work needed to \"make space for additional molecules\" produced by various processes. Gibbs free energy change therefore equals work not associated with system expansion or compression, at constant temperature and pressure. (Hence its utility to solution-phase chemists, including biochemists.)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 238181, 10274, 41789, 9891, 23619, 3281166, 23619, 20647050, 19593167, 28729, 23637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 51, 59 ], [ 70, 90 ], [ 105, 112 ], [ 157, 165 ], [ 213, 222 ], [ 254, 262 ], [ 269, 280 ], [ 351, 355 ], [ 634, 642 ], [ 643, 648 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The, historically earlier, Helmholtz free energy is defined in contrast as . Its change is equal to the amount of reversible work done on, or obtainable from, a system at constant T. Thus its appellation \"work content\", and the designation A from Arbeit, the German word for work. Since it makes no reference to any quantities involved in work (such as p and V), the Helmholtz function is completely general: its decrease is the maximum amount of work which can be done by a system at constant temperature, and it can increase at most by the amount of work done on a system isothermally. The Helmholtz free energy has a special theoretical importance since it is proportional to the logarithm of the partition function for the canonical ensemble in statistical mechanics. (Hence its utility to physicists; and to gas-phase chemists and engineers, who do not want to ignore work.)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 255447, 416681, 30746, 17860, 312252, 1137672, 28481, 23269, 18993869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 48 ], [ 115, 125 ], [ 629, 640 ], [ 684, 693 ], [ 701, 719 ], [ 728, 746 ], [ 750, 771 ], [ 795, 804 ], [ 814, 817 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historically, the term 'free energy' has been used for either quantity. In physics, free energy most often refers to the Helmholtz free energy, denoted by A (or F), while in chemistry, free energy most often refers to the Gibbs free energy. The values of the two free energies are usually quite similar and the intended free energy function is often implicit in manuscripts and presentations.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22939, 5180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 82 ], [ 174, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The basic definition of \"energy\" is a measure of a body's (in thermodynamics, the system's) ability to cause change. For example, when a person pushes a heavy box a few metres forward, that person exerts mechanical energy, also known as work, on the box over a distance of a few meters forward. The mathematical definition of this form of energy is the product of the force exerted on the object and the distance by which the box moved (). Because the person changed the stationary position of the box, that person exerted energy on that box. The work exerted can also be called \"useful energy\", because energy was converted from one form into the intended purpose, i.e. mechanical utilisation. For the case of the person pushing the box, the energy in the form of internal (or potential) energy obtained through metabolism was converted into work in order to push the box. This energy conversion, however, was not straightforward: while some internal energy went into pushing the box, some was diverted away (lost) in the form of heat (transferred thermal energy). For a reversible process, heat is the product of the absolute temperature and the change in entropy of a body (entropy is a measure of disorder in a system). The difference between the change in internal energy, which is , and the energy lost in the form of heat is what is called the \"useful energy\" of the body, or the work of the body performed on an object. In thermodynamics, this is what is known as \"free energy\". In other words, free energy is a measure of work (useful energy) a system can perform at constant temperature. Mathematically, free energy is expressed as:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Meaning of \"free\"", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "free energy ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Meaning of \"free\"", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This expression has commonly been interpreted to mean that work is extracted from the internal energy while represents energy not available to perform work. However, this is incorrect. For instance, in an isothermal expansion of an ideal gas, the internal energy change is and the expansion work is derived exclusively from the term supposedly not available to perform work. But it is noteworthy that the derivative form of the free energy: (for Helmholtz free energy) does indeed indicate that a spontaneous change in a non-reactive system's free energy (NOT the internal energy) comprises the available energy to do work (compression in this case) and the unavailable energy . Similar expression can be written for the Gibbs free energy change.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Meaning of \"free\"", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 18th and 19th centuries, the theory of heat, i.e., that heat is a form of energy having relation to vibratory motion, was beginning to supplant both the caloric theory, i.e., that heat is a fluid, and the four element theory, in which heat was the lightest of the four elements. In a similar manner, during these years, heat was beginning to be distinguished into different classification categories, such as “free heat”, “combined heat”, “radiant heat”, specific heat, heat capacity, “absolute heat”, “latent caloric”, “free” or “perceptible” caloric (calorique sensible), among others.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Meaning of \"free\"", "target_page_ids": [ 2281782, 226412, 6313, 19593167, 28420, 194227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 50 ], [ 160, 174 ], [ 212, 231 ], [ 328, 332 ], [ 463, 476 ], [ 478, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1780, for example, Laplace and Lavoisier stated: “In general, one can change the first hypothesis into the second by changing the words ‘free heat, combined heat, and heat released’ into ‘vis viva, loss of vis viva, and increase of vis viva.’” In this manner, the total mass of caloric in a body, called absolute heat, was regarded as a mixture of two components; the free or perceptible caloric could affect a thermometer, whereas the other component, the latent caloric, could not. The use of the words “latent heat” implied a similarity to latent heat in the more usual sense; it was regarded as chemically bound to the molecules of the body. In the adiabatic compression of a gas, the absolute heat remained constant but the observed rise in temperature implied that some latent caloric had become “free” or perceptible.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Meaning of \"free\"", "target_page_ids": [ 344783, 1822, 1424913, 1419, 508504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 29 ], [ 34, 43 ], [ 191, 199 ], [ 659, 668 ], [ 669, 680 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the early 19th century, the concept of perceptible or free caloric began to be referred to as “free heat” or heat set free. In 1824, for example, the French physicist Sadi Carnot, in his famous “Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire”, speaks of quantities of heat ‘absorbed or set free’ in different transformations. In 1882, the German physicist and physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz coined the phrase ‘free energy’ for the expression , in which the change in A (or G) determines the amount of energy ‘free’ for work under the given conditions, specifically constant temperature.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Meaning of \"free\"", "target_page_ids": [ 28220, 53311, 9649, 3616613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 186 ], [ 375, 396 ], [ 507, 513 ], [ 525, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus, in traditional use, the term “free” was attached to Gibbs free energy for systems at constant pressure and temperature, or to Helmholtz free energy for systems at constant temperature, to mean ‘available in the form of useful work.’ With reference to the Gibbs free energy, we need to add the qualification that it is the energy free for non-volume work and compositional changes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Meaning of \"free\"", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An increasing number of books and journal articles do not include the attachment “free”, referring to G as simply Gibbs energy (and likewise for the Helmholtz energy). This is the result of a 1988 IUPAC meeting to set unified terminologies for the international scientific community, in which the adjective ‘free’ was supposedly banished. This standard, however, has not yet been universally adopted, and many published articles and books still include the descriptive ‘free’.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Meaning of \"free\"", "target_page_ids": [ 255447, 14870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 165 ], [ 197, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Just like the general concept of energy, free energy has a few definitions suitable for different conditions. In physics, chemistry, and biology, these conditions are thermodynamic parameters (temperature , volume , pressure , etc.). Scientists have come up with several ways to define free energy. The mathematical expression of Helmholtz free energy is:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Application", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This definition of free energy is useful for gas-phase reactions or in physics when modeling the behavior of isolated systems kept at a constant volume. For example, if a researcher wanted to perform a combustion reaction in a bomb calorimeter, the volume is kept constant throughout the course of a reaction. Therefore, the heat of the reaction is a direct measure of the free energy change, . In solution chemistry, on the other hand, most chemical reactions are kept at constant pressure. Under this condition, the heat of the reaction is equal to the enthalpy change of the system. Under constant pressure and temperature, the free energy in a reaction is known as Gibbs free energy .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Application", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These functions have a minimum in chemical equilibrium, as long as certain variables (, and or ) are held constant. In addition, they also have theoretical importance in deriving Maxwell relations. Work other than may be added, e.g., for electrochemical cells, or work in elastic materials and in muscle contraction. Other forms of work which must sometimes be considered are stress-strain, magnetic, as in adiabatic demagnetization used in the approach to absolute zero, and work due to electric polarization. These are described by tensors.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Application", "target_page_ids": [ 921525, 9601, 842224, 380541, 228107, 19194778, 19716, 1419, 2404348, 1418, 8378, 29965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 197 ], [ 240, 255 ], [ 275, 282 ], [ 300, 306 ], [ 379, 385 ], [ 386, 392 ], [ 394, 402 ], [ 410, 419 ], [ 422, 435 ], [ 460, 473 ], [ 500, 512 ], [ 537, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In most cases of interest there are internal degrees of freedom and processes, such as chemical reactions and phase transitions, which create entropy. Even for homogeneous \"bulk\" materials, the free energy functions depend on the (often suppressed) composition, as do all proper thermodynamic potentials (extensive functions), including the internal energy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Application", "target_page_ids": [ 26998547, 6271, 54423, 21347411, 255446, 204464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 63 ], [ 87, 104 ], [ 110, 126 ], [ 249, 260 ], [ 279, 303 ], [ 305, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " is the number of molecules (alternatively, moles) of type in the system. If these quantities do not appear, it is impossible to describe compositional changes. The differentials for processes at uniform pressure and temperature are (assuming only work):", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Application", "target_page_ids": [ 37400, 677191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 49 ], [ 166, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where μi is the chemical potential for the ith component in the system. The second relation is especially useful at constant and , conditions which are easy to achieve experimentally, and which approximately characterize living creatures. Under these conditions, it simplifies to", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Application", "target_page_ids": [ 218628, 272063, 18393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 34 ], [ 47, 56 ], [ 222, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Any decrease in the Gibbs function of a system is the upper limit for any isothermal, isobaric work that can be captured in the surroundings, or it may simply be dissipated, appearing as times a corresponding increase in the entropy of the system and/or its surrounding.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Application", "target_page_ids": [ 409951, 414765, 164572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 84 ], [ 86, 94 ], [ 162, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An example is surface free energy, the amount of increase of free energy when the area of surface increases by every unit area.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Application", "target_page_ids": [ 416666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The path integral Monte Carlo method is a numerical approach for determining the values of free energies, based on quantum dynamical principles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Application", "target_page_ids": [ 8988217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For a reversible isothermal process, ΔS = qrev/T and therefore the definition of A results in", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Application", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (at constant temperature)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Application", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This tells us that the change in free energy equals the reversible or maximum work for a process performed at constant temperature. Under other conditions, free-energy change is not equal to work; for instance, for a reversible adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, Importantly, for a heat engine, including the Carnot cycle, the free-energy change after a full cycle is zero, while the engine produces nonzero work. It is important to note that for heat engines and other thermal systems, the free energies do not offer convenient characterizations; internal energy and enthalpy are the preferred potentials for characterizing thermal systems.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Application", "target_page_ids": [ 5994167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 312, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the second law of thermodynamics, for any process that occurs in a closed system, the inequality of Clausius, ΔS > q/Tsurr, applies. For a process at constant temperature and pressure without non-PV work, this inequality transforms into . Similarly, for a process at constant temperature and volume, . Thus, a negative value of the change in free energy is a necessary condition for a process to be spontaneous; this is the most useful form of the second law of thermodynamics in chemistry. In chemical equilibrium at constant T and p without electrical work, dG = 0.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Application", "target_page_ids": [ 133017, 4320083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 45 ], [ 99, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The quantity called \"free energy\" is a more advanced and accurate replacement for the outdated term affinity, which was used by chemists in previous years to describe the force that caused chemical reactions. The term affinity, as used in chemical relation, dates back to at least the time of Albertus Magnus.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6271, 1573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 206 ], [ 294, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the 1998 textbook Modern Thermodynamics by Nobel Laureate and chemistry professor Ilya Prigogine we find: \"As motion was explained by the Newtonian concept of force, chemists wanted a similar concept of ‘driving force’ for chemical change. Why do chemical reactions occur, and why do they stop at certain points? Chemists called the ‘force’ that caused chemical reactions affinity, but it lacked a clear definition.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 238560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the entire 18th century, the dominant view with regard to heat and light was that put forth by Isaac Newton, called the Newtonian hypothesis, which states that light and heat are forms of matter attracted or repelled by other forms of matter, with forces analogous to gravitation or to chemical affinity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 19th century, the French chemist Marcellin Berthelot and the Danish chemist Julius Thomsen had attempted to quantify affinity using heats of reaction. In 1875, after quantifying the heats of reaction for a large number of compounds, Berthelot proposed the principle of maximum work, in which all chemical changes occurring without intervention of outside energy tend toward the production of bodies or of a system of bodies which liberate heat.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 191836, 1440770, 341420, 6178951, 19593167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 59 ], [ 83, 97 ], [ 139, 156 ], [ 264, 289 ], [ 447, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to this, in 1780 Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon Laplace laid the foundations of thermochemistry by showing that the heat given out in a reaction is equal to the heat absorbed in the reverse reaction. They also investigated the specific heat and latent heat of a number of substances, and amounts of heat given out in combustion. In a similar manner, in 1840 Swiss chemist Germain Hess formulated the principle that the evolution of heat in a reaction is the same whether the process is accomplished in one-step process or in a number of stages. This is known as Hess' law. With the advent of the mechanical theory of heat in the early 19th century, Hess's law came to be viewed as a consequence of the law of conservation of energy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1822, 344783, 30369, 28420, 164610, 721233, 243134, 2281782, 67088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 46 ], [ 51, 71 ], [ 96, 111 ], [ 244, 257 ], [ 262, 273 ], [ 390, 402 ], [ 581, 590 ], [ 616, 641 ], [ 729, 751 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Based on these and other ideas, Berthelot and Thomsen, as well as others, considered the heat given out in the formation of a compound as a measure of the affinity, or the work done by the chemical forces. This view, however, was not entirely correct. In 1847, the English physicist James Joule showed that he could raise the temperature of water by turning a paddle wheel in it, thus showing that heat and mechanical work were equivalent or proportional to each other, i.e., approximately, . This statement came to be known as the mechanical equivalent of heat and was a precursory form of the first law of thermodynamics.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 81859, 2239159, 166404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 285, 296 ], [ 534, 563 ], [ 597, 624 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1865, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius had shown that this equivalence principle needed amendment. That is, one can use the heat derived from a combustion reaction in a coal furnace to boil water, and use this heat to vaporize steam, and then use the enhanced high-pressure energy of the vaporized steam to push a piston. Thus, we might naively reason that one can entirely convert the initial combustion heat of the chemical reaction into the work of pushing the piston. Clausius showed, however, that we must take into account the work that the molecules of the working body, i.e., the water molecules in the cylinder, do on each other as they pass or transform from one step of or state of the engine cycle to the next, e.g., from () to (). Clausius originally called this the “transformation content” of the body, and then later changed the name to entropy. Thus, the heat used to transform the working body of molecules from one state to the next cannot be used to do external work, e.g., to push the piston. Clausius defined this transformation heat as .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 175146, 5638, 2747182, 5994167, 9891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 45 ], [ 152, 171 ], [ 694, 699 ], [ 707, 719 ], [ 864, 871 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1873, Willard Gibbs published A Method of Geometrical Representation of the Thermodynamic Properties of Substances by Means of Surfaces, in which he introduced the preliminary outline of the principles of his new equation able to predict or estimate the tendencies of various natural processes to ensue when bodies or systems are brought into contact. By studying the interactions of homogeneous substances in contact, i.e., bodies, being in composition part solid, part liquid, and part vapor, and by using a three-dimensional volume-entropy-internal energy graph, Gibbs was able to determine three states of equilibrium, i.e., \"necessarily stable\", \"neutral\", and \"unstable\", and whether or not changes will ensue. In 1876, Gibbs built on this framework by introducing the concept of chemical potential so to take into account chemical reactions and states of bodies that are chemically different from each other. In his own words, to summarize his results in 1873, Gibbs states:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 37332, 22468364, 9891, 340757, 218628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ], [ 532, 538 ], [ 539, 546 ], [ 547, 562 ], [ 791, 809 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In this description, as used by Gibbs, ε refers to the internal energy of the body, η refers to the entropy of the body, and ν is the volume of the body.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 340757, 9891, 22468364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 70 ], [ 100, 107 ], [ 134, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hence, in 1882, after the introduction of these arguments by Clausius and Gibbs, the German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz stated, in opposition to Berthelot and Thomas’ hypothesis that chemical affinity is a measure of the heat of reaction of chemical reaction as based on the principle of maximal work, that affinity is not the heat given out in the formation of a compound but rather it is the largest quantity of work which can be gained when the reaction is carried out in a reversible manner, e.g., electrical work in a reversible cell. The maximum work is thus regarded as the diminution of the free, or available, energy of the system (Gibbs free energy G at T = constant, P = constant or Helmholtz free energy A at T = constant, V = constant), whilst the heat given out is usually a measure of the diminution of the total energy of the system (Internal energy). Thus, G or A is the amount of energy “free” for work under the given conditions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 53311, 238181, 255447, 340757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 123 ], [ 646, 663 ], [ 699, 720 ], [ 855, 870 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Up until this point, the general view had been such that: “all chemical reactions drive the system to a state of equilibrium in which the affinities of the reactions vanish”. Over the next 60 years, the term affinity came to be replaced with the term free energy. According to chemistry historian Henry Leicester, the influential 1923 textbook Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Reactions by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall led to the replacement of the term “affinity” by the term “free energy” in much of the English-speaking world.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13017, 6134329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 406, 422 ], [ 427, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Energy", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Exergy", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1075005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Second law of thermodynamics", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 133017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superconductivity", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Merle Randall", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6134329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] } ]

[ "Thermodynamic_free_energy", "Energy_(physics)", "State_functions" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The standard circulating coinage of the United Kingdom, British Crown Dependencies and British Overseas Territories is denominated in pennies and pounds sterling (symbol \"£\"), and ranges in value from one penny sterling to two pounds. Since decimalisation, on 15 February 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 (new) pence. Before decimalisation, twelve pence made a shilling, and twenty shillings made a pound. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7558, 31717, 346381, 207114, 178698, 270673, 367168, 200114, 521601, 25339887, 16522275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 29 ], [ 40, 54 ], [ 56, 82 ], [ 87, 115 ], [ 146, 152 ], [ 153, 161 ], [ 163, 173 ], [ 201, 219 ], [ 241, 255 ], [ 357, 362 ], [ 370, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "British coins are minted by the Royal Mint in Llantrisant, Wales. The Royal Mint also commissions the coins' designs.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 274396, 636676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 42 ], [ 46, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to the circulating coinage, the UK also mints commemorative decimal coins (crowns) in the denomination of five pounds. Ceremonial Maundy money and bullion coinage of gold sovereigns, half sovereigns, and gold and silver Britannia coins are also produced. Some territories outside the United Kingdom, which use the pound sterling, produce their own coinage, with the same denominations and specifications as the UK coinage but with local designs.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 242172, 198299, 266325, 303977, 2120576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 93 ], [ 142, 154 ], [ 178, 192 ], [ 195, 209 ], [ 232, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The current decimal coins consist of one penny and two pence in copper-plated steel, five pence and ten pence in nickel-plated steel, equilateral curve heptagonal twenty pence and fifty pence in cupronickel, and bimetallic one pound and two pound. All circulating coins have an effigy of Queen Elizabeth II on the obverse, and various national and regional designs, and the denomination, on the reverse. All current coins carry an abbreviated Latin inscription whose full form, , translates to \"Elizabeth II, by the grace of God, Queen and Defender of the Faith\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Currently circulating coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 1287829, 580238, 365349, 187022, 12153654, 17730, 12153654, 253297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 77 ], [ 134, 151 ], [ 152, 160 ], [ 195, 206 ], [ 288, 306 ], [ 443, 448 ], [ 495, 507 ], [ 540, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All genuine UK coins are produced by the Royal Mint. The same coinage is used across the United Kingdom: unlike banknotes, local issues of coins are not produced for different parts of the UK. The pound coin until 2016 was produced in regional designs, but these circulate equally in all parts of the UK (see UK designs, below).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Currently circulating coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 274396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Every year, newly minted coins are checked for size, weight, and composition at a Trial of the Pyx. Essentially the same procedure has been used since the 13th century. Assaying is now done by the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths on behalf of HM Treasury.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Currently circulating coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 1032804, 370597, 176736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 98 ], [ 197, 229 ], [ 243, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1p and 2p coins from 1971 are the oldest standard-issue coins still in circulation. Pre-decimal crowns are the oldest coins in general that are still legal tender, although they are in practice never encountered in general circulation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Currently circulating coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Coins from the British dependencies and territories that use sterling as their currency are sometimes found in change in other jurisdictions. Strictly, they are not legal tender in the United Kingdom; however, since they have the same specifications as UK coins, they are sometimes tolerated in commerce, and can readily be used in vending machines.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Currently circulating coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "UK-issued coins are, on the other hand, generally fully accepted and freely mixed in other British dependencies and territories that use the pound.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Currently circulating coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An extensive coinage redesign was commissioned by the Royal Mint in 2005, and new designs were gradually introduced into the circulating British coinage from summer 2008. Except for the £1 coin, the pre-2008 coins remain legal tender and are expected to stay in circulation for the foreseeable future.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Currently circulating coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The estimated volume in circulation as at March 2016 is:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Currently circulating coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The English silver penny first appeared in the 8th century CE in adoption of Western Europe's Carolingian monetary system wherein 12 pence made a shilling and 20 shillings made a pound. The weight of the English penny was fixed at troy grains (about 1.46grams) by Offa of Mercia, an 8th-century contemporary of Charlemagne; 240 pennies weighed 5,400 grains or a tower pound (different from the troy pound of 5,760 grains). The silver penny was the only coin minted for 500 years, from c. 780 to 1280.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 87655, 47037, 5314, 23316, 169942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 105 ], [ 265, 279 ], [ 312, 323 ], [ 363, 374 ], [ 395, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the time of Charlemagne until the 12th century, the silver currency of England was made from the highest purity silver available. But there were disadvantages to minting currency of fine silver, notably the level of wear it suffered, and the ease with which coins could be \"clipped\", or trimmed. In 1158 a new standard for English coinage was established by Henry II with the \"Tealby Penny\" — the sterling silver standard of 92.5% silver and 7.5% copper. This was a harder-wearing alloy, yet it was still a rather high grade of silver. It went some way towards discouraging the practice of \"clipping\", though this practice was further discouraged and largely eliminated with the introduction of the milled edge seen on coins today.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 5314, 1356272, 1932700, 26042562, 71083487, 221192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 28 ], [ 187, 198 ], [ 279, 286 ], [ 363, 371 ], [ 382, 394 ], [ 402, 417 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The weight of a silver penny stayed constant at above 22 grains until 1344; afterwards its weight was reduced to 18 grains in 1351, to 15 grains in 1412, to 12 grains in 1464, and to 10 grains in 1527.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The history of the Royal Mint stretches back to AD 886. For many centuries production was in London, initially at the Tower of London, and then at premises nearby in Tower Hill in what is today known as Royal Mint Court. In the 1970s production was transferred to Llantrisant in South Wales. Historically Scotland and England had separate coinage; the last Scottish coins were struck in 1709 shortly after union with England.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 274396, 31165, 1387667, 53851787, 636676, 3029848, 2987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ], [ 118, 133 ], [ 166, 176 ], [ 203, 219 ], [ 264, 275 ], [ 357, 371 ], [ 406, 424 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the reign of Henry VIII, the silver content was gradually debased, reaching a low of one-third silver. However, in Edward VI's reign in 1551, this debased coinage was discontinued in favor of a return to sterling silver with the penny weighing 8 grains. The first crowns and half-crowns were produced that year. From this point onwards till 1920, sterling was the rule.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Coins were originally hand-hammered — an ancient technique in which two dies are struck together with a blank coin between them. This was the traditional method of manufacturing coins in the Western world from the classical Greek era onwards, in contrast with Asia, where coins were traditionally cast. Milled (that is, machine-made) coins were produced first during the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603) and periodically during the subsequent reigns of James I and Charles I, but there was initially opposition to mechanisation from the moneyers, who ensured that most coins continued to be produced by hammering. All British coins produced since 1662 have been milled.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 216702, 10128, 269055, 7426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ], [ 380, 391 ], [ 453, 460 ], [ 465, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1601 it was decreed that one troy ounce or 480 grains of sterling silver be minted into 62 pennies (i.e. each penny weighed 7.742 grains). By 1696, the currency had been seriously weakened by an increase in clipping during the Nine Years' War to the extent that it was decided to recall and replace all hammered silver coinage in circulation. The exercise came close to disaster due to fraud and mismanagement, but was saved by the personal intervention of Isaac Newton after his appointment as Warden of the Mint, a post which was intended to be a sinecure, but which he took seriously. Newton was subsequently given the post of Master of the Mint in 1699. Following the 1707 union between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland, Newton used his previous experience to direct the 1707–1710 Scottish recoinage, resulting in a common currency for the new Kingdom of Great Britain. After 15 September 1709 no further silver coins were ever struck in Scotland.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 169942, 224589, 14627, 5534632, 248322, 338691, 2987, 407950, 23248387, 3029848, 9643, 158019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 42 ], [ 230, 245 ], [ 460, 472 ], [ 498, 516 ], [ 552, 560 ], [ 633, 651 ], [ 680, 685 ], [ 698, 716 ], [ 725, 744 ], [ 796, 824 ], [ 841, 856 ], [ 869, 893 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a result of a report written by Newton on 21 September 1717 to the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty's Treasury the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and silver coins was changed by Royal proclamation on 22 December 1717, forbidding the exchange of gold guineas for more than 21 silver shillings. Due to differing valuations in other European countries this unintentionally resulted in a silver shortage, as silver coins were used to pay for imports, while exports were paid for in gold, effectively moving Britain from the silver standard to its first gold standard, rather than the bimetallic standard implied by the proclamation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 176736, 1523842, 2235798, 37412, 310156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 115 ], [ 195, 213 ], [ 537, 552 ], [ 566, 579 ], [ 597, 616 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The coinage reform of 1816 set up a weight/value ratio and physical sizes for silver coins. Each troy ounce of sterling silver was henceforth minted into 66 pence or 5 shillings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1920, the silver content of all British coins was reduced from 92.5% to 50%, with some of the remainder consisting of manganese, which caused the coins to tarnish to a very dark colour after they had been in circulation for long. Silver was eliminated altogether in 1947, except for Maundy coinage, which returned to the pre-1920 92.5% silver composition.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 19051, 198299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 130 ], [ 286, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1816 weight/value ratio and size system survived the debasement of silver in 1920, and the adoption of token coins of cupronickel in 1947. It even persisted after decimalisation for those coins which had equivalents and continued to be minted with their values in new pence. The UK finally abandoned it in 1992 when smaller, more convenient, \"silver\" coins were introduced.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 187022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since decimalisation on 15 February 1971 the pound (symbol \"£\") has been divided into 100 pence. (Prior to decimalisation the pound was divided into 20 shillings, each of 12 [old] pence; thus, there were 240 [old] pence to the pound). The pound remained as Britain's currency unit after decimalisation (unlike in many other British commonwealth countries, which dropped the pound upon decimalisation by introducing dollars or new units worth 10 shillings or pound). The following coins were introduced with these reverse designs:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 521601, 367168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 20 ], [ 52, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Half penny, 1971–1984: A crown, symbolising the monarch.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 200125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " One penny, 1971–2007: A crowned portcullis with chains (the badge of the Houses of Parliament).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 200114, 13964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 74, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Two pence, 1971–2007: The Prince of Wales's feathers: a plume of ostrich feathers within a coronet.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 200118, 1643623, 985834, 50873, 566083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 27, 53 ], [ 66, 73 ], [ 74, 81 ], [ 92, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Five pence, 1968–2007: The Badge of Scotland, a thistle royally crowned.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 200088, 2193890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 49, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ten pence, 1968–2007: The lion of England royally crowned.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 200093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fifty pence, 1969–2007: Britannia and lion.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 199913, 86124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 25, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first decimal coins – the five pence (5p) and ten pence (10p) — were introduced in 1968 in the run-up to decimalisation in order to familiarise the public with the new system. These initially circulated alongside the pre-decimal coinage and had the same size and value as the existing one shilling and two shilling coins respectively. The fifty pence (50p) coin followed in 1969, replacing the old ten shilling note. The remaining decimal coins – at the time, the half penny (p), penny (1p) and two pence (2p) — were issued in 1971 at decimalisation. A quarter-penny coin, to be struck in aluminium, was proposed at the time decimalisation was being planned, but was never minted.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 200088, 200093, 16522275, 209060, 199913, 200125, 200114, 200118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 40 ], [ 50, 59 ], [ 289, 301 ], [ 306, 318 ], [ 343, 354 ], [ 468, 478 ], [ 484, 489 ], [ 499, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The new coins were initially marked with the wording (singular) or (plural). The word \"new\" was dropped in 1982. The symbol \"p\" was adopted to distinguish the new pennies from the old, which used the symbol \"d\" (from the Latin denarius, a coin used in the Roman Empire).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 8349, 25507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 228 ], [ 229, 237 ], [ 258, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the years since decimalisation, a number of changes have been made to the coinage; these new denominations were introduced with the following designs:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Twenty pence, 1982–2007: A crowned Tudor Rose, a traditional heraldic emblem of England (NB With incuse design and lettering).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 199906, 1101508, 2893298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 36, 46 ], [ 98, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " One pound, 1983–2016: various designs; see One pound (British coin).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 200442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Two pounds, 1997–2014: An abstract design of concentric circles, representing technological development from the Iron Age to the modern day electronic age.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 200386, 14711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 114, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Additionally:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The halfpenny was discontinued in 1984.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The composition of the 1p and 2p was changed in 1992 from bronze to copper-plated steel without changing the design.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The sizes of the 5p, 10p and 50p coins were reduced in 1990, 1992 and 1997, respectively, also without changing the design.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The twenty pence (20p) coin was introduced in 1982 to fill the gap between the 10p and 50p coins. The pound coin (£1) was introduced in 1983 to replace the Bank of England £1 banknote which was discontinued in 1984 (although the Scottish banks continued producing them for some time afterwards; the last of them, the Royal Bank of Scotland £1 note, is still issued in a small volume ). The designs on the £1 coin changed annually in a largely five-year cycle, until the introduction of the new 12-sided £1 coin in 2017.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 199906, 200442, 50389230, 50790994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 102, 112 ], [ 156, 183 ], [ 317, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The decimal halfpenny coin was demonetised in 1984 as its value was by then too small to be useful. The pre-decimal sixpence, shilling and two shilling coins, which had continued to circulate alongside the decimal coinage with values of p, 5p and 10p respectively, were finally withdrawn in 1980, 1990 and 1993 respectively. The double florin and crown, with values of 20p and 25p respectively, have technically not been withdrawn, but in practice are never seen in general circulation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 267793, 2979509, 16522275, 209060, 208593, 242172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 42 ], [ 116, 124 ], [ 126, 134 ], [ 139, 151 ], [ 329, 342 ], [ 347, 352 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1990s, the Royal Mint reduced the sizes of the 5p, 10p, and 50p coins. As a consequence, the oldest 5p coins in circulation date from 1990, the oldest 10p coins from 1992 and the oldest 50p coins come from 1997. Since 1997, many special commemorative designs of 50p have been issued. Some of these are found fairly frequently in circulation and some are rare. They are all legal tender.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 374707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 244, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1992 the composition of the 1p and 2p coins was changed from bronze to copper-plated steel. Due to their high copper content (97%), the intrinsic value of pre-1992 1p and 2p coins increased with the surge in metal prices of the mid-2000s, until by 2006 the coins would, if melted down, have been worth about 50% more than their face value. (To do this, however, would be illegal, and they would have had to be melted in huge quantities, using quite a bit of energy, to achieve significant gain.) In later years, the price of copper fell considerably.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A circulating bimetallic two pound (£2) coin was introduced in 1998 (first minted in, and dated, 1997). There had previously been unimetallic commemorative £2 coins which did not normally circulate. This tendency to use the two pound coin for commemorative issues has continued since the introduction of the bimetallic coin, and a few of the older unimetallic coins have since entered circulation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 5854581, 200386, 391329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 24 ], [ 25, 34 ], [ 75, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are also commemorative issues of crowns. Until 1981, these had a face value of twenty-five pence (25p), equivalent to the five shilling crown used in pre-decimal Britain. However, in 1990 crowns were redenominated with a face value of five pounds (£5) as the previous value was considered not sufficient for such a high-status coin. The size and weight of the coin remained exactly the same. Decimal crowns are generally not found in circulation as their market value is likely to be higher than their face value, but they remain legal tender.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 242172, 1514873, 200497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 45 ], [ 85, 102 ], [ 241, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All modern British coins feature a profile of the current monarch's head on the obverse. There has been only one monarch since decimalisation, Queen Elizabeth II, so her head appears on all decimal coins, facing to the right (see also Monarch's head, above). However, five different effigies have been used, reflecting the Queen's changing appearance as she has aged. These are the effigies by Mary Gillick (until 1968), Arnold Machin (1968–1984), Raphael Maklouf (1985–1997), Ian Rank-Broadley (1998–2015), and Jody Clark (from 2015).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 12153654, 202038, 199934, 201231, 200954, 45574704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 161 ], [ 394, 406 ], [ 421, 434 ], [ 448, 463 ], [ 477, 494 ], [ 512, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All current coins carry a Latin inscription whose full form is , meaning \"Elizabeth II, by the grace of God, Queen and Defender of the Faith\". The inscription appears on the coins in any of several abbreviated forms, typically .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 12153654, 3739389, 253297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 31 ], [ 74, 86 ], [ 88, 107 ], [ 119, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2008, UK coins underwent an extensive redesign which eventually changed the reverse designs of all coins, the first wholesale change to British coinage since the first decimal coins were introduced in April 1968. The major design feature was the introduction of a reverse design shared across six coins (1p, 2p, 5p, 10p, 20p, 50p), that can be pieced together to form an image of the Royal Shield. This was the first time a coin design had been featured across multiple coins in this way.To summarize the reverse design changes made in 2008 and afterwards:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 220541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 387, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The 1p coin depicts the lower part of the first quarter and the upper part of the third quarter of the shield, showing the lions passant of England and the harp of Ireland respectively", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The 2p coin depicts most of the second quarter of the shield, showing the lion rampant of Scotland", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The 5p coin depicts the centre of the shield, showing the meeting and parts of the constituent parts of the shield", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The 10p coin depicts most of the first quarter of the shield, containing the three lions passant of England", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The 20p coin depicts the lower part of the second quarter and upper part of the fourth quarter, showing the lion rampant of Scotland and the lions passant of England respectively", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The 50p coin depicts the point of the shield and the bottom portions of the second and third quarters showing the harp of Ireland and lions passant of England respectively", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The round, nickel-brass £1 coin from 2008–2016 depicted the whole of the Royal Shield. From 2017 it was changed to a bimetallic 12-sided coin depicting a rose, leek, thistle and shamrock bound by a crown.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 47840723, 2193890, 160402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 165 ], [ 167, 174 ], [ 179, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The £2 coin from 2015 depicts Britannia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 86124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The original intention was to exclude both the £1 and £2 coins from the redesign because they were \"relatively new additions\" to the coinage, but it was later decided to include a £1 coin with a complete Royal Shield design from 2008 to 2016, ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and the 2015 redesign of the £2 coin occurred due to complaints over the disappearance of Britannia's image from the 50p coin in 2008.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 86124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On all coins, the beading (ring of small dots) around the edge of the obverses has been removed. The obverse of the 20p coin has also been amended to incorporate the year, which had been on the reverse of the coin since its introduction in 1982 (giving rise to an unusual issue of a mule version without any date at all). The orientation of both sides of the 50p coin has been rotated through 180 degrees, meaning the bottom of the coin is now a corner rather than a flat edge. The numerals showing the decimal value of each coin, previously present on all coins except the £1 and £2, have been removed, leaving the values spelled out in words only.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 1929435, 199906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 283, 287 ], [ 296, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The redesign was the result of a competition launched by the Royal Mint in August 2005, which closed on 14 November 2005. The competition was open to the public and received over 4,000 entries. The winning entry was unveiled on 2 April 2008, designed by Matthew Dent. The Royal Mint stated the new designs were \"reflecting a twenty-first century Britain\". An advisor to the Royal Mint described the new coins as \"post-modern\" and said that this was something that could not have been done 50 years previously.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 16727435, 23603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 254, 266 ], [ 413, 424 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The redesign was criticised by some for having no specifically Welsh symbol (such as the Welsh Dragon), because the Royal Shield does not include a specifically Welsh symbol. Wrexham Member of Parliament (MP) Ian Lucas, who was also campaigning to have the Welsh Dragon included on the Union Flag, called the omission \"disappointing\", and stated that he would be writing to the Queen to request that the Royal Standard be changed to include Wales. The Royal Mint stated that \"the Shield of the Royal Arms is symbolic of the whole of the United Kingdom and as such, represents Wales, Scotland, England and Northern Ireland.\" Designer Dent stated \"I am a Welshman and proud of it, but I never thought about the fact we did not have a dragon or another representation of Wales on the design because as far as I am concerned Wales is represented on the Royal Arms. This was never an issue for me.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 1979836, 1808250, 3776360, 428662, 70760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 101 ], [ 175, 182 ], [ 183, 203 ], [ 209, 218 ], [ 286, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Royal Mint's choice of an inexperienced coin designer to produce the new coinage was criticised by Virginia Ironside, daughter of Christopher Ironside who designed the previous UK coins. She stated that the new designs were \"totally unworkable as actual coins\", due to the loss of a numerical currency identifier, and the smaller typeface used.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 29084623, 5276665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 120 ], [ 134, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The German news magazine Der Spiegel claimed that the redesign signalled the UK's intention \"not to join the euro any time soon\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 210137, 8707127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ], [ 93, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2012, 5p and 10p coins have been issued in nickel-plated steel, and much of the remaining cupronickel types withdrawn, in order to retrieve more expensive metals. The new coins are 11% thicker to maintain the same weight.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are heightened nickel allergy concerns over the new coins. Studies commissioned by the Royal Mint found no increased discharge of nickel from the coins when immersed in artificial sweat. However, an independent study found that the friction from handling results in four times as much nickel exposure as from the older-style coins. Sweden already plans to desist from using nickel in coins from 2015.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016, the £1 coin's composition was changed from a single-metal round shape to a 12-sided bi-metal design, with a slightly larger diameter, and with multiple past designs discontinued in favor of a single, unchanging design. Production of the new coins started in 2016, with the first, dated 2016, entering circulation 28 March 2017.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2015, the Royal Mint announced a new design for the £2 coin featuring Britannia by Antony Dufort, with no change to its bimetallic composition.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 86124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edge inscriptions on British coins used to be commonly encountered on round £1 coins of 1983–2016, but are nowadays found only on £2 coins. The standard-issue £2 coin from 1997 to 2015 carried the edge inscription . The redesigned coin since 2015 has a new edge inscription , Latin for \"I will claim the four seas\", an inscription previously found on coins bearing the image of Britannia. Other commemorative £2 coins have their own unique edge inscriptions or designs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 200386, 200386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 166 ], [ 389, 417 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following decimal coins have been withdrawn from circulation and have ceased to be legal tender.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "† The specification refers to the round coin issued from 1983–2016. Although obsolete, this coin is still redeemable at banks and the British railway systems, and is still legal tender on the Isle of Man.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Circulating fifty pence and two pound coins have been issued with various commemorative reverse designs, typically to mark the anniversaries of historical events or the births of notable people.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [ 199913, 200386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 23 ], [ 28, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three commemorative designs were issued of the large version of the 50p: in 1973 (the EEC), 1992–3 (EC presidency) and 1994 (D-Day anniversary). Commemorative designs of the smaller 50p coin have been issued (alongside the Britannia standard issue) in 1998 (two designs), 2000, and from 2003 to 2007 yearly (two designs in 2006). For a complete list, see Fifty pence (British decimal coin).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [ 9578, 9578, 252854, 199913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 89 ], [ 100, 102 ], [ 125, 130 ], [ 355, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to 1997, the two pound coin was minted in commemorative issues only – in 1986, 1989, 1994, 1995 and 1996. Commemorative £2 coins have been regularly issued since 1999, alongside the standard-issue bi-metallic coins which were introduced in 1997. One or two designs have been minted each year, with the exception of none in 2000, and four regional 2002 issues marking the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester. As well as a distinct reverse design, these coins have an edge inscription relevant to the subject. The anniversary themes are continued until at least 2009, with two designs announced. For a complete list, see Two pounds (British decimal coin).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [ 64202, 200386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 377, 400 ], [ 627, 660 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 2018–2019 a series of 10p coins with 26 different designs was put in circulation \"celebrating Great Britain with The Royal Mint’s Quintessentially British A to Z series of coins\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following are special-issue commemorative coins, seldom encountered in normal circulation due to their precious metal content or collectible value, but are still considered legal tender.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Twenty-five pence or crown (25p; £0.25), 1972–1981", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [ 1514873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Five pounds or crown (£5), 1990–present ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [ 200497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Twenty pounds (£20), 2013–present", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [ 41621143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fifty pounds (£50), 2015–2016", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [ 48693697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " One hundred pounds (£100), 2015–2016", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [ 44880250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The prolific issuance since 2013 of silver commemorative £20, £50 and £100 coins at face value has led to attempts to spend or deposit these coins, prompting the Royal Mint to clarify the legal tender status of these silver coins as well as the cupronickel £5 coin. Royal Mint guidelines advise that, although these coins were approved as legal tender, they are considered limited edition collectables not intended for general circulation, and hence shops and banks are not obliged to accept them.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [ 274396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maundy money is a ceremonial coinage traditionally given to the poor, and nowadays awarded annually to deserving senior citizens. There are Maundy coins in denominations of one, two, three and four pence. They bear dates from 1822 to the present and are minted in very small quantities. Though they are legal tender in the UK, they are rarely or never encountered in circulation. The pre-decimal Maundy pieces have the same legal tender status and value as post-decimal ones, and effectively increased in face value by 140% upon decimalisation. Their numismatic value is much greater.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [ 198299, 38212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 551, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maundy coins still bear the original portrait of the Queen as used in the circulating coins of the first years of her reign.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The traditional bullion coin issued by Britain is the gold sovereign, formerly a circulating coin worth 20 shillings (or one pound) and with of fine gold, but now with a nominal value of one pound. The Royal Mint continues to produce sovereigns, as well as quarter sovereigns (introduced in 2009), half sovereigns, double sovereigns and quintuple sovereigns.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [ 266325, 30757229, 303977, 55408259, 224880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 68 ], [ 258, 275 ], [ 299, 313 ], [ 316, 332 ], [ 338, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1987 and 2012 a series of bullion coins, the Britannia, was issued, containing 1 troy ounce (31.1 g), ounce, ounce and ounce of fine gold at a millesimal fineness of 916 (22 carat) and with face values of £100, £50, £25, and £10.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [ 2120576, 169942, 1356272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 62 ], [ 89, 99 ], [ 154, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 2013 Britannia bullion contains 1 troy ounce of fine gold at a millesimal fineness of 999 (24 carat).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [ 2120576, 1356272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 69, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1997 and 2012 silver bullion coins have also been produced under the name \"Britannias\". The alloy used was Britannia silver (millesimal fineness 958). The silver coins were available in 1 troy ounce (31.1 g), ounce, ounce and ounce sizes. Since 2013 the alloy used is silver at a (millesimal fineness 999).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [ 1988354, 169942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 131 ], [ 196, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016 the Royal Mint launched a series of 10 Queen's Beasts bullion coins, one for each beast available in both gold and silver.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [ 274396, 51317764, 2592308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 22 ], [ 47, 61 ], [ 62, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Royal Mint also issues silver, gold and platinum proof sets of the circulating coins, as well as gift products such as gold coins set into jewellery.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commemorative issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Outside the United Kingdom, the British Crown Dependencies of Jersey and Guernsey use the pound sterling as their currencies. However, they produce local issues of coinage in the same denominations and specifications, but with different designs. These circulate freely alongside UK coinage and English, Northern Irish, and Scottish banknotes within these territories, but must be converted in order to be used in the UK. The island of Alderney also produces occasional commemorative coins. (See coins of the Jersey pound, coins of the Guernsey pound, and Alderney pound for details.). The Isle of Man is a unique case among the Crown Dependencies, issuing its own currency, the Manx pound. While the Isle of Man recognises the Pound Sterling as a secondary currency, coins of the Manx pound are not legal tender in the UK.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Non-UK coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 346381, 15693, 12166, 171647, 1629104, 1092425, 3572056, 14727, 1629201, 1770178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 58 ], [ 62, 68 ], [ 73, 81 ], [ 435, 443 ], [ 495, 520 ], [ 522, 549 ], [ 555, 569 ], [ 589, 600 ], [ 678, 688 ], [ 767, 790 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The pound sterling is also the official currency of the British overseas territories of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, British Antarctic Territory and Tristan da Cunha. South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands produces occasional special collectors' sets of coins. In 2008, British Antarctic Territory issued a £2 coin commemorating the centenary of Britain's claim to the region.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Non-UK coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 207114, 27380, 204418, 31361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 84 ], [ 88, 132 ], [ 134, 161 ], [ 166, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The currencies of the British overseas territories of Gibraltar, the Falkland Islands and Saint Helena/Ascension — namely the Gibraltar pound, Falkland Islands pound and Saint Helena pound — are pegged one-to-one to the pound sterling but are technically separate currencies. These territories issue their own coinage, again with the same denominations and specifications as the UK coinage but with local designs, as coins of the Gibraltar pound, coins of the Falkland Islands pound and coins of the Saint Helena pound.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Non-UK coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 207114, 7607314, 7550182, 26945, 18962604, 1299144, 1630929, 1630924, 1299144, 1630929, 1630924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 50 ], [ 54, 63 ], [ 69, 85 ], [ 90, 102 ], [ 103, 112 ], [ 126, 141 ], [ 143, 165 ], [ 170, 188 ], [ 417, 445 ], [ 447, 482 ], [ 487, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The other British overseas territories do not use sterling as their official currency.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Non-UK coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Before decimalisation in 1971, the pound was divided into 240 pence rather than 100, though it was rarely expressed in this way. Rather it was expressed in terms of pounds, shillings and pence, where:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 60534, 140487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 181 ], [ 187, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " £1 = 20 shillings (20s).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1 shilling = 12 pence (12d).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thus: £1 = 240d. The penny was further subdivided at various times, though these divisions vanished as inflation made them irrelevant:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1 penny = 2 halfpennies and (earlier) 4 farthings (half farthing, a third of a farthing, and quarter farthing coins were minted in the late 19th century, and into the early 20th century in the case of the third farthing, but circulated only in certain British colonies and not in the UK).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 201043, 201063, 201071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 65 ], [ 67, 88 ], [ 94, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Using the example of five shillings and sixpence, the standard ways of writing shillings and pence were:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 5s 6d", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 5/6", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 5/- for 5 shillings only, with the dash to stand for zero pennies.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The sum of 5/6 would be spoken as \"five shillings and sixpence\" or \"five and six\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The abbreviation for the old penny, d, was derived from the Roman denarius, and the abbreviation for the shilling, s, from the Roman solidus. The shilling was also denoted by the slash symbol, also called a solidus for this reason, which was originally an adaptation of the long s. The symbol \"£\", for the pound, is derived from the first letter of the Latin word for pound, libra.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 8349, 462822, 59352, 198312, 367168, 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 74 ], [ 133, 140 ], [ 207, 214 ], [ 274, 280 ], [ 294, 295 ], [ 353, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A similar pre-decimal system operated in France, also based on the Roman currency, consisting of the livre (L), sol or sou (s) and denier (d). Until 1816 another similar system was used in the Netherlands, consisting of the gulden (G), stuiver (s; G) and duit, (d; s or G).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 299259, 462983, 21148, 58341, 3055201, 3055326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 81 ], [ 101, 106 ], [ 193, 204 ], [ 224, 230 ], [ 236, 243 ], [ 255, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the years just prior to decimalisation, the circulating British coins were:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The farthing (d) had been demonetised on 1 January 1961, whilst the crown (5/-) was issued periodically as a commemorative coin but rarely found in circulation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 218492, 242172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 68, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The crown, half crown, florin, shilling, and sixpence were cupronickel coins (in historical times silver or silver alloy); the penny, halfpenny, and farthing were bronze; and the threepence was a twelve-sided nickel-brass coin (historically it was a small silver coin).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some of the pre-decimalisation coins with exact decimal equivalent values continued in use after 1971 alongside the new coins, albeit with new names (the shilling became equivalent to the 5p coin, with the florin equating to 10p), and the others were withdrawn almost immediately. The use of florins and shillings as legal tender in this way ended in 1991 and 1993 when the 5p and 10p coins were replaced with smaller versions. Indeed, while pre-decimalisation shillings were used as 5p coins, for a while after decimalisation many people continued to call the new 5p coin a shilling, since it remained of a pound, but was now counted as 5p (five new pence) instead of 12d (twelve old pennies). The pre-decimalisation sixpence, also known as a sixpenny bit or sixpenny piece, was equivalent to p, but was demonetised in 1980.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 60534, 209060, 267793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 162 ], [ 206, 212 ], [ 317, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some pre-decimalisation coins or denominations became commonly known by colloquial and slang terms, perhaps the most well known being bob for a shilling, and quid for a pound. A farthing was a mag, a silver threepence was a joey and the later nickel-brass threepence was called a threepenny bit ( or bit, i.e. thrup'ny or threp'ny bit – the apostrophe was pronounced on a scale from full \"e\" down to complete omission); a sixpence was a tanner, the two-shilling coin or florin was a two-bob bit. Bob is still used in phrases such as \"earn/worth a bob or two\", and \"bob‐a‐job week\". The two shillings and sixpence coin or half-crown was a half-dollar, also sometimes referred to as two and a kick. A value of two pence was universally pronounced tuppence, a usage which is still heard today, especially among older people. The unaccented suffix \"-pence\", pronounced , was similarly appended to the other numbers up to twelve; thus \"fourpence\", \"sixpence-three-farthings\", \"twelvepence-ha'penny\", but \"eighteen pence\" would usually be said \"one-and-six\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 16522275, 270673, 218492, 5304010, 5304010, 209060, 527167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 152 ], [ 158, 162 ], [ 178, 186 ], [ 224, 228 ], [ 280, 294 ], [ 471, 477 ], [ 622, 632 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Quid remains as popular slang for one or more pounds to this day in Britain in the form \"a quid\" and then \"two quid\", and so on. Similarly, in some parts of the country, bob continued to represent one-twentieth of a pound, that is five new pence, and two bob is 10p.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The introduction of decimal currency caused a new casual usage to emerge, where any value in pence is spoken using the suffix pee: e.g. \"twenty-three pee\" or, in the early years, \"two-and-a-half pee\" rather than the previous \"tuppence-ha'penny\". Amounts over a pound are normally spoken thus: \"five pounds forty\". A value with less than ten pence over the pound is sometimes spoken like this: \"one pound and a penny\", \"three pounds and fourpence\". The slang term \"bit\" has almost disappeared from use completely, although in Scotland a fifty pence is sometimes referred to as a \"ten bob bit\". Decimal denomination coins are generally described using the terms piece or coin, for example, \"a fifty-pee piece\", a \"ten-pence coin\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All coins since the 17th century have featured a profile of the current monarch's head. The direction in which they face changes with each successive monarch, a pattern that began with the Stuarts, as shown in the table below:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 253174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For the Tudors and pre-Restoration Stuarts, both left- and right-facing portrait images were minted within the reign of a single monarch (left-facing images were more common). In the Middle Ages, portrait images tended to be full face.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 31278, 70804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 14 ], [ 19, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There was a small quirk in this alternating pattern when Edward VIII became king in January 1936 and was portrayed facing left, the same as his predecessor George V. This was because Edward thought his left side to be better than his right. However, Edward VIII abdicated in December 1936 and his coins were never put into general circulation. When George VI came to the throne, he had his coins struck with him facing the left, as if Edward VIII's coins had faced right (as they should have done according to tradition). Thus, in a timeline of circulating British coins, George V and VI's coins both feature left-facing portraits, although they follow directly chronologically.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 18835362, 46823, 167335, 46755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 68 ], [ 156, 164 ], [ 262, 271 ], [ 349, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From a very early date, British coins have been inscribed with the name of the ruler of the kingdom in which they were produced, and a longer or shorter title, always in Latin; among the earliest distinctive English coins are the silver pennies of Offa of Mercia, which were inscribed with the legend \"King Offa\". As the legends became longer, words in the inscriptions were often abbreviated so that they could fit on the coin; identical legends have often been abbreviated in different ways depending upon the size and decoration of the coin. Inscriptions which go around the edge of the coin generally have started at the center of the top edge and proceeded in a clockwise direction. A very lengthy legend would be continued on the reverse side of the coin. All but Edward III and both Elizabeths use Latinised names (which would have been EDWARDUS and ELIZABETHA respectively).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 47037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some coins made for circulation in the British colonies are considered part of British coinage because they have no indication of what country it was minted for and they were made in the same style as contemporary coins circulating in the United Kingdom.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A three halfpence ( pence, of a pound) coin was circulated mainly in the West Indies and Ceylon in the starting in 1834. Jamaicans referred to the coin as a \"quatty\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 209897, 5574915, 26750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 17 ], [ 74, 85 ], [ 90, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The half farthing ( of a penny, of a pound) coin was initially minted in 1828 for use in Ceylon, but was declared legal tender in the United Kingdom in 1842.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 201043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The third farthing ( of a penny, of a pound) coin was minted for use in Malta, starting in 1827.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 201063, 19137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 73, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The quarter farthing ( of a penny, of a pound) coin was minted for use in Ceylon starting in 1839.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Pre-decimal coinage", "target_page_ids": [ 201071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to the title, a Latin or French motto might be included, generally on the reverse side of the coin. These varied between denominations and issues; some were personal to the monarch, others were more general. Some of the mottos were:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Mottos", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"I have made God my helper\". Coins of Henry VII, Henry VIII, Elizabeth I. Possibly refers to Psalm 52:7, Ecce homo qui non-posuit Deum adjutorem suum \"Behold the man who did not make God his helper\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Mottos", "target_page_ids": [ 14186, 14187, 10128, 26823832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 49 ], [ 51, 61 ], [ 63, 74 ], [ 95, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"A dazzling rose without a thorn\". Coins of Henry VIII and Edward VI. Initially on the unsuccessful and very rare Crown of the Rose of Henry VIII and continued on subsequent small gold coinage into the reign of Edward VI.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Mottos", "target_page_ids": [ 14187, 10245, 14982802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 56 ], [ 61, 70 ], [ 116, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"We have made God our helper\". Coins of Philip and Mary. The same as above, but with a plural subject.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Mottos", "target_page_ids": [ 54386, 20713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 48 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"I shall make them into one nation\". Coins of James I, signifying his desire to unite the English and Scottish nations. Refers to Ezekiel 37:22 in the Vulgate Bible.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Mottos", "target_page_ids": [ 269055, 9911, 32576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 55 ], [ 132, 139 ], [ 153, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"I reign with Christ as my protector\". Coins of Charles I.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Mottos", "target_page_ids": [ 7426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"May God rise up, may [his] enemies be scattered\". Coins of Charles I, during the Civil War. Refers to Psalm 67:1 in the Vulgate Bible (Psalm 68 in English Bible numbering).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Mottos", "target_page_ids": [ 7426, 9709, 32576, 26823888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 71 ], [ 84, 93 ], [ 123, 130 ], [ 138, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Peace is sought by war\". Coins of the Protectorate; personal motto of Oliver Cromwell.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Mottos", "target_page_ids": [ 161945, 22413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 53 ], [ 73, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Britain\". Reign of Charles II to George III. Found on pennies and smaller denominations.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Mottos", "target_page_ids": [ 46688, 42029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 32 ], [ 36, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " . \"Shamed be he who thinks ill of it.\" Sovereigns of George III. Motto of the Order of the Garter.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Mottos", "target_page_ids": [ 42029, 73259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 64 ], [ 79, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " . \"A decoration and protection.\" Some pound coins of Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and some crown coins including some of Victoria and George V. Refers to the inscribed edge as a protection against the clipping of precious metal, as well as being a complimentary reference to the monarch and the monarchy.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Mottos", "target_page_ids": [ 12153654, 47923, 46823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 88 ], [ 128, 136 ], [ 141, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coins with errors in the minting process that reach circulation are often seen as valuable items by coin collectors.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Minting errors reaching circulation", "target_page_ids": [ 38212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1983, the Royal Mint mistakenly produced some two pence pieces with the old wording \"New Pence\" on the reverse (tails) side, when the design had been changed from 1982 to \"Two Pence\".", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Minting errors reaching circulation", "target_page_ids": [ 200118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016, a batch of double-dated £1 coins was released into circulation. These coins had the main date on the obverse stating '2017', but the micro-engraving having '2016' on it. it is not known how many exist and are in circulation, but the amount is fewer than half a million.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Minting errors reaching circulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2009, the Royal Mint estimated that between 50,000 and 200,000 dateless 20 pence coins had entered circulation, the first undated British coin to enter circulation in more than 300 years. It resulted from the accidental combination of old and new face tooling in a production batch, creating what is known as a mule, following the 2008 redesign which moved the date from the reverse (tails) to the obverse (heads) side.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Minting errors reaching circulation", "target_page_ids": [ 199906, 24057311, 1929435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 88 ], [ 260, 267 ], [ 319, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Banknotes of the pound sterling", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 270680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of British bank notes and coins", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5733096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mark (money)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 339234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Non-decimal currency", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1326729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " One hundred pounds (British coin)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 44880250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roman currency", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 299259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Twenty pounds (British coin)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41621143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Clayton, Tony: Coins of England and Great Britain", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chard, Juliana: Common Names of British Coin Denominations", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " UK Coin Designs and Specifications from the Royal Mint's website", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 274396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Coin Designs — Royal Mint competition designs", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " United Kingdom: Coins Issued and Used – list of all UK coins, with photos and descriptions", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Old Money Converter – converts £sd to decimal currency", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Old Money Converter 2 – converts decimal currency to £sd", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Coins_of_the_United_Kingdom", "Currencies_of_British_Overseas_Territories", "Currencies_of_the_Crown_Dependencies", "Currencies_of_the_United_Kingdom", "Pre-decimalisation_coins_of_the_United_Kingdom" ]

[ "Coins of the United Kingdom" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Melvin Kranzberg (November 22, 1917 – December 6, 1995) was an American historian, and professor of history at Case Western Reserve University from 1952 until 1971. He was a Callaway professor of the history of technology at Georgia Tech from 1972 to 1988.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13575, 230547, 28486339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 81 ], [ 111, 142 ], [ 225, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born in St. Louis, Missouri, Kranzberg graduated from Amherst College, received a master's and a PhD from Harvard University and served in the Army in Europe during World War II. He received a Bronze Star for interrogating captured German prisoners and learning the location of Nazi gun emplacements. He was one of two interrogators out of nine in Patton's army who were not killed during the conflict. He received his interrogation training at Camp Ritchie in Maryland, making him one of the Ritchie Boys.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27687, 19571, 60355, 18426501, 9471005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 17 ], [ 19, 27 ], [ 54, 69 ], [ 106, 124 ], [ 493, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kranzberg is known for his laws of technology, the first of which states \"Technology is neither good nor bad; nor is it neutral.\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He was one of the founders of the Society for the History of Technology in the United States and long-time editor of its journal Technology and Culture. Kranzberg served as president of the society from 1983 to 1984, and edited the society's journal from 1959 to 1981, when he turned it over to Robert C. Post of the Smithsonian Institution. The society awards a yearly $4000 fellowship named after Kranzberg to doctoral students engaged in the preparation of dissertations on the history of technology. The award is available to students all over the world. In 1967 Kranzberg was awarded the Leonardo da Vinci Medal by the Society for the History of Technology.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4937124, 6002056, 65828, 55183923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 71 ], [ 129, 151 ], [ 317, 340 ], [ 593, 616 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Howard P. Segal wrote an informative semi-biographical tribute to Kranzberg in the Virginia Quarterly Review.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 60520289, 3775386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 79, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are two biographical articles by Robert C. Post in Technology and Culture:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6002056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Back at the Start: History and Technology and Culture,\" T&C 51 (2010): 961–94", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Chance and Contingency: Putting Mel Kranzberg in Context,\" T&C 50 (2009): 839–72.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Kranzberg helped found the International Committee for the History of Technology.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18788210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Melvin Kranzberg's six laws of technology state:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Kranzberg's laws of technology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Technology is neither good nor bad; nor is it neutral.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Kranzberg's laws of technology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Invention is the mother of necessity", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Kranzberg's laws of technology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Technology comes in packages, big and small.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Kranzberg's laws of technology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although technology might be a prime element in many public issues, nontechnical factors take precedence in technology-policy decisions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Kranzberg's laws of technology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All history is relevant, but the history of technology is the most relevant.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Kranzberg's laws of technology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Technology is a very human activity – and so is the history of technology.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Kranzberg's laws of technology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Society for the History of Technology (SHOT) Records, 1956–1998 Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " New York Times obituary", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The 6 Laws of Technology Everyone Should Know, Wall Street Journal, 26 November 2017.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1917_births", "1995_deaths", "Amherst_College_alumni", "Harvard_University_alumni", "Historians_of_technology", "Case_Western_Reserve_University_faculty", "Writers_from_St._Louis", "Georgia_Tech_faculty", "20th-century_American_historians", "20th-century_American_male_writers", "Leonardo_da_Vinci_Medal_recipients", "American_male_non-fiction_writers" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Open systems are computer systems that provide some combination of interoperability, portability, and open software standards. (It can also refer to specific installations that are configured to allow unrestricted access by people and/or other computers; this article does not discuss that meaning).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7878457, 41285, 8400335, 227018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 32 ], [ 67, 83 ], [ 85, 96 ], [ 102, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term was popularized in the early 1980s, mainly to describe systems based on Unix, especially in contrast to the more entrenched mainframes and minicomputers in use at that time. Unlike older legacy systems, the newer generation of Unix systems featured standardized programming interfaces and peripheral interconnects; third party development of hardware and software was encouraged, a significant departure from the norm of the time, which saw companies such as Amdahl and Hitachi going to court for the right to sell systems and peripherals that were compatible with IBM's mainframes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21347364, 20266, 20272, 18295, 483650, 21318658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 85 ], [ 133, 143 ], [ 148, 160 ], [ 196, 209 ], [ 468, 474 ], [ 479, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The definition of \"open system\" can be said to have become more formalized in the 1990s with the emergence of independently administered software standards such as The Open Group's Single UNIX Specification.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 57819, 29540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 178 ], [ 181, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although computer users today are used to a high degree of both hardware and software interoperability, in the 20th century the open systems concept could be promoted by Unix vendors as a significant differentiator. IBM and other companies resisted the trend for decades, exemplified by a now-famous warning in 1991 by an IBM account executive that one should be \"careful about getting locked into open systems\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, in the first part of the 21st century many of these same legacy system vendors, particularly IBM and Hewlett-Packard, began to adopt Linux as part of their overall sales strategy, with \"open source\" marketed as trumping \"open system\". Consequently, an IBM mainframe with Linux on IBM Z is marketed as being more of an open system than commodity computers using closed-source Microsoft Windows—or even those using Unix, despite its open systems heritage. In response, more companies are opening the source code to their products, with a notable example being Sun Microsystems and their creation of the OpenOffice.org and OpenSolaris projects, based on their formerly closed-source StarOffice and Solaris software products.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21347024, 6097297, 277663, 33589774, 1470005, 18890, 26980, 68227, 1178658, 68229, 46145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 125 ], [ 142, 147 ], [ 195, 206 ], [ 281, 295 ], [ 345, 363 ], [ 385, 402 ], [ 568, 584 ], [ 611, 625 ], [ 630, 641 ], [ 690, 700 ], [ 705, 712 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Open API", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9989557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Open format", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 262906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Open mainframe", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 50003408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Open System Environment Reference Model", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20671794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Unix wars", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 501636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] } ]

[ "Computer_systems", "History_of_computing", "Open_standards", "Unix_history" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Charles Pierce (July 14, 1926 – May 31, 1999) was one of the 20th century's foremost female impersonators, particularly noted for his impersonation of Bette Davis.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 58164, 63517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 104 ], [ 151, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born in Watertown, New York, he began his show business career playing the organ and acting in radio dramas at station WWNY. He branched out into a comedy routine, attired in tuxedo, yet managing to evoke eerily convincing imitations of popular movie actresses. Eschewing the term drag queen, which he hated, he billed himself as a male actress.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 39087, 58164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 181 ], [ 281, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Initially playing in small gay clubs, his fame spread. He took up residence in San Francisco, where his act became well known to Hollywood stars. As he toured, his costuming became more elaborate, initially adding small props, later full costume and makeup changes. His imitations were imitated by other female impersonators, and his roles included Bette Davis, Mae West, Tallulah Bankhead, Gloria Swanson, Carol Channing, Katharine Hepburn, and Joan Crawford, and these roles became the drag queen canon. His act was centered on wit rather than mimicry; however, it often was said that he looked more like Joan Collins than Joan Collins herself.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 173082, 229818, 171993, 225543, 43337, 45969, 33944016, 53047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 362, 370 ], [ 372, 389 ], [ 391, 405 ], [ 407, 421 ], [ 423, 440 ], [ 446, 459 ], [ 499, 504 ], [ 607, 619 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carol Channing was one of two Hollywood celebrities Pierce \"impersonated\" who actually saw his act. She went backstage after a show at Gold Street in San Francisco (c. 1972) and said \"Cheee-yarles: you do me better than I do!\" The other star was Bette Davis who was snuck into the Studio One Backlot to see his show in the late 1970s. According to Pierce's longtime stage manager and dresser Kirk Frederick in his 2016 authorized Pierce biography, Davis was unimpressed with Pierce's portrayal and refused to go backstage after the show to greet Charles, saying \"There is only one female impersonator who does me right, and his name is Arthur Blake.\" Pierce was never told Davis had attended the show. Shortly after the incident, Pierce was introduced to Davis at a private event through Geraldine Fitzgerald, a mutual friend. Frederick reports that Davis brushed off Pierce with the same reference to Blake but didn't mention attending the show.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 225543, 5796, 1374697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 40, 51 ], [ 788, 808 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He performed at many clubs in New York, including The Village Gate, Ted Hook's OnStage, The Ballroom, and Freddy's Supper Club. His numerous San Francisco venues included the Gilded Cage, Cabaret/After Dark, Gold Street, Bimbo's 365 Club, Olympus, The Plush Room, the Venetian Room at the Fairmont Hotel, Louise M. Davies Symphony Hall, and the War Memorial Opera House.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 3665275, 26363356, 11393186, 693612, 3106708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 66 ], [ 221, 237 ], [ 268, 281 ], [ 305, 335 ], [ 345, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was a guest actor on an episode of TV's Wonder Woman and played a cross-dressing villain in an episode of Laverne & Shirley (\"Murder on the Moose Jaw Express\"). Thanks in part to his good friend actress Dixie Carter, Pierce also appeared on an early episode of the sitcom Designing Women as a steward on a cruise ship. During the episode, he imitates Joan Collins (as the ship's waitress) and Bette Davis (as the ship's lounge entertainment). As Davis, he quips: \"Was that Joan Collins hustling the tables? One bitch on this boat is enough!\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 1410257, 5700, 177780, 684769, 180225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 55 ], [ 69, 83 ], [ 109, 126 ], [ 206, 218 ], [ 275, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He died in North Hollywood, California, aged 72, and was cremated. His memorial service at Forest Lawn Memorial Park was carefully planned and scripted by Pierce before his death. Among those attending his memorial was his friend Bea Arthur, who closed with \"I’ll See You Again.\" His ashes were interred in the Columbarium of Providence, Forest Lawn - Hollywood Hills Cemetery in Los Angeles, California.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 180420, 217201, 180420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 116 ], [ 230, 240 ], [ 338, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Bea Arthur's Tony Award-nominated one-woman show, Just Between Friends, which she played on Broadway and in London's West End, Arthur performed \"A Mother's Ingenuity\", Pierce's favorite joke. It can be heard in the cast recording.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 54741, 69887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 26 ], [ 111, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For Pierce'd Ears (live San Francisco performance), Wanda Records MP2101", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "''Les Natali presents Charles Pierce. Recorded live at Bimbo's, San Francisco- Blue Thumb Records- BTS-30 -1970", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A Charles Pierce tribute site", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ONE National Gay & Lesbian Archives, University of Southern California Digital Archives", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 2069715, 32005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ], [ 38, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Write That Down! The Comedy of Male Actress Charles Pierce, Page 82, Havenhurst Books, 2016 ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Charles Pierce Papers, 1954-1998, *T-Mss 1998-008, Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 17966035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 128 ] ] } ]

[ "1926_births", "1999_deaths", "Male_actors_from_San_Francisco", "People_from_Watertown,_New_York", "Burials_at_Forest_Lawn_Memorial_Park_(Hollywood_Hills)", "Male_actors_from_New_York_(state)", "20th-century_American_male_actors", "American_drag_queens", "20th-century_LGBT_people" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "MFT may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Managed file transfer, a technology that supports secure transfer of files within and among organizations", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Computers", "target_page_ids": [ 18813309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Quarterdeck Manifest, a DOS system diagnostics tool by Quarterdeck Office Systems", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Computers", "target_page_ids": [ 719377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Master File Table, an integral component of the NTFS file system", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Computers", "target_page_ids": [ 39184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Media Foundation Transform, a media processing plugin filter model in Microsoft Media Foundation", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Computers", "target_page_ids": [ 6212419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Multiprogramming with a Fixed number of Tasks, an option of the OS/360 operating system", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Computers", "target_page_ids": [ 14387737, 14387737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 46 ], [ 65, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Micro Four Thirds system, a lens mount for mirrorless interchangeable-lens digital cameras.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 18729407, 52797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 76, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 55131247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marriage and Family Therapist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 31700563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mean-field theory", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 555768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Moral foundations theory", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 37315653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Albrecht III (9 November 141411 March 1486) was Elector of Brandenburg from 1471 until his death, the third from the House of Hohenzollern. A member of the Order of the Swan, he received the cognomen Achilles because of his knightly qualities and virtues. He also ruled in the Franconian principalities of Ansbach from 1440 and Kulmbach from 1464 (as Albrecht I).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2290530, 13849, 8391263, 241700, 16897, 11401, 1587856, 1588160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 70 ], [ 117, 138 ], [ 156, 173 ], [ 191, 199 ], [ 225, 231 ], [ 278, 287 ], [ 307, 314 ], [ 329, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Albrecht was born at the Brandenburg residence of Tangermünde as the third son of the Nuremberg burgrave Frederick I and his wife, the Wittelsbach princess Elisabeth of Bavaria-Landshut. His father served as governor in Brandenburg; a few months after Albrecht's birth, he was enfeoffed with the electorate at the Council of Constance by the Luxembourg emperor Sigismund.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 8206970, 1473157, 3528668, 39363, 38848, 31915881, 14056, 7661, 2646925, 38889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ], [ 50, 61 ], [ 86, 95 ], [ 105, 116 ], [ 135, 146 ], [ 156, 185 ], [ 296, 306 ], [ 314, 334 ], [ 342, 352 ], [ 361, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After passing some time at the court of Emperor Sigismund, Albrecht took part in the Hussite Wars, and afterwards distinguished himself whilst assisting Sigismund's successor, the Habsburg king Albert II of Germany, against the Hussites and their Polish allies. In 1435, he and his eldest brother John went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 303005, 13824, 38447, 27057199, 5800791, 16043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 97 ], [ 180, 188 ], [ 194, 214 ], [ 247, 253 ], [ 297, 301 ], [ 326, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the division of territory which followed his father's death in 1440, Albrecht received the Principality of Ansbach, while John took over the rule as Brandenburg elector. Although Albrecht's resources were meager, he soon took a leading place among the German princes and was especially prominent in resisting the attempts of the towns to obtain self-government.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 3755105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 262, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nevertheless, Albrecht's plans to re-unite the former Duchy of Franconia under his rule failed: in 1443, he formed a league directed mainly against the Imperial City of Nuremberg, over which his late father had formerly exercised the rights of burgrave. It was not until 1448, however, that he found a pretext for attack. After initial military successes in the First Margrave War, he was defeated at the Battle of Pillenreuther Weiher, resulting in the Treaty of Bamberg (22 June 1450), which forced Albrecht to return all of the conquered territory and to recognize the independence of Nuremberg and its associated towns.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 5871206, 28216690, 7629681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 72 ], [ 152, 178 ], [ 362, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Albrecht supported the Habsburg emperor Frederick III in his struggle with the princes who desired reforms in the Holy Roman Empire, and in return for this loyalty received many marks of favour from Frederick, including extensive judicial rights which aroused considerable irritation among neighbouring rulers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 11472, 13277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 53 ], [ 114, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1457, Albrecht arranged a marriage between his eldest son John, and Margaret, daughter of William III, Landgrave of Thuringia, who inherited the claims upon Hungary and Bohemia of her mother, a granddaughter of Emperor Sigismund. The attempt to secure these thrones for the Hohenzollerns through this marriage failed, and a similar fate befell Albrecht's efforts to revive in his own favour the disused title of duke of Franconia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 4158794, 31130, 879716, 4345, 38889, 11401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 104 ], [ 119, 128 ], [ 160, 167 ], [ 172, 179 ], [ 222, 231 ], [ 423, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sharp dissensions which existed among the princes over the question of reform culminated in the Bavarian War from 1459 to 1463, when Albrecht was confronted with a league under the leadership of Elector Palatine Frederick I and his Wittelsbach cousin Duke Louis IX of Bavaria-Landshut. Though defeated in the struggle, Albrecht continued fighting against Prince-bishop Rudolf II of Würzburg and even forged an alliance with his former enemy, the Bohemian king George of Poděbrady, a step which caused Pope Paul II to place him under the ban.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 33657142, 8337682, 38848, 3484514, 7996239, 1625048, 233686, 47173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 112 ], [ 216, 227 ], [ 236, 247 ], [ 260, 288 ], [ 373, 394 ], [ 450, 458 ], [ 464, 483 ], [ 505, 517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Albrecht permanently resided at Ansbach from 1460; he also inherited the Principality of Kulmbach upon the death of his brother John in 1464.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 37032815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1471, Albrecht became Elector of Brandenburg, owing to the abdication of his remaining brother, Elector Frederick II, the year before. Now sole ruler over the entire Hohenzollern estates, he was soon actively engaged in their administration. By the 1472 Treaty of Prenzlau he ended the War of the Succession of Stettin, bringing the Duchy of Pomerania also under his supremacy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 39368, 20038331, 34399322, 682679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 119 ], [ 257, 275 ], [ 289, 321 ], [ 336, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having established his right to levy a tonnage on wines in the mark, he issued in February 1473 the Dispositio Achillea, which decreed that the Margraviate of Brandenburg should descend in its entirety to the eldest son, while the younger sons should receive the Franconian possessions of the family. After treating in vain for a marriage between one of his sons and Princess Mary of Burgundy, daughter and heiress of Duke Charles the Bold, Albrecht handed over the government of Brandenburg to his eldest son John Cicero, and returned to his Franconian possessions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 32381283, 151337, 151328, 16302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 119 ], [ 376, 392 ], [ 423, 439 ], [ 510, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Albrecht's main attention afterwards was claimed by the business of the empire. Seriously ill, he took part in the imperial election of 1486 which selected Maximilian of Habsburg as King of the Romans at Frankfurt Cathedral. A few weeks later, in March, Albrecht died while still staying in Frankfurt; he was buried in the Heilsbronn Abbey church near Ansbach. He left a considerable amount of treasure.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 55856062, 39070, 302609, 9456658, 10992, 5477803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 140 ], [ 156, 178 ], [ 182, 200 ], [ 204, 223 ], [ 291, 300 ], [ 323, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Albrecht was married twice. First, he married 12 November 1446 Margaret of Baden, daughter of Margrave Jakob I of Baden and Catherine of Lorraine. From this marriage he had following children:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 32207465, 3490493, 33105500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 80 ], [ 103, 119 ], [ 124, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wolfgang, born and died in 1450.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ursula (25 September 145025 October 1508, Breslau), married Duke Henry I, Duke of Münsterberg-Oels.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 32164471, 33603, 31523001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 43, 50 ], [ 66, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elisabeth, (29 October 1451, Ansbach28 March 1524, Nürtingen), married Eberhard II, Duke of Württemberg.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 32966558, 412138, 8099230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 52, 61 ], [ 72, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margareta (18 April 145327 April 1509), abbess of the Poor Clares convent at Hof.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 32968115, 369311, 661867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 55, 66 ], [ 78, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Friedrich, died young.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg (2 August 14559 January 1499).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 16302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Margaret died 24 October 1457 and in 1458 Albrecht married Anna, daughter of Frederick II, Elector of Saxony and Margarete of Austria. Their children were:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 31551051, 3058238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 63 ], [ 77, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frederick I, (German: Friedrich II. von Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach or Friedrich der Ältere; 1460–1536), Margrave in Ansbach since 1486 and Bayreuth since 1495.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 11788, 49523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 142, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amalie (1 October 1461, Plassenburg3 September 1481, Baden-Baden), married Kaspar, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 32208048, 2936368, 88156, 12584977, 58558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 25, 36 ], [ 54, 65 ], [ 76, 82 ], [ 102, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anna, born and died in 1462.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Barbara (30 May 1464, Ansbach4 September 1515, Ansbach), married:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 21338130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in Berlin 11 October 1472 to Duke Henry XI of Głogów;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 10137271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in Frankfurt (Oder) 20 August 1476 to King Ladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 98577, 21756351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 44, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Albrecht, born and died in 1466.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sibylle (31 May 1467, Ansbach9 July 1524, Kaster), married Duke Wilhelm IV of Jülich and Berg.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 32967624, 2500535, 29899831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 43, 49 ], [ 65, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Siegmund, Margrave in Bayreuth, (27 September 1468, Ansbach26 February 1495, Ansbach).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 1587081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Albrecht, born and died in 1470.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Georg (30 December 1472, Berlin5 December 1476, Kadolzburg).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 5799647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dorothea (12 December 1471, Berlin13 February 1520, Bamberg), Abbess in Bamberg.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 4896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elisabeth (8 April 1474, Ansbach25 April 1507, Römhild), married Count Hermann VIII of Henneberg-Aschach (1470–1535)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 5961801, 9318750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 55 ], [ 88, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magdalene (29 July 1476, Berlinbefore 4 February 1480).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anastasia (14 March 1478, Ansbach4 July 1534, Ilmenau), married Count William IV of Henneberg-Schleusingen (1478–1559)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 3292076, 9318750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 54 ], [ 85, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1474, Albrecht married his daughter Barbara to Duke Henry XI of Głogów, who left his possessions on his death in 1476 to his widow with reversion to her family, an arrangement which was resisted by Henry's kinsman, Duke Jan II of Żagań. Aided by King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, Jan of Żagań invaded Brandenburg, and the Pomeranians seized the opportunity to revolt. Under these circumstances Albrecht returned to Brandenburg in 1478, compelled the Pomeranians to recognize his supremacy, and, after a stubborn struggle, secured a part of Duke Henry's lands for his daughter in 1482. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 21338130, 10137271, 21721134, 272105, 366221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 46 ], [ 55, 73 ], [ 223, 238 ], [ 254, 282 ], [ 326, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mario Müller (Ed.): Kurfürst Albrecht Achilles (1414–1486). Kurfürst von Brandenburg, Burggraf von Nürnberg (Jahrbuch des Historischen Vereins für Mittelfranken, vol. 102), Ansbach 2014. .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Attribution:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Endnote: See", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1414_births", "1486_deaths", "People_from_Stendal_(district)", "Prince-electors_of_Brandenburg", "House_of_Hohenzollern", "Margraves_of_Brandenburg-Ansbach", "Margraves_of_Bayreuth", "15th-century_German_people", "Burials_at_Heilsbronn_Abbey" ]

[ "Albert III", "Albrecht III" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Israel Defense Forces (IDF; , ), alternatively referred to by the Hebrew-language acronym (), is the national military of the State of Israel. It consists of three service branches: the Israeli Ground Forces, the Israeli Air Force, and the Israeli Navy. It is the sole military wing of the Israeli security apparatus, and has no civilian jurisdiction within Israel. The IDF is headed by the Chief of the General Staff, who is subordinate to the Israeli Defense Minister.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9282173, 64121347, 177619, 1370788, 315904, 3011266, 3226446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 147 ], [ 192, 213 ], [ 219, 236 ], [ 246, 258 ], [ 296, 322 ], [ 397, 423 ], [ 451, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the orders of David Ben-Gurion, the IDF was formed on 26 May 1948 and began to operate as a conscript military, drawing its initial recruits from the already-existing paramilitaries of the Yishuv—namely Haganah, the Irgun, and Lehi. Since its formation shortly after the Israeli Declaration of Independence, the IDF has participated in every armed conflict involving Israel. According to the think-tank organization GlobalSecurity.org, the number of wars and border conflicts in which the IDF has been involved in throughout its short history makes it one of the most battle-trained armed forces in the world. While it originally operated on three major fronts—against Lebanon and Syria in the north, against Jordan and Iraq in the east, and against Egypt in the south—the IDF has primarily shifted its focus to southern Lebanon and the Palestinian Territories since the 1979 Egypt–Israel peace treaty and 1994 Israel–Jordan peace treaty. However, notable Israeli–Syrian border incidents have occurred frequently since 2011 due to regional instability caused by the ongoing multi-sided Syrian Civil War.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 67765, 9846328, 430478, 51525, 15406, 29287, 14696, 15606119, 57217524, 17605687, 23533046, 21975023, 18010061, 21337265, 4205968, 96665, 216183, 216248, 43227423, 30741795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 33 ], [ 95, 113 ], [ 192, 198 ], [ 206, 213 ], [ 219, 224 ], [ 230, 234 ], [ 274, 309 ], [ 339, 376 ], [ 419, 437 ], [ 672, 679 ], [ 684, 689 ], [ 712, 718 ], [ 723, 727 ], [ 753, 758 ], [ 815, 831 ], [ 840, 863 ], [ 874, 904 ], [ 909, 940 ], [ 959, 990 ], [ 1089, 1105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The IDF is unique among the militaries of the world due to its regulated conscription of women since its formation. It is one of the most prominent institutions in Israeli society due to its influence on the country's economy and political scene. It uses several technologies developed within Israel, with many of them made specifically to cater to its needs in its operational environment in the Levant. Prominent Israeli-developed military equipment includes: the Merkava, a main battle tank; the Achzarit, an armored personnel carrier; Iron Dome, an air defense system; Trophy, an active protection system; the IMI Galil and IWI Tavor families of assault rifles; and the Uzi, a family of submachine guns. Since 1967, the IDF has had a close security relationship with the United States, including in research and development cooperation, with joint efforts on the F-15I, the Tactical High-Energy Laser, and the Arrow, among others.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30528678, 18138, 166378, 26595097, 672964, 19278686, 18342427, 146640, 2329281, 2302964, 69892, 418418, 18950865, 83239, 28491, 10919618, 495724, 144755, 198447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 114 ], [ 397, 403 ], [ 466, 473 ], [ 477, 493 ], [ 499, 507 ], [ 512, 537 ], [ 539, 548 ], [ 553, 571 ], [ 573, 579 ], [ 584, 608 ], [ 614, 623 ], [ 628, 637 ], [ 650, 664 ], [ 674, 677 ], [ 691, 706 ], [ 736, 788 ], [ 867, 872 ], [ 878, 904 ], [ 914, 919 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The IDF is believed to have maintained an operational nuclear weapons capability since 1967, possibly possessing between 80 and 400 nuclear warheads; its nuclear-delivery system structure is widely suspected of having been successfully developed into a nuclear triad, primarily consisting of Jericho land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles, Popeye Turbo maritime-based submarine-launched cruise missiles, and various delivery-capable aircraft.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12040469, 21785, 6118105, 216096, 14939, 3361251, 892887, 3247324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 91 ], [ 132, 148 ], [ 253, 266 ], [ 292, 299 ], [ 311, 346 ], [ 348, 360 ], [ 376, 410 ], [ 424, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Israeli cabinet ratified the name \"Israel Defense Forces\" (), Tzva HaHagana LeYisra'el, literally \"army for the defense of Israel,\" on 26 May 1948. The other main contender was Tzva Yisra'el (). The name was chosen because it conveyed the idea that the army's role was defense, and because it incorporated the name Haganah, the pre-state defensive organization upon which the new army was based. Among the primary opponents of the name were Minister Haim-Moshe Shapira and the Hatzohar party, both in favor of Tzva Yisra'el.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 5006115, 51525, 12707489, 1459337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 319, 326 ], [ 454, 472 ], [ 481, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The IDF traces its roots to Jewish paramilitary organizations in the New Yishuv, starting with the Second Aliyah (1904 to 1914). The first such organization was Bar-Giora, founded in September 1907. Bar-Giora was transformed into Hashomer in April 1909, which operated until the British Mandate of Palestine came into being in 1920. Hashomer was an elitist organization with narrow scope, and was mainly created to protect against criminal gangs seeking to steal property. The Zion Mule Corps and the Jewish Legion, both part of the British Army of World War I, would further bolster the Yishuv with military experience and manpower, forming the basis for later paramilitary forces. After the 1920 Palestine riots against Jews in April 1920, the Yishuv leadership realized the need for a nationwide underground defense organization, and the Haganah was founded in June of the same year. The Haganah became a full-scale defense force after the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine with an organized structure, consisting of three main units—the Field Corps, Guard Corps, and the Palmach. During World War II, the Yishuv participated in the British war effort, culminating in the formation of the Jewish Brigade. These would eventually form the backbone of the Israel Defense Forces, and provide it with its initial manpower and doctrine.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 430478, 5585018, 15544661, 1833605, 38584582, 525794, 525794, 4887, 4764461, 434528, 51525, 304601, 3241956, 18057247, 630234, 887206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 79 ], [ 99, 112 ], [ 161, 170 ], [ 230, 238 ], [ 279, 307 ], [ 477, 492 ], [ 501, 514 ], [ 533, 545 ], [ 549, 560 ], [ 693, 713 ], [ 841, 848 ], [ 943, 977 ], [ 1042, 1053 ], [ 1055, 1066 ], [ 1076, 1083 ], [ 1193, 1207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following Israel's Declaration of Independence, Prime Minister and Defense Minister David Ben-Gurion issued an order for the formation of the Israel Defense Forces on 26 May 1948. Although Ben-Gurion had no legal authority to issue such an order, the order was made legal by the cabinet on 31 May. The same order called for the disbandment of all other Jewish armed forces. The two other Jewish underground organizations, Irgun and Lehi, agreed to join the IDF if they would be able to form independent units and agreed not to make independent arms purchases. This was the background for the Altalena Affair, a confrontation surrounding weapons purchased by the Irgun resulting in a standoff between Irgun members and the newly created IDF. The affair came to an end when Altalena, the ship carrying the arms, was shelled by the IDF. Following the affair, all independent Irgun and Lehi units were either disbanded or merged into the IDF. The Palmach, a leading component of the Haganah, also joined the IDF with provisions, and Ben Gurion responded by disbanding its staff in 1949, after which many senior Palmach officers retired, notably its first commander, Yitzhak Sadeh.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14696, 67765, 5006115, 15406, 29287, 1217049, 30323968, 3242865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 46 ], [ 84, 100 ], [ 276, 287 ], [ 423, 428 ], [ 433, 437 ], [ 593, 608 ], [ 1014, 1024 ], [ 1163, 1176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The new army organized itself when the 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine escalated into the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, which saw neighboring Arab states attack. Twelve infantry and armored brigades formed: Golani, Carmeli, Alexandroni, Kiryati, Givati, Etzioni, the 7th, and 8th armored brigades, Oded, Harel, Yiftach, and Negev. After the war, some of the brigades were converted to reserve units, and others were disbanded. Directorates and corps were created from corps and services in the Haganah, and this basic structure in the IDF Organization.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10639341, 36197, 5216035, 5216029, 336388, 334978, 338149, 4335317, 336452, 25645567, 3127635, 3895972, 3895806, 24813260, 336817, 336824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 79 ], [ 99, 120 ], [ 171, 179 ], [ 184, 191 ], [ 209, 215 ], [ 217, 224 ], [ 226, 237 ], [ 239, 246 ], [ 248, 254 ], [ 256, 263 ], [ 269, 272 ], [ 278, 281 ], [ 300, 304 ], [ 306, 311 ], [ 313, 320 ], [ 326, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Immediately after the 1948 war, the Israel-Palestinian conflict shifted to a low intensity conflict between the IDF and Palestinian fedayeen. In the 1956 Suez Crisis, the IDF's first serious test of strength after 1949, the new army captured the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, which was later returned. In the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel conquered the Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip, West Bank (including East Jerusalem) and Golan Heights from the surrounding Arab states, changing the balance of power in the region as well as the role of the IDF. In the following years leading up to the Yom Kippur War, the IDF fought in the War of Attrition against Egypt in the Sinai and a border war against the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in Jordan, culminating in the Battle of Karameh.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 46216, 26866133, 14068131, 58568, 27644, 29328, 12047, 33209, 343508, 7515865, 34276, 181824, 24324, 7515964, 7295983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 63 ], [ 77, 99 ], [ 120, 140 ], [ 154, 165 ], [ 246, 261 ], [ 312, 323 ], [ 363, 373 ], [ 375, 384 ], [ 396, 410 ], [ 416, 429 ], [ 581, 595 ], [ 619, 635 ], [ 692, 725 ], [ 735, 741 ], [ 762, 779 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The surprise of the Yom Kippur War and its aftermath completely changed the IDF's procedures and approach to warfare. Organizational changes were made and more time was dedicated to training for conventional warfare. However, in the following years the army's role slowly shifted again to low-intensity conflict, urban warfare and counter-terrorism. An example of the latter was the successful 1976 Operation Entebbe commando raid to free hijacked airline passengers being held captive in Uganda. During this era, the IDF also mounted a successful bombing mission in Iraq to destroy its nuclear reactor. It was involved in the Lebanese Civil War, initiating Operation Litani and later the 1982 Lebanon War, where the IDF ousted Palestinian guerrilla organizations from Lebanon. For twenty-five years the IDF maintained a security zone inside South Lebanon with their allies the South Lebanon Army. Palestinian militancy has been the main focus of the IDF ever since, especially during the First and Second Intifadas, Operation Defensive Shield, the Gaza War, Operation Pillar of Defense, Operation Protective Edge, and Operation Guardian of the Walls, causing the IDF to change many of its values and publish the Code of conduct. The Lebanese Shia organization Hezbollah has also been a growing threat, against which the IDF fought an asymmetric conflict between 1982 and 2000, as well as a full-scale war in 2006.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7310, 319027, 83392, 66856, 31816, 4191587, 7515928, 312905, 1088850, 181820, 17771, 36734475, 1224174, 71712, 71717, 314792, 20855562, 37641752, 43243199, 67620503, 26961, 13919, 6045065, 6299613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 215 ], [ 313, 326 ], [ 331, 348 ], [ 399, 416 ], [ 489, 495 ], [ 537, 563 ], [ 567, 571 ], [ 627, 645 ], [ 658, 674 ], [ 689, 705 ], [ 769, 776 ], [ 821, 834 ], [ 878, 896 ], [ 989, 994 ], [ 999, 1014 ], [ 1017, 1043 ], [ 1049, 1057 ], [ 1059, 1086 ], [ 1088, 1113 ], [ 1119, 1150 ], [ 1243, 1247 ], [ 1261, 1270 ], [ 1335, 1354 ], [ 1391, 1405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All branches of the IDF answer to a single General Staff. The Chief of the General Staff is the only serving officer having the rank of Lieutenant General (Rav Aluf). He reports directly to the Defense Minister and indirectly to the Prime Minister of Israel and the cabinet. Chiefs of Staff are formally appointed by the cabinet, based on the Defense Minister's recommendation, for three years, but the government can vote to extend their service to four (and on rare occasions even five) years. The current chief of staff is Aviv Kochavi. He replaced Gadi Eizenkot in 2019.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216010, 3011266, 201916, 3226446, 24898, 4239807, 5249926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 56 ], [ 62, 88 ], [ 136, 154 ], [ 194, 210 ], [ 233, 257 ], [ 526, 538 ], [ 552, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The IDF includes the following bodies (those whose respective heads are members of the General Staff are in bold):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Northern Command", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 2895133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Central Command", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Southern Command", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Home Front Command", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ground Arm", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 64121347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Infantry Corps", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1st Golani Brigade", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 336388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 35th Paratroopers Brigade", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 425614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 84th Nahal Brigade", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 342762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 89th Commando Brigade", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 49096690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 900th Kfir Brigade", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 933rd Givati Brigade", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 336452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armored Corps", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "7th Sa'ar Armored Brigade", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 3127635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "188th Barak Armored Brigade", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 268204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "401st Ikvot HaBarzel Armored Brigade", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 2072251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "460th Sons of Light Armored Brigade", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 12667256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Artillery Corps", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Combat Engineering Corps", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 963963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Combat Intelligence Collection Corps", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Air and Space Arm", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Air Force", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 177619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Air Defense Network", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5597850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sea Arm", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Israeli Navy", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 1370788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "General Staff", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Planning Directorate (split in 2020)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Multi-Branch Force Buildup Directorate", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Operations Directorate", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IDF Spokesperson", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5257972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Dado Center for Interdisciplinary Military Studies", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 48407920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Intelligence Directorate", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 2018731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Intelligence Corps", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 47770621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military Censor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5581005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Depth Headquarters", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 34070288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Manpower Directorate", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military Police Corps", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 3511629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Education and Youth Corps", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adjutant Corps", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "General Corps", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military Rabbinate", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Women's Affairs advisor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Manpower Planning and Administration brigade", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Individuals' Department", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Staff Department", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chief Reserve Officer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 13454519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military Courts / Tribunals Unit", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Military Court / Tribunal", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military Advocate General", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military Court of Appeals", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Computer Service Directorate", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Teleprocessing and Signal Corps (C4I Corps)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 44291194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Technological and Logistics Directorate", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ordnance Corps", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maintenance, Supply and Logistics Corps", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medical Corps", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Military Academies", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tactical Command College", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Command and Staff College", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 69613307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Security College", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 69612920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Financial Advisor to the Chief of Staff", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5216022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military Secretary to the Prime Minister", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 22607139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Civilian:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Director-general of the Ministry of Defense", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 1434447, 3226446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 24, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Defense Establishment Comptroller Unit", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5634663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Administration for the Development of Weapons and the Technological Industry", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5595411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Engineering and Construction Department of the Ministry of Defense", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike most militaries, the IDF uses the same rank names in all corps, including the air force and navy. For ground forces' officers, rank insignia are brass on a red background; for the air force, silver on a blue background; and for the navy, the standard gold worn on the sleeve. Officer insignia are worn on epaulets on top of both shoulders. Insignia distinctive to each service are worn on the cap (see fig. 15).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Enlisted grades wear rank insignia on the sleeve, halfway between the shoulder and the elbow. For the army and air force, the insignia are white with blue interwoven threads backed with the appropriate corps color. Navy personnel wear gold-colored rank insignia sewn on navy blue material.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From the formation of the IDF until the late 1980s, sergeant major was a particularly important warrant officer rank, in line with usage in other armies. However, in the 1980s and 1990s the proliferating ranks of sergeant major became devalued, and now all professional non-commissioned officer ranks are a variation on sergeant major (rav samal) with the exception of rav nagad.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 288442, 34050, 166680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 66 ], [ 96, 111 ], [ 270, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All translations here are the official translations of the IDF's website.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Conscripts (Hogrim) (Conscript ranks may be gained purely on time served)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 5735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Private (Turai)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 24795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Corporal (Rav Turai) (also called rabat)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 234095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sergeant (Samal)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 219424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "First Sergeant (Samal Rishon)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 23623489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Warrant Officers (Nagadim)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 34050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sergeant First Class (Rav Samal)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 288435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Master Sergeant (Rav Samal Rishon)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 288436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sergeant Major (Rav Samal Mitkadem)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 288442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Warrant Officer (Rav Samal Bakhir)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 34050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Master Warrant Officer (Rav Nagad Mishneh)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 3786745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chief Warrant Officer (Rav Nagad)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 796361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Academic officers (Ktzinim Akadema'im)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Professional Academic Officer (Katzin Miktzo'i Akadema'i)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Senior Academic Officer (Katzin Akadema'i Bakhir)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Officers (Ktzinim)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 36301328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Second Lieutenant (Segen Mishneh) [1951–Present]", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 201930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lieutenant (Segen) ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 161405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Captain (Seren)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 9320815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Major (Rav Seren)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 201920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lieutenant Colonel (Sgan Aluf)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 33576304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Colonel (Aluf Mishneh) [1950–Present]", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 199023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brigadier General (Tat Aluf) [1968–Present]", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 206220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Major General (Aluf) [1948–Present]", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 36301471, 2965090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 15, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lieutenant General (Rav Aluf)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 201916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Israel Defense Forces has several types of uniforms:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Service dress (מדי אלף Madei Alef – Uniform \"A\")– the everyday uniform, worn by everybody.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 5670378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Field dress (מדי ב Madei Bet – Uniform \"B\")– worn into combat, training, work on base. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 1711381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first two resemble each other but the Madei Alef is made of higher quality materials in a golden-olive while the madei bet is in olive drab. The dress uniforms may also exhibit a surface shine", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 880974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Officers / Ceremonial dress (מדי שרד madei srad)– worn by officers, or during special events/ceremonies.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dress uniform and mess dress– worn only abroad. There are several dress uniforms depending on the season and the branch.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 3123693, 1086173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 19, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The service uniform for all ground forces personnel is olive green; navy and air force uniforms are beige/tan (also once worn by the ground forces). The uniforms consist of a two-pocket shirt, combat trousers, sweater, jacket or blouse, and shoes or boots. The navy also has an all white dress uniform. The green fatigues are the same for winter and summer and heavy winter gear is issued as needed. Women's dress parallels the men's but may substitute a skirt for the trousers and a blouse for the shirt.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 880974, 859077, 747516, 3007587, 185337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 66 ], [ 100, 105 ], [ 106, 109 ], [ 193, 208 ], [ 210, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Headgear included a service cap for dress and semi-dress and a field cap or \"Kova raful\" bush hat worn with fatigues. Many IDF personnel once wore the tembel as a field hat. IDF personnel generally wear berets in lieu of the service cap and there are many beret colors issued to IDF personnel. Paratroopers are issued a maroon beret, Golani brown, Givati purple, Nahal lime green, Kfir camouflage, Combat Engineers gray, navy blue for IDF Naval and dark gray for IDF Air Force personnel. Other beret colors are: black for armored corps, turquoise for artillery personnel; olive drab for infantry; gray for combat engineers. For all other army personnel, except combat units, the beret for men was green and for women, black. Women in the navy wear a black beret with gold insignia. Males in the navy once wore a blue/black beret but replaced it with the US Navy's sailor cap.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 14620227, 9172986, 24084491, 493423, 425614, 336388, 336452, 342762, 5216036, 20518076, 24606165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 72 ], [ 76, 97 ], [ 151, 157 ], [ 203, 208 ], [ 294, 306 ], [ 334, 340 ], [ 348, 354 ], [ 363, 368 ], [ 381, 385 ], [ 854, 861 ], [ 864, 874 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In combat uniforms the Orlite helmet has replaced the British Brodie helmet Mark II/Mark III, RAC Mk II modified helmet with chin web jump harness (used by paratroopers and similar to the HSAT Mk II/Mk III paratrooper helmets), US M1 helmet, and French Modèle 1951 helmet – previously worn by Israeli infantry and airborne troops from the late 1940s to the mid-1970s and early 1980s.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 41155404, 602022, 41438282, 425614, 41273144, 988285, 23081724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 36 ], [ 62, 92 ], [ 94, 146 ], [ 156, 168 ], [ 188, 224 ], [ 231, 240 ], [ 253, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some corps or units have small variations in their uniforms– for instance, military police wear a white belt and police hat, Naval personnel have dress whites for parades, paratroopers are issued a four pocket tunic (yarkit/yerkit) worn untucked with a pistol belt cinched tight around the waist over the shirt. The IDF Air Corps has a dress uniform consisting of a pale blue shirt with dark blue trousers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 3511629, 1824234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 90 ], [ 113, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most IDF soldiers are issued black leather combat boots, certain units issue reddish-brown leather boots for historical reasons— the paratroopers, combat medics, Nahal and Kfir Brigades, as well as some Special Forces units (Sayeret Matkal, Oketz, Duvdevan, Maglan, and the Counter-Terror School). Women were also formerly issued sandals, but this practice has ceased.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 1334761, 4189154, 77766, 344992, 4872236, 11117982, 26576560, 903299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 55 ], [ 77, 90 ], [ 203, 223 ], [ 225, 239 ], [ 241, 246 ], [ 248, 256 ], [ 258, 264 ], [ 330, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IDF soldiers have three types of insignia (other than rank insignia) which identify their corps, specific unit, and position.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A pin attached to the beret identifies a soldier's corps. Soldiers serving in staffs above corps level are often identified by the General Corps pin, despite not officially belonging to it, or the pin of a related corps. New recruits undergoing tironut (basic training) do not have a pin. Beret colors are also often indicative of the soldier's corps, although most non-combat corps do not have their own beret, and sometimes wear the color of the corps to which the post they're stationed in belongs. Individual units are identified by a shoulder tag attached to the left shoulder strap. Most units in the IDF have their own tags, although those that do not, generally use tags identical to their command's tag (corps, directorate, or regional command).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 3710725, 2081057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 253 ], [ 574, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While one cannot always identify the position/job of a soldier, two optional factors help make this identification: an aiguillette attached to the left shoulder strap and shirt pocket, and a pin indicating the soldier's work type (usually given by a professional course). Other pins may indicate the corps or additional courses taken. Finally, an optional battle pin indicates a war that a soldier has fought in.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ranks, uniforms and insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 1904062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The military service is held in three different tracks:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Regular service (שירות חובה): mandatory military service which is held according to the Israeli security service law.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 211022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Permanent service (שירות קבע): military service which is held as part of a contractual agreement between the IDF and the permanent position-holder.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 3135672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reserve service (שירות מילואים): a military service in which citizens are called for active duty of at most a month every year (in accordance with the Reserve Service Law), for training and ongoing military activities and especially for the purpose of increasing the military forces in case of a war.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 36471920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sometimes the IDF would also hold pre-military courses (קורס קדם צבאי or קד\"צ) for soon-to-be regular service soldiers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shoher (שוחר), a person enrolled in pre-military studies (high school, technical college up to engineering degree, some of the קד\"ץ courses) – after completing the twelfth study year will do a two-month boot-camp and, if allowed, enter a program of education to qualify as a practical engineer, with at least two weeks of training following each study year. Successful candidates will continue for an engineering bachelor degree. The Shoher will be enrolled into regular service if he dropped out before finished their P.A. education or in any finishing education stage (after high school, after P.A. or after receiving the bachelor's degree). Another example of a Shoher is a programmer that is under the programming course of School for Computer Professions (, abbr. Basmach ). The course usually lasts about six months, and at its peak, the Shoher receives a programmer badge. The Shoher will have the ability to serve in R&D units without having the engineering credentials if an officer finds him as worthy, and could recommend him for the R&D units. R&D units have the option to provide certificate for few selected personal to allow the person to work on life-saving or flight equipment without having an Eng. license (the certificate is not valid for medical R&D machinery). The certificate is provided by the highest in command in the research field (as an example for the Air Force it is the Chief of Equipment Group).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 636194, 19349690, 188874, 23716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 276, 294 ], [ 414, 429 ], [ 678, 688 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Civilian working for the IDF (), a civilian working for the military.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Israeli Manpower Directorate () at the Israeli General Staff is the body which coordinates and assembles activities related to the control over human resources and its placement.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 5216012, 5216010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 32 ], [ 43, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National military service is mandatory for all Israeli citizens over the age of 18, although Arab (but not Druze) citizens are exempted if they so please, and other exceptions may be made on religious, physical or psychological grounds (see Profile 21). The Tal law, which exempts ultra-Orthodox Jews from service, has been the subject of several court cases as well as considerable legislative controversy.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 181296, 492331, 8632, 1287603, 3018621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 54 ], [ 93, 97 ], [ 107, 112 ], [ 241, 251 ], [ 258, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until the draft of July 2015, men served three years in the IDF. Men drafted as of July 2015 and later will serve two years and eight months (32 months), with some roles requiring an additional four months of Permanent service. Women serve two years. The IDF women who volunteer for several combat positions often serve for three years, due to the longer period of training. Women in other positions, such as programmers, who also require lengthy training time, may also serve three years.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many Religious Zionist men (and many Modern Orthodox who make Aliyah) elect to do Hesder, a five-year program envisioned by Rabbi Yehuda Amital which combines Torah learning and military service.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 649665, 156363, 351513, 2780261, 2295895, 142703, 938728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 22 ], [ 37, 52 ], [ 62, 68 ], [ 82, 88 ], [ 130, 143 ], [ 159, 173 ], [ 178, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some distinguished recruits are selected to be trained in order to eventually become members of special forces units. Every brigade in the IDF has its own special force branch.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 77766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Career soldiers are paid on average NIS 23,000 a month, fifty times the NIS 460 paid to conscripts.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 236825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1998–2000, only about 9% of those who refused to serve in the Israeli military were granted exemption.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 414162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Permanent service is designed for soldiers who choose to continue serving in the army after their regular service, for a short or long period, and in many cases making the military their career. Permanent service usually begins immediately after the mandatory Regular service period, but there are also soldiers who get released from military at the end of the mandatory Regular service period and who get recruited back to the military as Permanent service soldiers in a later period.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Permanent service is based on a contractual agreement between the IDF and the permanent position holder. The service contract defines how long the soldier's service would be, and towards the end of the contract period a discussion may rise on the extension of the soldier's service duration. Many times, regular service soldiers are required to commit to a permanent service after the mandatory Regular service period, in exchange for assigning them in military positions which require a long training period.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In exchange for the Permanent service, the Permanent service soldiers receive full wages, and when serving for a long period as a permanent service soldier, they are also entitled for a pension from the army. This right is given to the Permanent service soldiers in a relatively early stage of their life in comparison to the rest of the Israeli retirees.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After personnel complete their regular service, they are either granted permanent exemption from military service, or assigned a position in the reserve forces. No distinction is made between the assignment of men or women to reserve service.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The IDF may call up reservists for:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " reserve service of up to one month every three years, until the age of 40 (enlisted) or 45 (officers). Reservists may volunteer after this age, with approval of the Manpower Directorate.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " immediate active duty in wartime.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All Israelis who served in the IDF and are under the age of 40, unless otherwise exempt, are eligible for reserve duty. However, only those who completed at least 20 days of reserve duty within the past three years are considered active reservists.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In most cases, the reserve duty is carried out in the same unit for years, in many cases the same unit as the active service and by the same people. Many soldiers who have served together in active service continue to meet in reserve duty for years after their discharge, causing reserve duty to become a strong male bonding experience in Israeli society.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 1009651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 312, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although still available for call-up in times of crisis, most Israeli men, and virtually all women, do not actually perform reserve service in any given year. In 2015, only 26% of the population eligible for reserve duty held an active reserve status. The IDF has reduced the number of reserve soldiers called up to improve efficiency and cut costs. Units do not always call up all of their reservists every year, and a variety of exemptions are available if called for regular reserve service. Virtually no exemptions exist for reservists called up in a time of crisis, but experience has shown that in such cases (most recently, the 2014 Operation Protective Edge) exemptions are rarely requested or exercised; units generally achieve recruitment rates above those considered fully manned.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 43243199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 640, 665 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Legislation (approved in April 2008) has reformed the reserve service, lowering the maximum service age to 40 for enlisted, and 45 for officers, designating it as an emergency and security force (disallowing routine duties that may be carried out by the active forces), as well as many other changes to the structure (although the Defense Minister can suspend any portion of it at any time for security reasons). The age threshold for many reservists whose positions are listed and updated yearly by the Knesset through the Occupations executive order is fixed at 45 or 49, depending on their military occupation and position.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other than the civil, i.e. non-military \"National Service\" (Sherut Leumi), IDF conscripts may serve in bodies other than the IDF in a number of ways.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 12868138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The combat option is Israel Border Police (Magav – the exact translation from Hebrew means \"border guard\") service, part of the Israel Police. Some soldiers complete their IDF combat training and later undergo additional counter terror and Border Police training. These are assigned to Border Police units. The Border Police units fight side by side with the regular IDF combat units though to a lower capacity. They are also responsible for security in heavy urban areas such as Jerusalem and security and crime fighting in rural areas.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 330536, 745595, 83392, 16043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 41 ], [ 128, 141 ], [ 221, 235 ], [ 480, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Non-combat services include the (Shaham, שח\"מ) program, where youth serve in the Israeli Police, Israel Prison Service, or other wings of the Israeli Security Forces instead of the regular army service.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 745595, 4333002, 315904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 96 ], [ 98, 119 ], [ 143, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Israel is one of only a few nations that conscript women or deploy them in combat roles, although in practice, women can avoid conscription through a religious exemption and over a third of Israeli women do so. As of 2010, 88% of all roles in the IDF are open to female candidates, and women could be found in 69% of all IDF positions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the IDF, 535 female Israeli soldiers were killed during service in the period 1962–2016, and dozens before then. The IDF says that fewer than 4 percent of women are in combat positions. Rather, they are concentrated in \"combat-support\" positions which command a lower compensation and status than combat positions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Civilian pilot and aeronautical engineer Alice Miller successfully petitioned the High Court of Justice to take the Israeli Air Force pilot training exams, after being rejected on grounds of gender. Though president Ezer Weizman, a former IAF commander, told Miller that she would be better off staying home and darning socks, the court eventually ruled in 1996 that the IAF could not exclude qualified women from pilot training. Even though Miller would not pass the exams, the ruling was a watershed, opening doors for women in new IDF roles. Female legislators took advantage of the momentum to draft a bill allowing women to volunteer for any position, if they could qualify.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 673848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2000 the Equality amendment to the Military Service law stated that the right of women to serve in any role in the IDF is equal to the right of men. Women have served in the military since before the founding of the state of Israel in 1948. Women started to enter combat support and light combat roles in a few areas, including the Artillery Corps, infantry units and armored divisions. A few platoons named Karakal were formed for men and women to serve together in light infantry. By 2000 Karakal became a full-fledged battalion, with a second mixed-gender battalion, Lions of the Jordan (אריות הירדן, Arayot Ha-Yarden) formed in 2015. Many women also joined the Border Police.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 5306673, 330536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 511, 533 ], [ 668, 681 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2011 Maj. General Orna Barbivai became the first female major general in the IDF, replacing head of the directorate Maj. General Avi Zamir. Barbivai stated, \"I am proud to be the first woman to become a major general and to be part of an organization in which equality is a central principle. Ninety percent of jobs in the IDF are open to women and I am sure that there are other women who will continue to break down barriers.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 31894229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2013 the IDF announced they would, for the first time, allow a (MTF) transgender woman to serve in the army as a female soldier.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Elana Sztokman notes it would be \"difficult to claim that women are equals in the IDF\". \"And tellingly, there is only one female general in the entire IDF,\" she adds. In 2012 religious soldiers claimed they were promised they would not have to listen to women sing or lecture, but IAF Chief Rabbi Moshe Raved resigned because male religious soldiers were being required to do so. In January 2015 three women IDF singers performed in one of the IDF's units. The performance was first disrupted by fifteen religious soldiers, who left in protest and then the Master Sergeant forced the women to end the performance because it was disturbing the religious soldiers. An IDF spokesperson announced an investigation of the incident: \"We are aware of the incident and already began examining it. The exclusion of woman is not consistent with the values of the IDF.\" Defense Minister Moshe Ya'alon has also arranged for women to be excluded from recruitment centers catering to religious males. As the IDF recruits more religious soldiers, the rights of male religious soldiers and of women in the IDF come into conflict. Brig. Gen. Zeev Lehrer, who served on the chief of staff's panel of the integration of women, noted \"There is a clear process of 'religionization' in the army, and the story of the women is a central piece of it. There are very strong pressures at work to halt the process of integrating women into the army, and they are coming from the direction of religion.\" Sex segregation is allowed in the IDF, which reached what it considers a \"new milestone\" in 2006, creating the first company of soldiers segregated in an all female unit, the Nachshol (Hebrew for \"giant wave\") Reconnaissance Company. \"We are the only unit in the world made up entirely of female combat soldiers,\" said Nachshol Company Commander Cpt. Dana Ben-Ezra. \"Our effectiveness and the dividends we earn are the factors by which we are measured, not our gender.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Service", "target_page_ids": [ 434955, 597792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 876, 889 ], [ 1476, 1491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Non-Jewish minorities tended to serve in one of several special units: the Sword Battalion, also known as Unit 300 or the Minorities Unit, until it was disbanded in 2015; the Druze Reconnaissance Unit; and the Trackers Unit, composed mostly of Negev Bedouins. In 1982 the IDF general staff decided to integrate the armed forces by opening up other units to minorities, while placing some Jewish conscripts in the Minorities Unit. Until 1988 the intelligence corps and the air force remained closed to minorities.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 3386379, 11890163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 90 ], [ 244, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Israel has a majority of Jewish soldiers, all citizens including large numbers of Druze and Circassian men are subject to mandatory conscription. Originally, they served in the framework of a special unit called \"The Minorities' Unit\", which operated until 2015 in the form of the independent Herev Gdud (\"Sword\") battalion. However, since the 1980s Druze soldiers have increasingly protested this practice, which they considered a means of segregating them and denying them access to elite units (like sayeret units). The army has increasingly admitted Druze soldiers to regular combat units and promoted them to higher ranks from which they had been previously excluded. In 2015 Rav Aluf Gadi Eizenkot ordered the unit's closure in order to assimilate the Druze soldiers no differently than Jewish soldiers, as part of an ongoing reorganization of the army. Several Druze officers reached ranks as high as Major General, and many received commendations for distinguished service. In proportion to their numbers, the Druze people achieve much higher—documented—levels in the Israeli army than other soldiers. Nevertheless, some Druze still charge that discrimination continues, such as exclusion from the Air Force, although the official low security classification for Druze has been abolished for some time. The first Druze aircraft navigator completed his training course in 2005; like all air force pilots, his identity is not disclosed. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, many Druze who had initially sided with the Arabs deserted their ranks to either return to their villages or side with Israel in various capacities.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 29421842, 24785525, 3386379, 77766, 5249926, 177619, 36197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 96 ], [ 101, 111 ], [ 313, 332 ], [ 512, 519 ], [ 699, 712 ], [ 1215, 1224 ], [ 1463, 1484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the late 1970s the Druze Initiative Committee, centered at the village of Beit Jan and linked to Maki, has campaigned to abolish Druze conscription.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 6010589, 1229373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 88 ], [ 103, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military service is a tradition among some of the Druze population, with most opposition in Druze communities of the Golan Heights; 83 percent of Druze boys serve in the army, according to the IDF's statistics. According to the Israeli army in 2010, 369 Druze soldiers had been killed in combat operations since 1948.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 7515865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By law, all Israeli citizens are subject to conscription. The Defense Minister has complete discretion to grant exemption to individual citizens or classes of citizens. A long-standing policy dating to Israel's early years extends an exemption to all other Israeli minorities (most notably Israeli Arabs). However, there is a long-standing government policy of encouraging Bedouins to volunteer and of offering them various inducements, and in some impoverished Bedouin communities a military career seems one of the few means of (relative) social mobility available. Also, Muslims and Christians are accepted as volunteers, even if older than 18.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 492331, 61770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 290, 302 ], [ 373, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From among non-Bedouin Arab citizens, the number of volunteers for military service—some Christian Arabs and even a few Muslim Arabs—is minute, and the government makes no special effort to increase it. Six Israeli Arabs have received orders of distinction as a result of their military service; of them the most famous is a Bedouin officer, Lieutenant Colonel Abd el-Majid Hidr (also known as Amos Yarkoni), who received the Order of Distinction. Vahid el Huzil was the first Bedouin to be a battalion commander.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 793911, 5812886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 104 ], [ 394, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until the second term of Yitzhak Rabin as Prime Minister (1992–1995), social benefits given to families in which at least one member (including a grandfather, uncle, or cousin) had served at some time in the armed forces were significantly higher than to \"non-military\" families, which was considered a means of blatant discrimination between Jews and Arabs. Rabin led the abolition of the measure, in the teeth of strong opposition from the Right. At present, the only official advantage from military service is the attaining of security clearance and serving in some types of government positions (in most cases, security-related), as well as some indirect benefits.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 43983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rather than perform army service, Israeli Arab youths have the option to volunteer to national service and receive benefits similar to those received by discharged soldiers. The volunteers are generally allocated to Arab populations, where they assist with social and community matters. 1,473 Arabs were volunteering for national service. According to sources in the national service administration, Arab leaders are counseling youths to refrain from performing services to the state. According to a National Service official, \"For years the Arab leadership has demanded, justifiably, benefits for Arab youths similar to those received by discharged soldiers. Now, when this opportunity is available, it is precisely these leaders who reject the state's call to come and do the service, and receive these benefits.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 12868138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Arabs are not obliged to serve in IDF, any Arab can volunteer. In 2008 a Muslim Arab woman was serving as a medic with unit 669.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cpl. Elinor Joseph from Haifa became the first female Arab combat soldier for IDF.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 32720811, 55606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 18 ], [ 24, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other Arab-Muslim officers who have served in the IDF are Second Lieutenant Hisham Abu Varia and Major Ala Wahib, the highest ranking Muslim officer in the IDF in 2013.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 201930, 201920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 75 ], [ 97, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2012 the IDF promoted Mona Abdo to become the first female Christian Arab to the rank of combat commander. Abdo had voluntarily enlisted in the IDF, which her family had encouraged, and transferred from the Ordnance Corps to the Caracal Battalion, a mixed-gender unit with both Jewish and Arab soldiers.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 5216039, 5306673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 232 ], [ 240, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014 an increase of Israeli Christian Arabs joining the army was reported.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Muslim Arabs have also been drafted into the Israel Defense Forces in increasing numbers in recent years. In 2020, 606 Muslim Arabs were drafted, compared to 489 in 2019 and 436 in 2018. More than half of those who have drafted have gone into combat roles.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The IDF carried out extended missions in Ethiopia and neighboring states, whose purpose was to protect Ethiopian Jews (Beta Israel) and to help their immigration to Israel. The IDF adopted policies and special activities for absorption and integration of Ethiopian immigrant soldiers, reported to have much improved the achievements and integration of those soldiers in the army, and Israeli society in general. Statistical research showed that the Ethiopian soldiers are esteemed as excellent soldiers and many aspire to be recruited to combat units.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 187749, 763500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 49 ], [ 103, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Men in the Haredi community may choose to defer service while enrolled in yeshivot (see Tal committee); many avoid conscription altogether. This special arrangement is called Torato Omanuto, and has given rise to tensions between the Israeli religious and secular communities. While options exist for Haredim to serve in the IDF in an atmosphere accommodating to their religious convictions, most Haredim do not choose to serve in the IDF.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 53835, 142494, 3018621, 27927659, 34247772, 54355513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 74, 82 ], [ 88, 101 ], [ 175, 189 ], [ 210, 221 ], [ 335, 390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Haredi males have the option of serving in the 97th \"Netzah Yehuda\" Infantry Battalion. This unit is a standard IDF infantry battalion focused on the Jenin region. To facilitate Haredi soldiers to serve, the Netzah Yehuda military bases follow the standards of Jewish dietary laws; the only women permitted on these bases are wives of soldiers and officers. Additionally, some Haredim serve in the IDF via the Hesder system, principally designed for the Religious Zionist sector; it is a 5-year program which includes 2 years of religious studies, 1½ years of military service and 1½ years of religious studies during which the soldiers can be recalled to active duty at any moment. Haredi soldiers may join other units of the IDF, but rarely do.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 4567368, 50997, 16881, 2780261, 649665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 86 ], [ 150, 155 ], [ 261, 280 ], [ 410, 416 ], [ 454, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The IDF has identified a gap of hundreds of soldiers in their technical units that might be filled by the Haredi. The IAF is currently using defense contractors to fill in the gaps and continue operations.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 608296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the IDF claims it will not discriminate against women, it is offering Haredim \"women free and secular free\" recruitment centers. Defense Minister Moshe Ya'alon expressed his willingness to relax regulations to meet the demands of ultra-Orthodox rabbis. Regulations regarding gender equality had already been relaxed so that Haredim could be assured that men would not receive physical exams from female medical staff.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 5358303, 1271927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 98 ], [ 284, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Israel is one of 24 nations that allow openly gay individuals to serve in the military. Since the early 1990s, sexual identity presents no formal barrier in terms of soldiers' military specialization or eligibility for promotion.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Until the 1980s the IDF tended to discharge soldiers who were openly gay. In 1983 the IDF permitted homosexuals to serve, but banned them from intelligence and top-secret positions. A decade later, Professor Uzi Even, an IDF reserves officer and chairman of Tel Aviv University's Chemistry Department, revealed that his rank had been revoked and that he had been barred from researching sensitive topics in military intelligence, solely because of his sexual orientation. His testimony to the Knesset in 1993 raised a political storm, forcing the IDF to remove such restrictions against gays.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 161402, 74656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 258, 277 ], [ 493, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The chief of staff's policy states that it is strictly forbidden to harm or hurt anyone's dignity or feeling based on their gender or sexual orientation in any way, including signs, slogans, pictures, poems, lectures, any means of guidance, propaganda, publishing, voicing, and utterance. Moreover, gays in the IDF have additional rights, such as the right to take a shower alone if they want to. According to a University of California, Santa Barbara study, a brigadier general stated that Israelis show a \"great tolerance\" for gay soldiers. Consul David Saranga at the Israeli Consulate in New York, who was interviewed by the St. Petersburg Times, said, \"It's a non-issue. You can be a very good officer, a creative one, a brave one, and be gay at the same time.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 211917, 19993954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 412, 451 ], [ 550, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A study published by the Israel Gay Youth (IGY) Movement in January 2012 found that half of the homosexual soldiers who serve in the IDF suffer from violence and homophobia, although the head of the group said that \"I am happy to say that the intention among the top brass is to change that.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 4202474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Israel is the only country in the world that requires deaf and hard-of-hearing people to serve in the military. Sign language interpreters are provided during training, and many of them serve in non-combat capacities such as mapping and office work. The major language spoken by Deaf in Israel is Israeli Sign Language (also called Shassi)–a language related to German Sign Language but not Hebrew or any other local language–though Israel and Palestine are home to numerous sign languages spoken by various populations like Bedouins' Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 3832674, 1875369, 2782380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 297, 318 ], [ 362, 382 ], [ 535, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to a Care2 report, vegans in the IDF may refuse vaccination if they oppose animal testing. They are given artificial leather boots and a black fleece beret. Until 2014, vegan soldiers in the IDF received special allowances to buy their own food, when this policy was replaced with vegan food being provided in all bases, as well as vegan combat rations being offered to vegan combat soldiers.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [ 6003931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In cases when a citizen cannot be normally drafted by the law (old age, served as a soldier in a different country, severe health problems, handicaps, autism, etc.), the person could enroll as a volunteer in places where his knowledge can be used or in cases where there is a base that accepts volunteer service from one day per week up to full-time service based upon a volunteer's abilities and wishes.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Minorities in the IDF", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Non-immigrating foreign volunteers typically serve with the IDF in one of five ways:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Overseas volunteers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Mahal program targets young non-Israeli Jews or Israeli citizens who grew up abroad (men younger than 24 and women younger than 21). The program consists typically of 18 months of IDF service, including a lengthy training for those in combat units or (for 18 months) one month of non-combat training and additional two months of learning Hebrew after enlisting, if necessary. There are two additional subcategories of Mahal, both geared solely for religious men: Mahal Nahal Haredi (18 months), and Mahal Hesder, which combines yeshiva study of 5 months with IDF service of 16 months, for a total of 21 months. Similar IDF programs exist for Israeli overseas residents. To be accepted as a Mahal Volunteer, one must be of Jewish descent (at least one Jewish grandparent).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Overseas volunteers", "target_page_ids": [ 3231528, 13450, 4567368, 2780261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 10 ], [ 343, 349 ], [ 474, 486 ], [ 510, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sar-El, an organization subordinate to the Israeli Logistics Corps, provides a volunteer program for non-Israeli citizens who are 17 years or older (or 15 if accompanied by a parent). The program is also aimed at Israeli citizens, aged 30 years or older, living abroad who did not serve in the Israeli Army and who now wish to finalize their status with the military. The program usually consists of three weeks of volunteer service on different rear army bases, doing non-combative work.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Overseas volunteers", "target_page_ids": [ 41625821, 5216047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 52, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Garin Tzabar offers a program mainly for Israelis who emigrated with their parents to the United States at a young age. Although a basic knowledge of the Hebrew language is not mandatory, it is helpful. Of all the programs listed, only Garin Tzabar requires full-length service in the IDF. The program is set up in stages: first the participants go through five seminars in their country of origin, then have an absorption period in Israel at a kibbutz. Each delegation is adopted by a kibbutz in Israel and has living quarters designated for it. The delegation shares responsibilities in the kibbutz when on military leave. Participants start the program three months before being enlisted in the army at the beginning of August.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Overseas volunteers", "target_page_ids": [ 20317809, 106200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 446, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marva is short-term basic training for two months.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Overseas volunteers", "target_page_ids": [ 5325731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lev LaChayal is a program based at Yeshivat Lev Hatorah which takes a holistic approach to preparation for service. Being as ready as possible for integrating into Israeli culture, handling the physical challenges of the military, and maintaining religious values require a multi-pronged approach. The beit midrash learning, classes, physical training, and even the recreational activities are designed to allow for maximum readiness.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Overseas volunteers", "target_page_ids": [ 17056772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The IDF's mission is to \"defend the existence, territorial integrity and sovereignty of the state of Israel. To protect the inhabitants of Israel and to combat all forms of terrorism which threaten the daily life.\" The Israeli military's primary principles derive from Israel's need to combat numerically superior opponents. One such principle, is the concept that Israel cannot afford to lose a single war. The IDF believes that this is possible if it can rapidly mobilize troops to insure that they engage the enemy in enemy territory. In the 21st Century, various nonconventional threats including terrorist organizations, subterranean infrastructure operated by Hamas, etc. have forced the IDF to modify its official defense doctrine.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Mission", "target_page_ids": [ 43413500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 626, 671 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main doctrine consists of the following principles:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Israel cannot afford to lose a single war", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Defensive on the strategic level, no territorial ambitions", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Desire to avoid war by political means and a credible deterrent posture", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Preventing escalation", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Determine the outcome of war quickly and decisively", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Combating terrorism", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Very low casualty ratio", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A small standing army with an early warning capability, regular air force and navy", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [ 1750278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " An efficient reserve mobilization and transportation system", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Multi-arm coordination", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Transferring the battle to enemy territory quickly", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Quick attainment of war objectives", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1992, the IDF drafted a Code of Conduct that combines international law, Israeli law, Jewish heritage and the IDF's own traditional ethical code—the IDF Spirit (, Ru'ah Tzahal).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The document defines three core values for all IDF soldiers to follow, as well as ten secondary values (the first being most important, and the others appearing sorted in Hebrew alphabetical order):", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Core values", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Defense of the State, its Citizens and its Residents", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Love of the Homeland and Loyalty to the Country", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Human Dignity", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other values", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tenacity of Purpose in Performing Missions and Drive to Victory", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Responsibility", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Credibility ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Personal Example", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Human Life", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Purity of Arms", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [ 2045884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Professionalism", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [ 290809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Discipline", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Comradeship", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sense of Mission", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2005, Asa Kasher and Amos Yadlin co-authored a noticed article published in the Journal of Military Ethics under the title: \"Military Ethics of Fighting Terror: An Israeli Perspective\". The article was meant as an \"extension of the classical Just War Theory\", and as a \"[needed] third model\" or missing paradigm besides which of \"classical war (army) and law enforcement (police).\", resulting in a \"doctrine (...) on the background of the IDF fight against acts and activities of terror performed by Palestinian individuals and organizations.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [ 13807808, 5235035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 19 ], [ 24, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In this article, Kasher and Yadlin came to the conclusion that targeted killings of terrorists were justifiable, even at the cost of hitting nearby civilians. In a 2009 interview to Haaretz, Asa Kasher later confirmed, pointing to the fact that in an area in which the IDF does not have effective security control (e.g., Gaza, vs. East-Jerusalem), soldiers' lives protection takes priority over avoiding injury to enemy civilians. Some, along with Avishai Margalit and Michael Walzer, have recused this argument, advancing that such position was \"contrary to centuries of theorizing about the morality of war as well as international humanitarian law\", since drawing \"a sharp line between combatants and noncombatants\" would be \"the only morally relevant distinction that all those involved in a war can agree on.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [ 33928336, 64878, 6193050, 718019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 79 ], [ 182, 189 ], [ 448, 464 ], [ 469, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The article was intended to (then Chief of Staff) Moshe Ya'alon, to serve as a basis for a new \"code of conduct\". Although Moshe Ya'alon did endorse the article's views, and is reported to have presented it numerous times before military forums, it was never actually turned into a binding IDF document or an actual \"code\", neither by Ya'alon nor its successors. However, the document have since reportedly been adapted to serve as educational material, designed to emphasizes the right behavior in low intensity warfare against terrorists, where soldiers must operate within a civilian population.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [ 434955, 319088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 63 ], [ 499, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of today \"The Spirit of the IDF\" (cf. supra) is still considered the only binding moral code that formally applies to the IDF troops. In 2009, Amos Yadlin (then head of Military Intelligence) suggested that the article he co-authored with Asa Kasher be ratified as a formal binding code, arguing that \"the current code ['The Spirit of the IDF'] does not sufficiently address one of the army's most pressing challenges: asymmetric warfare against terrorist organizations that operate amid a civilian population\".", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Doctrine", "target_page_ids": [ 5235035, 146678, 13807808, 46863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 157 ], [ 172, 193 ], [ 242, 252 ], [ 422, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During 1950–66, Israel spent an average of 9% of its GDP on defense. Defense expenditures increased dramatically after both the 1967 and 1973 wars. They reached a high of about 30% of GDP in 1975, but have since come down significantly, following the signing of peace agreements with Jordan and Egypt.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Budget", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 30 September 2009 Defense Minister Ehud Barak, Finance Minister Yuval Steinitz and Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu endorsed an additional NIS 1.5billion for the defense budget to help Israel address problems regarding Iran. The budget changes came two months after Israel had approved its current two-year budget. The defense budget in 2009 stood at NIS 48.6billion and NIS 53.2billion for 2010 – the highest amount in Israel's history. The figure constituted 6.3% of expected gross domestic product and 15.1% of the overall budget, even before the planned NIS 1.5billion addition.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Budget", "target_page_ids": [ 56472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, in 2011, the prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu reversed course and moved to make significant cuts in the defense budget in order to pay for social programs. The General Staff concluded that the proposed cuts endangered the battle readiness of the armed forces. In 2012, Israel spent $15.2billion on its armed forces, one of the highest ratios of defense spending to GDP among developed countries ($1,900 per person). However, Israel's spending per capita is below that of the US.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Budget", "target_page_ids": [ 56472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Field rations, called manot krav, usually consist of canned tuna, sardines, beans, stuffed vine leaves, maize and fruit cocktail and bars of halva. Packets of fruit flavored drink powder are also provided along with condiments like ketchup, mustard, chocolate spread and jam. Around 2010, the IDF announced that certain freeze dried MREs served in water activated disposable heaters like goulash, turkey schwarma and meatballs would be introduced as field rations.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Field rations", "target_page_ids": [ 2240648, 46211, 235436, 4487, 3515204, 20656228, 1310911, 182802, 67922, 30860614, 202437, 235662, 453166, 30876149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 60, 64 ], [ 66, 74 ], [ 76, 81 ], [ 83, 102 ], [ 104, 109 ], [ 114, 128 ], [ 141, 146 ], [ 233, 240 ], [ 242, 249 ], [ 334, 337 ], [ 389, 396 ], [ 405, 413 ], [ 418, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One staple of these rations was loof, a type of Kosher spam made from chicken or beef that was phased out around 2008. Food historian Gil Marks has written that: \"Many Israeli soldiers insist that Loof uses all the parts of the cow that the hot dog manufacturers will not accept, but no one outside of the manufacturer and the kosher supervisors actually know what is inside.\"", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Field rations", "target_page_ids": [ 28367, 28367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 36 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The IDF possesses various foreign and domestically produced weapons and computer systems. Some gear comes from the US (with some equipment modified for IDF use) such as the M4A1 and M16 assault rifles, the M24 SWS 7.62mm bolt action sniper rifle, the SR-25 7.62mm semi-automatic sniper rifle, the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon fighter jets, and the AH-1 Cobra and AH-64D Apache attack helicopters. Israel has also developed its own independent weapons industry, which has developed weapons and vehicles such as the Merkava battle tank series, Nesher and Kfir fighter aircraft, and various small arms such as the Galil and Tavor assault rifles, and the Uzi submachine gun. Israel has also installed a variant of the Samson RCWS, a remote controlled weapons platform, which can include machine guns, grenade launchers, and anti-tank missiles on a remotely operated turret, in pillboxes along the Israeli Gaza Strip barrier intended to prevent Palestinian militants from entering its territory. Israel has developed observation balloons equipped with sophisticated cameras and surveillance systems used to thwart terror attacks from Gaza. The IDF also possesses advanced combat engineering equipment which include the IDF Caterpillar D9 armored bulldozer, IDF Puma CEV, Tzefa Shiryon and CARPET minefield breaching rockets, and a variety of robots and explosive devices.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Weapons and equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 321957, 19901, 18950865, 504626, 94166, 452905, 2572390, 11715, 11642, 54248, 37745, 37746, 543450, 166378, 489409, 489370, 10929, 69892, 418418, 18950865, 83239, 28491, 11612336, 92205, 478337, 14068131, 4435820, 277003, 720834, 3212977, 5591890, 6821, 25781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 177 ], [ 182, 185 ], [ 186, 199 ], [ 206, 213 ], [ 221, 232 ], [ 233, 245 ], [ 251, 256 ], [ 297, 307 ], [ 312, 332 ], [ 333, 345 ], [ 355, 365 ], [ 370, 383 ], [ 384, 401 ], [ 521, 528 ], [ 549, 555 ], [ 560, 564 ], [ 565, 581 ], [ 618, 623 ], [ 628, 633 ], [ 634, 647 ], [ 658, 661 ], [ 662, 676 ], [ 721, 732 ], [ 880, 889 ], [ 900, 926 ], [ 947, 967 ], [ 1031, 1039 ], [ 1174, 1192 ], [ 1221, 1239 ], [ 1240, 1257 ], [ 1259, 1267 ], [ 1268, 1271 ], [ 1344, 1349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The IDF also has several large internal research and development departments, and it purchases many technologies produced by the Israeli security industries including IAI, IMI, Elbit Systems, Rafael, and dozens of smaller firms. Many of these developments have been battle-tested in Israel's numerous military engagements, making the relationship mutually beneficial, the IDF getting tailor-made solutions and the industries a good reputation.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Weapons and equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 254769, 1099763, 14071279, 1341669, 740727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 64 ], [ 167, 170 ], [ 172, 175 ], [ 177, 190 ], [ 192, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In response to the price overruns on the US Littoral Combat Ship program, Israel is considering producing their own warships, which would take a decade and depend on diverting US financing to the project.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Weapons and equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 460005, 263960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 64 ], [ 116, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Israel's military technology is most famous for its firearms, armored fighting vehicles (tanks, tank-converted armored personnel carriers (APCs), armored bulldozers, etc.), unmanned aerial vehicles, and rocketry (missiles and rockets). Israel also has manufactured aircraft including the Kfir (reserve), IAI Lavi (canceled), and the IAI Phalcon Airborne early warning System, and naval systems (patrol and missile ships). Much of the IDF's electronic systems (intelligence, communication, command and control, navigation etc.) are Israeli-developed, including many systems installed on foreign platforms (esp. aircraft, tanks and submarines), as are many of its precision-guided munitions. Israel is the world's largest exporter of drones.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Weapons and equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 2148, 29970, 19278686, 3212977, 58900, 489370, 1254910, 3854004, 236466, 8286675, 23772279, 58900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 87 ], [ 89, 93 ], [ 111, 136 ], [ 146, 163 ], [ 173, 196 ], [ 288, 292 ], [ 304, 312 ], [ 333, 344 ], [ 345, 367 ], [ 368, 374 ], [ 662, 687 ], [ 732, 737 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Israel Military Industries (IMI) is known for its firearms. The IMI Galil, the Uzi, the IMI Negev light machine gun and the new Tavor TAR-21 Bullpup assault rifle are used by the IDF. The Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Spike missile is one of the most widely exported ATGMs in the world.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Weapons and equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 14071279, 69892, 83239, 350565, 418418, 740727, 10678588, 37517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 64, 73 ], [ 79, 82 ], [ 88, 97 ], [ 128, 140 ], [ 188, 219 ], [ 220, 233 ], [ 269, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Israel is the only country in the world with an operational anti-ballistic missile defense system on the national level – the Arrow system, jointly funded and produced by Israel and the United States. The Iron Dome system against short-range rockets is operational and proved to be successful, intercepting hundreds of Qassam, 122 mm Grad and Fajr-5 artillery rockets fire by Palestinian militants from the Gaza Strip. David's Sling, an anti-missile system designed to counter medium range rockets, became operational in 2017. Israel has also worked with the US on development of a tactical high energy laser system against medium range rockets (called Nautilus or THEL).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Weapons and equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 198447, 18342427, 26301, 289903, 2865860, 5241984, 21972885, 18975145, 478272, 17556, 144755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 131 ], [ 205, 214 ], [ 242, 248 ], [ 319, 325 ], [ 327, 338 ], [ 343, 349 ], [ 360, 397 ], [ 419, 432 ], [ 477, 496 ], [ 603, 608 ], [ 665, 669 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Israel has the independent capability of launching reconnaissance satellites into orbit, a capability shared with Russia, the United States, the United Kingdom, France, South Korea, Italy, Germany, the People's Republic of China, India, Japan, Brazil and Ukraine. Israeli security industries developed both the satellites (Ofeq) and the launchers (Shavit).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Weapons and equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 53366, 1455620, 739814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 76 ], [ 323, 327 ], [ 348, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Israel is known to have developed nuclear weapons. Israel does not officially acknowledge its nuclear weapons program. It is thought Israel possesses between one hundred and four hundred nuclear warheads. It is believed that Jericho intercontinental ballistic missiles are capable of delivering nuclear warheads with a superior degree of accuracy and a range of 11,500km. Israeli F-15I and F-16 fighter-bomber aircraft also have been cited as possible nuclear delivery systems (these aircraft types are nuclear capable in the US Air Force). The U.S. Air Force F-15E has tactical nuclear weapon (B61 and B83 bombs) capability. It has been asserted that Dolphin-class submarines have been adapted to carry Popeye Turbo Submarine-launched cruise missiles with nuclear warheads, so as to give Israel a second strike capacity.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Weapons and equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 12040469, 708400, 216096, 495724, 11642, 32090, 32090, 495724, 4132198, 1184951, 3361251, 892887, 2078286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 49 ], [ 58, 89 ], [ 225, 268 ], [ 380, 385 ], [ 390, 394 ], [ 526, 538 ], [ 545, 559 ], [ 560, 565 ], [ 570, 593 ], [ 652, 675 ], [ 704, 716 ], [ 717, 750 ], [ 798, 811 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 2006 Israel deployed the Wolf Armoured Vehicle APC for use in urban warfare and to protect VIPs.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Weapons and equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 14186219, 19278686, 319027, 5040455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 51 ], [ 52, 55 ], [ 67, 80 ], [ 96, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Yom Hazikaron, Israel's day of remembrance for fallen soldiers, is observed on the 4th day of the month of Iyar of the Hebrew calendar, the day before the celebration of Independence Day. Memorial services are held in the presence of Israel's top military personnel. A two-minute siren is heard at 11:00, which marks the opening of the official military memorial ceremonies and private remembrance gatherings at each cemetery where soldiers are buried. Many Israelis visit the graves of family members and friends who were killed in action. On the evening before the remembrance day all shops, restaurants and entertainment places must close gates to the public no later than 7 P.M. (the same routine and law applies to the day of remembrance of the Holocaust which takes place a week earlier).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Commemoration", "target_page_ids": [ 644022, 241312, 13782, 643974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 107, 111 ], [ 119, 134 ], [ 170, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main museum for Israel's armored corps is the Yad La-Shiryon in Latrun, which houses one of the largest tank museums in the world. Other significant military museums are the Israel Defense Forces History Museum (Batei Ha-Osef) in Tel Aviv, the Palmach Museum, and the Beit HaTotchan of artillery in Zikhron Ya'akov. The Israeli Air Force Museum is located at Hatzerim Airbase in the Negev Desert, and the Israeli Clandestine Immigration and Naval Museum, is in Haifa.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Commemoration", "target_page_ids": [ 11090192, 83446, 35072987, 31453, 1341046, 444665, 18547946, 5376554, 142273, 55606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 64 ], [ 68, 74 ], [ 178, 214 ], [ 234, 242 ], [ 248, 262 ], [ 303, 318 ], [ 324, 348 ], [ 363, 379 ], [ 387, 399 ], [ 465, 470 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Israel's National Military Cemetery is at Mount Herzl. Other Israeli military cemeteries include Kiryat Shaul Military Cemetery in Tel Aviv, and Sgula military cemetery at Petah Tikva.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Commemoration", "target_page_ids": [ 861906, 41724665, 202411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 53 ], [ 97, 127 ], [ 172, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"prayer for the IDF\" is a prayer said on Saturday and holidays for the soldiers of the Israel Defense Forces and the security forces in Israel. The prayer is fixed by the Chief Rabbinate of Israel, along with the Prayer for the Welfare of the State of Israel.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Commemoration", "target_page_ids": [ 25042, 9282173, 34314912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 36 ], [ 140, 146 ], [ 217, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "English text:", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Commemoration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Israel Defense Forces parades took place on Independence Day, during the first 25 years of the State of Israel's existence. They were canceled after 1973 due to financial and security concerns. The Israel Defense Forces still has weapon exhibitions country-wide on Independence Day, but they are stationary.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Commemoration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Starting on Independence Day on 14 May 1948 (5 Iyar 5708), a strong military, commercial and political relationship were established between France and Israel until 1969. The highest level of the military collaboration was reached between 1956 and 1966. At this time France provided almost all the aircraft, tanks and military ships. In 1969 the French president Charles de Gaulle limited the export of weapons to Israel. This was the end of the \"golden age\" 20 years of relations between Israel and France.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [ 643974, 51255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ], [ 363, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1983, the United States and Israel established a Joint Political Military Group, which convenes twice a year. Both the U.S. and Israel participate in joint military planning and combined exercises, and have collaborated on military research and weapons development. Additionally the U.S. military maintains two classified, pre-positioned War Reserve Stocks in Israel valued at $493million. Israel has the official distinction of being an American Major non-NATO ally. ", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [ 16263, 32212, 5236713, 3812445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 82 ], [ 286, 299 ], [ 341, 358 ], [ 450, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1976, Israel had been the largest annual recipient of U.S. foreign assistance. In 2009, Israel received $2.55billion in Foreign Military Financing (FMF) grants from the Department of Defense. All but 26% of this military aid is for the purchase of military hardware from American companies only.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2012, United States and Israel began their biggest joint air and missile defense exercise, known as Austere Challenge 12, involving around 3,500 U.S. troops in the region along with 1,000 IDF personnel. Germany and Britain also participated.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [ 34396904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since mid 2017, the United States operates an anti-missile system in the Negev region of Southern Israel, which is manned by 120 US Army personnel. It is a facility used by the U.S. inside a larger Mashabim Israeli Air Force base.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [ 142273, 1561464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 78 ], [ 198, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "India and Israel enjoy strong military and strategic ties. Israeli authorities consider Indian citizens to be the most pro-Israel people in the world. Apart from being Israel's second-largest economic partner in Asia, India is also the largest customer of Israeli arms in the world. In 2006, annual military sales between India and Israel stood at US$900million. Israeli defense firms had the largest exhibition at the 2009 Aero India show, during which Israel offered several state-of-the art weapons to India. The first major military deal between the two countries was the sale of Israeli Phalcon airborne warning and control system (AWACS) radars to the Indian Air Force in 2004. In March 2009, India and Israel signed a US$1.4billion deal under which Israel would sell India an advanced air-defense system. India and Israel have also embarked on extensive space cooperation. In 2008, India's ISRO launched Israel's most technologically advanced spy satellite TecSAR. In 2009, India reportedly developed a high-tech spy satellite RISAT-2 with significant assistance from Israel. The satellite was successfully launched by India in April 2009.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1485500, 3854004, 236466, 403355, 1019722, 53366, 14836618, 22451995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 424, 434 ], [ 592, 599 ], [ 600, 635 ], [ 658, 674 ], [ 897, 901 ], [ 950, 963 ], [ 964, 970 ], [ 1034, 1041 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to a Los Angeles Times news story the 2008 Mumbai attacks were an attack on the growing India-Israel partnership. It quotes retired Indian Vice Admiral Premvir S. Das thus \"Their aim was to... tell the Indians clearly that your growing linkage with Israel is not what you should be doing...\" In the past, India and Israel have held numerous joint anti-terror training exercises", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [ 20413485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Germany developed the Dolphin submarine and supplied it to Israel. Two submarines were donated by Germany. The military co-operation has been discreet but mutually profitable: Israeli intelligence, for example, sent captured Warsaw Pact armor to West Germany to be analyzed. The results aided the German development of an anti-tank system. Israel also trained members of GSG 9, a German counter-terrorism and special operations unit. The Israeli Merkava MK IV tank uses a German V12 engine produced under license.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1184951, 27619007, 33622, 303678, 87258, 166378, 32660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 39 ], [ 176, 196 ], [ 225, 236 ], [ 322, 338 ], [ 371, 376 ], [ 446, 459 ], [ 479, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2008, the website DefenseNews revealed that Germany and Israel had been jointly developing a nuclear warning system, dubbed Operation Bluebird.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During a secret operation in 1966, two British made \"Chieftain\" MBTs were brought to Israel for a 4 years long evaluation for service with the IDF. The plan was for the IDF not only to purchase the British MBTs, but for IMI (Israeli Military Industries) to buy production rights. As part of the deal during the early 60's Israel purchased second hand \"Centurion\" MBTs from the British, that used that money in the \"Chieftain\" development. After the trials were done Israeli improvement and ideas were implemented by the British manufacturer, but British politicians canceled the agreement with Israel and the program was shut down. The knowledge earned during the improvements on the \"Chieftain\", together with earlier experiments in tank improvements, gave the last push for the development and production of the \"Merkava\" tank.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "United Kingdom has supplied equipment and spare parts for Sa'ar 4.5-class missile boats and F-4 Phantom fighter-bombers, components for small-caliber artillery ammunition and air-to-surface missiles, and engines for Elbit Hermes 450 Unmanned aerial vehicles. British arms sales to Israel mainly consist of light weaponry, and ammunition and components for helicopters, tanks, armored personnel carriers, and combat aircraft.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1371015, 11759, 8983819, 58900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 86 ], [ 92, 103 ], [ 216, 232 ], [ 233, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 19 October 1999, Defense Minister of China, General Chi Haotian, after meeting with Syrian Defense Minister Mustafa Tlass in Damascus, Syria, to discuss expanding military ties between Syria and China, then flew directly to Israel and met with Ehud Barak, the then Prime Minister and Defense Minister of Israel where they discussed military relations. Among the military arrangements was a $1billion Israeli Russian sale of military aircraft to China, which were to be jointly produced by Russia and Israel.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [ 3243428, 3089227, 8914, 7515849, 168212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 66 ], [ 111, 124 ], [ 128, 136 ], [ 138, 143 ], [ 247, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Russia has bought drones from Israel.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Israel is the second-largest foreign supplier of arms to the People's Republic of China, only after the Russian Federation. China has purchased a wide array of military hardware from Israel, including Unmanned aerial vehicles and communications satellites. China has become an extensive market for Israel's military industries and arms manufacturers, and trade with Israel has allowed it to obtain \"dual-use\" technology which the United States and European Union were reluctant to provide. In 2010 Yair Golan, head of IDF Home Front Command visited China to strengthen military ties. In 2012, IDF Chief of Staff Benny Gantz visited China for high-level talks with the Chinese defense establishment.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [ 25391, 58900, 45207, 9317, 20870911, 5216009, 3011266, 5234157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 122 ], [ 201, 224 ], [ 230, 254 ], [ 448, 462 ], [ 498, 508 ], [ 518, 540 ], [ 593, 611 ], [ 612, 623 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As closely neighboring countries, Israel and Cyprus have enjoyed greatly improving diplomatic relations since 2010. During the Mount Carmel Forest Fire, Cyprus dispatched two aviation assets to assist fire-fighting operations in Israel – the first time Cypriot Government aircraft were permitted to operate from Israeli airfields in a non-civil capacity. In addition, Israel and Cyprus have closely cooperated in maritime activities relating to Gaza, since 2010, and have reportedly begun an extensive sharing program of regional intelligence to support mutual security concerns. On 17 May 2012, it was widely reported that the Israeli Air Force had been granted unrestricted access to the Nicosia Flight Information Region of Cyprus, and that Israeli aviation assets may have operated over the island itself. Cyprus, as a former S-300 air-defense system operator, was speculated by Greek media to have assisted Israel in strategic planning to challenge such air-defense systems, alongside shorter-range SAM systems, although this remains unconfirmed.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [ 29858666, 546105, 182664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 151 ], [ 830, 835 ], [ 1004, 1007 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Israel and Greece have enjoyed a very cordial military relationship since 2008, including military drills ranging from Israel to the island of Crete. Drills include air-to-air long-distance refueling, long-range flights, and most importantly aiding Israel in outmaneuvering the S-300 which Greece has. Recent purchases include 100million euro deal between Greece and Israel for the purchase of SPICE 1000 and SPICE 2000 pound bomb kits. They have also signed many defense agreements, including Cyprus, in order to establish stability for transporting gas from Israel-Cyprus to Greece and on to the European Union-a paramount objective to the future stability and prosperity of all three countries, threatened by Turkey.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [ 546105, 3444158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 283 ], [ 394, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Israel has provided extensive military assistance to Turkey. Israel sold Turkey IAI Heron Unmanned aerial vehicles, and modernized Turkey's F-4 Phantom and Northrop F-5 aircraft at the cost of $900million. Turkey's main battle tank is the Israeli-made Sabra tank, of which Turkey has 170. Israel later upgraded them for $500million. Israel has also supplied Turkey with Israeli-made missiles, and the two nations have engaged in naval cooperation. Turkey allowed Israeli pilots to practice long-range flying over mountainous terrain in Turkey's Konya firing range, while Israel trains Turkish pilots at Israel's computerized firing range at Nevatim Airbase. Until 2009, the Turkish military was one of Israel's largest defense customers. Israel defense companies have sold unmanned aerial vehicles and long-range targeting pods.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1141476, 58900, 11759, 11142, 26595097, 6108722, 5361920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 89 ], [ 90, 113 ], [ 140, 151 ], [ 156, 168 ], [ 215, 231 ], [ 252, 257 ], [ 641, 656 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, relations have been strained in recent times. In the last two years, the Turkish military has declined to participate in the annual joint naval exercise with Israel and the United States. The exercise, known as \"Reliant Mermaid\" was started in 1998 and included the Israeli, Turkish and American navies. The objective of the exercise is to practice search-and-rescue operations and to familiarize each navy with international partners who also operate in the Mediterranean Sea.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [ 19006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 468, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan and Israel have engaged in intense cooperation since 1992. Israeli military have been a major provider of battlefield aviation, artillery, antitank, and anti-infantry weaponry to Azerbaijan. In 2009, Israeli President Shimon Peres made a visit to Azerbaijan where military relations were expanded further, with the Israeli company Aeronautics Defense Systems Ltd announcing it was going to build a factory in Baku. In 2012, Israel and Azerbaijan signed an agreement according to which state-run Israel Aerospace Industries would sell $1.6billion in drones and anti-aircraft and missile defense systems to Azerbaijan. In March 2012, the magazine Foreign Policy reported that the Israeli Air Force may be preparing to use the Sitalchay Military Airbase, located from the Iranian border, for air strikes against the nuclear program of Iran, later backed up by other media.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [ 48569, 9307730, 4566, 1099763, 633574, 177619, 35663369, 721807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 241 ], [ 342, 373 ], [ 420, 424 ], [ 506, 533 ], [ 656, 670 ], [ 689, 706 ], [ 735, 761 ], [ 825, 848 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Israel has also sold to or received supplies of military equipment from the Czech Republic, Argentina, Portugal, Spain, Slovakia, Italy, South Africa, Canada, Australia, Poland, Slovenia, Romania, Hungary, Belgium, Austria, Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Vietnam and Colombia, among others.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Foreign military relations", "target_page_ids": [ 5321, 18951905, 23033, 26667, 26830, 14532, 17416221, 5042916, 4689264, 22936, 27338, 25445, 13275, 3343, 26964606, 29265, 20760, 3463, 48768, 202354, 5222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 90 ], [ 92, 101 ], [ 103, 111 ], [ 113, 118 ], [ 120, 128 ], [ 130, 135 ], [ 137, 149 ], [ 151, 157 ], [ 159, 168 ], [ 170, 176 ], [ 178, 186 ], [ 188, 195 ], [ 197, 204 ], [ 206, 213 ], [ 215, 222 ], [ 224, 230 ], [ 232, 242 ], [ 244, 266 ], [ 268, 275 ], [ 277, 284 ], [ 289, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The IDF is planning a number of technological upgrades and structural reforms for the future for its land, air, and sea branches. Training has been increased, including in cooperation between ground, air, and naval units.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Israeli Army is phasing out the M-16 rifle from all ground units in favor of the IMI Tavor variants, most recently the IWI Tavor X95 flat-top (\"Micro-Tavor Dor Gimel\"). In addition, the IDF is now replacing its outdated M113 armored personnel carriers in favor of new Namer APCs, with 200 ordered in 2014, the Eitan AFV, and is upgrading its IDF Achzarit APCs. The IDF also announced plans to streamline its military bureaucracy so as to better maintain its reserve force, which a 2014 State Comptroller report noted was under-trained and may not be able to fulfill wartime missions. As part of the plans, 100,000 reservists and will be discharged, and training for the remainder will be improved. The officer corps will be slashed by 5,000. In addition, infantry and light artillery brigades will be reduced to increase training standards among the rest. The backbone of the IDF Artillery Corps, the M109 howitzer, will be phased out in favor of a still-undecided replacement, with the ATMOS 2000 and Artillery Gun Module under primary consideration. The IDF is also planning a future tank to replace the Merkava. The new tank will be able to fire lasers and electromagnetic pulses, run on a hybrid engine, run with a crew as small as two, will be faster, and will be better-protected, with emphasis on protection systems such as the Trophy over armor. The Combat Engineering Corps assimilated new technologies, mainly in tunnel detection and unmanned ground vehicles and military robots, such as remote-controlled IDF Caterpillar D9T \"Panda\" armored bulldozers, Sahar engineering scout robot and improved Remotec ANDROS robots.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 418418, 50128523, 449687, 22912571, 48637397, 672964, 38022, 22107887, 28978309, 963963, 2253116, 233983, 720834, 21403767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 94 ], [ 123, 145 ], [ 224, 254 ], [ 272, 277 ], [ 314, 323 ], [ 346, 358 ], [ 905, 918 ], [ 991, 1001 ], [ 1006, 1026 ], [ 1362, 1386 ], [ 1448, 1471 ], [ 1477, 1491 ], [ 1520, 1538 ], [ 1611, 1625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Israeli Air Force will purchase as many as 100 F-35 Lightning II fighter jets from the United States. The aircraft will be modified and designated F-35I. They will use Israeli-built electronic warfare systems, outer-wings, guided bombs, and air-to-air missiles. As part of a 2013 arms deal, the IAF will purchase KC-135 Stratotanker aerial refueling aircraft and V-22 Osprey multi-mission aircraft from the United States, as well as advanced radars for warplanes and missiles designed to take out radars. In April 2013, an Israeli official stated that within 40–50 years, piloted aircraft would be phased out of service by unmanned aerial vehicles capable of executing nearly any operation that can be performed by piloted combat aircraft. Israel's military industries are reportedly on the path to developing such technology in a few decades. Israel will also manufacture tactical satellites for military use.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 177619, 11812, 17441, 32814, 58900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 51, 68 ], [ 317, 336 ], [ 367, 378 ], [ 627, 651 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Israeli Navy is currently expanding its submarine fleet, with a planned total of six Dolphin class submarines. Currently, five have been delivered, with the sixth, INS Drakon, expected to be delivered in 2020. It is also upgrading and expanding its surface fleet. It is planning to upgrade the electronic warfare systems of its Sa'ar 5-class corvettes and Sa'ar 4.5 class missile boats, and has ordered two new classes of warship: the Sa'ar 6-class corvette (a variant of the Braunschweig-class corvette) and the Sa'ar 72-class corvette (an improved and enlarged version of the Sa'ar 4.5-class). It plans to acquire four Saar 6-class corvettes and three Sa'ar 72-class corvettes. Israel is also developing marine artillery, including a gun capable of firing satellite-guided 155mm rounds between 75 and 120 kilometers.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 1370788, 1184951, 1372535, 1371015, 46678201, 3167702, 41242207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 89, 112 ], [ 332, 354 ], [ 360, 388 ], [ 439, 461 ], [ 480, 507 ], [ 517, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Intelligence Community", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4990721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shabak", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 311752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mossad", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27619007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Security Council", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5011046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Israeli police", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 745595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Knesset Guard", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5338371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Defense industry of Israel ", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39305449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Plasan", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10775962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Soltam", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1481262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IDF Spokesperson's Unit", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5257972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Public diplomacy of Israel", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1063391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arab–Israeli conflict", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7960202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Israel and weapons of mass destruction", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 610738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Israeli casualties of war", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17796039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Krav Maga", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of brigades of the Israel Defense Forces", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 336395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military equipment of Israel", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5216052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military history of Israel", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 336214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Palestinian political violence", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2646043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prayer for the IDF", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sherut Leumi, the non-military (civil) national service", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12868138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marcus, Raphael D. Israel's Long War with Hezbollah: Military Innovation and Adaptation under Fire (Georgetown UP, 2018) online review", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Roislien, Hanne Eggen (2013). \"Religion and Military Conscription: The Case of the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF),\" Armed Forces & Society 39, No. 3, pp.213–232.", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 8213145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Country Briefing: Israel, Jane's Defence Weekly, 19 June 1996", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 752903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Israel Defense Forces ranks and insignia", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IDF Blog – news and updates from the field", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IDF Code of Conduct", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Moshe Yaalon, The IDF and the Israeli Spirit", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The IDF Spirit – the ethical code of the IDF", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Palestinian violence and terror attacks since September 2000", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A list of civilians and soldiers who died during Palestinian terror attacks since September 2000", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " CNN.com Special – Victims of Terror", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " isayeret.com – The Israeli Special Forces Database", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Israeli Weapons", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Original Letters and Manuscripts: Ben-Gurion on the IDF Shapell Manuscript Foundation", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jerusalem volunteer Border Guard", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tsahal-Miniature ", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Israeli Armed Forces at Flags of the World", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IDF photos", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " GlobalSecurity.org entry", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Israel's War History", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Israel Military Forum", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Israel_Defense_Forces", "1948_establishments_in_Israel", "Military_units_and_formations_established_in_1948", "Israel_Prize_in_education_recipients", "Israel_Prize_recipients_that_are_organizations" ]

[ "Tzva Hahagana Le Yisra'el", "Tzahel", "Tzahal", "military of Israel", "israeli army", "Israeli Army", "Israel's Armed Forces", "Israeli Armed Forces", "IDF" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Franco Maria Malfatti (; 13 June 1927 – 10 December 1991) was an Italian politician who served as the 3rd President of the European Commission from 1970 to 1972. He served at Italian level as Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1979 to 1980 and Italian Minister of Education from 1973 to 1978.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14701, 24468, 66467, 3051160, 3057927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 83 ], [ 106, 142 ], [ 175, 182 ], [ 192, 227 ], [ 250, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Malfatti was born in Rome to parents who were from the province of Rieti. He was an important member of the governing council of Democrazia Cristiana (the Christian Democratic party) in which he became chief of political bureau, and covered several institutional charges.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 25458, 1448595, 36997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 25 ], [ 55, 72 ], [ 129, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Democrazia Cristiana, he was a member of Dossetti's lobby, together with Amintore Fanfani, Aldo Moro, and Giorgio La Pira. In 1951 he was elected national representative for young members; in 1958 he was elected deputy for the district of Rieti and Umbria. He served as minister for Foreign Affairs (1979–80), Finance (1978–79), Education, Industry, State holdings, and Telecommunications.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 725861, 52544, 6728556, 2824456, 51590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 92 ], [ 94, 103 ], [ 109, 124 ], [ 242, 247 ], [ 252, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was also the third President of the European Commission from 1970 to 1972. The \"Malfatti Commission\" began as the integration process was relaunched: the EC adopting a financial framework and competing the single market. There was also the beginnings of political cooperation, monetary cooperation and of enlargement as talks opened with Denmark, Ireland, Norway and the United Kingdom. He resigned from this post in 1972 to run for office in Italy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 24468, 5187077, 324164, 76972, 147575, 21241, 31717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 58 ], [ 83, 102 ], [ 308, 319 ], [ 341, 348 ], [ 350, 357 ], [ 359, 365 ], [ 374, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1980s he was chief of the Italian delegation in the European Parliament. Politically close to Aldo Moro's lobby, Malfatti was among the participants in Bilderberg meetings.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 9581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 78 ] ] } ]

[ "1927_births", "1991_deaths", "Politicians_from_Rome", "Education_ministers_of_Italy", "Foreign_ministers_of_Italy", "Finance_ministers_of_Italy", "Christian_Democracy_(Italy)_politicians", "20th-century_Italian_politicians", "Presidents_of_the_European_Commission", "Italian_European_Commissioners", "European_Commissioners_1970–1972" ]

[ "Franco Maria Malfatti di Monte Tretto" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Medusa is one of the three Gorgons in Greek mythology.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 392192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medusa may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Medusa, a daughter of Sthenelus (son of Andromeda and Perseus) and Nicippe", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Other mythological figures", "target_page_ids": [ 13531321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medusa, a daughter of the Trojan king Priam", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Other mythological figures", "target_page_ids": [ 11975860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medusa, a daughter of Pelias", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Other mythological figures", "target_page_ids": [ 77275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medusa, a daughter of Orsilochus", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Other mythological figures", "target_page_ids": [ 17632054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medusa, one of the Hesperides", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Other mythological figures", "target_page_ids": [ 77944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medusa, a Soul Eater character", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 16969859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medusa, a Kamen Rider Wizard character", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 36895625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medusa, a military unit in the Jason Bourne novel series", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 902251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medusa, a planet in the TV series Star Maidens", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 2592618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Madame Medusa, a character in The Rescuers", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 201448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medusae, an alien race in the novel The Legion of Space", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 14747551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medusa, an antagonist in the Japanese manga Rosario + Vampire", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 13534451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rider, a Fate/stay night character", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 12687779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medusa (comics), a fictional character, a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 392194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medusa (DC Comics), a fictional character appearing in DC Comics publications", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 52199930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa, a character in the Kid Icarus game series", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 16892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa, a monster in the Eggerland game series", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 2278130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa, a 1973 film starring George Hamilton and Cameron Mitchell", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 348350, 2643319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 45 ], [ 50, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa, a film production company owned by Fininvest", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 1778898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dare to Be Truthful, a mockumentary film", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Medusa\" (Supergirl), a season 2 episode of the TV series", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 54441773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medusa, a 1988 novel by Hammond Innes", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 153910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medusa, a 2004 novel by Thomas Thiemeyer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 12889155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medusa (Cussler novel), a 2009 novel by Clive Cussler and Paul Kemprecos", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", 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Chalker", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa, a female rap artist affiliated with open-mic workshop Project Blowed, from 1994", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 5550738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa (band), punk-influenced rock band from the UK, active from 1998", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 50705289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa (Annie Lennox album), released in 1995", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 1057197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa (Clan of Xymox album), released in 1986", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 4609719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa (Paradise Lost album), released in 2017", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 54173977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa (Trapeze album), released in 1970", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 515483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Medusa, second studio album released in 2002 by New Zealand rock group Tadpole", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 5357775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Medusa,\" a song by Anthrax on the 1985 album Spreading the Disease", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 146675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Medusa,\" a song by Sweet on the 1974 album Desolation Boulevard", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 2452465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Medusa\", a song by Jolin Tsai on the 2014 album Play", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 45707306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Medusa\", a song by The Haunted from the 2006 album The Dead Eye", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 7592004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa (Caravaggio)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 3061779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa (Leonardo)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 8073202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medousa, Xanthi, Greece", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 12534262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa, New York, United States", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 126086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa Lake, another name for Lake Natron, Tanzania", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 366603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa Lake (Antarctica)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 63929482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa Nebula", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Astronomy", "target_page_ids": [ 5642715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa Galaxy Merger (NGC 4194), pair of interacting galaxies in the constellation Ursa Major", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Astronomy", "target_page_ids": [ 8893870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 149 Medusa, an asteroid", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Astronomy", "target_page_ids": [ 744086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " French frigate Méduse (1810), which inspired several works of art:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ships", "target_page_ids": [ 277285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Raft of the Medusa, 1818–1819 painting by Théodore Géricault", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ships", "target_page_ids": [ 561510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Das Floß der Medusa, 1968 oratorio by Hans Werner Henze", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ships", "target_page_ids": [ 14862830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Le Radeau de la Méduse, 1994 French film", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ships", "target_page_ids": [ 3277444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Italian submarine Medusa, several", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ships", "target_page_ids": [ 57126448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " HMS Medusa, one of ten ships of the Royal Navy", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ships", "target_page_ids": [ 15344235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SMS Medusa, a Gazelle-class light cruiser built by the Imperial German Navy", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ships", "target_page_ids": [ 30088765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " USS Medusa (1869), a Passaic-class coastal monitor", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ships", "target_page_ids": [ 1023750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " USS Medusa (AR-1), a fleet repair ship launched in 1923", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ships", "target_page_ids": [ 1649584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MEDUSA, a proposed type of nuclear pulse propulsion for interplanetary and interstellar space travel", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ships", "target_page_ids": [ 69937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom), a steel floorless roller coaster", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Roller coasters", "target_page_ids": [ 9015199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa (Six Flags Great Adventure), steel floorless roller coaster", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Roller coasters", "target_page_ids": [ 4153995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa Steel Coaster, a hybrid roller coaster in Six Flags México", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Roller coasters", "target_page_ids": [ 34354698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa pepper, a Capsicum annuum cultivar", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 6358142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MEDUSA, a design software program", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 25597199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MEDUSA (weapon)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 18327191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Operation Medusa, a military operation in Afghanistan", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 6827180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa piercing", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 5582219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa (biology) (jellyfish)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 50185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Madusa, stage name of professional wrestler Debrah Miceli (born 1964)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1785449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Méduse (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22359488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Meduza (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 66754479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Medusa Frequency, a 1987 novel by Russell Hoban", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33039773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A name server refers to the server component of the Domain Name System (DNS), one of the two principal namespaces of the Internet. The most important function of DNS servers is the translation (resolution) of human-memorable domain names (example.com) and hostnames into the corresponding numeric Internet Protocol (IP) addresses (192.0.2.1), the second principal name space of the Internet, which is used to identify and locate computer systems and resources on the Internet.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8339, 21796, 14539, 39878, 611421, 15323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 70 ], [ 103, 112 ], [ 121, 129 ], [ 225, 236 ], [ 256, 264 ], [ 297, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although it is typically used in reference to DNS (Domain Name System), the term name server may also be used for any computer application that implements a network service for providing responses to queries against a directory service which translates an often humanly meaningful, text-based identifier to a system-internal, often numeric identification or addressing component. This service is performed by the server in response to a service protocol request.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 788676, 334641, 28030850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 172 ], [ 218, 235 ], [ 437, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Internet maintains two principal namespaces: the domain name hierarchy and the IP address system. The Domain Name System maintains the domain namespace and provides translation services between these two namespaces. Internet name servers implement the Domain Name System. The top hierarchy of the Domain Name System is served by the root name servers maintained by delegation by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). DNS servers, which are located all over the world, translate domain names into IP addresses, giving them control over which server (a user), may access via a given domain. Below the root, Internet resources are organized into a hierarchy of domains, administered by the respective registrars and domain name holders. A DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records, such as address (A, AAAA) records, name server (NS) records, and mail exchanger (MX) records for a domain name (see also List of DNS record types) and responds with answers to queries against its database.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Domain Name Server", "target_page_ids": [ 21796, 174370, 15236, 8339, 12886486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 46 ], [ 337, 354 ], [ 387, 438 ], [ 812, 823 ], [ 946, 970 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An authoritative name server is a name server that gives Authoritative answer in response to questions asked about names in a zone. An authoritative-only name server returns answers only to queries about domain names that have been specifically configured by the administrator. Name servers can also be configured to give authoritative answers to queries in some zones, while acting as a Caching name server for all other zones.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Domain Name Server", "target_page_ids": [ 1375901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An authoritative name server can either be a primary server or a secondary server. A primary server for a zone is the server that stores the definitive versions of all records in that zone. It is identified in the start-of-authority (SOA) resource record. A secondary server for a zone uses an automatic updating mechanism to maintain an identical copy of the primary server's database for a zone. Examples of such mechanisms include DNS zone transfers and file transfer protocols. DNS provides a mechanism whereby the primary for a zone can notify all the known secondaries for that zone when the contents of the zone have changed. The contents of a zone are either manually configured by an administrator, or managed using Dynamic DNS.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Domain Name Server", "target_page_ids": [ 1020847, 80150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 436, 453 ], [ 727, 738 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Every domain name appears in a zone served by one or more authoritative name servers. The fully qualified domain names of the authoritative name servers of a zone are listed in the NS records of that zone. If the server for a zone is not also authoritative for its parent zone, the server for the parent zone must be configured with a delegation for the zone.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Domain Name Server", "target_page_ids": [ 706155, 8339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 117 ], [ 335, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When a domain is registered with a domain name registrar, the zone administrator provides the list of name servers (typically at least two, for redundancy) that are authoritative for the zone that contains the domain. The registrar provides the names of these servers to the domain registry for the top-level domain containing the zone. The domain registry in turn configures the authoritative name servers for that top-level domain with delegations for each server for the zone. If the fully qualified domain name of any name server for a zone appears within that zone, the zone administrator provides IP addresses for that name server, which are installed in the parent zone as glue records; otherwise, the delegation consists of the list of NS records for that zone.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Domain Name Server", "target_page_ids": [ 458505, 158284, 31115, 8339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 56 ], [ 275, 290 ], [ 299, 315 ], [ 680, 692 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A name server indicates that its response is authoritative by setting the Authoritative Answer (AA) bit in the response to a query on a name for which it is authoritative. Name servers providing answers for which they are not authoritative (for example, name servers for parent zones) do not set the AA bit.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Domain Name Server", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If a name server cannot answer a query because it does not contain an entry for the host in its DNS cache, it may recursively query name servers higher up in the hierarchy. This is known as a recursive query or recursive lookup. A server providing recursive queries is known as a recursive name server or recursive DNS, sometimes abbreviated as recdns.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Domain Name Server", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In principle, authoritative name servers suffice for the operation of the Internet. However, with only authoritative name-servers operating, every DNS query must start with recursive queries at the root zone of the Domain Name System and each user system must implement resolver software capable of recursive operation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Domain Name Server", "target_page_ids": [ 286054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Caching name servers (DNS caches) store DNS query results for a period of time determined in the configuration (time-to-live) of each domain-name record. DNS caches improve the efficiency of the DNS by reducing DNS traffic across the Internet, and by reducing load on authoritative name-servers, particularly root name-servers. Because they can answer questions more quickly, they also increase the performance of end-user applications that use the DNS.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Domain Name Server", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recursive name servers resolve any query they receive, even if they are not authoritative for the question being asked, by consulting the server or servers that are authoritative for the question.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Domain Name Server", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Caching name servers are often also recursive name servers—they perform every step necessary to answer any DNS query they receive. To do this the name server queries each authoritative name-server in turn, starting from the DNS root zone. It continues until it reaches the authoritative server for the zone that contains the queried domain name. That server provides the answer to the question, or definitively says it can't be answered, and the caching resolver then returns this response to the client that asked the question.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Domain Name Server", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The authority, resolving and caching functions can all be present in a DNS server implementation, but this is not required: a DNS server can implement any one of these functions alone, without implementing the others.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Domain Name Server", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Internet service providers typically provide caching resolvers for their customers. In addition, many home-networking routers implement caching resolvers to improve efficiency in the local network.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Domain Name Server", "target_page_ids": [ 100245, 3509706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 102, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some systems utilize , which stands for the \"name service caching daemon\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Domain Name Server", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " BIND", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Comparison of DNS server software", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3924700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trojan.Win32.DNSChanger", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 53956355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Domain Name System Security Extensions", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 337389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lightweight Directory Access Protocol", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Network Information Service", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 216844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Name Service Switch (NSS)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1931976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " resolver, resolv.conf, resolvconf for Unix/Linux", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8339, 2778356, 8894490, 21347364, 6097297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 22 ], [ 24, 34 ], [ 39, 43 ], [ 44, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Open Root Server Network", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2193196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " RealNames", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1374539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of managed DNS providers", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33079471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Public recursive name servers", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52066646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Free and Public DNS Servers, article on about.com by Tim Fisher, retrieved on 2015-02-08 21-59 UTC", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " DNS & BIND Resources", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Domain Name System", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Internet_Protocol_based_network_software", "Domain_Name_System" ]

[ "NS" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In Greek mythology, Medea (; , Mēdeia, perhaps implying \"planner / schemer\") is the daughter of King Aeëtes of Colchis, a niece of Circe and the granddaughter of the sun god Helios. Medea figures in the myth of Jason and the Argonauts, appearing in Hesiod's Theogony around 700 BCE, but best known from Euripides's tragedy Medea and Apollonius of Rhodes's epic Argonautica. Medea is known in most stories as a sorceress and is often depicted as a priestess of the goddess Hecate.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23416994, 77417, 81958, 5956, 67230, 15885, 77334, 13700, 30551, 9808, 494587, 314182, 5228263, 14372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 96, 107 ], [ 111, 118 ], [ 131, 136 ], [ 174, 180 ], [ 211, 216 ], [ 225, 234 ], [ 249, 255 ], [ 258, 266 ], [ 303, 312 ], [ 323, 328 ], [ 333, 353 ], [ 361, 372 ], [ 472, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medea plays the archetypal role of helper-maiden, aiding Jason in his search for the Golden Fleece by using her magic to save his life out of love. Once he finished his quest, she abandons her native home of Colchis, and flees westwards with Jason, where they eventually settle in Corinth and get married. Euripides's 5th-century BCE tragedy Medea, depicts the ending of said union with Jason, when after ten years of marriage, Jason abandons her to wed king Creon's daughter Creusa. Medea and her sons by Jason are to be banished from Corinth. In revenge, she murders Creusa with poisoned gifts. Later, she murders her own sons by Jason before fleeing for Athens, where she eventually marries king Aegeus.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 77335, 81958, 16054891, 34425105, 53764085, 1216, 2626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 98 ], [ 208, 215 ], [ 281, 288 ], [ 459, 464 ], [ 476, 482 ], [ 657, 663 ], [ 699, 705 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "What happens afterwards varies according to several accounts. Herodotus in his Histories mentions that she ended up leaving Athens and settling in the Iranian plateau among the Aryans, who subsequently changed their name to the Medes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13574, 752522, 1216, 342050, 24558035, 103030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 71 ], [ 79, 88 ], [ 124, 130 ], [ 151, 166 ], [ 177, 183 ], [ 228, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medea is a direct descendant of the sun god Helios (son of the Titan Hyperion) through her father King Aeëtes of Colchis. According to Hesiod (Theogony 956–962), Helios and the Oceanid Perseis produced two children, Circe and Aeetes. Aeëtes then married the Oceanid Idyia and Medea was their child. From here, Medea's family tree becomes a little more complicated and argued. By some accounts, Aeëtes and Idyia only had two daughters, Medea and (or Chalkiope). There was one son, Apsyrtus (or Apsyrtos), who was the son of Aeëtes through Asterodea. This would make him a half-brother to Medea herself. According to others, Idyia gave birth to Medea and Apsyrtus while Asterodea gave birth to Chalciope. Even with the two differing accounts, it is known that Medea has a sister and a brother. As she becomes older, Medea marries Jason and together they have children. The number and names of their children are questioned by scholars. Depending on the account, it is two to fourteen children. In his play, Medea, Euripides mentions two unnamed sons. According to other accounts, her children were \"Mermerus, Pheres or Thessalus, Alcimenes and Tisander, and according to others, she had seven sons and seven daughters, while others mention only two children, Medus (some call him Polyxenus) and Eriopis, or one son Argos.\". No matter the number of children, Medea eventually leaves Jason in Corinth, and marries the King of Athens (Aegeus) and bears him a son. While with him, it is questioned if that was when she had her son Medeius, who goes on to become the ancestor of the Medes by conquering their lands.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Genealogy and divinity", "target_page_ids": [ 67230, 47401, 176649, 13700, 30551, 42126800, 5956, 77417, 1881992, 8831460, 81090, 82827, 80187, 31612896, 59347426, 2626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 50 ], [ 63, 68 ], [ 69, 77 ], [ 135, 141 ], [ 143, 151 ], [ 185, 192 ], [ 216, 221 ], [ 226, 232 ], [ 266, 271 ], [ 1098, 1106 ], [ 1108, 1114 ], [ 1258, 1263 ], [ 1279, 1288 ], [ 1294, 1301 ], [ 1314, 1319 ], [ 1431, 1437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Understanding Medea's genealogy helps define her divinity. By some accounts, like the Argonautica, she is depicted as a young, mortal woman who is directly influenced by the Greek gods Hera and Aphrodite. While she possesses magical abilities, she is still a mortal with divine ancestry. Other accounts, like Euripides's play Medea, focus on her mortality. Hesiod's Theogony places her marriage to Jason on the list of marriages between mortals and divine, suggesting that she is predominantly divine. She also has connections with Hecate, the goddess of magic, which could be one of the main sources from which she draws her magical ties.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Genealogy and divinity", "target_page_ids": [ 14372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 532, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medea is first introduced in Greek Mythology after Jason came from Iolcus to Colchis in an attempt to claim his inheritance and throne by retrieving the Golden Fleece. In the most complete surviving account, the Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes, Medea fell in love with Jason and promised her skills to help him only if he agreed to marry her. Jason agreed, knowing Medea and her powers would help him in the long run. In a familiar mythic motif, Jason is promised the Golden Fleece through Aeëtes, but only if Jason could complete a list of tasks. The first harrowing task was ploughing a field with fire-breathing oxen that Jason had to yoke himself. To aid him in this, Medea gave him an unguent to anoint himself and his weapons, to protect them from the bulls' fiery breath. After ploughing the field, Jason had to sow the teeth of a dragon. This task seemed to be somewhat simplistic but Medea forewarned him that the teeth would spring into soldiers. To combat this, she told him to throw a rock into the crowd to cause confusion among the soldiers. The soldiers, now confused, would then begin to attack and kill each other instead of Jason. For the last task, Aeëtes assigned Jason to fight and kill the sleepless dragon that guarded the fleece. Medea aided Jason in this task by putting the beast to sleep with her narcotic herbs. Once the dragon was asleep, Jason then took the fleece and sailed away with Medea as promised. According to the myth, Apollonius claims that Medea only helped Jason in the first place because Hera had convinced Aphrodite, or Eros, to force Medea to fall in love with Jason. Medea distracted her father as they fled by killing her brother Absyrtus.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 26456433, 81958, 77335, 1649915, 3865621, 38079, 13208, 1174, 19191789, 1547228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 73 ], [ 77, 84 ], [ 153, 166 ], [ 694, 701 ], [ 831, 848 ], [ 1328, 1336 ], [ 1536, 1540 ], [ 1555, 1564 ], [ 1569, 1573 ], [ 1682, 1690 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some versions, Medea was said to have dismembered her brother's body and scattered his parts on an island, knowing her father would stop to retrieve them for proper burial; in other versions, it was Absyrtus himself who pursued them and was killed by Jason. However, in the Argonautica, Medea and Jason stopped on her aunt Circe's island so that she could be cleansed after murdering her brother, relieving her of blame for the deed. This is one of the times we see Medea use her powers. During the fight, Atalanta, someone helping Jason in his quest, was seriously wounded. Medea was able to use her powers to heal the wound.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 5956, 36743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 326, 331 ], [ 509, 517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the way back to Thessaly, Medea prophesied that Euphemus, the helmsman of Jason's ship, the Argo, would one day rule over all of Libya. Pindar alleges that this came true through Battus, saying that he was a distant descendant of Euphemus (by 17 generations).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 55804, 78370, 80988, 6645651, 79616, 12434948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 27 ], [ 51, 59 ], [ 95, 99 ], [ 132, 137 ], [ 139, 145 ], [ 182, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the prophecy, the Argo reached the island of Crete, guarded by the bronze man, Talos (Talus). Talos had one vein which went from his neck to his ankle, bound shut by a single bronze nail. According to Apollodorus, Talos was slain either when Medea drove him mad with drugs, deceived him that she would make him immortal by removing the nail, or was killed by Poeas's arrow. In the Argonautica, Medea hypnotized him from the Argo, driving him mad so that he dislodged the nail, ichor flowed from the wound, and he bled to death. After Talos died, the Argo landed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 6591, 81105, 84682, 5228263, 82550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 56 ], [ 85, 90 ], [ 365, 370 ], [ 387, 398 ], [ 483, 488 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At some point while in Thessaly, Medea and the Nereid Thetis argued over which one was the most beautiful; they appointed the Cretan Idomeneus as the judge, who declared Thetis to be the most beautiful. In her anger, Medea called all Cretans liars, and cursed them to never say the truth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 21586, 37552, 82001, 6591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 53 ], [ 54, 60 ], [ 133, 142 ], [ 234, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jason, celebrating his return with the Golden Fleece, noted that his father Aeson was too aged and infirm to participate in the celebrations. Medea understood the impact this had on Jason and was able to invigorate him by withdrawing the blood from Aeson's body, infused it with certain herbs, and returning it to his veins. The daughters of King Pelias saw this and asked Medea to perform the same service on their father. Medea agreed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 80987, 77275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 81 ], [ 347, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, the service was never performed. Hera, who was angry at Pelias, conspired to make Jason fall in love with Medea, who, Hera hoped, would kill Pelias. Hera's plan worked, and the pair fell in love with each other. When they returned to Iolcus, Pelias refused to give up his throne to Jason. Jason had been promised the throne in turn for the Golden Fleece. So, Medea conspired to have Pelias's own daughters kill him. She demonstrated her powers to them by showing her cutting up an old ram and putting the pieces in stew. Once the pieces were in, Medea added some magic herbs and stirred the concoction, a young ram suddenly jumping out of the stew. Excited at the sight, the girls cut their father into pieces and threw him into a pot. Unfortunately, the King never came to life. Having killed Pelias, Jason and Medea fled to Corinth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 13208, 16054891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 46 ], [ 835, 842 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While in Corinth, the couple were married and lived together for 10 years. They had between one and fourteen children depending on the source. The known children are sons Alcimenes, Thessalus, Tisander, Mermeros and Pheres, Medus, and Argos, and a daughter, Eriopis. As well as having children, a myth states that Medea ended a famine in Corinth by sacrificing to Demeter and the nymphs. Zeus then desired her, but she declined his advances in order not to incur Hera's wrath. As a reward, Hera offered to make her children immortal.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 18154876, 81751, 52063537, 8831460, 82827, 31612896, 8230, 22058, 34398, 13208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 180 ], [ 182, 191 ], [ 193, 201 ], [ 203, 222 ], [ 224, 229 ], [ 258, 265 ], [ 364, 371 ], [ 380, 386 ], [ 388, 392 ], [ 463, 467 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Corinth, Jason abandoned Medea for the king's daughter, Glauce. Before the fifth century BCE, there seem to have been two variants of the myth's conclusion. According to the poet Eumelus, to whom the fragmentary epic Korinthiaka is usually attributed, Medea killed her children by accident. She buried them alive in the Temple of Hera, believing this would make them immortal. The poet Creophylus, however, blamed their murders on the citizens of Corinth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 5326906, 5326040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 189 ], [ 389, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Euripides's version, Medea took her revenge by sending Glauce a dress and golden coronet, covered in poison. This resulted in the deaths of both the princess and the king, Creon, when he went to save his daughter. Medea then continued her revenge, murdering two of her children herself and refusing to allow Jason to hold the bodies. Afterward, she left Corinth and flew to Athens in a golden chariot driven by dragons sent by her grandfather, Helios, god of the sun.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 9808, 494587, 34425105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 22 ], [ 25, 32 ], [ 185, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Jason in Euripides calls Medea most hateful to gods and men, the fact that the chariot is given to her by Helios indicates that she has the Gods on her side. As Bernard Knox points out, Medea's last scene parallels that of a number of indisputably divine beings in other plays by Euripides. Just like these gods, Medea \"interrupts and puts a stop to the violent action of the human being on the lower level, ... [and] justifies her savage revenge on the grounds that she has been treated with disrespect and mockery, ... takes measures and gives orders for the burial of the dead, prophesies the future,\" and \"announces the foundation of a cult.\" This deliberate murder of her children by Medea appears to be Euripides's invention, although some scholars believe Neophron created this alternate tradition. Her filicide would go on to become the standard for later writers. Pausanias, writing in the late 2nd century CE, records five different versions of what happened to Medea's children after reporting that he has seen a monument for them while traveling in Corinth. Fleeing from Jason, Medea made her way to Thebes, where she healed Heracles (the former Argonaut) from the curse of Hera (that led him to slay his sons).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 22983723, 1423080, 338435, 416255, 65806, 13815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 182 ], [ 772, 780 ], [ 819, 827 ], [ 882, 891 ], [ 1121, 1127 ], [ 1146, 1154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the murder of her children, Medea fled to Athens, where she met and married Aegeus. They had one son, Medus. Another version from Hesiod makes Medus the son of Jason. Her domestic bliss was once again shattered by the arrival of Aegeus's long-lost son, Theseus. Determined to preserve her own son's inheritance, Medea convinced her husband that Theseus was a imposter, making him a threat and that he needed to be disposed of. To do this, Medea was planning on poisoning him as she previously had other victims. As Medea handed Theseus a cup of poison, Aegeus recognized the young man's sword as his own, which he had left behind many years previously for his newborn son as soon as he came of age. Knocking the cup from Medea's hand, Aegeus embraced Theseus as his own.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 1216, 2626, 82827, 31255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 54 ], [ 82, 88 ], [ 108, 113 ], [ 259, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medea returned to Colchis and found that Aeëtes had been deposed by his brother Perses, which prompted her to kill her uncle and restore the kingdom to her father. Herodotus reports another version, in which Medea and her son Medus fled from Athens, on her flying chariot. They landed in the Iranian plateau and lived among the Aryans, who then changed their name to the Medes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 4267406, 13574, 1481651, 103030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 86 ], [ 164, 173 ], [ 328, 334 ], [ 371, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Recounting the many variations of Medea's story, the 1st century BCE historian Diodorus Siculus wrote, \"Speaking generally, it is because of the desire of the tragic poets for the marvelous that so varied and inconsistent an account of Medea has been given out.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 99425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Euripides's play Medea, she is a woman scorned, rejected by her husband Jason and revenge seeking. Deborah Boedeker writes about different images and symbolism Euripides used in his play to invoke responses from his original Athenian audience. The Nurse, one of the characters, gives descriptions of Medea in the prologue, highlighting comparisons to great forces of nature and different animals. There are also many nautical references throughout the play either used by other characters when describing Medea or by Medea herself. By including these references, Boedeker argues that these comparisons were used to create connections to the type of woman Medea was. She holds great power (referred to by the comparisons to forces of nature), she relies on her basic animal-like instincts and emotions (connections to different animals like bulls and lions), and it draws the audience back her original myth of Jason's quest for the Golden Fleece and the sea voyage taken by Jason, Medea, and the Argonauts.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personae of Medea", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Emma Griffiths also adds to the analysis of Medea's character in Euripides's play by discussing the male/female dichotomy created by Euripides. Medea does not fit into the mold of a \"normal woman\" according to Athenian philosophy. She is depicted as having great intelligence and skill, traits typically viewed as a masculine by Euripides's original audience. On the other hand, she uses her intelligence to manipulate the men around her. This manipulation would have been a negative female trait to the Athenian audience. Griffiths also acknowledges the paradox of the methods Medea uses to kill. She poisons the princess, which would have been seen as a feminine way of murder, yet kills her children in cold blood, which is seen as more masculine. Medea is also shown as a 'normal' Athenian mother by having a dialogue about her children and showing a strong maternal love and connection to them. Yet at the end of the play, she is able to kill her children as part of her revenge. It is through these opposites that Euripides creates a complicated character for his protagonist.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personae of Medea", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Marianne McDonald argues that \"Medea's anger turns to violent action, which can make her into a symbol of freedom, and emblem for the colonized turning the tables on the colonizer. Euripides, more than all other tragedians, has predicted many of the horrors that occur in the modern world, showing both the glory and the monstrosity of the oppressed turned oppressor\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personae of Medea", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although not the first depiction of Medea, the Argonautica by Apollonios Rhodios gives a fuller description of events that lead up to Euripides's play, mainly surrounding Jason's quest for the Golden Fleece. In this literary work, Medea is presented not as a powerful woman seeking justice rather she is a young woman who is desperately in love with Jason. So much in love that she decides to defy her father and kill her brother in order to help him. James J. Clauss writes about this version of Medea, attempting to unearth another version of this character for scholarship and discussion. He looks into different passages in the original text to define the meaning and draw connection to the different feelings Medea was going through. He argues the feelings of Medea's initial love for Jason, the shame she feels for loving him and for going against her family, and final agreement to help Jason in his quest.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personae of Medea", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Multiple scholars have discussed Medea's use as a \"helper maiden\" to Jason's quest. A helper maid is typically personified as a young woman who helps on a hero's quest usually out of love. Instead of being the center of the story like she is in Euripides's Medea, this version of Medea is reduced to a supporting role. Her main purpose is to help the hero with his quest. Jason would never have been successful on his quest without Medea's help, something that is pointed out and referenced many times in ancient texts and contemporary scholarly work.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personae of Medea", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other, non-literary traditions guided the vase-painters, and a localized, chthonic presence of Medea was propitiated with unrecorded emotional overtones at Corinth, at the sanctuary devoted to her slain children, or locally venerated elsewhere as a foundress of cities.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personae of Medea", "target_page_ids": [ 444886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ovid", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Written sources", "target_page_ids": [ 37802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heroides XII", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Written sources", "target_page_ids": [ 2842461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Metamorphoses VII, 1-450", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Written sources", "target_page_ids": [ 83101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tristia iii.9", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Written sources", "target_page_ids": [ 1261521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Euripides, Medea ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Written sources", "target_page_ids": [ 9808, 494587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 11, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Neophron, Medea (fragments from the play)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Written sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hyginus, Fabulae 21-26", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Written sources", "target_page_ids": [ 143691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pindar, Pythian Odes, IV", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Written sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Seneca: Medea (tragedy)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Written sources", "target_page_ids": [ 75150, 28103851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 8, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bibliotheca I, 23-28", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Written sources", "target_page_ids": [ 85577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Written sources", "target_page_ids": [ 15667214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Written sources", "target_page_ids": [ 314182, 5228263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 20, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gaius Valerius Flaccus Argonautica (epic)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Written sources", "target_page_ids": [ 238304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Herodotus, Histories I.2 and VII.62i", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Written sources", "target_page_ids": [ 13574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hesiod, Theogony 1000-2", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Written sources", "target_page_ids": [ 13700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Plautus, Pseudolus 869-871", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Written sources", "target_page_ids": [ 24171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medusa", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 392192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medea gene", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10443327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gudrun", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 87306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 85577, 317349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 74, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Clauss, J. J. and S. I. Johnston (eds), Medea: Essays on Medea in Myth, Literature, Philosophy and Art. (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1997). .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Grant, Michael, and John Hazel.Who's Who in Classical Mythology. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1973.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Griffiths, Emma. Medea. London; New York: Routledge, 2006.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Knox, B.M.W. Word and Action: Essays on the Ancient Theatre. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 22983723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " McDermott, Emily, Euripides' Medea: The Incarnation of Disorder. (University Park, PA, Penn State University Press, 1985). .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mossman, Judith, Medea: Introduction, Translation and Commentary. Aris & Phillips, Warminster 2011) ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 54365255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. London (1873). \"Medeia or Medea\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1395165, 2055360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 17, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wygant, Amy. Medea, Magic, and Modernity in France: Stages and Histories, 1553–1797. (Aldershot, Ashgate, 2007). ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Medea", "Mythological_Greek_seers", "Greek_mythological_witches", "Princesses_in_Greek_mythology", "Helios_in_mythology", "Metamorphoses_characters", "Characters_in_the_Argonautica", "Colchian_characters_in_Greek_mythology", "Women_and_death", "Fictional_people_from_Georgia_(country)", "Fictional_filicides", "Medes", "Greek_mythological_priestesses", "Flying_chariots" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Icarus is a character in Greek mythology.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 82721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Icarus or Ikarus may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Roger Squires (born 1932), crossword compiler who has used the pseudonym Icarus", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 11247962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus (wrestler) (born 1982), wrestler with the Chikara organization", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 27931925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus (island), in the Aegean Sea", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 188522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ikaros (Failaka Island), in the Persian Gulf", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 38492430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus I, Icarus II and Icarus V, series of rigid-wing hang gliders designed by Taras Kiceniuk, Jr.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aviation", "target_page_ids": [ 1589489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ikarus C42, a microlight aircraft", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aviation", "target_page_ids": [ 12850414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ikarus IK-2, the most notable indigenous Yugoslav aircraft of the 1930s and World War II era", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aviation", "target_page_ids": [ 2267354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus, a prototype space rescue vehicle tested by Aleksandr Serebrov", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aviation", "target_page_ids": [ 873661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ikarus Drachen Tomas Pellicci, a German hang glider manufacturer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aviation", "target_page_ids": [ 34886869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icaro Air, an Ecuadorian airline", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aviation", "target_page_ids": [ 2080514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus School, a military aviation academy", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aviation", "target_page_ids": [ 9873796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus, a Greek airline that preceded Olympic Airlines", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aviation", "target_page_ids": [ 526942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ikarus, a Yugoslav aircraft manufacturer later renamed Ikarbus", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aviation", "target_page_ids": [ 12625104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Coupe Icare (\"Icarus Cup\"), a flight festival", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aviation", "target_page_ids": [ 2771699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus Project, a mental health organization", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other businesses and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 8385823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus Theatre Collective, a British theatre company", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other businesses and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 14573185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ikarus (Hungarian company), a Hungarian bus manufacturer", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other businesses and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 1819650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ikarbus, a Serbian bus manufacturer formerly known as Ikarus", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other businesses and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 12625104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus Football, an association football kit & sportswear brand", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other businesses and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 66914113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus (Planet of the Apes), a spacecraft in the Planet of the Apes franchise", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 18618306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus Base, a place in the series Stargate Universe", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 24490163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus, an orbital superweapon in the James Bond film Die Another Day", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 156644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus I, and Icarus II, spacecraft in Sunshine", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 3252860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus (2010 film) (also The Killing Machine), an action film", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 29612989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus (2017 film), a documentary film by Bryan Fogel", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 54865869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus\" (Scandal), an episode of the TV series Scandal", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 41320937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus\", the eleventh episode of Smallville, Season 10", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 26464364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus\", the seventh episode of Criminal Intent", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus (comics), a Marvel Comics character", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 18487603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus, a mecha in Chōjin Sentai Jetman", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 2656696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus, a Deus Ex character", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 26581569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus, a character in The Animated Series", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus, a character in Adventures in Slumberland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ikaros, a character in Heaven's Lost Property", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 21243373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus, a 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"section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 45325638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus EP, a 2011 EP by Periphery", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 26589076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icaro, an album by Renato Zero", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 4870781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus\" (Greeeen song), 2015", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 39305973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus\" (Madeon song), 2012", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 34967325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus\" (R3hab song), 2016", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 52573391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus\", a song by Alesana on the album On Frail Wings of Vanity and Wax", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 15333016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus\", a song by Flutlicht", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 4035186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus\", a song by Santigold on the album Top Ranking", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 18296244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus\", a song by Jason Webley on the album Only Just Beginning", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 10946058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Ikarus\", a song by Unheilig on Phosphor", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 12245971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus\", a song by Bastille on the album Bad Blood", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 36888630, 38743187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 29 ], [ 43, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus\", a song by Ralph Towner on the album Diary", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 32928194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus - Borne On Wings of Steel\", a song by Kansas on the album Masque", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 1240035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus\", a song by JJ Project on the EP Verse 2, 2017", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 54770750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus\", a song by Eden on the album vertigo", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 55759147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus\", a song by Monkey3 on the album The 5th Sun, 2013", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 27929809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Ikarus\", a song by Diary of Dreams on the album Grau im Licht, 2015", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 2108788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus\", a song by Emma Blackery", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 42010559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Icarus\", a song by Starset on the album Horizons, 2021", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 44125910, 69095782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 28 ], [ 42, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus (magazine), a Trinity College student publication", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and 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Verilog, an implementation of the Verilog hardware description language", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software and video games", "target_page_ids": [ 8800859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " BioShock Infinite, codenamed \"Project Icarus\" during development", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software and video games", "target_page_ids": [ 28344576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ikarus (chess), a computer chess program", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software and video games", "target_page_ids": [ 5352462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1566 Icarus, an asteroid", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 586661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ICARUS experiment, a neutrino detector at Gran Sasso National Laboratory, Italy", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 34888684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus (crater), on the Moon", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 1872360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus (journal), a planetary science journal", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 1790606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus (star), most distant individual star detected (as of April 2018)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 57014144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IKAROS, an interplanetary unmanned solar sail spacecraft", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 26182175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Project Icarus (interstellar), a design study of an interstellar spacecraft based on Project Daedalus", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 27365612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Project Icarus (photography) (2009), a project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 24357501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus (plant), a fern genus", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 62647466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ICARUS Initiative, an international project studying the migration routes of flying animals", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 42621489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IKZF1, a protein in humans that is encoded by the IKZF genes of the Ikaros family zinc finger group", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 14754768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " HMS Icarus, the name of several ships", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 464094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " , a patrol boat of the United States Coast Guard", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ikarus, a restaurant in Hangar-7 in Salzburg, Austria", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 29909402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icarus affair, an incident involving the 1867 murder of two British sailors in Nagasaki", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 16130431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Operation Ikarus, a World War II German plan to invade Iceland", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2975594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Project Icarus (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33949271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Icaros (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25882146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ikaris, a Marvel Comics character", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5558903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ikaris (Marvel Cinematic Universe), the Marvel Cinematic Universe adaptation", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 68897379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "In category theory, a branch of mathematics, the abstract notion of a limit captures the essential properties of universal constructions such as products, pullbacks and inverse limits. The dual notion of a colimit generalizes constructions such as disjoint unions, direct sums, coproducts, pushouts and direct limits.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5869, 18831, 237868, 841689, 15109, 310885, 188946, 2084687, 310889, 582024, 211566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 32, 43 ], [ 145, 153 ], [ 155, 164 ], [ 169, 182 ], [ 190, 201 ], [ 249, 263 ], [ 266, 276 ], [ 279, 288 ], [ 291, 298 ], [ 304, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Limits and colimits, like the strongly related notions of universal properties and adjoint functors, exist at a high level of abstraction. In order to understand them, it is helpful to first study the specific examples these concepts are meant to generalize.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32245, 53991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 78 ], [ 83, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Limits and colimits in a category are defined by means of diagrams in . Formally, a diagram of shape in is a functor from to :", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 53759, 7651625, 10987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 33 ], [ 85, 92 ], [ 112, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The category is thought of as an index category, and the diagram is thought of as indexing a collection of objects and morphisms in patterned on .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 7651625, 27716891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 48 ], [ 121, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One is most often interested in the case where the category is a small or even finite category. A diagram is said to be small or finite whenever is.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 53759, 11742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 71 ], [ 80, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Let be a diagram of shape in a category . A cone to is an object of together with a family of morphisms indexed by the objects of , such that for every morphism in , we have .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 7533645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A limit of the diagram is a cone to such that for every other cone to there exists a unique morphism such that for all in .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One says that the cone factors through the cone with", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "the unique factorization . The morphism is sometimes called the mediating morphism.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Limits are also referred to as universal cones, since they are characterized by a universal property (see below for more information). As with every universal property, the above definition describes a balanced state of generality: The limit object has to be general enough to allow any other cone to factor through it; on the other hand, has to be sufficiently specific, so that only one such factorization is possible for every cone.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 7533645, 32245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 45 ], [ 82, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Limits may also be characterized as terminal objects in the category of cones to F.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 59405, 7533645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 51 ], [ 60, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is possible that a diagram does not have a limit at all. However, if a diagram does have a limit then this limit is essentially unique: it is unique up to a unique isomorphism. For this reason one often speaks of the limit of F.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 44787, 14828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 157 ], [ 167, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The dual notions of limits and cones are colimits and co-cones. Although it is straightforward to obtain the definitions of these by inverting all morphisms in the above definitions, we will explicitly state them here:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 310885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A co-cone of a diagram is an object of together with a family of morphisms", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 7533645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "for every object of , such that for every morphism in , we have .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A colimit of a diagram is a co-cone of such that for any other co-cone of there exists a unique morphism such that for all in .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Colimits are also referred to as universal co-cones. They can be characterized as initial objects in the category of co-cones from .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 7533645, 59405, 7533645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 50 ], [ 82, 96 ], [ 105, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As with limits, if a diagram has a colimit then this colimit is unique up to a unique isomorphism.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Limits and colimits can also be defined for collections of objects and morphisms without the use of diagrams. The definitions are the same (note that in definitions above we never needed to use composition of morphisms in ). This variation, however, adds no new information. Any collection of objects and morphisms defines a (possibly large) directed graph . If we let be the free category generated by , there is a universal diagram whose image contains . The limit (or colimit) of this diagram is the same as the limit (or colimit) of the original collection of objects and morphisms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 19721986, 36769284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 342, 356 ], [ 377, 390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Weak limit and weak colimits are defined like limits and colimits, except that the uniqueness property of the mediating morphism is dropped.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The definition of limits is general enough to subsume several constructions useful in practical settings. In the following we will consider the limit (L, φ) of a diagram F : J → C.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Terminal objects. If J is the empty category there is only one diagram of shape J: the empty one (similar to the empty function in set theory). A cone to the empty diagram is essentially just an object of C. The limit of F is any object that is uniquely factored through by every other object. This is just the definition of a terminal object.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 59405, 185427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 113, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Products. If J is a discrete category then a diagram F is essentially nothing but a family of objects of C, indexed by J. The limit L of F is called the product of these objects. The cone φ consists of a family of morphisms φX : L → F(X) called the projections of the product. In the category of sets, for instance, the products are given by Cartesian products and the projections are just the natural projections onto the various factors.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 237868, 808519, 23624339, 26829, 24104095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 20, 37 ], [ 84, 90 ], [ 284, 300 ], [ 342, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Powers. A special case of a product is when the diagram F is a constant functor to an object X of C. The limit of this diagram is called the Jth power of X and denoted XJ.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Equalizers. If J is a category with two objects and two parallel morphisms from one object to the other, then a diagram of shape J is a pair of parallel morphisms in C. The limit L of such a diagram is called an equalizer of those morphisms.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 310767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kernels. A kernel is a special case of an equalizer where one of the morphisms is a zero morphism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 142616, 320638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 84, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pullbacks. Let F be a diagram that picks out three objects X, Y, and Z in C, where the only non-identity morphisms are f : X → Z and g : Y → Z. The limit L of F is called a pullback or a fiber product. It can nicely be visualized as a commutative square:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 841689, 138484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 235, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inverse limits. Let J be a directed set (considered as a small category by adding arrows i → j if and only if i ≥ j) and let F : Jop → C be a diagram. The limit of F is called (confusingly) an inverse limit or projective limit.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 15109, 9165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 27, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If J = 1, the category with a single object and morphism, then a diagram of shape J is essentially just an object X of C. A cone to an object X is just a morphism with codomain X. A morphism f : Y → X is a limit of the diagram X if and only if f is an isomorphism. More generally, if J is any category with an initial object i, then any diagram of shape J has a limit, namely any object isomorphic to F(i). Such an isomorphism uniquely determines a universal cone to F.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 14828, 59405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 252, 263 ], [ 310, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Topological limits. Limits of functions are a special case of limits of filters, which are related to categorical limits as follows. Given a topological space X, denote by F the set of filters on X, x ∈ X a point, V(x) ∈ F the neighborhood filter of x, A ∈ F a particular filter and the set of filters finer than A and that converge to x. The filters F are given a small and thin category structure by adding an arrow A → B if and only if A ⊆ B. The injection becomes a functor and the following equivalence holds :", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 47516955, 30450, 19719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 79 ], [ 141, 158 ], [ 227, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " x is a topological limit of A if and only if A is a categorical limit of ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Examples of colimits are given by the dual versions of the examples above:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Initial objects are colimits of empty diagrams.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 59405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coproducts are colimits of diagrams indexed by discrete categories.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 310889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Copowers are colimits of constant diagrams from discrete categories.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Coequalizers are colimits of a parallel pair of morphisms.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 431940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cokernels are coequalizers of a morphism and a parallel zero morphism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 279715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pushouts are colimits of a pair of morphisms with common domain.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 582024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Direct limits are colimits of diagrams indexed by directed sets.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 211566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A given diagram F : J → C may or may not have a limit (or colimit) in C. Indeed, there may not even be a cone to F, let alone a universal cone.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A category C is said to have limits of shape J if every diagram of shape J has a limit in C. Specifically, a category C is said to", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "have products if it has limits of shape J for every small discrete category J (it need not have large products),", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "have equalizers if it has limits of shape (i.e. every parallel pair of morphisms has an equalizer),", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "have pullbacks if it has limits of shape (i.e. every pair of morphisms with common codomain has a pullback).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A complete category is a category that has all small limits (i.e. all limits of shape J for every small category J).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 62781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One can also make the dual definitions. A category has colimits of shape J if every diagram of shape J has a colimit in C. A cocomplete category is one that has all small colimits.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 62781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The existence theorem for limits states that if a category C has equalizers and all products indexed by the classes Ob(J) and Hom(J), then C has all limits of shape J. In this case, the limit of a diagram F : J → C can be constructed as the equalizer of the two morphisms", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "given (in component form) by", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is a dual existence theorem for colimits in terms of coequalizers and coproducts. Both of these theorems give sufficient and necessary conditions for the existence of all (co)limits of shape J.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Limits and colimits are important special cases of universal constructions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 32245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Let C be a category and let J be a small index category. The functor category CJ may be thought of as the category of all diagrams of shape J in C. The diagonal functor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 407039, 4606683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 77 ], [ 152, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "is the functor that maps each object N in C to the constant functor Δ(N) : J → C to N. That is, Δ(N)(X) = N for each object X in J and Δ(N)(f) = idN for each morphism f in J.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Given a diagram F: J → C (thought of as an object in CJ), a natural transformation ψ : Δ(N) → F (which is just a morphism in the category CJ) is the same thing as a cone from N to F. To see this, first note that Δ(N)(X) = N for all X implies that the components of ψ are morphisms ψX : N → F(X), which all share the domain N. Moreover, the requirement that the cone's diagrams commute is true simply because this ψ is a natural transformation. (Dually, a natural transformation ψ : F → Δ(N) is the same thing as a co-cone from F to N.)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 45022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Therefore, the definitions of limits and colimits can then be restated in the form:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A limit of F is a universal morphism from Δ to F.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A colimit of F is a universal morphism from F to Δ.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Like all universal constructions, the formation of limits and colimits is functorial in nature. In other words, if every diagram of shape J has a limit in C (for J small) there exists a limit functor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "which assigns each diagram its limit and each natural transformation η : F → G the unique morphism lim η : lim F → lim G commuting with the corresponding universal cones. This functor is right adjoint to the diagonal functor Δ : C → CJ.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 45022, 53991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 68 ], [ 187, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This adjunction gives a bijection between the set of all morphisms from N to lim F and the set of all cones from N to F", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "which is natural in the variables N and F. The counit of this adjunction is simply the universal cone from lim F to F. If the index category J is connected (and nonempty) then the unit of the adjunction is an isomorphism so that lim is a left inverse of Δ. This fails if J is not connected. For example, if J is a discrete category, the components of the unit are the diagonal morphisms δ : N → NJ.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 1411533, 4606682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 155 ], [ 368, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dually, if every diagram of shape J has a colimit in C (for J small) there exists a colimit functor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "which assigns each diagram its colimit. This functor is left adjoint to the diagonal functor Δ : C → CJ, and one has a natural isomorphism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 53991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The unit of this adjunction is the universal cocone from F to colim F. If J is connected (and nonempty) then the counit is an isomorphism, so that colim is a left inverse of Δ.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Note that both the limit and the colimit functors are covariant functors.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 10987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One can use Hom functors to relate limits and colimits in a category C to limits in Set, the category of sets. This follows, in part, from the fact the covariant Hom functor Hom(N, ) : C → Set Preservation of limits in C. By duality, the contravariant Hom functor must take colimits to limits.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 2741037, 26829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 23 ], [ 93, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If a diagram F : J → C has a limit in C, denoted by lim F, there is a canonical isomorphism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 14828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "which is natural in the variable N. Here the functor Hom(N, F) is the composition of the Hom functor Hom(N, ) with F. This isomorphism is the unique one which respects the limiting cones.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One can use the above relationship to define the limit of F in C. The first step is to observe that the limit of the functor Hom(N, F) can be identified with the set of all cones from N to F:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The limiting cone is given by the family of maps πX : Cone(N, F) → Hom(N, FX) where X(ψ) = ψX. If one is given an object L of C together with a natural isomorphism Φ : Hom(L, ) → Cone(, F), the object L will be a limit of F with the limiting cone given by ΦL(idL). In fancy language, this amounts to saying that a limit of F is a representation of the functor Cone(, F) : C → Set.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 45022, 844461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 163 ], [ 330, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dually, if a diagram F : J → C has a colimit in C, denoted colim F, there is a unique canonical isomorphism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "which is natural in the variable N and respects the colimiting cones. Identifying the limit of Hom(F, N) with the set Cocone(F, N), this relationship can be used to define the colimit of the diagram F as a representation of the functor Cocone(F, ).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Let I be a finite category and J be a small filtered category. For any bifunctor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 4322449, 10987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 61 ], [ 71, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "there is a natural isomorphism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 45022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In words, filtered colimits in Set commute with finite limits. It also holds that small colimits commute with small limits.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If F : J → C is a diagram in C and G : C → D is a functor then by composition (recall that a diagram is just a functor) one obtains a diagram GF : J → D. A natural question is then:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [ 10987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "“How are the limits of GF related to those of F?”", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A functor G : C → D induces a map from Cone(F) to Cone(GF): if Ψ is a cone from N to F then GΨ is a cone from GN to GF. The functor G is said to preserve the limits of F if (GL, Gφ) is a limit of GF whenever (L, φ) is a limit of F. (Note that if the limit of F does not exist, then G vacuously preserves the limits of F.)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [ 51672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 284, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A functor G is said to preserve all limits of shape J if it preserves the limits of all diagrams F : J → C. For example, one can say that G preserves products, equalizers, pullbacks, etc. A continuous functor is one that preserves all small limits.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One can make analogous definitions for colimits. For instance, a functor G preserves the colimits of F if G(L, φ) is a colimit of GF whenever (L, φ) is a colimit of F. A cocontinuous functor is one that preserves all small colimits.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If C is a complete category, then, by the above existence theorem for limits, a functor G : C → D is continuous if and only if it preserves (small) products and equalizers. Dually, G is cocontinuous if and only if it preserves (small) coproducts and coequalizers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [ 62781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An important property of adjoint functors is that every right adjoint functor is continuous and every left adjoint functor is cocontinuous. Since adjoint functors exist in abundance, this gives numerous examples of continuous and cocontinuous functors.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [ 53991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For a given diagram F : J → C and functor G : C → D, if both F and GF have specified limits there is a unique canonical morphism", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "which respects the corresponding limit cones. The functor G preserves the limits of F if and only this map is an isomorphism. If the categories C and D have all limits of shape J then lim is a functor and the morphisms τF form the components of a natural transformation", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [ 45022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 247, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The functor G preserves all limits of shape J if and only if τ is a natural isomorphism. In this sense, the functor G can be said to commute with limits (up to a canonical natural isomorphism).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [ 44787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preservation of limits and colimits is a concept that only applies to covariant functors. For contravariant functors the corresponding notions would be a functor that takes colimits to limits, or one that takes limits to colimits.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [ 10987, 10987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 79 ], [ 94, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A functor G : C → D is said to lift limits for a diagram F : J → C if whenever (L, φ) is a limit of GF there exists a limit (L, φ) of F such that G(L, φ) = (L, φ). A functor G lifts limits of shape J if it lifts limits for all diagrams of shape J. One can therefore talk about lifting products, equalizers, pullbacks, etc. Finally, one says that G lifts limits if it lifts all limits. There are dual definitions for the lifting of colimits.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A functor G lifts limits uniquely for a diagram F if there is a unique preimage cone (L, φ) such that (L, φ) is a limit of F and G(L, φ) = (L, φ). One can show that G lifts limits uniquely if and only if it lifts limits and is amnestic.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [ 20847694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 227, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lifting of limits is clearly related to preservation of limits. If G lifts limits for a diagram F and GF has a limit, then F also has a limit and G preserves the limits of F. It follows that:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If G lifts limits of all shape J and D has all limits of shape J, then C also has all limits of shape J and G preserves these limits.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If G lifts all small limits and D is complete, then C is also complete and G is continuous.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The dual statements for colimits are equally valid.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Let F : J → C be a diagram. A functor G : C → D is said to", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "create limits for F if whenever (L, φ) is a limit of GF there exists a unique cone (L, φ) to F such that G(L, φ) = (L, φ), and furthermore, this cone is a limit of F.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "reflect limits for F if each cone to F whose image under G is a limit of GF is already a limit of F.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dually, one can define creation and reflection of colimits.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following statements are easily seen to be equivalent:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The functor G creates limits.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The functor G lifts limits uniquely and reflects limits.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are examples of functors which lift limits uniquely but neither create nor reflect them.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Every representable functor C → Set preserves limits (but not necessarily colimits). In particular, for any object A of C, this is true of the covariant Hom functor Hom(A,) : C → Set.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [ 844461, 2741037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 28 ], [ 155, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The forgetful functor U : Grp → Set creates (and preserves) all small limits and filtered colimits; however, U does not preserve coproducts. This situation is typical of algebraic forgetful functors.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [ 844783, 4322449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 22 ], [ 82, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The free functor F : Set → Grp (which assigns to every set S the free group over S) is left adjoint to forgetful functor U and is, therefore, cocontinuous. This explains why the free product of two free groups G and H is the free group generated by the disjoint union of the generators of G and H.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [ 333835, 59735, 360036, 188946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 17 ], [ 66, 76 ], [ 179, 191 ], [ 254, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The inclusion functor Ab → Grp creates limits but does not preserve coproducts (the coproduct of two abelian groups being the direct sum).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [ 2084687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The forgetful functor Top → Set lifts limits and colimits uniquely but creates neither.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Let Metc be the category of metric spaces with continuous functions for morphisms. The forgetful functor Metc → Set lifts finite limits but does not lift them uniquely.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Functors and limits", "target_page_ids": [ 20018, 6122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 41 ], [ 48, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Older terminology referred to limits as \"inverse limits\" or \"projective limits,\" and to colimits as \"direct limits\" or \"inductive limits.\" This has been the source of a lot of confusion.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "A note on terminology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are several ways to remember the modern terminology. First of all,", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "A note on terminology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "cokernels,", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "A note on terminology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "coproducts,", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "A note on terminology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "coequalizers, and", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "A note on terminology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "codomains", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "A note on terminology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "are types of colimits, whereas", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "A note on terminology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "kernels,", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "A note on terminology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "products", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "A note on terminology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "equalizers, and", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "A note on terminology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "domains", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "A note on terminology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "are types of limits. Second, the prefix \"co\" implies \"first variable of the \". Terms like \"cohomology\" and \"cofibration\" all have a slightly stronger association with the first variable, i.e., the contravariant variable, of the bifunctor.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "A note on terminology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Interactive Web page which generates examples of limits and colimits in the category of finite sets. Written by Jocelyn Paine.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Limits_(category_theory)" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "SVS may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " OS/VS2 (SVS), a precursor of MVS", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 27500501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Advanced Space Vision System, a computer vision system for the ISS", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 714203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Software Virtualization Solution, by Symantec", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 5862959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Synthetic vision system for aircraft", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 4151837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Supply Voltage Supervisor, an electronic protective device", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 22693008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Society for Vascular Surgery", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations and companies", "target_page_ids": [ 45409961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sudbury Valley School", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations and companies", "target_page_ids": [ 182663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " State Veterinary Service, UK", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations and companies", "target_page_ids": [ 5446800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saint Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary, Crestwood, NY, US", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations and companies", "target_page_ids": [ 1759198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Svenska Vitterhetssamfundet, Swedish publisher", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organizations and companies", "target_page_ids": [ 666984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Standard VIE Settings, of SubSpace video game", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 479423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Specific Area Message Encoding, US emergency weather event code", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 296102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stevens Village Airport, IATA code", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 23495915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " S. V. Sahasranamam, Indian actor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 42615799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Schwartz Value Survey, a personality test", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 45351671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "USS Mustin may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , was a during World War II", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , is an guided missile destroyer currently in active service", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "United_States_Navy_ship_names" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A playwright or dramatist is a person who writes plays.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26744396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The word \"play\" is from Middle English pleye, from Old English plæġ, pleġa, plæġa (\"play, exercise; sport, game; drama, applause\"). The word \"wright\" is an archaic English term for a craftsman or builder (as in a wheelwright or cartwright). The words combine to indicate a person who has \"wrought\" words, themes, and other elements into a dramatic form—a play. (The homophone with \"write\" is coincidental.)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 426433, 875416, 403005, 151831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 192 ], [ 213, 224 ], [ 228, 238 ], [ 366, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first recorded use of the term \"playwright\" is from 1605, 73 years before the first written record of the term \"dramatist\". It appears to have been first used in a pejorative sense by Ben Jonson to suggest a mere tradesman fashioning works for the theatre.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 48261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jonson uses the word in his Epigram 49, which is thought to refer to John Marston:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 559225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epigram XLIX — On Playwright", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "PLAYWRIGHT me reads, and still my verses damns,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He says I want the tongue of epigrams ;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "I have no salt, no bawdry he doth mean ;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For witty, in his language, is obscene.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Playwright, I loath to have thy manners known", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In my chaste book ; I profess them in thine own.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jonson described himself as a poet, not a playwright, since plays during that time were written in meter and so were regarded as the province of poets. This view was held as late as the early 19th century. The term \"playwright\" later again lost this negative connotation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest playwrights in Western literature with surviving works are the Ancient Greeks. These early plays were for annual Athenian competitions among play writers held around the 5th century BC. Such notables as Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes established forms still relied on by their modern counterparts. For the ancient Greeks, playwriting involved poïesis, \"the act of making\". This is the source of the English word poet.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 148363, 1216, 2023, 26984, 9808, 1028, 2932037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 89 ], [ 126, 134 ], [ 216, 225 ], [ 227, 236 ], [ 238, 247 ], [ 253, 265 ], [ 375, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 4th century BCE, Aristotle wrote his Poetics, in which he analyzed the principle of action or praxis as the basis for tragedy. He then considered elements of drama: plot (μύθος mythos), character (ἔθος ethos), thought (dianoia), diction (lexis), music (melodia), and spectacle (opsis). Since the myths, on which Greek tragedy were based, were widely known, plot had to do with the arrangement and selection of existing material. Character was determined by choice and by action. Tragedy is mimesis—\"the imitation of an action that is serious\". He developed his notion of hamartia, or tragic flaw, an error in judgment by the main character or protagonist, which provides the basis for the \"conflict-driven\" play.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 308, 397064, 74973, 795780, 22826624, 17406217, 37735, 24698694, 631802, 329625, 1280581, 68315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 33 ], [ 44, 51 ], [ 172, 176 ], [ 209, 214 ], [ 226, 233 ], [ 245, 250 ], [ 260, 267 ], [ 303, 308 ], [ 319, 332 ], [ 497, 504 ], [ 578, 586 ], [ 650, 661 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Italian Renaissance brought about a stricter interpretation of Aristotle, as this long-lost work came to light in the late 15th century. The neoclassical ideal, which was to reach its apogee in France during the 17th century, dwelled upon the unities, of action, place, and time. This meant that the playwright had to construct the play so that its \"virtual\" time would not exceed 24 hours, that it would be restricted to a single setting, and that there would be no subplots. Other terms, such as verisimilitude and decorum, circumscribed the subject matter significantly. For example, verisimilitude limits of the unities. Decorum fitted proper protocols for behavior and language on stage. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 322915, 2682331, 30740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 145, 157 ], [ 247, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In France, contained too many events and actions, thus, violating the 24-hour restriction of the unity of time. Neoclassicism never had as much traction in England, and Shakespeare's plays are directly opposed to these models, while in Italy, improvised and bawdy commedia dell'arte and opera were more popular forms. In England, after the Interregnum, and restoration of the monarchy in 1660, there was a move toward neoclassical dramaturgy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32897, 24527985, 40471000, 70804, 19013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 180 ], [ 264, 282 ], [ 340, 351 ], [ 357, 368 ], [ 376, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One structural unit that is still useful to playwrights today is the \"French scene\", which is a scene in a play where the beginning and end are marked by a change in the makeup of the group of characters onstage rather than by the lights going up or down or the set being changed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3074472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Popularized in the nineteenth century by the French playwrights Eugène Scribe and Victorien Sardou, and perhaps the most schematic of all formats, the \"well-made play\" relies on a series of coincidences (for better or worse) that determined the action. This plot driven format is often reliant on a prop device, such as a glass of water, or letter that reveals some secret information. In most cases, the character receiving the secret information misinterprets its contents, thus setting off a chain of events. Well-made plays are thus motivated by various plot devices which lead to \"discoveries\" and \"reversals of action,\" rather than being character motivated. Henrik Ibsen's A Doll's House is an example of a well-made structure (built around the discovery of Krogstad's letter) that began to integrate a more realistic approach to character. The character Nora's leaving is as much motivated by \"the letter\" and disclosure of a \"past secret\" as it is by her own determination to strike out on her own. The well-made play infiltrated other forms of writing and is still seen in popular formats such as the mystery, or \"whodunit.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 359750, 193231, 1853097, 14236, 3144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 77 ], [ 82, 98 ], [ 152, 166 ], [ 665, 677 ], [ 680, 694 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Contemporary playwrights in the United States often do not reach the same level of fame or cultural importance as others did in the past. No longer the only outlet for serious drama or entertaining comedies, theatrical productions must use ticket sales as a source of income, which has caused many of them to reduce the number of new works being produced. For example, Playwrights Horizons produced only six plays in the 2002–03 seasons, compared with thirty-one in 1973–74. As revivals and large-scale production musicals become the de rigueur of Broadway (and even Off-Broadway) productions, playwrights find it difficult to earn a living in the business, let alone achieve major successes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3434750, 1011172, 725252, 89127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 45 ], [ 369, 389 ], [ 548, 556 ], [ 567, 579 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In an effort to develop new American voices in playwriting, a phenomenon known as new play development began to emerge in the early-to-mid-1980s, and continues through today. Many regional theatres have hired dramaturges and literary managers in an effort to showcase various festivals for new work, or bring in playwrights for residencies. Funding through national organizations, such as the National Endowment for the Arts and the Theatre Communications Group, encouraged the partnerships of professional theatre companies and emerging playwrights.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 282752, 4211972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 394, 425 ], [ 434, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New Dramatists and The Lark theatre in New York City, for example, will often have a \"cold\" reading of a script in an informal sitdown setting. A cold reading means that the actors haven't rehearsed the work, or may be seeing it for the first time, and usually, the technical requirements are minimal. Shenandoah and the O'Neill Festival offer summer retreats for playwrights to develop their work with directors and actors in a totally \"devoted\" setting.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 49478277, 645042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 39, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1990s saw the formation of playwriting collectives like 13P and Clubbed Thumb who have gathered members together to produce, rather than develop, new works. This has been a reaction to the \"developed to death\" notion in which the play never gets produced, but goes through endless readings and critiques that after a certain point in New York go through some kind of assiduous development process, and rare is the play that shows up on a producer's desk that gains any traction. On Broadway, this has happened with Mamet's Race (2009) and Martin McDonagh's A Behanding in Spokane (2010), although these shows were packaged with stars (Christopher Walken in the latter) and with playwrights who are well established in the profession.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 766369, 24077514, 19410199, 24719234, 1040533, 26144025, 167790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 53 ], [ 68, 81 ], [ 519, 524 ], [ 527, 531 ], [ 543, 558 ], [ 561, 583 ], [ 640, 658 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of playwrights", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 65066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Play (theatre)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26744396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Screenwriter", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 53016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] } ]

[ "Dramatists_and_playwrights", "Mass_media_occupations", "Theatrical_occupations" ]

[ "dramatist", "playwrite", "scriptwriter" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Solidarity Electoral Action (, AWS) was a political coalition in Poland from 1996 to 2001. From 1997 to 2001, its official name was Akcja Wyborcza Solidarność Prawicy (AWSP) or Electoral Action Solidarity of the Right.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11019927, 22936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 61 ], [ 65, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AWS (RS AWS), or the Social Movement for Electoral Action Solidarity, the political arm of the Solidarity trade union from 1997 to 2004, was formerly the leading party within AWS.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AWS was formed in 1996 as a coalition of over 30 parties, uniting liberal, conservative and Christian-democratic forces. Marian Krzaklewski was its first chairman. In 1997 the coalition was joined by RS AWS, and by the Freedom Union. Jerzy Buzek of RS AWS became Prime Minister of Poland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 93088, 6675, 328969, 4754377, 1913913, 735823, 40543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 73 ], [ 75, 87 ], [ 92, 112 ], [ 121, 139 ], [ 219, 232 ], [ 234, 245 ], [ 263, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The International Republican Institute, a US federal government-funded organisation loosely associated with the United States Republican Party, claims credit for having played a major role in uniting the different political parties which came together to create the AWS. It claims to have provided training in political campaigning, communications training and research which helped organise and create the AWS. It also states that once the AWS was in government, it organised an advertising campaign for the Polish government in order to stop the AWS splitting up over internal tensions:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 1015796, 32070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 38 ], [ 112, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IRI initiated a post-election program that emphasized media and communications training for Prime Minister Jerzy Buzek's chancellory and cabinet.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Reforms relating to domestic affairs, the entry to NATO in 1999 and the accession process to the European Union led to conflicts within the coalition, with many members moving to the more liberal Civic Platform, the right-wing Law and Justice party, or the Movement for Reconstruction of Poland. By 2001, the number of parties in the alliance was reduced to three including RS AWS. AWS formed a minority government under Jerzy Buzek, and the coalition was renamed AWSP (Akcja Wyborcza Solidarność Prawicy \"Solidarity of the Right\" Electoral Action), while RS AWS became simply RS. In the 2001 elections, AWSP (including RS) did not obtain enough votes to enter Parliament and became defunct.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 21133, 9317, 23998, 520309, 773234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 55 ], [ 97, 111 ], [ 196, 210 ], [ 227, 242 ], [ 257, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AWSP former leader Jerzy Buzek is now a member of the Civic Platform.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 735823, 23998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 30 ], [ 54, 68 ] ] } ]

[ "1996_establishments_in_Poland", "2001_disestablishments_in_Poland", "Christian_democratic_parties_in_Europe", "Conservative_parties_in_Poland", "Defunct_Christian_political_parties", "Defunct_conservative_parties", "Defunct_political_party_alliances_in_Poland", "International_Republican_Institute", "Political_parties_disestablished_in_2001", "Political_parties_established_in_1996", "Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Polish People's Party (, PSL) is an agrarian political party in Poland. It is currently led by Władysław Kosiniak-Kamysz.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1193, 69099, 60544479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 48 ], [ 49, 74 ], [ 99, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Its history traces back to 1895, when it held the name People's Party, although its name was changed to the present one in 1903. During the Second Polish Republic, the Polish People's Party was represented by a number of parties that held its name. They were all supportive of agrarian policies, although they spanned from the left-wing to the centre-right on the political spectrum. It was reformed into the People's Party shortly after the Sanacja regime took power. It took part into the formation of Polish government-in-exile during the World War II, and after the war it was again reformed into the Polish People's Party, and soon after into the United People's Party. During the existence of Polish People's Republic, it was seen as a satellite party of the ruling Polish United Workers' Party that promoted rural interests. After the fall of communism, it participated in the governments led by Democratic Left Alliance. In the mid-2000s, it began shifting more to the centre-right and it adopted more conservative policies. It entered the government again following the 2007 parliamentary election, and since 2015 it has served in the opposition.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14245, 18499, 1860204, 5303657, 374963, 539820, 32927, 38594630, 7417233, 355133, 26666886, 40582, 1665978, 28800, 1860204, 6675, 13145963, 43461303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 162 ], [ 327, 336 ], [ 344, 356 ], [ 409, 423 ], [ 442, 449 ], [ 504, 530 ], [ 542, 554 ], [ 605, 626 ], [ 652, 673 ], [ 699, 723 ], [ 742, 757 ], [ 772, 800 ], [ 842, 859 ], [ 903, 927 ], [ 977, 989 ], [ 1010, 1022 ], [ 1079, 1106 ], [ 1118, 1122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today, it is positioned in the centre and leans towards the centre-right, and besides holding agrarian and conservative views, it is also Christian-democratic, and supports Poland's membership in the European Union. It currently has 19 seats in the Sejm and 2 seats in the Senate. On national level, it heads the Polish Coalition and on European level, it is a part of the European People's Party.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39619035, 328969, 28167, 462813, 61221888, 727249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 37 ], [ 138, 158 ], [ 249, 253 ], [ 273, 279 ], [ 313, 329 ], [ 373, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The party's name traces its tradition to an agrarian party in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Galician Poland, which sent MPs to the parliament in Vienna. The party was formed in 1895 in the Polish town of Rzeszow under the name Stronnictwo Ludowe (People's Party). The party changed its name in 1903 to what it's known as now. The party was led by Wincenty Witos and was quite successful, seating representatives in the Galician parliament before the turn of the 19th century. In the Second Polish Republic there were a few parties named PSL (Polish People's Party \"Wyzwolenie\", Polish People's Party \"Piast\", Polish People's Party \"Left\" and others) until they were removed by the Sanacja regime (see also People's Party).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2983, 402344, 803657, 74604, 14245, 13358500, 13301374, 43523416, 374963, 5303657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 78 ], [ 90, 105 ], [ 129, 149 ], [ 202, 209 ], [ 481, 503 ], [ 540, 574 ], [ 576, 605 ], [ 607, 635 ], [ 679, 686 ], [ 704, 718 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During this time, there were two parties using the term \"Polish People's Party\", namely Polish People's Party \"Piast\" and Polish People's Party \"Wyzwolenie\" (which were merged into People's Party with Stronnictwo Chłopskie). During World War II, PSL took part in forming the Polish government in exile.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13301374, 13358500, 5303657, 13497933, 32927, 539820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 117 ], [ 122, 156 ], [ 181, 195 ], [ 201, 222 ], [ 232, 244 ], [ 275, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 1945 after the war Stanisław Mikołajczyk, a PSL leader who had been Prime Minister of the Polish government in exile, returned to communist-dominated Poland, where he joined the provisional government and rebuilt PSL. The party hoped to win the Yalta Conference-mandated elections and help establish a parliamentary system in Poland. However, the party soon found itself targeted with intimidation, arrests and violence by the communist secret police.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 541390, 2211815, 38594630, 92972, 182113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 48 ], [ 186, 208 ], [ 213, 224 ], [ 253, 269 ], [ 310, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The communists also formed a rival ersatz 'Peasants' party' controlled by them, in order to confuse voters. The January 1947 parliamentary election was heavily rigged, with the communist-controlled bloc claiming to have won 80 percent of the vote. The PSL were said to have won just 10 percent of the vote, but many neutral observers believe the PSL would have won the election had it been conducted fairly.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5158973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mikołajczyk was soon compelled to flee Poland for his life in October 1947. The communists then forced the remains of Mikołajczyk's PSL to unite with the pro-communist People's Party to form the United People's Party. The ZSL was a governing partner in the ruling coalition.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7417233, 10561121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 216 ], [ 257, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Around the time of the fall of communism several PSLs were recreated, including Porozumienie Ludowe, Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe-Odrodzenie, and Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe (Wilanów faction). In 1989 most merged into one party and took part in forming the first postwar noncommunist government in Poland with the Solidarity grouping, and in 1990 changed its name to PSL.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4584893, 28869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 40 ], [ 311, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It remained on the left of Polish politics in the 1990s, entering into coalitions with the postcommunist Democratic Left Alliance. In the 2001 parliamentary elections, PSL received 9% of votes and formed a coalition with the Democratic Left Alliance, an alliance which later broke down. Since then, PSL has moved towards more centrist and conservative policies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 28800, 1926038, 39619035, 6675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 129 ], [ 138, 166 ], [ 326, 334 ], [ 339, 351 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The party ran in the 2004 European Parliament election as part of the European People's Party (EPP) and received 6% of the vote, giving it 4 of 54 Polish seats in the European Parliament. In the 2005 general election, the party received 7% of votes, giving it 25 seats in the Sejm and 2 in the Senate. In the 2007 parliamentary elections, the party placed fourth, with 8.93% of the vote and 31 out of 460 seats, and entered into a governing coalition with the victor, the centre-right conservative Civic Platform. In European parliament elections PSL received 7.01% of votes in 2009. In the 2011 national parliamentary election, Polish People's Party received 8.36% votes which gave them 28 seats in the Sejm and 2 mandates in the Senate.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 731977, 727249, 9581, 1582427, 13145963, 1860204, 23998, 30171239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 54 ], [ 70, 93 ], [ 167, 186 ], [ 195, 216 ], [ 309, 337 ], [ 472, 497 ], [ 498, 512 ], [ 591, 627 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the parliamentary elections in 2007, PSL won 8.91% of the popular vote and 31 seats, it joined the government coalition led by Civic Platform. Waldemar Pawlak was appointed deputy prime minister, Marek Sawicki was appointed as agriculture minister, and Jolanta Fedak was appointed as labor minister. In the 2009 European Parliament election, it won 3 seats. After the Smolensk air disaster, presidential elections were held in which Pawlak placed fifth, winning 1.75% of the vote. In the second round they didn't state their support for anyone.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13145963, 802722, 5815572, 55722514, 15125188, 26902061, 12254406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 41 ], [ 149, 164 ], [ 202, 215 ], [ 259, 272 ], [ 313, 346 ], [ 374, 395 ], [ 397, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2010 local government elections, PSL obtained 16.3% of the votes in the elections to voivodship assemblies, in which it received 93 seats. In the Świętokrzyskie sejmik, the party received the most seats. In all parliamentary assemblies, PSL found itself in ruling coalitions with the PO, in four voivodeships receiving the positions of marshals. In the elections to poviat councils, the PSL committee obtained 15.88%, and in the elections to municipal councils 11% of the votes. The PSL won the largest number of village leaders (428) and mayors in the country, and in Zgierz, the party's candidate won the presidential election. In 2011, a PiS senator defected to PSL.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 196185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the parliamentary elections of 2011, PSL obtained 8.36% of votes on the list of candidates for the Sejm. The party also won two seats in the Senate. Eugeniusz Grzeszczak became the deputy speaker of the Sejm on behalf of the PSL. PSL again became a partner of the PO in the government coalition. On December 7, 2011, as a result of the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty, Arkadiusz Bratkowski, a PSL politician, assumed a mandate in the European Parliament.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30171239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2012, Stanisław Kalemba replaced Marek Sawicki as the minister of agriculture and rural development. Pawlak was defeated during the presidential election by Janusz Piechociński. Two days later, Waldemar Pawlak announced his resignation as deputy prime minister and minister of economy. He was dismissed from both functions on November 27. On December 6, both these offices were taken over by Janusz Piechociński.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 37671211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2014, PSL decided to establish cooperation with SKL and Samoobrona, but SKL already in February announced that Jarosław Gowin joined Poland Together, and the PSL talks about a joint election campaign with Samoobrona did not end with an agreement. In March, MP Andrzej Dąbrowski left PSL. The party's candidate in the 2015 presidential election was the marshal of the Świętokrzyskie Province, party vice president Adam Jarubas. He placed 6th, obtaining 238,761 votes. Before the second round, PSL was involved in the campaign of the then-incumbent President Bronisław Komorowski.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the 2015 parliamentary election, the PSL dropped to 5.13 percent of the vote, just barely over the 5 percent threshold. With 16 seats, it was the smallest of the five factions in the Sejm.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 43461303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since then PSL has lost even more support to PiS during the 2018 Polish local elections when they lost 87 seats and dropped to 12.07% unlike the 23.9% they got at the last local elections. After this, the party became junior partner in coalitions with Civic Coalition and SLD.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 58882293, 59232641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 87 ], [ 252, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2019 European election, PSL won 3 seats as a part of the European Coalition.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 60452444, 59854679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 25 ], [ 60, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For parliamentary elections in the same year, PSL decided to create centrist and Christian-democratic coalition named as Polish Coalition. Polish Coalition, apart from PSL, consisted of Kukiz'15, Union of European Democrats and another liberal, catholic and regionalist organisations. This coalition resulted in election of 30 members. Majority of them (20) were members of PSL.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 49268044, 39619035, 328969, 61221888, 61221888, 47330351, 53366340, 19280734, 1713539, 868284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 68, 76 ], [ 81, 101 ], [ 121, 137 ], [ 139, 155 ], [ 186, 194 ], [ 196, 223 ], [ 236, 243 ], [ 245, 253 ], [ 258, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 2020, PSL decided to end coalition with Kukiz'15 due to differences on negotiations on EU budget.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 47330351, 9317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 60 ], [ 99, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Polish People's Party adhered to principles of social democracy and agrarian socialism during the 1990s, although it has moved towards Christian democracy in the 2000s. It was positioned on the left-wing on the political spectrum during that period.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideology", "target_page_ids": [ 18247265, 40556040, 18499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 67 ], [ 72, 90 ], [ 198, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The party's platform is strongly based on agrarianism. On social and ethical issues, PSL is attached to more social conservative values, as it opposes abortion, legalisation of same-sex marriage, euthanasia, death penalty, and soft drug decriminalisation. The party is in favour of maintaining religion lessons in public education. In 2019, the party adopted (as part of an agreement with Kukiz'15) in the party's platform direct democracy's postulates, including introducing single-member districts, electronic voting and obligatory referendums.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideology", "target_page_ids": [ 1193, 219177, 765, 92656, 9587, 5902, 195533, 47330351, 95816, 6643160, 371301, 51582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 53 ], [ 109, 128 ], [ 151, 159 ], [ 177, 194 ], [ 196, 206 ], [ 208, 221 ], [ 294, 310 ], [ 389, 397 ], [ 423, 439 ], [ 476, 498 ], [ 501, 518 ], [ 534, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Party's traditional support base consisted of farmers, peasants and rural voters. Voters are generally more social conservative than voters of Civic Platform. The main concurrent in rural areas is national conservative Law and Justice (PiS).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Election results", "target_page_ids": [ 219177, 23998, 2350495, 520309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 131 ], [ 147, 161 ], [ 201, 222 ], [ 223, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2010s the party started to lose support between rural voters (especially in southeast of Poland, e.g. Subcarpathian Voivodeship). In 2019 election PSL gained surprisingly significant support in cities and won mandates (e. g. in Warsaw and Wrocław).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Election results", "target_page_ids": [ 345194, 49268044, 32908, 33603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 134 ], [ 140, 153 ], [ 235, 241 ], [ 246, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chairman: ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Leadership", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Roman Bartoszcze (1990–1991)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Leadership", "target_page_ids": [ 20824660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Waldemar Pawlak (1991–1997)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Leadership", "target_page_ids": [ 802722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jarosław Kalinowski (1997–2004)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Leadership", "target_page_ids": [ 5814802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Janusz Wojciechowski (2004–2005)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Leadership", "target_page_ids": [ 1806970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Waldemar Pawlak (2005–2012)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Leadership", "target_page_ids": [ 802722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Janusz Piechociński (2012–2015)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Leadership", "target_page_ids": [ 37671211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Władysław Kosiniak-Kamysz (2015–present)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Leadership", "target_page_ids": [ 60544479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of Polish People's Party politicians", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23739318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 41 ] ] } ]

[ "Polish_People's_Party", "1895_establishments_in_Austria-Hungary", "1895_establishments_in_Poland", "1990_establishments_in_Poland", "Agrarian_parties_in_Poland", "Political_parties_established_in_1895", "Political_parties_established_in_1990", "Political_parties_in_Poland" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Labour Union (, UP) is a minor social-democratic political party in Poland. It is a member of the Party of European Socialists (PES).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18247265, 23996, 22936, 24083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 48 ], [ 49, 64 ], [ 68, 74 ], [ 98, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Labour Union was formed in June 1992. The party contested the 1993 parliamentary elections, obtaining 7.28% of the popular vote and had 41 representatives elected to the lower house (Sejm). In the following parliamentary elections of 1997, UP received only 4.74% of votes, thereby falling short of the required 5% threshold for election to the Sejm. At the 2001 parliamentary elections, UP entered into an electoral alliance with the major Polish social-democratic party Democratic Left Alliance (SLD), and managed to get 16 of its members elected to parliament. Some of those members subsequently left UP to join the newly created Social Democracy of Poland (SDPL), a splinter group from the SLD. In May 2004, UP signed an alliance with SDPL, in which both parties agreed to jointly contest the following parliamentary elections under the SDPL banner, and to support the candidacy of Marek Borowski in the 2005 presidential election. At the 2005 parliamentary elections, SDPL gained only 3.9% of the vote, which was insufficient for the alliance to achieve parliamentary representation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2144022, 28167, 1926214, 1926038, 427805, 28800, 652670, 637452, 1686933, 1582427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 90 ], [ 183, 187 ], [ 207, 238 ], [ 357, 385 ], [ 406, 424 ], [ 471, 495 ], [ 632, 658 ], [ 885, 899 ], [ 907, 933 ], [ 942, 970 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2006, UP joined SLD, SDPL and the liberal Democratic Party – demokraci.pl to form a centre-left electoral alliance named Left and Democrats (LiD) for the upcoming local elections. This electoral alliance was maintained for the 2007 parliamentary elections, and LiD came in third place with 13.2% of the vote, which saw 53 of its candidates elected to the Sejm. Unfortunately for UP, the party was the only one of the four component parties of the LiD alliance not to have any of its candidates elected.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 65530, 39766736, 427805, 11638902, 13145963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 76 ], [ 87, 98 ], [ 99, 117 ], [ 124, 142 ], [ 230, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2011 parliamentary elections its candidates joined the electoral lists of SLD. Again, none of them were elected.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30171239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "They managed, however, to win one seat on the European Parliament elections in 2004, and hold it in the elections in 2009 and 2014.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2015 the party joined the Zjednoczona Lewica (United Left) electoral alliance for the 2015 parliamentary elections. The alliance received 7.6% vote of the vote in the elections, below the 8% electoral threshold leaving it with no parliamentary representation. The alliance was dissolved in February 2016.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 47523740, 427805, 43461303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 52 ], [ 67, 85 ], [ 94, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2019 parliamentary election, Labour Union candidates ran on the Civic Coalition’s electoral lists and again, none of their candidates managed to get elected.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 49268044, 59232641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 34 ], [ 71, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Waldemar Witkowski", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Leaders", "target_page_ids": [ 13977962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marek Pol", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Leaders", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Adam Gierek (2004–2019)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members of European Parliament", "target_page_ids": [ 1765563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ryszard Bugaj, left in 1998", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Important former members", "target_page_ids": [ 28702870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zbigniew Bujak, until c.1997", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Important former members", "target_page_ids": [ 4958318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tomasz Nałęcz, left in 2004 to newly created Social Democracy of Poland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Important former members", "target_page_ids": [ 709525, 652670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 46, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aleksander Małachowski, died January 26, 2004", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Important former members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Izabela Jaruga-Nowacka, left in 2005, founded Union of the Left", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Important former members", "target_page_ids": [ 5814756, 39557929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 47, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Home page ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1992_establishments_in_Poland", "Former_member_parties_of_the_Socialist_International", "Party_of_European_Socialists_member_parties", "Political_parties_established_in_1992", "Political_parties_in_Poland", "Progressive_parties", "Social_democratic_parties_in_Poland" ]

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[ { "plaintext": "UW, U.W., Uw, or uw may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " University of Waterloo", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Universities", "target_page_ids": [ 73276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " University of Windsor", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Universities", "target_page_ids": [ 342733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " University of Winnipeg", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Universities", "target_page_ids": [ 587404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " University of Washington", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Universities", "target_page_ids": [ 31776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " University of Wisconsin System", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Universities", "target_page_ids": [ 102863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " University of Wisconsin–La Crosse", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Universities", "target_page_ids": [ 2422287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " University of Wisconsin–Madison", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Universities", "target_page_ids": [ 23536538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Universities", "target_page_ids": [ 512185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " University of Wyoming", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Universities", "target_page_ids": [ 535684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " University of Warsaw, Poland", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Universities", "target_page_ids": [ 11157563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " University of Wuppertal, Germany", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Universities", "target_page_ids": [ 12696005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " University of Würzburg, Germany", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Universities", "target_page_ids": [ 715155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " uw (digraph)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 22469831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Uw, the international symbol for relative humidity", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 52812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Unconventional warfare", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 354115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Unconventional warfare (United States), a US-specific definition of unconventional warfare used by its Department of Defense", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 17131451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Unia Wolnosci (Freedom Union), a Polish political party", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1913913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " WU (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 436191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " U of W (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8416213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Uwu (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32930100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "The Caucasus (), or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea; mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range, have historically been considered as a natural barrier between Eastern Europe and Western Asia.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3386, 19653787, 10918072, 746, 48768, 6334843, 230497, 2342501, 3191954, 37403, 399656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 66 ], [ 75, 86 ], [ 106, 113 ], [ 115, 125 ], [ 127, 134 ], [ 149, 164 ], [ 170, 188 ], [ 204, 220 ], [ 267, 282 ], [ 291, 305 ], [ 310, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mount Elbrus in Russia, Europe's highest mountain, is situated in the Western Caucasus. On the southern side, the Lesser Caucasus includes the Javakheti Plateau and the Armenian highlands, part of which is in Turkey.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 230484, 25391, 9239, 2127346, 2342673, 3910647, 2343789, 11125639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 16, 22 ], [ 24, 30 ], [ 70, 86 ], [ 114, 129 ], [ 143, 160 ], [ 169, 186 ], [ 209, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Caucasus is divided into the North Caucasus and South Caucasus, although the Western Caucasus also exists as a distinct geographic space within the North Caucasus. The Greater Caucasus mountain range in the north is mostly shared by Russia and Georgia as well as the northernmost parts of Azerbaijan. The Lesser Caucasus mountain range in the south is occupied by several independent states, mostly by Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, but also extending to parts of northeastern Turkey, northern Iran and the self-proclaimed Republic of Artsakh.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 482121, 353358, 2127346, 25391, 14653, 38078889, 1000530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 47 ], [ 52, 66 ], [ 81, 97 ], [ 237, 243 ], [ 501, 505 ], [ 514, 529 ], [ 530, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The region is known for its linguistic diversity: aside from Indo-European and Turkic languages, the Kartvelian, Northwest Caucasian, and Northeast Caucasian language families are indigenous to the area.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 618592, 14848, 30018, 23909629, 72462, 74879, 18190, 3993568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 48 ], [ 61, 74 ], [ 79, 85 ], [ 101, 111 ], [ 113, 132 ], [ 138, 157 ], [ 158, 175 ], [ 180, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pliny the Elder's Natural History (77–79 AD) derives the name of the Caucasus from Scythian kroy-khasis (\"ice-shining, white with snow\"). German linguist Paul Kretschmer notes that the Latvian word Kruvesis also means \"ice\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin of the name", "target_page_ids": [ 44920, 74215, 937969, 2268652, 43352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 18, 33 ], [ 83, 91 ], [ 154, 169 ], [ 185, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Tale of Past Years (1113 AD), it is stated that Old East Slavic Кавкасийскыѣ горы (Kavkasijskyě gory) came from Ancient Greek Καύκασος (Kaúkasos; later Greek pronunciation Káfkasos)), which, according to M. A. Yuyukin, is a compound word that can be interpreted as the \"Seagull's Mountain\" (καύ-: καύαξ, καύηξ, ηκος ο, κήξ, κηϋξ \"a kind of seagull\" + the reconstructed *κάσος η \"mountain\" or \"rock\" richly attested both in place and personal names).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin of the name", "target_page_ids": [ 45675, 472248, 148363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 25 ], [ 55, 70 ], [ 119, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Georgian tradition, the term Caucasus is derived from Caucas ( Ḳavḳasosi), the son of the Biblical Togarmah and legendary forefather of Nakh peoples.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin of the name", "target_page_ids": [ 19700824, 1758763, 7599382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 63 ], [ 102, 110 ], [ 139, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to German philologists Otto Schrader and Alfons A. Nehring, the Ancient Greek word Καύκασος (Kaukasos) is connected to Gothic Hauhs (\"high\") as well as Lithuanian Kaũkas (\"hillock\") and Kaukarà (\"hill, top\"). British linguist Adrian Room points out that Kau- also means \"mountain\" in Pelasgian.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin of the name", "target_page_ids": [ 11867, 23193, 22131054, 18789453, 77242, 82966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 19 ], [ 20, 32 ], [ 33, 46 ], [ 129, 135 ], [ 162, 172 ], [ 294, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term Caucasus is not only used for the mountains themselves but also includes Ciscaucasia (which is part of the Russian Federation) and Transcaucasia. According to Alexander Mikaberidze, Transcaucasia is a \"Russo-centric\" term.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [ 482121, 25391, 353358, 45529817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 93 ], [ 116, 134 ], [ 140, 153 ], [ 168, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Transcaucasus region and Dagestan were the furthest points of Parthian and later Sasanian expansions, with areas to the north of the Greater Caucasus range practically impregnable. The mythological Mount Qaf, the world's highest mountain that ancient Iranian lore shrouded in mystery, was said to be situated in this region. The region is also one of the candidates for the location of Airyanem Vaejah, the apparent homeland of the Iranians of Zoroaster. In Middle Persian sources of the Sasanian era, the Caucasus range was referred to as Kaf Kof. The term resurfaced in Iranian tradition later on in a variant form when Ferdowsi, in his Shahnameh, referred to the Caucasus mountains as Kōh-i Kāf. \"Most of the modern names of the Caucasus originate from the Greek Kaukasos (Lat., Caucasus) and the Middle Persian Kaf Kof\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [ 353358, 751099, 4501200, 5876413, 2342501, 21017709, 173778, 44406, 889882, 193580, 193608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 29, 37 ], [ 66, 74 ], [ 85, 93 ], [ 137, 153 ], [ 202, 211 ], [ 390, 405 ], [ 448, 457 ], [ 462, 476 ], [ 626, 634 ], [ 643, 652 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"The earliest etymon\" of the name Caucasus comes from Kaz-kaz, the Hittite designation of the \"inhabitants of the southern coast of the Black Sea\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [ 351025, 3386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 74 ], [ 136, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was also noted that in Nakh Ков гас (Kov gas) means \"gateway to steppe\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [ 84211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The modern endonym for the region is usually similar in many languages, and is generally between Kavkaz and Kaukaz.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kavkaz", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kʺaukʺaz/s", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " al-Qawqāz", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kovkas", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kawkaz", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kawkaz", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " K'avk'asia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Káfkasos", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kawkaz", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kavkaz", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Qawqaz", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kkawkkaz", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " K'awk'az", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " K'avk'acia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kavkaz", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Qafqāz", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kavkaz", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kavkaz", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kavkaz", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Toponyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The North Caucasus region is known as the Ciscaucasus, whereas the South Caucasus region is commonly known as the Transcaucasus.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political geography", "target_page_ids": [ 482121, 353358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 114, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ciscaucasus contains most of the Greater Caucasus mountain range. It consists of Southern Russia, mainly the North Caucasian Federal District's autonomous republics, and the northernmost parts of Georgia and Azerbaijan. The Ciscaucasus lies between the Black Sea to its west, the Caspian Sea to its east, and borders the Southern Federal District to its north. The two Federal Districts are collectively referred to as \"Southern Russia\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political geography", "target_page_ids": [ 2342501, 6334843, 25868861, 48768, 746, 3386, 19653787, 301324, 422298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 53 ], [ 85, 100 ], [ 113, 145 ], [ 200, 207 ], [ 212, 222 ], [ 257, 266 ], [ 284, 295 ], [ 325, 350 ], [ 373, 390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Transcaucasus borders the Greater Caucasus range and Southern Russia to its north, the Black Sea and Turkey to its west, the Caspian Sea to its east, and Iran to its south. It contains the Lesser Caucasus mountain range and surrounding lowlands. All of Armenia, Azerbaijan (excluding the northernmost parts) and Georgia (excluding the northernmost parts) are in the South Caucasus.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political geography", "target_page_ids": [ 353358, 6334843, 11125639, 14653, 2342673, 10918072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 57, 72 ], [ 105, 111 ], [ 158, 162 ], [ 193, 208 ], [ 257, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The watershed along the Greater Caucasus range is considered by some sources to be the dividing line between Europe and Southwest Asia. According to that, the highest peak in the Caucasus, Mount Elbrus (5,642 meters) located in western Ciscaucasus, is considered as the highest point in Europe. The Kuma-Manych Depression, the geologic depression that divides the Russian Plain from the North Caucasus foreland is often regarded by classical and non-British sources as the natural and historical boundary between Europe and Asia. Another opinion is that the rivers Kura and Rioni mark this border, or even that of the river Aras.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political geography", "target_page_ids": [ 2342501, 13973661, 9239, 399656, 230484, 704618, 349764, 1030756, 446210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 40 ], [ 87, 100 ], [ 109, 115 ], [ 120, 134 ], [ 189, 201 ], [ 299, 321 ], [ 565, 569 ], [ 574, 579 ], [ 624, 628 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Caucasus is a linguistically, culturally and geographically diverse region. The nation states that compose the Caucasus today are the post-Soviet states Georgia (including Adjara and Abkhazia), Azerbaijan (including Nakhchivan), Armenia, and the Russian Federation. The Russian divisions include Dagestan, Chechnya, Ingushetia, , , , Adygea, Krasnodar Krai and Stavropol Krai, in clockwise order.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political geography", "target_page_ids": [ 618592, 21627, 1609192, 44422, 18933375, 385358, 10918072, 751099, 6095, 797702, 407750, 474125, 474074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 32 ], [ 84, 96 ], [ 138, 156 ], [ 176, 182 ], [ 187, 195 ], [ 220, 230 ], [ 233, 240 ], [ 300, 308 ], [ 310, 318 ], [ 320, 330 ], [ 338, 344 ], [ 346, 360 ], [ 365, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three territories in the region claim independence but are recognized as such by only a handful of entities: , Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Abkhazia and South Ossetia are largely recognized by the world community as part of Georgia, and as part of Azerbaijan.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Political geography", "target_page_ids": [ 18933375, 318381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 120 ], [ 125, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The region has many different languages and language families. There are more than 50 ethnic groups living in the region. No fewer than three language families are unique to the area. In addition, Indo-European languages, such as East Slavic, Armenian and Ossetian, and Turkic languages, such as Azerbaijani, Kumyk language and Karachay–Balkar, are spoken in the area. Russian is used as a lingua franca most notably in the North Caucasus.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 10070, 2217, 21244192, 30018, 192825, 1311148, 1374866, 25431, 65373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 230, 241 ], [ 243, 251 ], [ 256, 264 ], [ 270, 286 ], [ 296, 307 ], [ 309, 323 ], [ 328, 343 ], [ 369, 376 ], [ 390, 403 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The peoples of the northern and southern Caucasus mostly are Shia Muslims, Sunni Muslims, Eastern Orthodox Christians or Armenian Christians.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 26961, 29402, 10186, 229447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 73 ], [ 75, 88 ], [ 90, 117 ], [ 121, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Located on the peripheries of Turkey, Iran, and Russia, the region has been an arena for political, military, religious, and cultural rivalries and expansionism for centuries. Throughout its history, the Caucasus was usually incorporated into the Iranian world. At the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian Empire conquered the territory from Qajar Iran.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11125639, 14653, 25391, 64213, 20611504, 2782482, 609535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 36 ], [ 38, 42 ], [ 48, 54 ], [ 247, 260 ], [ 304, 318 ], [ 319, 328 ], [ 348, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The territory of the Caucasus region was inhabited by Homo erectus since the Paleolithic Era. In 1991, early human (that is, hominin) fossils dating back 1.8million years were found at the Dmanisi archaeological site in Georgia. Scientists now classify the assemblage of fossil skeletons as the subspecies Homo erectus georgicus.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22860, 1243177, 60072585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 92 ], [ 189, 216 ], [ 306, 328 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The site yields the earliest unequivocal evidence for the presence of early humans outside the African continent; and the Dmanisi skulls are the five oldest hominins ever found outside Africa.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2556665, 5334607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 165 ], [ 185, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kura–Araxes culture from about 4000 BC until about 2000 BC enveloped a vast area approximately 1,000km by 500km, and mostly encompassed, on modern-day territories, the Southern Caucasus (except western Georgia), northwestern Iran, the northeastern Caucasus, eastern Turkey, and as far as Syria.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 956689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under Ashurbanipal (669–627 BC), the boundaries of the Assyrian Empire reached as far as the Caucasus Mountains. Later ancient kingdoms of the region included Armenia, Albania, Colchis and Iberia, among others. These kingdoms were later incorporated into various Iranian empires, including Media, the Achaemenid Empire, Parthia, and the Sassanid Empire, who would altogether rule the Caucasus for many hundreds of years. In 95–55 BC, under the reign of Armenian king Tigranes the Great, the Kingdom of Armenia included Kingdom of Armenia, vassals Iberia, Albania, Parthia, Atropatene, Mesopotamia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Syria, Nabataean kingdom, and Judea. By the time of the first century BC, Zoroastrianism had become the dominant religion of the region; however, the region would go through two other religious transformations. Owing to the strong rivalry between Persia and Rome, and later Byzantium. The Romans first arrived in the region in the 1st century BC with the annexation of the kingdom of Colchis, which was later turned into the province of Lazicum. The next 600 years was marked by a conflict between Rome and Sassanid Empire for the control of the region. In western Georgia the eastern Roman rule lasted until the Middle Ages.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 319102, 2085, 10918072, 213497, 81958, 336787, 14653, 103030, 30927438, 19180547, 5876413, 182966, 999948, 336593, 20189, 79642, 75462, 7515849, 18582314, 21491730, 34533, 25507, 16972981, 446183, 3459560, 5876413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 18 ], [ 55, 70 ], [ 159, 166 ], [ 168, 175 ], [ 177, 184 ], [ 189, 195 ], [ 263, 267 ], [ 290, 295 ], [ 301, 318 ], [ 320, 327 ], [ 337, 352 ], [ 467, 485 ], [ 491, 509 ], [ 573, 583 ], [ 585, 596 ], [ 598, 608 ], [ 610, 617 ], [ 619, 624 ], [ 626, 643 ], [ 649, 654 ], [ 693, 707 ], [ 877, 881 ], [ 893, 902 ], [ 1056, 1063 ], [ 1100, 1108 ], [ 1126, 1141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia (an eponymous branch of the Arsacid dynasty of Parthia) was the first nation to adopt Christianity as state religion (in 301 AD), and Caucasian Albania and Georgia had become Christian entities, Christianity began to overtake Zoroastrianism and pagan beliefs. With the Muslim conquest of Persia, large parts of the region came under the rule of the Arabs, and Islam penetrated into the region.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3637298, 4501200, 292285, 213497, 48768, 5211, 34533, 1275748, 2185, 6037917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 33 ], [ 62, 88 ], [ 136, 150 ], [ 168, 185 ], [ 190, 197 ], [ 229, 241 ], [ 260, 274 ], [ 303, 328 ], [ 383, 388 ], [ 394, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 10th century, the Alans (proto-Ossetians) founded the Kingdom of Alania, that flourished in the Northern Caucasus, roughly in the location of latter-day Circassia and modern North Ossetia–Alania, until its destruction by the Mongol invasion in 1238–39.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 45121, 307675, 12841417, 482121, 426423, 44247, 2091396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 30 ], [ 38, 47 ], [ 72, 78 ], [ 103, 120 ], [ 160, 169 ], [ 181, 201 ], [ 232, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Middle Ages Bagratid Armenia, Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget, Kingdom of Syunik and Principality of Khachen organized local Armenian population facing multiple threats after the fall of antique Kingdom of Armenia. Caucasian Albania maintained close ties with Armenia and the Church of Caucasian Albania shared same Christian dogmas with the Armenian Apostolic Church and had a tradition of their Catholicos being ordained through the Patriarch of Armenia.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16954537, 8492513, 49341630, 1690896, 999948, 213497, 10918072, 20655401, 229447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 39 ], [ 41, 67 ], [ 69, 86 ], [ 91, 114 ], [ 201, 219 ], [ 221, 238 ], [ 266, 273 ], [ 282, 309 ], [ 348, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 12th century, the Georgian king David the Builder drove the Muslims out from Caucasus and made the Kingdom of Georgia a strong regional power. In 1194–1204 Georgian Queen Tamar's armies crushed new Seljuk Turkish invasions from the south-east and south and launched several successful campaigns into Seljuk Turkish-controlled Southern Armenia. The Georgian Kingdom continued military campaigns in the Caucasus region. As a result of her military campaigns and the temporary fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1204, Georgia became the strongest Christian state in the whole Near East area, encompassing most of the Caucasus stretching from Northern Iran and Northeastern Turkey to the North Caucasus.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 420853, 7466162, 37762, 214632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 56 ], [ 106, 124 ], [ 172, 183 ], [ 577, 586 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Caucasus region was conquered by the Ottomans, Turco-Mongols, local kingdoms and khanates, as well as, once again, Iran.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22629, 1940668, 14653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 49 ], [ 51, 64 ], [ 119, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Up to and including the early 19th century, the Southern Caucasus and southern Dagestan all formed part of the Persian Empire. In 1813 and 1828 by the Treaty of Gulistan and the Treaty of Turkmenchay respectively, the Persians were forced to irrevocably cede the Southern Caucasus and Dagestan to Imperial Russia. In the ensuing years after these gains, the Russians took the remaining part of the Southern Caucasus, comprising western Georgia, through several wars from the Ottoman Empire.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 353358, 751099, 609535, 905795, 1340560, 20611504, 22278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 65 ], [ 79, 87 ], [ 111, 125 ], [ 151, 169 ], [ 178, 199 ], [ 297, 312 ], [ 475, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the second half of the 19th century, the Russian Empire also conquered the Northern Caucasus. In the aftermath of the Caucasian Wars, an ethnic cleansing of Circassians was performed by Russia in which the indigenous peoples of this region, mostly Circassians, were expelled from their homeland and forced to move primarily to the Ottoman Empire.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2782586, 6710001, 517916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 135 ], [ 140, 171 ], [ 251, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having killed and deported most of Armenians of Western Armenia during the Armenian genocide, the Turks intended to eliminate the Armenian population of Eastern Armenia. During the 1920 Turkish–Armenian War, 60,000 to 98,000 Armenian civilians were estimated to have been killed by the Turkish army.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 140376, 3492545, 3909266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 92 ], [ 153, 168 ], [ 186, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1940s, around 480,000 Chechens and Ingush, 120,000 Karachay–Balkars and Meskhetian Turks, thousands of Kalmyks, and 200,000 Kurds in Nakchivan and Caucasus Germans were deported en masse to Central Asia and Siberia by the Soviet security apparatus. About a quarter of them died.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 622772, 907275, 483589, 483595, 477504, 192420, 17068, 4162073, 629572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 37 ], [ 42, 48 ], [ 58, 66 ], [ 67, 74 ], [ 79, 95 ], [ 110, 117 ], [ 131, 136 ], [ 154, 170 ], [ 176, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Southern Caucasus region was unified as a single political entity twice– during the Russian Civil War (Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic) from 9 April 1918 to 26 May 1918, and under the Soviet rule (Transcaucasian SFSR) from 12 March 1922 to 5 December 1936. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia became independent nations.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26295, 1191349, 26779, 376751, 40494892, 48768, 746, 10918072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 105 ], [ 107, 152 ], [ 202, 208 ], [ 215, 234 ], [ 289, 320 ], [ 330, 337 ], [ 339, 349 ], [ 354, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The region has been subject to various territorial disputes since the collapse of the Soviet Union, leading to the First Nagorno-Karabakh War (1988–1994), the East Prigorodny Conflict (1989–1991), the War in Abkhazia (1992–93), the First Chechen War (1994–1996), the Second Chechen War (1999–2009), Russo-Georgian War (2008), and the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War (2020).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4020775, 4208777, 9288347, 140792, 171392, 18762503, 65431221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 141 ], [ 159, 183 ], [ 201, 226 ], [ 232, 249 ], [ 267, 285 ], [ 299, 317 ], [ 334, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Greek mythology, the Caucasus, or Kaukasos, was one of the pillars supporting the world. After presenting man with the gift of fire, Prometheus (or Amirani in the Georgian version) was chained there by Zeus, to have his liver eaten daily by an eagle as punishment for defying Zeus' wish to keep the \"secret of fire\" from humans.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 23416994, 23250, 9938942, 1205180, 34398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 136, 146 ], [ 151, 158 ], [ 166, 182 ], [ 205, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Persian mythology, the Caucasus might be associated with the mythic Mount Qaf which is believed to surround the known world. It is the battlefield of Saoshyant and the nest of the Simurgh.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 759346, 21017709, 1145313, 348145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 71, 80 ], [ 153, 162 ], [ 183, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Roman poet Ovid placed the Caucasus in Scythia and depicted it as a cold and stony mountain which was the abode of personified hunger. The Greek hero Jason sailed to the west coast of the Caucasus in pursuit of the Golden Fleece, and there met Medea, a daughter of King Aeëtes of Colchis.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 521555, 37802, 7299790, 15885, 77335, 39245, 77417, 81958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ], [ 15, 19 ], [ 43, 50 ], [ 154, 159 ], [ 219, 232 ], [ 248, 253 ], [ 269, 280 ], [ 284, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Caucasus has a rich folklore tradition. This tradition has been preserved orallynecessitated by the fact that for most of the languages involved there was no alphabet until the early twentieth centuryand only began to be written down in the late nineteenth century. One important tradition is that of the Nart sagas, which tell stories of a race of ancient heroes called the Narts. These sagas include such figures as Satanaya, the mother of the Narts, Sosruquo a shape changer and trickster, Tlepsh a blacksmith god, and Batradz, a mighty hero. The folklore of the Caucasus shows ancient Iranian Zoroastrian influence, involve battles with ancient Goths, Huns and Khazars, and contain many connections with ancient Indian, Norse Scandinavian, and Greek cultures.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 325907, 1577433, 1577380, 1577481, 3370991, 19180442, 34533, 12641, 13519, 16635, 14533, 26740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 309, 319 ], [ 422, 430 ], [ 457, 465 ], [ 497, 503 ], [ 526, 533 ], [ 593, 600 ], [ 601, 612 ], [ 653, 658 ], [ 660, 664 ], [ 669, 676 ], [ 720, 725 ], [ 728, 746 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Caucasian folklore contains many links with the myths of the ancient Greeks. There are resemblances between the mother goddess Satanaya and the Greek goddess of love Aphrodite. The story of how the trickster Nart Sosruquo, became invulnerable parallels that of the Greek hero Achilles. The ancient Greek Amazons may be connected to a Caucasian \"warrior Forest-Mother, Amaz-an\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 1174, 305, 1695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 175 ], [ 276, 284 ], [ 304, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Caucasian legends include stories involving giants similar to Homer's Polyphemus story. In these stories, the giant is almost always a shepherd, and he is variously a one-eyed rock-throwing cannibal, who lives in a cave (the exit of which is often blocked by a stone), kills the hero's companions, is blinded by a hot stake, and whose flock of animals is stolen by the hero and his men, all motifs which (along with still others) are also found in the Polyphemus story. In one example from Georgia, two brothers, who are being held prisoner by a giant one-eyed shepherd called \"One-eye\", take a spit, heat it up, stab it into the giant's eye, and escape.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 13633, 23914, 21188297, 48768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 67 ], [ 70, 80 ], [ 135, 143 ], [ 490, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are also links with the ancient Greek myth of Prometheus. Many legends, widespread in the Caucasus, contain motifs shared with the Prometheus story. These motifs include: a giant hero, his conflict with God or gods, the stealing of fire and giving it to men, being chained, and being tormented by a bird who pecks at his liver (or heart). The Adyge/Circassian Nart Nasran, the Georgian Amirani, the Chechen Pkharmat, and the Abkhazian Abrskil, are examples of such Prometheus-like figures.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 23250, 23250, 517916, 517916, 448609, 9938942, 622772, 25144466, 1423683, 29458422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 62 ], [ 137, 147 ], [ 349, 354 ], [ 355, 365 ], [ 383, 391 ], [ 392, 399 ], [ 405, 412 ], [ 413, 421 ], [ 431, 440 ], [ 441, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Caucasus is an area of great ecological importance. The region is included in the list of 34 world biodiversity hotspots. It harbors some 6400 species of higher plants, 1600 of which are endemic to the region. Its wildlife includes Persian leopards, brown bears, wolves, bison, marals, golden eagles and hooded crows. Among invertebrates, some 1000 spider species are recorded in the Caucasus. Most of arthropod biodiversity is concentrated on Great and Lesser Caucasus ranges.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 567131, 937971, 10068646, 4402, 33702, 4583, 6894047, 88295, 196110, 15223, 28329803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 123 ], [ 191, 198 ], [ 236, 251 ], [ 254, 264 ], [ 267, 273 ], [ 275, 280 ], [ 282, 288 ], [ 290, 302 ], [ 308, 319 ], [ 328, 341 ], [ 353, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The region has a high level of endemism and a number of relict animals and plants, the fact reflecting presence of refugial forests, which survived the Ice Age in the Caucasus Mountains. The Caucasus forest refugium is the largest throughout the Western Asian (near Eastern) region. The area has multiple representatives of disjunct relict groups of plants with the closest relatives in Eastern Asia, southern Europe, and even North America. Over 70 species of forest snails of the region are endemic. Some relict species of vertebrates are Caucasian parsley frog, Caucasian salamander, Robert's snow vole, and Caucasian grouse, and there are almost entirely endemic groups of animals such as lizards of genus Darevskia. In general, species composition of this refugium is quite distinct and differs from that of the other Western Eurasian refugia.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 1098086, 557672, 3686698, 12414468, 12176688, 12172368, 1353790, 343878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 62 ], [ 152, 159 ], [ 324, 332 ], [ 541, 563 ], [ 565, 585 ], [ 587, 605 ], [ 611, 627 ], [ 710, 719 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The natural landscape is one of mixed forest, with substantial areas of rocky ground above the treeline. The Caucasus Mountains are also noted for a dog breed, the Caucasian Shepherd Dog (Rus. Kavkazskaya Ovcharka, Geo. Nagazi). Vincent Evans noted that minke whales have been recorded from the Black Sea.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 8046937, 79676, 3806544, 31031153, 300064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 44 ], [ 149, 158 ], [ 164, 186 ], [ 229, 242 ], [ 254, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Caucasus has many economically important minerals and energy resources, such as gold, silver, copper, iron ore, manganese, tungsten, zinc, oil, natural gas, and coal (both hard and brown).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Energy and mineral resources", "target_page_ids": [ 19053, 9649, 12240, 27119, 125293, 145352, 19051, 30046, 34420, 23195, 22131, 5987, 182544, 42808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 52 ], [ 58, 64 ], [ 84, 88 ], [ 90, 96 ], [ 98, 104 ], [ 106, 114 ], [ 116, 125 ], [ 127, 135 ], [ 137, 141 ], [ 143, 146 ], [ 148, 159 ], [ 165, 169 ], [ 176, 180 ], [ 185, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Krasnaya Polyana is a popular centre of mountain skiing and a snowboard venue. The 2015 European Games is the first in the history of the European Games to be held in Azerbaijan.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 12152250, 37880334, 746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 83, 102 ], [ 167, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mountain-skiing complexes include:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alpika-Service", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mountain roundabout", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rosa Hutor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 29003258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tsaghkadzor Ski Resort in Armenia", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 8840414, 10918072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 26, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shahdag Winter Complex in Azerbaijan", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 42446709, 746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 26, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2017 Azerbaijan Grand Prix (motor racing) was the first in the history of Formula One to be held in Azerbaijan. The 2017 World Rugby Under 20 Championship was held in Georgia. In 2017 the U-19 Europe Championship (Football) was held in Georgia.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 51017385, 746, 48050123, 48768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 30 ], [ 104, 114 ], [ 120, 158 ], [ 171, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Caucasian cuisine", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5937505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5589073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Culture of Armenia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2049464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Culture of Azerbaijan", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2071240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Culture of Georgia (country)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 341997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eastern Partnership", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17578576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eurasian Economic Union", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27290106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Euronest Parliamentary Assembly", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24688561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Khanates of the Caucasus", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12085342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prometheism", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2126010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Regions of Europe", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 657216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Transcontinental nations", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1775678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tourism in Armenia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24488725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tourism in Azerbaijan", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23575502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tourism in Georgia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19186470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tourism in Russia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 159643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bachvarova, Mary R., From Hittite to Homer: The Anatolian Background of Ancient Greek Epic, Cambridge University Press, 2016. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Colarusso, John, Nart Sagas from the Caucasus: Myths and Legends from the Circassians, Abazas, Abkhaz, and Ubykhs, Princeton University Press, 2002, 2014. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 49954473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornell, Susan E., Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Golvin, Ivan, The Caucasus.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Griffin, Nicholas, Caucasus: A Journey to the Land Between Christianity and Islam, University of Chicago Press, 2004. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hunt, David, Legends of the Caucasus, Saqi Books, London, 2012. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mayor, Adrienne (2016), \"Introduction to the Paperback Edition\" in Nart Sagas: Ancient Myths and Legends of the Circassians and Abkhazians, by John Colarusso, Princeton University Press, 2016. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 1658014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dubrovin, Nikolai F. The history of wars and Russian domination in the Caucasus (История войны и владычества русских на Кавказе). Sankt-Petersburg, 1871–1888, at Runivers.ru in DjVu and PDF formats.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 28494718, 610868, 24077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 174 ], [ 178, 182 ], [ 187, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fadeev, Rostislav Andreevich (1860). Sixty years of the Caucasian War (Шестьдесят лет Кавказской войны). Tiflis, at Runivers.ru in DjVu format.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 42298, 28494718, 610868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 112 ], [ 117, 128 ], [ 132, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gagarin, G. G. (1840). Costumes Caucasus (Костюмы Кавказа). Paris, at Runivers.ru in DjVu and PDF formats.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 22989, 28494718, 610868, 24077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 66 ], [ 72, 83 ], [ 87, 91 ], [ 96, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gasimov, Zaur (2011). The Caucasus, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, retrieved: 18 November 2011.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 31997884, 20623953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 60 ], [ 69, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kaziev Shapi (2003). Caucasian highlanders (Повседневная жизнь горцев Северного Кавказа в XIX в.). Everyday life of the Caucasian Highlanders. The 19th Century (In the co-authorship with I. Karpeev). \"Molodaya Gvardiy\" publishers. Moscow ", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 28012101, 482121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 22, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Caucasian Journal — a multilingual online journal on South Caucasus", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Articles and Photography on Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh) from UK Photojournalist Russell Pollard", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Information for travellers and others about Caucasus and Georgia", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Caucasian Review of International Affairs—an academic journal on the South Caucasus", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "BBC News: North Caucasus at a glance, 8 September 2005", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "United Nations Environment Programme map: Landcover of the Caucasus", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "United Nations Environment Programme map: Population density of the Caucasus", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Food Security in Caucasus (FAO) ", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Caucasus and Iran entry in Encyclopædia Iranica", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 1081351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "University of Turin-Observatory on Caucasus", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Circassians Caucasus Web (Turkish)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Georgian Biodiversity Database (checklists for ca. 11,000 plant and animal species)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "WHAT TO SEE IN CAUCASUS MOUNTAINS", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Caucasus", "Eastern_Europe", "Eurasia", "Regions_of_Eurasia", "Regions_of_Asia", "Regions_of_Europe", "Western_Asia", "Mountain_ranges_of_Europe" ]

[ "Caucasia" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Heinrich Christian Wilhelm Busch (14 April 1832– 9 January 1908) was a German humorist, poet, illustrator, and painter. He published wildly innovative illustrated tales that remain influential to this day.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Busch drew on the tropes of folk humour as well as a profound knowledge of German literature and art to satirize contemporary life, any kind of piety, Catholicism, Philistinism, religious morality, bigotry, and moral uplift.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 373917, 8900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 176 ], [ 198, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His mastery of drawing and verse became deeply influential for future generations of comic artists and vernacular poets. Among many notable influences, The Katzenjammer Kids was inspired by Busch's Max and Moritz. Today, the Wilhelm Busch Prize and the Wilhelm Busch Museum help maintain his legacy. The 175th anniversary of his birth in 2007 was celebrated throughout Germany. Busch remains one of the most influential poets and artists in Western Europe.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 145443, 16802, 19828, 24176934, 17550943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 90 ], [ 152, 173 ], [ 198, 212 ], [ 225, 244 ], [ 253, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johann Georg Kleine, Wilhelm Busch's maternal grandfather, settled in the small village of Wiedensahl, where in 1817 he bought a thatched half-timbered house where Wilhelm Busch was to be born 15 years later. Amalie Kleine, Johann's wife and Wilhelm Busch's grandmother, kept a shop where Busch's mother Henriette assisted while her two brothers attended high school. When Johann Georg Kleine died in 1820, his widow continued to run the shop with Henriette.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Family background", "target_page_ids": [ 11965525, 217203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 101 ], [ 360, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the age of 19 Henriette Kleine married surgeon Friedrich Wilhelm Stümpe. Henriette became widowed at the age of 26, with her three children to Stümpe dying as infants. About 1830 Friedrich Wilhelm Busch, the illegitimate son of a farmer, settled in Wiedensahl after completing a business apprenticeship in the nearby village of Loccum. He took over the Kleine shop in Wiedensahl, which he completely modernised. He married Henriette Kleine Stümpe.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Family background", "target_page_ids": [ 1690086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 331, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wilhelm Busch was born on 14 April 1832, the first of seven children to Henriette Kleine Stümpe and Friedrich Wilhelm Busch. His six siblings followed shortly after: Fanny (1834), Gustav (1836), Adolf (1838), Otto (1841), Anna (1843), and Hermann (1845); all survived childhood. His parents were ambitious, hard-working and devout Protestants who later, despite becoming relatively prosperous, could not afford to educate all three sons. Busch's biographer Berndt W. Wessling suggested that Friedrich Wilhelm Busch invested heavily in the education of his sons partly because his own illegitimacy held significant stigma in rural areas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 25814008, 2649767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 331, 342 ], [ 614, 620 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The young Wilhelm Busch was a tall child, with a delicate physique. The coarse boyishness of his later protagonists, \"Max and Moritz\" was not his own. He described himself in autobiographical sketches and letters as sensitive and timid, someone who \"carefully studied fear\", and who reacted with fascination, compassion, and distress when animals were killed in the autumn. He described the \"transformation to sausage\" as \"dreadfully compelling\", leaving a lasting impression; pork nauseated him throughout his life.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 19828, 78056, 20609697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 132 ], [ 410, 417 ], [ 477, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the autumn of 1841, after the birth of his brother Otto, Busch's education was entrusted to the 35-year-old clergyman, Georg Kleine, his maternal uncle at Ebergötzen, where 100 children were taught within a space of . This probably through lack of space in the Busch family home, and his father's desire for a better education than the small local school could provide. The nearest convenient school was located in Bückeburg, from Wiedensahl. Kleine, with his wife Fanny Petri, lived in a rectory at Ebergötzen, while Busch was lodged with an unrelated family. Kleine and his wife were responsible and caring, exercised a substitute parental role, and provided refuge for him in future unsuccessful times.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1270627, 152981, 510046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 168 ], [ 418, 427 ], [ 493, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kleine's private lessons for Busch also were attended by Erich Bachmann, the son of a wealthy Ebergötzen miller. Both became friends, according to Busch the strongest friendship of his childhood. This friendship was echoed in the 1865 story, Max and Moritz. A small pencil portrait by the 14-year-old Busch depicted Bachmann as a chubby, confident boy, and showed similarities with Max. Busch portrayed himself with a \"cowlick\", in the later \"Moritzian\" perky style.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 2159644, 12744327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 111 ], [ 454, 465 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kleine was a philologist, his lessons not held in contemporary language, and it is not known for certain all subjects Busch and his friend were taught. Busch did learn elementary arithmetic from his uncle, although science lessons might have been more comprehensive, as Kleine, like many other clergymen, was a beekeeper, and published essays and textbooks on the subject,– Busch demonstrated his knowledge of bee-keeping in his future stories. Drawing, and German and English poetry, were also taught by Kleine.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 23193, 1567386, 318412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 24 ], [ 168, 189 ], [ 311, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Busch had little contact with his natural parents during this period. At the time, the journey between Wiedensahl and Ebergötzen took three days by horse. His father visited Ebergötzen two to three times a year, while his mother stayed in Wiedensahl to look after the other children. The 12-year-old Busch visited his family once; his mother at first did not recognize him. Some Busch biographers think that this early separation from his parents, especially from his mother, resulted in his eccentric bachelorhood. In the autumn of 1846, Busch moved with the Kleines to Lüthorst, where, on 11 April 1847, he was confirmed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 42217061, 217733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 572, 580 ], [ 614, 623 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 1847 Busch began studying mechanical engineering at Hannover Polytechnic. Busch's biographers are not in agreement as to why his Hanover education ended; most believe that his father had little appreciation of his son's artistic inclination. Biographer Eva Weissweiler suspects that Kleine played a major role, and that other possible causes were Busch's friendship with an innkeeper, Brümmer, political debates in Brümmer's tavern, and Busch's reluctance to believe every word of the Bible and catechism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 19528, 535856, 63482119, 3390, 295855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 61 ], [ 65, 85 ], [ 266, 281 ], [ 498, 503 ], [ 508, 517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Busch studied for nearly four years at Hanover, despite initial difficulties in understanding the subject matter. A few months before graduation he confronted his parents with his aspiration to study at the Düsseldorf Art Academy. According to Bush's nephew Hermann Nöldeke, his mother supported this inclination. His father eventually acquiesced and Busch moved to Düsseldorf in June 1851, where, to his disappointment at not being admitted to the advanced class, he entered preparatory classes. Busch's parents had his tuition fees paid for one year, so in May 1852 he traveled to Antwerp to continue study at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts under Josephus Laurentius Dyckmans. He led his parents to believe that the academy was less regimented than Düsseldorf, and had the opportunity to study Old Masters. At Antwerp he saw for the first time paintings by Peter Paul Rubens, Adriaen Brouwer, David Teniers, and Frans Hals. The pictures aroused his interest, but made him doubt his own skills. Eventually, in 1853, after suffering heavily from typhus, he abandoned his Antwerp studies and returned penniless to Wiedensahl.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 3482814, 65711, 32149462, 10535469, 48637640, 469482, 21463370, 761248, 850430, 46089, 31596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 229 ], [ 366, 376 ], [ 583, 590 ], [ 616, 642 ], [ 649, 677 ], [ 796, 806 ], [ 859, 876 ], [ 878, 893 ], [ 895, 908 ], [ 914, 924 ], [ 1046, 1052 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Busch was ravaged by disease, and for five months spent time painting and collecting folk tales, legends, songs, ballads, rhymes, and fragments of regional superstitions. Busch's biographer, Joseph Kraus, saw these collections as useful additions to folklore, as Busch noted the narrative background to tales and the idiosyncrasies of storytellers. Busch tried to release the collections, but as a publisher could not be found at the time, they were issued after his death. During the Nazi era Busch was known as an \"ethnic seer\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 43494, 11303, 21212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 95 ], [ 250, 258 ], [ 485, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Busch had spent six months with his uncle Kleine at Lüthorst, he expressed an aim to continue study in Munich. This request caused a rift with his father who, however, eventually funded this move; – see for comparison Busch's illustrated story of Painter Klecksel. Busch's expectations of the Munich Academy of Fine Arts were not met. His life became aimless; there were occasional return visits to Lüthorst, but contact with his parents had been broken off. In 1857 and 1858, as his position seemed to be without prospects, he contemplated emigration to Brazil to keep bees.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 42217061, 19058, 2029424, 3383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 66 ], [ 109, 115 ], [ 306, 326 ], [ 561, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Busch made contact with the artist association, Jung München (Young Munich), met several notable Munich artists, and wrote and provided cartoons for the Jung München newspaper. Kaspar Braun, who published the satirical newspapers, Münchener Bilderbogen (Picture Sheets from Munich) and Fliegende Blätter (Flying Leaves), proposed a collaboration with Busch. This association provided Busch with sufficient funds to live. An existing self-caricature suggests that at this time he had an intense relationship with a woman from Ammerland. His courtship with a seventeen-year-old merchant's daughter, Anna Richter, whom Busch met through his brother Gustav, ended in 1862. Busch's biographer, Diers, suggests that her father probably refused to entrust his daughter to an almost unknown artist without regular income.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 29244969, 37410257, 147522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 177, 189 ], [ 286, 303 ], [ 525, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his early Munich years Busch's attempts to write libretti, which are almost forgotten today, were unsuccessful. Up to 1863 he worked on two or three major works; the third was composed by Georg Kremplsetzer. Busch's Liebestreu und Grausamkeit, a romantic opera in three acts, Hansel und Gretel, and Der Vetter auf Besuch, an opera buffa of sorts, were not particularly successful. There was a dispute between Busch and Kremplsetzer during the staging of Der Vetter auf Besuch, leading to the removal of Busch's name from the production; the piece was renamed, Singspiel von Georg Kremplsetzer. However, German composer Elsa Laura Wolzogen set several of his poems to music.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 46950, 198778, 264917, 50059, 64479807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 60 ], [ 179, 187 ], [ 279, 296 ], [ 328, 339 ], [ 622, 641 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1873 Busch returned several times to Munich, and took part in the intense life of the Munich Art Society as an escape from provincial life. In 1877, in a last attempt to be a serious artist, he took a studio in Munich. He left Munich abruptly in 1881, after he disrupted a variety show and subsequently made a scene through the effects of alcohol. The 1878 nine episode illustrated tale Eight Sheets in the Wind describes how humans behave like animals when drunk. Busch's biographer Weissweiler felt the story was only superficially funny and harmless, but was a study on addiction and its induced state of delusion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1860 and 1863 Busch wrote more than one hundred articles for the Münchener Bilderbogen and Fliegende Blätter, but he felt his dependence on publisher Kaspar Braun had become constricting. Busch appointed Dresden publisher Heinrich Richter, the son of Saxon painter Ludwig Richter, as his new publisher– Richter's press up to that time was producing children's books and religious Christian devotional literature. Busch could choose themes, although Richter raised some concerns regarding four suggested illustrated tales that were proposed. However, some were published in the 1864 as Bilderpossen, proving a failure. Busch then offered Richter the manuscripts of Max and Moritz, waiving any fees. Richter rejected the manuscript as sales prospects seemed poor. Busch's former publisher, Braun, purchased the right to Max and Moritz for 1,000 gulden, corresponding to approximately double the annual wage of a craftsman.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 37410, 2280223, 63610884, 4218176, 426433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 212, 219 ], [ 273, 287 ], [ 388, 419 ], [ 851, 857 ], [ 918, 927 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For Braun the manuscript was fortuitous. Initially the sales of Max and Moritz were slow, but sales figures improved after the 1868 second edition. Overall there were 56 editions and more than 430,000 copies sold up to Busch's death in 1908. Despite at first being ignored by critics, teachers in the 1870s described Max and Moritz as frivolous and an undesirable influence on the moral development of young people.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Increasing economic success allowed Busch to visit Wiedensahl more frequently. Busch had decided to leave Munich, as only few relatives lived there and the artist association was temporarily disbanded. In June 1867 Busch met his brother Otto for the first time, in Frankfurt. Otto was working as a tutor to the family of a wealthy banker and industrialist, Kessler. Busch became friends with Kessler's wife, Johanna, a mother of seven and an influential art and music patron of Frankfurt. She regularly opened salons at her villa, frequented by artists, musicians, and philosophers. She believed Busch to be a great painter, a view supported by Anton Burger, a leading painter of the Kronberger Malerkolonie, the Kronberg-based group of painters. While his humorous drawings did not appeal to her, she supported his painting career. At first she established an apartment and studio for Busch in her villa, later providing him with an apartment nearby. Motivated by Kessler's support and admiration, and introduction to the cultural life of Frankfurt, the 'Frankfurter Years' were the most artistically productive for Busch. At this time he and Otto discovered the philosophical works of Arthur Schopenhauer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 10992, 504974, 848420, 42502277, 1223572, 7474594, 700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 265, 274 ], [ 468, 474 ], [ 510, 516 ], [ 645, 657 ], [ 713, 721 ], [ 875, 881 ], [ 1187, 1206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Busch did not remain in Frankfurt. Toward the end of the 1860s he alternated between Wiedensahl and Lüthorst, and Wolfenbüttel where his brother Gustav lived. The association with Johanna Kessler lasted five years, and after his return to Wiedensahl in 1872 they communicated by letter. This contact was interrupted between 1877 and 1891, after which it was revived with the help of Kessler's daughters.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 154465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Biographer Weissweiler does not dismiss the possibility that Busch's increasing alcohol dependence hindered self-criticism. He refused invitations to parties, and publisher Otto Basserman sent him to Wiedensahl to keep his alcohol problem undetected from those around him. Busch was also a heavy smoker, resulting in symptoms of severe nicotine poisoning in 1874. He began to illustrate drunkards more often.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 689995, 1730242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 98 ], [ 336, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dutch writer Marie Anderson corresponded with Busch. More than fifty letters were exchanged between January and October 1875 in which they discussed philosophy, religion, and ethics. Although only one Anderson letter survives, Busch's letters are in manuscripts. They met in Mainz in October 1875, after which he returned to Basserman at Heidelback in a \"horrible mood\". According to several people at the time, Busch's failure to find a wife was responsible for his conspicuous behaviour. There is no evidence that Busch had a close relationship with any woman after that with Anderson.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 19167, 20537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 250, 260 ], [ 275, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Busch lived with his sister Fanny's family after her husband Pastor Hermann Nöldeke's death in 1879. His nephew Adolf Nöldeke remembers that Busch wanted to move back to Wiedensahl with the family. Busch renovated the house, which Fanny looked after even though Busch was a rich man, and became \"father\" to his three young nephews. She would, however, have preferred to live in a more urban area for the education of her sons. For Fanny and her three sons, Busch could not replace their former idyllic life. The years around 1880 were psychically and emotionally exhausting for Busch, who was still reliant on alcohol. He would not invite visitors to Wiedensahl; because of this Fanny lost contact with her friends in the village, and whenever she questioned his wishes, Busch became furious. Even his friends Otto Friedrich Bassermann, Franz von Lenbach, Hermann Levi and Wilhelm von Kaulbach were not welcome at the house; he would meet them in Kassel or Hanover.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 865961, 2620894, 531988, 42108, 14197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 837, 854 ], [ 856, 868 ], [ 873, 893 ], [ 947, 953 ], [ 957, 964 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Busch stopped painting in 1896 and signed over all publication rights to Bassermann Verlag for 50,000 gold marks. Busch, now aged 64, felt old. He needed spectacles for writing and painting, and his hands trembled slightly. In 1898, together with his aging sister Fanny Nöldeke, he accepted Bassermann's suggestion to move into a large parsonage in Mechtshausen. Busch read biographies, novels and stories in German, English and French. He organized his works and wrote letters and poems. Most of the poems from the collections Schein und Sein and Zu guter Letzt were written in 1899. The following years were eventless for Busch.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 50510376, 1080461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 90 ], [ 102, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He developed a sore throat in early January 1908, and his doctor detected a weak heart. During the night of 8–9 January 1908 Busch slept uneasily, taking camphor, and a few drops of morphine as a tranquilizer. Busch died the following morning before his physician, called by Otto Nöldeke, came to assist.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 275978, 20613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 161 ], [ 182, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Frankfurt period Busch published three self-contained illustrated satires. Their anti-clerical themes proved popular during the Kulturkampf. Busch's satires typically did not address political questions, but exaggerated churchiness, superstition, and philistine double standards. This exaggeration made at least two of the works historically erroneous. The third illustrated satire, Father Filucius (Pater Filucius), described by Busch as an \"allegorical mayfly\", has greater historical context.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 571440, 262871, 246333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 105 ], [ 139, 150 ], [ 466, 472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In German, Eine Bubengeschichte in sieben Streichen, Max and Moritz is a series of seven illustrated stories concerning the mischievous antics of two boys, who are eventually ground up and fed to ducks.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Saint Antonius of Padua (Der Heilige Antonius von Padua) Busch challenges Catholic belief. It was released by the publisher Moritz Schauenburg at the time Pope Pius IX proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility that was harshly criticized by Protestants. The publisher's works were heavily scrutinized or censored, and the state's attorney in Offenburg charged Schauenberg with \"vilification of religion and offending public decency through indecent writings\"– a decision which affected Busch. Scenes of Antonius accompanied by a pig being admitted to heaven, and the devil being shown as a half-naked ballet dancer seducing Antonius, were deemed controversial. The district court of Düsseldorf subsequently banned Saint Antonius. Schauenburg was acquitted on 27 March 1871 in Offenburg, but in Austria distribution of the satire was prohibited until 1902. Schauenburg refused to publish further Busch satires to avoid future accusations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 54161, 44941, 21701253, 402653, 2200885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 170 ], [ 186, 191 ], [ 195, 214 ], [ 327, 343 ], [ 347, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Busch's following work, Helen Who Couldn't Help It (Die fromme Helene), was published by Otto Friedrich Bassermann, a friend whom Busch met in Munich. Helen Who Couldn't Help It, which was soon translated into other European languages, satirizes religious hypocrisy and dubious morality:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many details from Helen Who Couldn't Help It criticize the way of life of the Kesslers. Johanna Kessler was married to a much older man and entrusted her children to governesses and tutors, while she played an active role in the social life of Frankfurt.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The character of Mr. Schmock– the name based on the Yiddish insult \"schmuck\"– shows similarities with Johanna Kessler's husband, who was uninterested in art and culture.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 34272, 13804320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 59 ], [ 68, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the second part of Helen Who Couldn't Help It Busch attacks Catholic pilgrimages. The childless Helen goes on a pilgrimage, accompanied by her cousin and Catholic priest Franz. The pilgrimage is successful, as later Helen gives birth to twins, who resemble Helen and Franz. Franz is later killed by a jealous valet, Jean, for his interest in female kitchen staff. The now widowed Helen is left with only a rosary, prayer book, and alcohol. Drunk, she falls into a burning oil lamp. Finally, Nolte coins a moral phrase, echoing the philosophy of Schopenhauer:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 23763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pater Filucius (Father Filucius) is the only illustrated satire of this period suggested by the publisher. Also aimed at anti-Catholic taste and buyers, it criticizes the Jesuit Order. Kraus felt it was the weakest of all three anti-clerical works. Some satires refer to contemporary events, such as Monsieur Jacques à Paris during the Siege of 1870 (Monsieur Jacques à Paris während der Belagerung von 1870). Busch biographer Manuela Diers declares the story \"tasteless work, drawing on anti-French emotions and mocking the misery of French people in Paris, which is occupied by Prussian troops\". It depicts an increasingly desperate French citizen who at first eats a mouse during the German siege, then amputates his dog's tail to cook it, and finally invents an explosion pill which kills his dog and two fellow citizens. Weissweiler believes that Busch wrote with irony. In Eginhard and Emma (1864), a fictional family story that takes place in the Charlemagne era, he criticizes the Holy Roman Empire and calls for a German empire in its place; in The Birthday or the Particularists (Der Geburtstag oder die Partikularisten) he satirizes the anti-Prussian sentiments of his Hanover countrymen.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 16083, 44035, 5314, 13277, 371248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 183 ], [ 687, 699 ], [ 954, 965 ], [ 989, 1006 ], [ 1153, 1160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Busch did not write illustrated tales for a while, but focused on the literary Kritik des Herzens (Critique of the Heart), wanting to appear more serious to his readers. Contemporary reception for the collection of 81 poems was mainly poor; it was criticized for its focus on marriage and sexuality. His long-time friend Paul Lindau called it \"very serious, heartfelt, charming poems\". Dutch writer Marie Anderson was one of few people who enjoyed his Kritik des Herzens, and she even planned to publish it in a Dutch newspaper.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 2986688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 321, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Notwithstanding the hiatus after moving from Frankfurt, the 1870s were one of Busch's most productive decades. In 1874 he produced the short illustrated tale, Diddle-Boom! (Dideldum!).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Following in 1875, was the Knopp Trilogy, about the life of Tobias Knopp: Adventures of a Bachelor (Abenteuer eines Junggesellen), Mr. and Mrs. Knopp (Herr und Frau Knopp) (1876), and \"Julie\" (Julchen) (1877). The antagonists of the trilogy are not pairs of nuisances as with Max and Moritz or Jack Crook, Bird of Evil (Hans Huckebein, der Unglücksrabe). Without pathos, Busch makes Knopp become aware of his mortality:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the first part of the trilogy, Knopp is depressed and will look for a wife. He visits his old friends and their wives, whom he finds in unenviable relationships. Still not convinced that the life of a bachelor is one for him, he returns home, and without further ado proposes to his housekeeper. The following marriage proposal is, according to Busch biographer Joseph Kraus, one of the shortest in the history of German literature:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Wessling, Busch became skeptical of marriage after writing the story. To Marie Anderson he wrote: \"I will never marry(...) I am already in good hands with my sister\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Among Busch's last works were the stories, Clement Dove, the Poet Thwarted (Balduin Bählamm, der verhinderte Dichter) (1883) and Painter Squirtle (Maler Klecksel) (1884), both of which focus on artistic failure, and indirectly his own failure. Both stories begin with a preface, which, for biographer Joseph Kraus, were bravura pieces of \"Komische Lyrik\"— German comic poetry. Clement Dove ridicules the bourgeois amateur poet circle of Munich, \"The Crocodiles\" (Die Krokodile), and their prominent members Emanuel Geibel, Paul von Heyse, and Adolf Wilbrandt. Painter Squirtle criticizes the bourgeois art connoisseur who believes the worth of art is gauged by its price.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 29029452, 1267637, 164389, 2114318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 463, 476 ], [ 507, 521 ], [ 523, 537 ], [ 543, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The prose play Edwards Dream (Eduards Traum) was released in 1891, composed of several small grouped episodes, rather than one linear storyline. The work received mixed reception. Joseph Kraus felt it was the peak of the life works by Busch, his nephews called it a masterwork of world literature, and the publisher of a critical collective edition spoke of a narrative style that is not found in contemporary literature. Eva Weissweiler saw in the play Busch's attempt to prove himself in the novella genre, believing that everything that angered or insulted him, and his accompanying emotional depths, are apparent in the story. The 1895 story The Butterfly (Der Schmetterling) parodies themes and motifs and ridicules the religious optimism of a German romanticism that contradicted Busch's realistic anthropology influenced by Schopenhauer and Charles Darwin. Its prose is more stringent in narrative style when compared to Edwards Dream. Both were not popular amongst readers, because of their unfamiliar style.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 569, 8145410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 804, 816 ], [ 848, 862 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Busch felt his painting skills could not compete with those of the Dutch masters. He regarded few of his paintings as finished, often stacking them one on top of the other in damp corners of his studio, where they stuck together. If the pile of paintings became too high, he burnt some in his garden. Since only a few remaining paintings are dated, categorizing them is difficult. His doubts regarding his skills are expressed in his choice of materials. His ground was usually chosen carelessly. Sometimes he used uneven cardboard or poorly-prepared spruce-wood boards. One exception is a portrait of Johanna Kessler, on a canvas support measuring by , one of his largest paintings. Most of his works, even landscapes, are small. As Busch used poor grounds and colours, most are heavily darkened and have an almost monochrome effect.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 3907977, 1916648, 170718, 72903, 1359329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 80 ], [ 459, 465 ], [ 551, 557 ], [ 624, 630 ], [ 709, 719 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many pictures depict the countryside at Wiedensahl and Lüthorst. They include pollarded willows, cottages in cornfields, cowherds, autumn landscapes, and meadows with streams. A particular feature is the use of red jackets, found in about 280 of 1000 Busch paintings and drawings. The muted or bright red coats are worn usually by a small figure, depicted from behind. The paintings generally represent typical villages. Portraits of the Kesslers, and a series of other portraits depicting Lina Weissenborn in the mid-1870s, are exceptions. A painting of a 10-year-old girl from a Jewish family at Lüthorst portrays her as serious, and having dark, oriental features.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 99601, 91983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 87 ], [ 88, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The influence of Dutch painters is clearly visible in Busch's work. \"Hals diluted and shortened(...) but still Halsian\", wrote Paul Klee after visiting a Busch memorial exhibition in 1908. A strong influence on Busch was Adriaen Brouwer, whose themes were farming and inn life, rustic dances, card players, smokers, drunkards, and rowdies. He dismissed the techniques of Impressionism with its strong preoccupation with the effect of light, and used new colours, such as Aniline Yellow, and photographs, as an aid. The landscapes from the mid-1880s show the same broad brushstrokes as seen in the paintings of the young Franz von Lenbach. Busch refused to exhibit work even though he was befriended by many artists of the Munich School, which would have allowed him to do so; it was not until near the end of his life that he presented his paintings to the public.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 46089, 80441, 761248, 15169, 3932775, 865961, 26756170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 73 ], [ 127, 136 ], [ 221, 236 ], [ 371, 384 ], [ 471, 485 ], [ 620, 637 ], [ 722, 735 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Busch biographer Joseph Kraus divided his work into three periods. He points out, however, that this classification is a simplification, as some works by their nature may be of a later or earlier period. All three periods show Busch's obsession with German middle class life. His peasants are devoid of sensitivity and village life is marked by a vivid lack of sentiment.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From 1858 to 1865 Busch chiefly worked for the Fliegenden Blätter and the Münchener Bilderbogen.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The period from 1866 to 1884 is characterized by his major illustrated stories, such as Helen Who Couldn't Help It. These stories are different in theme from works of his earlier period. The life of his characters start well, but disintegrate, as in Painter Squirtle (Maler Klecksel); someone sensitive who becomes a pedant. Others concern recalcitrant children or animals, or make the great or significant foolish and ridiculous. The early stories follow the pattern of children's books of orthodox education, such as those by Heinrich Hoffmann's Struwwelpeter, that aim to teach the devastating consequences of bad behaviour. Busch did not assign value to his work, as he once explained to Heinrich Richter: \"I look at my things for what they are, as Nuremberg trinkets [toys], as Schnurr Pfeiferen [worthless and useless things] whose value is to be found not in its artistic content, but in public demand (...)\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [ 973778, 3143357, 362920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 317, 323 ], [ 528, 545 ], [ 548, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1885 until his death in 1908 his work was dominated by prose and poems. The 1895 prose text Der Schmetterling contains autobiographical accounts. Peter's enchantment by the witch Lucinde, of whom he regards himself a slave, is possibly in reference to Johanna Kessler. Peter, like Busch, returns to his birthplace. It is similar in style to the romantic travel story that Ludwig Tieck established with his 1798 Franz Sternbalds Wanderungen. Busch plays with its traditional forms, motifs, pictures, literary topics, and form of narration.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [ 172803, 429955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 377, 389 ], [ 504, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Publisher Kaspar Braun, who commissioned Busch's first illustrations, had established the first workshop in Germany to use wood engraving. This letterpress printing technique was developed by English graphic artist Thomas Bewick near the end of the eighteenth century and became the most widely used reproduction system for illustrations over the years. Busch insisted on first making the drawings, afterward writing the verse. Surviving preparatory drawings show line notes, ideas, and movement, and physiognomy studies.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [ 29244969, 1119882, 662134, 221902, 247335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ], [ 123, 137 ], [ 144, 164 ], [ 215, 228 ], [ 501, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Then the draft was transferred by pencil on white-primed panels of hardwood end grain. Not only was it hard work, but the quality of the printing block was crucial. Everything left white on the block, around Busch's drawn lines, was cut from the plate by skilled engravers. Wood engraving allows a finer differentiation than woodcut and the potential tonal values are of almost the quality of intaglio printing, such as copper engraving. Sometimes the result was not satisfactory, leading Busch to rework or reproduce plates. The wood engraving technique did not allow for fine lines, which is why Busch's drawing, especially in his illustrated tales up to the mid-1870s, are boldly drawn, giving his work its particular characteristic.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [ 371197, 2716153, 60125, 162300, 2063776, 60125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 75 ], [ 76, 85 ], [ 263, 272 ], [ 325, 332 ], [ 393, 401 ], [ 427, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the mid-1870s Busch's illustrations were printed using zincography. With this technique there was no longer any danger that a wood engraver could change the character of his drawings. The originals were photographed and transferred onto a photosensitive zinc plate. This process allowed for the application of a clear, free pen-drawn ink line, and was a much faster printing method. Busch's use of zincography began with Mr. and Mrs. Knopp.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [ 3325669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The effect of Busch's illustrations is enhanced by his forthright verse, with taunts, derision, ironic twists, exaggeration, ambiguity, and startling rhymes. His language had an influence on the humorous poetry of Erich Kästner, Kurt Tucholsky, Joachim Ringelnatz, and Christian Morgenstern. The contrast in his later work between comic illustration and its seemingly serious accompanying text– already demonstrated in his earlier Max and Moritz– is shown in Widow Bolte's mawkish dignity, which is disproportionate to the loss of her chickens:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [ 171126, 38646883, 936634, 142576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 214, 227 ], [ 229, 243 ], [ 245, 263 ], [ 269, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of Brusch's couplets, part of contemporary common usage, give the impression of weighty wisdom, but in his hands become only apparent truths, hypocrisy, or platitudes. His use of onomatopoeia is a characteristic of his work: \"Allez-oop-da\"— Max and Moritz steal fried chickens with a fishing rod down a chimney— \"reeker-rawker\"; \"at the plank from bank to bank\"; \"rickle-rackle\", \"hear the millstones grind and crackle\"; and \"tinkly-clinket\" as Eric the cat rips a chandelier from a ceiling in Helen Who Couldn't Help It. Busch uses names he gives characters to describe their personality. \"Studiosus Döppe\" (Young Bumbel) has little mental ability; \"Sauerbrots\" (Sourdough) would not be of a cheerful disposition; and \"Förster Knarrtje\" (Forester Knarrtje) could hardly be a socialite.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [ 6530, 1868986, 22529, 189345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 24 ], [ 161, 171 ], [ 184, 196 ], [ 669, 678 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of his picture stories use verses with trochee structure:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [ 187505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The overweighting of the stressed syllables strengthens the humour of the lines. Busch also uses dactyls, where one accented syllable is followed by two unaccented syllables, as in his Plisch und Plum, where they underline the pedantic and solemn words with which teacher Bokelmann educates his pupils. They create tension in the Sourdough chapter from Adventures of a Bachelor, through the alternation of trochees and dactyls. Busch often synchronizes format and content in his poems, as in Fips the Monkey, where he uses the epic hexameter in a speech about wisdom.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [ 44911, 703789, 14160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 42 ], [ 97, 104 ], [ 532, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In both his illustrations and poems Busch uses familiar fables, occasionally appropriating their morality and stories, spinning them to illustrate a very different and comic \"truth\", and bringing to bear his pessimistic view of the world and human condition. While traditional fables follow the typical philosophy of differentiating between good and evil behaviour, Busch combines both.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is not unusual to see thrashing, tormenting, and caning in Busch's works. Sharp pencils pierced through models, housewives fall onto kitchen knives, thieves are spiked by umbrellas, tailors cut their tormentors with scissors, rascals are ground in corn mills, drunkards burn, and cats, dogs, and monkeys defecate while being tormented. Frequently Busch has been called a sadist by educators and psychologists. Tails that are burnt, pulled off, trapped, stretched, or eaten is seen by Weissweiler as not aggression against animals, but a phallic allusion to Busch's undeveloped sexual life. Such graphic text and imagery in cartoon form was not unusual at the time, and publishers, the public, or censors found it not particularly noteworthy. Topics and motifs for his early work were derived from eighteenth- and nineteenth-century popular literature, the gruesome endings of which he often softened.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [ 410649, 30875067, 3722964, 20598265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 58 ], [ 251, 261 ], [ 374, 380 ], [ 540, 547 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Caning, a common aspect of nineteenth-century teaching, is prevalent in many of his works, for example Meister Druff in Adventures of a Bachelor and Lehrer Bokelmann in Plish and Plum, where it is shown as an almost sexual pleasure in applying punishment. Beatings and humiliation are found in his later work too; biographer Gudrun Schury described this as Busch's life-motif. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the estate of Busch there is the note, \"Durch die Kinderjahre hindurchgeprügelt\" (Beaten through the childhood years), however there is no evidence that Busch was referring to himself. He couldn't recall any beating from his father. His uncle Kleine beat him once, not with the conventional rattan stick, but symbolically with dried dahlia stalks, this for stuffing cow hairs into a village idiot's pipe. Weissweiler observes that Busch probably saw canings at his village school, where he went for three years, and quite possibly he also received this punishment. In Abenteuer eines Junggesellen Busch illustrates a form of nonviolent progressive education that fails in one scene, and caning in the following scene; the canings that ensued indicate Busch's pessimistic picture of life, which has its roots in the Protestant ethic of the nineteenth century, in which he believed that humans are inherently evil and will never master their vices. Civilisation is the aim of education, but it can only mask human instincts superficially. Gentleness only leads to a continuation of human misdeeds, therefore punishment is required, even if one retains an unrepentant character, becomes a trained puppet, or in extreme cases, dies.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [ 208612, 68853, 2030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 294, 300 ], [ 336, 342 ], [ 818, 828 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Panic of 1873 led to growing criticism of high finance and the spread of radical Antisemitism, which in the 1880s became a broad undercurrent. These criticisms saw a separation of capital into what was construed as \"raffendes\" (speculative capital), and what constituted \"constructive\" creative production capital. The \"good\", \"native\", and \"German\" manufacturer was praised by Antisemitic agitators, such as Theodor Fritsch, who opposed what he saw as \"'rapacious' 'greedy', 'blood-sucking', 'Jewish' financial capitalism in the form of 'plutocrats' and 'usurers'\". Busch was thought to have embraced those stereotypes. Two passages are often underlined, one in Helen Who Couldn't Help It:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [ 184959, 1078, 45807, 3072852, 1576921, 24561, 18956166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 85, 97 ], [ 232, 251 ], [ 394, 402 ], [ 413, 428 ], [ 543, 553 ], [ 612, 622 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Robert Gernhardt defended Busch by stating that Jews are satirized only in three passages, of which the oldest is an illustration of a text by another author, published in 1860. He stated that Busch's Jewish figures are merely stereotypical, one of a number of stereotypes, such as the \"limited Bavarian farmer\" and the \"Prussian tourist\". Joseph Kraus shares the same view, and uses a couplet from Eight Sheets in the Wind (Die Haarbeutel), in which profit-seeking people are:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [ 833737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Gernhardt felt that Jews for Busch were alien, the Jewish conductor Hermann Levi befriended him, suggesting that Busch had a slight bias towards Jews.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Themes, technique, and style", "target_page_ids": [ 2620894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first biography on Busch, Über Wilhelm Busch und seine Bedeutung (About Wilhelm Busch and His Importance), was released in 1886. The painter Eduard Daelen, also a writer, echoed Busch's anti-Catholic bias, putting him on equal footing with Leonardo da Vinci, Peter Paul Rubens, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, and uncritically quoting correspondences. Even Busch and his friends were embarrassed. Literary scholar Friedrich Theodor Vischer attacked Daelen's biography and called him the \"envious eunuch of the desiccated Philistine\". After reading this biography Johannes Proelß posted an essay in the Frankfurter Zeitung, which contained many biographical falsehoods– as a response to this, Busch wrote two articles in the same newspaper. Published in October and December 1886, the autobiographical essay Regarding Myself (Was mich betrifft) includes basic facts, and some description of his troubles; analysts see within the essay a deep identity crisis. Busch revised his autobiography over the following years. The last such essay was published under the title, From Me About Me (Von mir über mich), which includes fewer biographical details and less reflection on bitterness and amusement than Regarding Myself.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Biographies", "target_page_ids": [ 68737553, 18079, 21463370, 12281, 178052, 473663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 158 ], [ 244, 261 ], [ 263, 280 ], [ 286, 311 ], [ 417, 442 ], [ 605, 624 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Busch celebrated his 70th birthday at his nephew's house in Hattorf am Harz. More than 1,000 congratulatory messages were sent to Mechtshausen from around the world. Wilhelm II praised the poet and artist, whose \"exquisite works are full of genuine humour and are everlasting for the German people\". The Austrian Alldeutsche Vereinigung (Pan-German Association) repealed the ban on Der heilige Antonius von Padua. Verlag Braun & Schneider, who owned the rights of Max and Moritz, gave Busch (around €200,000 or $270,000), which was donated to two hospitals in Hanover.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 4559311, 50450, 14197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 75 ], [ 166, 176 ], [ 561, 568 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since then, on the anniversary dates of his birth and death, he has been celebrated frequently. During the 175th anniversary in 2007, there were numerous re-publications of Busch works. Deutsche Post issued stamps depicting the Busch character Hans Huckebein – itself the inspiration for the nickname of the never-built Focke-Wulf Ta 183 German jet fighter design of 1945 – and the German Republic minted a 10 Euro silver coin faced with his portrait. Hanover declared 2007 the \"Wilhelm Busch Year\", with images featuring Busch works erected within the city centre.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 375969, 1946505, 9472, 3688699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 199 ], [ 320, 337 ], [ 410, 414 ], [ 505, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Wilhelm Busch Prize is awarded annually for satirical and humorous poetry. The Wilhelm Busch Society, active since 1930, aims to \"(...) collect, scientifically revise, and promote Wilhelm Busch's works with the public\". It supports the development of caricature and satirical artwork as a recognized branch of the visual arts. It is an advocate of the Wilhelm Busch Museum. Memorials are located in places he lived, including Wiedensahl, Ebergötzen, Lüthorst, Mechtshausen, and Hattorf am Harz.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 24176934, 206682, 17550943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 255, 265 ], [ 356, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andreas C. Knigge described Busch as the \"first virtuoso\" of illustrated stories. From the second half of the twentieth century he was considered the \"Forefather of Comics\". His early illustrations differ from those of the colleagues of Kaspar Braun. They show an increasing focus on protagonists, are less detailed in drawing and atmosphere, and develop from a dramatic understanding of the whole story. All Busch's illustrated tales have a plot that firstly describes the circumstance, then a resulting conflict, then solution. Plots are developed through consecutive scenes, similar to film storyboards. Busch conveys an impression of movement and action, at times strengthened through a change of perspective. According to Gert Ueding, his depiction of movement is unique.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One of Busch's notable stories is Der Virtuos (1865), which describes the life of a pianist who plays privately for an excited listener. Satirizing the self-publicizing artist's attitude and his overblown adoration, it varies from Busch's other stories as each scene does not contain prose, but is defined with music terminology, such as \"Introduzione\", \"Maestoso\", and \"Fortissimo vivacissimo\". As the scenes increase in tempo, each part of his body and lappet run around. The penultimate scene again depicts the pianist's movements, with score sheets floating above the grand piano on which musical notes are dancing. Over the years graphic artists have been fascinated by Der Virtuos. August Macke, in a letter to gallery owner Herwarth Walden, described Busch as the first Futurist, stating how well he captured time and movement. Similar pioneering scenes are in Bilder zur Jobsiade (1872). Job fails to answer rather easy questions set by twelve clergy, who shake their heads in synchronicity. Each scene is a movement study that presages Eadweard Muybridge's photography. Muybridge began his work in 1872, not released until 1893.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1986766, 648472, 5196037, 230846, 60115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 455, 461 ], [ 688, 700 ], [ 731, 746 ], [ 777, 785 ], [ 1045, 1063 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Busch's greatest success, both within Germany and internationally, was with Max and Moritz: Up to the time of his death it was translated into English, Danish, Hebrew, Japanese, Latin, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Hungarian, Swedish, and Walloonian. Several countries banned the story– about 1929 the Styrian school board prohibited sales of Max and Moritz to teens under eighteen. By 1997 more than 281 dialect and language translations had been produced.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 224474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 301, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some early \"Moritzian\" comic strips were heavily influenced by Busch in plot and narrative style. Tootle and Bootle (1896), borrowed so much content from Max and Moritz that it was described as a pirate edition. The true \"Moritzian\" recreation is The Katzenjammer Kids by German artist Rudolph Dirks, published in the New York Journal from 1897. It was published though William Randolph Hearst's suggestion that a pair of siblings following the pattern of \"Max and Moritz\" should be created. The Katzenjammer Kids is regarded as one of the oldest, continuous comic strips.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 16802, 1546273, 1201983, 33536, 5704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 247, 268 ], [ 286, 299 ], [ 318, 334 ], [ 370, 393 ], [ 559, 570 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "German \"Moritzian\"-inspired stories include Lies und Lene; die Schwestern von Max und Moritz (Hulda Levetzow, F. Maddalena, 1896), Schlumperfritz und Schlamperfranz (1922), Sigismund und Waldemar, des Max und Moritz Zwillingspaar (Walther Günther, 1932), and Mac und Mufti (Thomas Ahlers, Volker Dehs, 1987). These are shaped by observations of the First and Second World Wars, while the original is a moral story. In 1958 the Christian Democratic Union used the Max and Moritz characters for a campaign in North Rhine-Westphalia, the same year that the East German satirical magazine Eulenspiegel used them to caricature black labour. In 1969 Max and Moritz \"participated\" in late 1960s student activism.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 60584, 519775, 13058, 34451130, 1456276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 427, 453 ], [ 495, 503 ], [ 554, 565 ], [ 585, 597 ], [ 688, 704 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Biography and works (in German)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collection of known works (Projekt Gutenberg-DE)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Spiegel Online's version in German of the Busch work \"Hans Huckebein\", origin for the Focke-Wulf Ta 183 jet fighter's name", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " www.zeno.org Wilhelm Busch collection at Zeno.org (in German)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Paintings by Wilhelm Busch", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1832_births", "1908_deaths", "People_from_Schaumburg", "People_from_the_Kingdom_of_Hanover", "German_Lutherans", "German_illustrators", "19th-century_German_painters", "19th-century_German_male_artists", "German_male_painters", "20th-century_German_painters", "20th-century_German_male_artists", "German_caricaturists", "German_satirists", "Grotesque", "German_poets", "German_essayists", "Writers_from_Lower_Saxony", "German_male_essayists", "German_male_poets", "19th-century_German_poets", "German-language_poets", "19th-century_German_male_writers", "19th-century_essayists", "University_of_Hanover_alumni", "19th-century_Lutherans" ]

[ "Heinrich Christian Wilhelm Busch", "Vilʹgelʹm Bush", "W. Busch", "busch w.", "wilh. busch", "w. busch", "Busch", "busch wilhelm", "Vilhelm Bush" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Quirinal Hill (; ; ) is one of the Seven Hills of Rome, at the north-east of the city center. It is the location of the official residence of the Italian head of state, who resides in the Quirinal Palace; by metonymy \"the Quirinal\" has come to stand for the Italian president. The Quirinal Palace has an extension of 1.2 million square feet.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 44828, 285434, 72715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 59 ], [ 193, 208 ], [ 213, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Roman legend, the Quirinal Hill was the site of a small village of the Sabines, and king Titus Tatius would have lived there after the peace between Romans and Sabines. These Sabines had erected altars in the honour of their god Quirinus (naming the hill by this god).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 92881, 625865, 68640, 45087159, 85609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 91 ], [ 102, 114 ], [ 208, 213 ], [ 238, 241 ], [ 242, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tombs from the 8th century BC to the 7th century BC that confirm a likely presence of a Sabine settlement area have been discovered; on the hill, there was the tomb of Quirinus, which Lucius Papirius Cursor transformed into a temple for his triumph after the third Samnite war. Some authors consider it possible that the cult of the Capitoline Triad (Jove, Minerva, Juno) could have been celebrated here well before it became associated with the Capitoline Hill. The sanctuary of Flora, an Osco-Sabine goddess, was here too.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2612009, 48713190, 38012, 289451, 944850, 40255, 19845, 668594, 144901, 778284, 147762, 12734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 206 ], [ 226, 232 ], [ 241, 248 ], [ 265, 272 ], [ 333, 349 ], [ 351, 355 ], [ 357, 364 ], [ 366, 370 ], [ 446, 461 ], [ 480, 485 ], [ 490, 494 ], [ 502, 509 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Livy, the hill first became part of the city of Rome, along with the Viminal Hill, during the reign of Servius Tullius, Rome' sixth king, in the 6th century BC.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18049, 529961, 27951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 17 ], [ 82, 94 ], [ 116, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 446 BC, a temple was dedicated on the Quirinal in honour of Semo Sancus Dius Fidius, and it is possible that this temple was erected over the ruins of another temple. Augustus, too, ordered the building of a temple, dedicated to Mars. On a slope of the Quirinal were the extensive gardens of Sallust.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 85623, 1273, 19638032, 4004055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 86 ], [ 170, 178 ], [ 232, 236 ], [ 284, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the Quirinal Hill Constantine ordered the erection of his baths, the last thermae complex erected in imperial Rome. These are now lost, having been incorporated into Renaissance Rome, with only some drawings from the 16th century remaining.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7236, 8768626, 432937, 25507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ], [ 57, 66 ], [ 77, 84 ], [ 104, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Middle Ages, the Torre delle Milizie and the convent of St. Peter and Domenic were built, and above Constantine's building was erected the Palazzo Rospigliosi; the two famous colossal marble statues of the \"Horse Tamers\", generally identified as the Dioscuri with horses, which now are in the Piazza Quirinale, were originally in this Palazzo. They gave to the Quirinal its medieval name Monte Cavallo, which lingered into the 19th century, when the hill was transformed beyond all recognition by urbanization of an expanding capital of a united Italy. In the same palazzo were also the two statues of river gods that Michelangelo moved to the steps of Palazzo Senatorio on the Capitoline Hill.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18836, 5550543, 133806, 5458288, 60790, 21019, 144901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ], [ 24, 43 ], [ 52, 59 ], [ 214, 226 ], [ 257, 265 ], [ 625, 637 ], [ 660, 700 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the political division of the center of Rome, the Hill belongs to the rione Trevi.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2607621, 2611110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 88 ], [ 89, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Quirinal Hill is today identified with the Palazzo del Quirinale, the official residence of the President of the Italian Republic in Rome, and one of the symbols of the State. Before the abolition of the Italian monarchy in 1946, it was the residence of the king of Italy, and before 1871 it was, as originally, a residence of the Pope.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Palazzo del Quirinale", "target_page_ids": [ 285434, 162683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 68 ], [ 100, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The healthy cool air of the Quirinal Hill attracted aristocrats and papal families that built villas where the gardens of Sallust had been in antiquity. A visit to the villa of Cardinal Luigi d'Este in 1573 convinced Pope Gregory XIII to start the building of a summer residence the following year, in an area considered healthier than the Vatican Hill or Lateran: His architects were Flaminio Ponzio and Ottaviano Nonni, called Mascherino; under Pope Sixtus V, works were continued by Domenico Fontana (the main facade on the Piazza) and Carlo Maderno, and by Gian Lorenzo Bernini for Pope Clement XII. Gardens were conceived by Maderno. In the 18th century, Ferdinando Fuga built the long wing called the Manica Lunga, which stretched 360 meters along via del Quirinale. In front lies the sloping Piazza del Quirinale where the pair of gigantic Roman marble \"Horse Tamers\" representing Castor and Pollux, found in the Baths of Constantine, were re-erected in 1588. In Piranesi's view, the vast open space is unpaved. The Palazzo del Quirinale was the residence of the popes until 1870, though Napoleon deported both Pius VI and Pius VII to France, and declared the Quirinale an imperial palace. When Rome was united to the Kingdom of Italy, the Quirinale became the residence of the kings until 1946.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Palazzo del Quirinale", "target_page_ids": [ 4004055, 19434045, 24244, 301088, 894677, 9765724, 5714684, 44886, 1635030, 2636597, 12635, 24146, 4363290, 60790, 45400, 69246, 14532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 129 ], [ 186, 198 ], [ 217, 234 ], [ 340, 352 ], [ 356, 363 ], [ 385, 400 ], [ 405, 420 ], [ 447, 460 ], [ 486, 502 ], [ 539, 552 ], [ 561, 581 ], [ 586, 602 ], [ 660, 675 ], [ 888, 905 ], [ 1118, 1125 ], [ 1130, 1138 ], [ 1225, 1241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today, the Palazzo hosts the offices and the apartments of the Head of State and, in its long side along via XX Settembre (the so-called Manica Lunga), the apartments that were furnished for each visit of foreign monarchs or dignitaries.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Palazzo del Quirinale", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Several collections are in this Palazzo, including tapestries, paintings, statues, old carriages (carrozze), watches, furniture, and porcelain.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Palazzo del Quirinale", "target_page_ids": [ 87026, 153169, 229714, 167718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 61 ], [ 74, 80 ], [ 87, 95 ], [ 133, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Piranesi's view, the palazzo on the right is the Palazzo della Sacra Consulta, originally a villa built upon the ruins of the Baths of Constantine, which was adapted by Sixtus V as a civil and criminal court. The present façade was built in 1732–1734 by the architect Ferdinando Fuga on the orders of Pope Clement XII Corsini, whose coat-of-arms, trumpeted by two Fames, still surmounts the roofline balustrade, as in Piranesi's view. It formerly housed Mussolini's ministry of colonial affairs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Palazzo del Quirinale", "target_page_ids": [ 24146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 304, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The hill is the site of other important monuments and buildings. Many of those built during the baroque period reflect the personal and spiritual aspirations of powerful local families:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other monuments", "target_page_ids": [ 3957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale was designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1658–1671), for Cardinal Camillo Pamphilii (nephew of Pope Innocent X); it is one of the most elegant samples of baroque architecture in Rome, with its splendid interior of marble, stuccoes, and gilded decorations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other monuments", "target_page_ids": [ 1679660, 12635, 22063926, 24645, 3957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 38 ], [ 55, 75 ], [ 102, 119 ], [ 131, 146 ], [ 190, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The four fountains (Quattro Fontane) with reclining river gods (1588–93) commissioned by Pope Sixtus V.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other monuments", "target_page_ids": [ 24984877, 44886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 35 ], [ 89, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Borromini's church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (or San Carlino – originally Chiesa della Santissima Trinità e di San Carlo Borromeo), the first and last work of this architect (the façade was completed after his death) commissioned by the Barberini.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other monuments", "target_page_ids": [ 11125, 2833111, 562802, 1729153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 22, 52 ], [ 123, 137 ], [ 245, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Piazza and Palazzo Barberini, built by Bernini and Maderno, which now houses the Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other monuments", "target_page_ids": [ 11535237, 2727688, 12635, 2636597, 2386239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 15, 32 ], [ 43, 50 ], [ 55, 62 ], [ 85, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Palazzo Volpi di Misurata, across from San Carlino, built in the 18th century.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other monuments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Palazzo Albani del Drago, built by Domenico Fontana and enlarged with an added belvedere, by Alessandro Specchi for the Albani Pope Clement XI; with the decline in the fortunes of Cardinal Alessandro Albani, it was sold to the del Drago, who occupy it still.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other monuments", "target_page_ids": [ 1635030, 9267159, 3792724, 24124, 3226277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 51 ], [ 93, 111 ], [ 120, 126 ], [ 127, 142 ], [ 189, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Palazzo Baracchini, built 1876–83, now housing the Ministry of Defense.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other monuments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The church of San Silvestro al Quirinale, which was described for the first time circa 1000, rebuilt in the 16th century and restructured (façade) in the 19th.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other monuments", "target_page_ids": [ 9670427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other monuments", "target_page_ids": [ 2174683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Palazzo Colonna (17th century), in front of Palazzo Rospigliosi, contains some remains of Caracalla's temple of Serapis", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other monuments", "target_page_ids": [ 8808676, 4068503, 49907, 3586579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 48, 67 ], [ 94, 103 ], [ 116, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Palazzo della Consulta hosts today the Constitutional Court, and was erected by Ferdinando Fuga for Pope Clement XII directly opposite Palazzo del Quirinale.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other monuments", "target_page_ids": [ 9624518, 1419090, 4363290, 24146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 43, 63 ], [ 84, 99 ], [ 104, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Palazzo Pallavicini-Rospigliosi (17th century) built by Giorgio Vasanzio and Carlo Maderno", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other monuments", "target_page_ids": [ 4068503, 2636597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 35 ], [ 81, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proximate to the Baths of Constantine and the modern Sacripanti Palace, there is the dome of Titus Claudinanus and his female partner Claudia Vera. The local water pipes are inscribed with the initials of their names, which define Claudia as the \"true girl\" (in Latin: c(larissima) f(emina)).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other monuments", "target_page_ids": [ 8768626, 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 37 ], [ 262, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Samuel Ball Platner, A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome: Quirinal Hill", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rossini's etching", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Guide to the Quirinal area", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Palazzo del Quirinale\" official site.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "More info about Quirinal Area", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Seven_hills_of_Rome", "Piazzas_in_Rome", "Tourist_attractions_in_Rome", "Rome_R._II_Trevi" ]

[ "Quirinal" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Stephen Langton (c.1150– 9 July 1228) was an English Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church and Archbishop of Canterbury between 1207 and his death in 1228. The dispute between King John of England and Pope Innocent III over his election was a major factor in the crisis which produced Magna Carta in 1215. Cardinal Langton is also credited with having divided the Bible into the standard modern arrangement of chapters used today.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6221, 606848, 2345, 160904, 16550, 24455, 20958, 1047161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 61 ], [ 69, 90 ], [ 95, 119 ], [ 176, 180 ], [ 181, 196 ], [ 201, 218 ], [ 285, 296 ], [ 410, 418 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His father was Henry Langton, a landowner in Langton by Wragby, Lincolnshire. Stephen Langton may have been born in a moated farmhouse in the village, and was probably educated in his local cathedral school. He could also have been born at Friday Street, Surrey, according to local legend.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 31731354, 53295, 36171051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 62 ], [ 64, 76 ], [ 240, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stephen studied at the University of Paris and lectured there on theology until 1206, when Pope Innocent III, with whom he had formed a friendship in Paris, called him to Rome and made him cardinal-priest of San Crisogono, Rome. His piety and learning had already won him prebends in Paris and York and he was recognised as the foremost English churchman.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 84692, 30503, 6221, 7846071, 1067941, 72950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 42 ], [ 65, 73 ], [ 189, 204 ], [ 208, 227 ], [ 272, 280 ], [ 294, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His brother Simon Langton was elected Archbishop of York in 1215, but that election was quashed by Pope Innocent III. Simon served his brother Stephen as Archdeacon of Canterbury in 1227. Simon and Stephen had another brother named Walter, a knight who died childless.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and career", "target_page_ids": [ 12896943, 5771838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 25 ], [ 38, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the death of Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1205, the election of a successor proved problematic: some of the younger canons of the cathedral chapter elected Reginald, the subprior of Christ Church, Canterbury, as bishop while another faction under pressure from King John chose John de Grey, Bishop of Norwich. Both elections were quashed on appeal to Rome, and sixteen canons of the chapter, who had gone to Rome empowered to act for the whole chapter, were ordered to proceed to a new election in presence of the Pope. Langton was chosen and was consecrated by the Pope at Viterbo on 17 June 1207.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Archbishopric", "target_page_ids": [ 153664, 20915246, 155851, 1095462, 92898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 29 ], [ 174, 182 ], [ 295, 307 ], [ 309, 326 ], [ 592, 599 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There followed a hard political struggle between John of England and Pope Innocent III. The King proclaimed as a public enemy anyone who recognised Stephen as Archbishop. On 15 July 1207, John expelled the Canterbury chapter, which was now unanimous in support of Stephen. In March 1208, Pope Innocent III placed England under an interdict and at the close of 1212, after repeated negotiations had failed, he passed sentence of deposition against John, committing the execution of the sentence to Philip II of France in January 1213.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Archbishopric", "target_page_ids": [ 70882577, 25093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 327, 339 ], [ 497, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 1213 King John yielded and thus in July, Stephen (who since his consecration had lived at Pontigny Abbey in Burgundy) and his fellow exiles returned to England. His first episcopal act was to absolve the King, who swore that unjust laws should be repealed and the liberties granted by Henry I should be observed—an oath which he almost immediately violated.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Archbishopric", "target_page_ids": [ 4705244, 85451, 14179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 111 ], [ 115, 123 ], [ 292, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stephen now became a leader in the struggle against King John. At a council of churchmen at Westminster on 25 August 1213, to which certain barons were invited, he read the text of the charter of Henry I and called for its renewal. In the sequel, Stephen's energetic leadership and the barons' military strength forced John to grant his seal to Magna Carta (15 June 1215).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Archbishopric", "target_page_ids": [ 37432, 20958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 103 ], [ 345, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since King John now held his kingdom as a fief of the Holy See the Pope espoused his cause and excommunicated the barons. For refusing to publish the excommunication Stephen was suspended from all ecclesiastical functions by the papal commissioners and on 4 November this sentence was confirmed by the Pope, although Stephen appealed to him in person. He was released from suspension the following spring on condition that he keep out of England until peace was restored, and he remained abroad till May 1218. Meanwhile, both Pope Innocent and King John died and all parties in England rallied to the support of Henry III.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Archbishopric", "target_page_ids": [ 13393, 46591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 62 ], [ 612, 621 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stephen Langton continued under Henry's reign to work for the political independence of England. In 1223 he again appeared as the leader and spokesman of the barons, who demanded that King Henry confirm the charter. He went to France on Henry's behalf to call on Louis VIII of France for the restoration of Normandy, and later he supported Henry against rebellious barons. He obtained a promise from the new pope, Honorius III, that during his lifetime no resident legate should be again sent to England, and won other concessions from the same pontiff favourable to the English Church and exalting the see of Canterbury.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Archbishopric", "target_page_ids": [ 79596, 21724, 23854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 283 ], [ 307, 315 ], [ 414, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of great importance in the ecclesiastical history of England was a council which Stephen opened at Osney on 17 April 1222; its decrees, known as the Constitutions of Stephen Langton, are the earliest provincial canons which are still recognised as binding in English church courts.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Archbishopric", "target_page_ids": [ 4493005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He died at Slindon, near Chichester, Sussex, on 9 July 1228. He was buried in some open ground beside the south transept of Canterbury Cathedral. St Michael's Chapel was later built over this ground (now the Buffs Regimental Chapel), and the head of his tomb projects into the east end of this chapel, under its altar, with the foot outside it.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 1304009, 49699, 72987, 1405894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 37, 43 ], [ 124, 144 ], [ 208, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stephen was a prolific writer. Glosses, commentaries, expositions, and treatises by him on almost all the books of the Old Testament, and many sermons, are preserved in manuscript at Lambeth Palace, at Oxford and Cambridge, and in France.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 27857492, 22326, 322293, 31797, 25978572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 111 ], [ 119, 132 ], [ 183, 197 ], [ 202, 208 ], [ 213, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to F. J. E. Raby, \"There is little reason to doubt that Stephen Langton... was the author\" of the famous sequence Veni Sancte Spiritus.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 5750922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The only other of his works which has been printed, besides a few letters (in The Historical Works of Gervase of Canterbury, ed. W. Stubbs, ii. London, 1880, Rolls Series, no. 71, appendix to preface) is a Tractatus de translatione Beati Thomae (in J. A. Giles's Thomas of Canterbury, Oxford, 1845), which is probably an expansion of a sermon he preached in 1220, on occasion of the translation of the relics of Thomas Becket; the ceremony was the most splendid that had ever been seen in England. He also wrote a life of Richard I, and other historical works and poems are attributed to him.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 2042537, 252354, 10848413, 34838028, 37190, 26368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 123 ], [ 129, 138 ], [ 158, 170 ], [ 249, 260 ], [ 412, 425 ], [ 522, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Classically, scrolls of the books of the Bible have always been divided by blank spaces at the end (petuhoth) or middle (setumoth) of the lines. However, Langton is believed to be the one who divided the Bible into the standard modern arrangement of chapters. While Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro is also known to have come up with a systematic division of the Bible (between 1244 and 1248), it is Langton's arrangement of the chapters that remains in use today.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 3390, 1047161, 1571866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 46 ], [ 250, 258 ], [ 275, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ambler, Sophie. \"Stephen Langton\", Magna Carta 800th Anniversary", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lewis E 35 Biblical commentary on the Pentateuch (Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers) at OPenn", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Archbishops_of_Canterbury", "13th-century_English_cardinals", "13th-century_English_Roman_Catholic_theologians", "External_cardinals", "Cardinals_created_by_Pope_Innocent_III", "People_from_East_Lindsey_District", "1150s_births", "1228_deaths", "Burials_at_Canterbury_Cathedral", "12th-century_English_Roman_Catholic_theologians", "13th-century_Latin_writers" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Design by contract (DbC), also known as contract programming, programming by contract and design-by-contract programming, is an approach for designing software.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 223325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It prescribes that software designers should define formal, precise and verifiable interface specifications for software components, which extend the ordinary definition of abstract data types with preconditions, postconditions and invariants. These specifications are referred to as \"contracts\", in accordance with a conceptual metaphor with the conditions and obligations of business contracts.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 161883, 2816674, 2349, 39290, 39291, 1126638, 72710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 58 ], [ 112, 131 ], [ 173, 191 ], [ 198, 210 ], [ 213, 226 ], [ 232, 242 ], [ 318, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The DbC approach assumes all client components that invoke an operation on a server component will meet the preconditions specified as required for that operation.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 51513636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Where this assumption is considered too risky (as in multi-channel or distributed computing), the inverse approach is taken, meaning that the server component tests that all relevant preconditions hold true (before, or while, processing the client components request) and replies with a suitable error message if not.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8501, 62661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 91 ], [ 98, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term was coined by Bertrand Meyer in connection with his design of the Eiffel programming language and first described in various articles starting in 1986 and the two successive editions (1988, 1997) of his book Object-Oriented Software Construction. Eiffel Software applied for trademark registration for Design by Contract in December 2003, and it was granted in December 2004. The current owner of this trademark is Eiffel Software.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 291807, 9838, 6246269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 37 ], [ 75, 102 ], [ 217, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Design by contract has its roots in work on formal verification, formal specification and Hoare logic. The original contributions include:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 270054, 2567707, 182708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 63 ], [ 65, 85 ], [ 90, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A clear metaphor to guide the design process", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The application to inheritance, in particular a formalism for redefinition and dynamic binding", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2617746, 916502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 30 ], [ 79, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The application to exception handling", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 59231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The connection with automatic software documentation", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 27488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The central idea of DbC is a metaphor on how elements of a software system collaborate with each other on the basis of mutual obligations and benefits. The metaphor comes from business life, where a \"client\" and a \"supplier\" agree on a \"contract\" that defines, for example, that:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The supplier must provide a certain product (obligation) and is entitled to expect that the client has paid its fee (benefit).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The client must pay the fee (obligation) and is entitled to get the product (benefit).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Both parties must satisfy certain obligations, such as laws and regulations, applying to all contracts.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Similarly, if the method of a class in object-oriented programming provides a certain functionality, it may:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 232817, 7392, 27471338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 30, 35 ], [ 39, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Expect a certain condition to be guaranteed on entry by any client module that calls it: the method's precondition—an obligation for the client, and a benefit for the supplier (the method itself), as it frees it from having to handle cases outside of the precondition.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 39290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Guarantee a certain property on exit: the method's postcondition—an obligation for the supplier, and obviously a benefit (the main benefit of calling the method) for the client.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 39291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Maintain a certain property, assumed on entry and guaranteed on exit: the class invariant.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 578465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The contract is semantically equivalent to a Hoare triple which formalises the obligations. This can be summarised by the \"three questions\" that the designer must repeatedly answer in the contract:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 182708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " What does the contract expect?", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " What does the contract guarantee?", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " What does the contract maintain?", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many programming languages have facilities to make assertions like these. However, DbC considers these contracts to be so crucial to software correctness that they should be part of the design process. In effect, DbC advocates writing the assertions first. Contracts can be written by code comments, enforced by a test suite, or both, even if there is no special language support for contracts.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 23015, 234018, 357339, 357881, 8592308, 30855831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 25 ], [ 51, 60 ], [ 133, 153 ], [ 227, 255 ], [ 285, 298 ], [ 314, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The notion of a contract extends down to the method/procedure level; the contract for each method will normally contain the following pieces of information:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Acceptable and unacceptable input values or types, and their meanings", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Return values or types, and their meanings", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Error and exception condition values or types that can occur, and their meanings", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 59231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Side effects", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 29519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Preconditions", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 39290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Postconditions", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 39291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Invariants", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 1126638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (more rarely) Performance guarantees, e.g. for time or space used", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Subclasses in an inheritance hierarchy are allowed to weaken preconditions (but not strengthen them) and strengthen postconditions and invariants (but not weaken them). These rules approximate behavioural subtyping.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 2617746, 300568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 38 ], [ 193, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All class relationships are between client classes and supplier classes. A client class is obliged to make calls to supplier features where the resulting state of the supplier is not violated by the client call. Subsequently, the supplier is obliged to provide a return state and data that does not violate the state requirements of the client.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For instance, a supplier data buffer may require that data is present in the buffer when a delete feature is called. Subsequently, the supplier guarantees to the client that when a delete feature finishes its work, the data item will, indeed, be deleted from the buffer. Other design contracts are concepts of class invariant. The class invariant guarantees (for the local class) that the state of the class will be maintained within specified tolerances at the end of each feature execution.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 578465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 310, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When using contracts, a supplier should not try to verify that the contract conditions are satisfied—a practice known as offensive programming—the general idea being that code should \"fail hard\", with contract verification being the safety net.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 51513636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DbC's \"fail hard\" property simplifies the debugging of contract behavior, as the intended behaviour of each method is clearly specified.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This approach differs substantially from that of defensive programming, where the supplier is responsible for figuring out what to do when a precondition is broken. More often than not, the supplier throws an exception to inform the client that the precondition has been broken, and in both cases—DbC and defensive programming alike—the client must figure out how to respond to that. In such cases, DbC makes the supplier's job easier.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 62661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Design by contract also defines criteria for correctness for a software module:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " If the class invariant AND precondition are true before a supplier is called by a client, then the invariant AND the postcondition will be true after the service has been completed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " When making calls to a supplier, a software module should not violate the supplier's preconditions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Design by contract can also facilitate code reuse, since the contract for each piece of code is fully documented. The contracts for a module can be regarded as a form of software documentation for the behavior of that module.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 27488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Contract conditions should never be violated during execution of a bug-free program. Contracts are therefore typically only checked in debug mode during software development. Later at release, the contract checks are disabled to maximize performance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance implications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In many programming languages, contracts are implemented with assert. Asserts are by default compiled away in release mode in C/C++, and similarly deactivated in C# and Java.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance implications", "target_page_ids": [ 234018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Launching the Python interpreter with \"-O\" (for \"optimize\") as an argument will likewise cause the Python code generator to not emit any bytecode for asserts.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance implications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This effectively eliminates the run-time costs of asserts in production code—irrespective of the number and computational expense of asserts used in development—as no such instructions will be included into production by the compiler.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance implications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Design by contract does not replace regular testing strategies, such as unit testing, integration testing and system testing. Rather, it complements external testing with internal self-tests that can be activated both for isolated tests and in production code during a test-phase.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Relationship to software testing", "target_page_ids": [ 222828, 355711, 864021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 84 ], [ 86, 105 ], [ 110, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The advantage of internal self-tests is that they can detect errors before they manifest themselves as invalid results observed by the client. This leads to earlier and more specific error detection.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Relationship to software testing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The use of assertions can be considered to be a form of test oracle, a way of testing the design by contract implementation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Relationship to software testing", "target_page_ids": [ 20168578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Languages that implement most DbC features natively include:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ada 2012", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 1242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ciao", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 31540643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Clojure", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 16561990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cobra", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 13862555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " D", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 243881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 2 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dafny", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 56073623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eiffel", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 9838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fortress", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 1822171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kotlin", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 41819039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mercury", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 19726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oxygene (formerly Chrome and Delphi Prism)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 4249746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Racket (including higher order contracts, and emphasizing that contract violations must blame the guilty party and must do so with an accurate explanation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 3350021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sather", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 28763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Scala", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 3254510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SPARK (via static analysis of Ada programs)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 291874, 28811, 1242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 12, 27 ], [ 31, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vala", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 12655903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " VDM", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 140583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Additionally, the standard method combination in the Common Lisp Object System has the method qualifiers , and that allow writing contracts as auxiliary methods, among other uses.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 191414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Various libraries, preprocessors and other tools have been developed for existing programming languages without native design by contract support:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ada, via GNAT pragmas for preconditions and postconditions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 1242, 172879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 10, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " C and C++:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 6021, 72038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 2 ], [ 7, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Boost.Contract", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " DBC for C preprocessor", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 81971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " GNU Nana", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " eCv and eCv++ formal verification tools", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 270054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Digital Mars C++ compiler via CTESK extension of C", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 11868421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Loki Library provides a mechanism named ContractChecker that verifies a class follows design by contract.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 2308086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " DBC C++ Design by contract for C++", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " C# (and other .NET languages), via Code Contracts (a Microsoft Research project integrated into the .NET Framework 4.0)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 2356196, 2163522, 25143203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 3 ], [ 55, 73 ], [ 102, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Groovy via GContracts ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 508401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Go via dbc or gocontracts", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 25039021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 2 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Java:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 15881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Active:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " OVal with AspectJ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 237214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Contracts for Java (Cofoja)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Java Modeling Language (JML)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 2668299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bean Validation (only pre- and postconditions)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 26321347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " valid4j", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " SafeR (with safe references)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Inactive/unknown:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jtest (active but DbC seems not to be supported anymore)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 2795443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " iContract2/JContracts", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Contract4J", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " jContractor", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " C4J", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Google CodePro Analytix", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " SpringContracts for the Spring Framework", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 5371713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jass", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Modern Jass (successor is Cofoja)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " JavaDbC using AspectJ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " JavaTESK using extension of Java", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " chex4j using javassist", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " highly customizable java-on-contracts", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " JavaScript, via decorator-contracts, AspectJS (specifically, AJS_Validator), Cerny.js, ecmaDebug, jsContract, dbc-code-contracts or jscategory.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 9845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Common Lisp, via the macro facility or the CLOS metaobject protocol.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 6068, 191414, 594313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 44, 48 ], [ 49, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nemerle, via macros.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 30883042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nim, via macros.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 45413679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Perl, via the CPAN modules Class::Contract (by Damian Conway) or Carp::Datum (by Raphael Manfredi).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 23939, 6667, 2001744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 15, 19 ], [ 48, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PHP, via PhpDeal, Praspel or Stuart Herbert's ContractLib.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 24131, 35766954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 19, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Python, using packages like deal, icontract, PyContracts, dpcontracts, or zope.interface. A permanent change to Python to support design by contracts was proposed in PEP-316 in 2003, but is deferred.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 23862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ruby, via Brian McCallister's DesignByContract, Ruby DBC ruby-contract or contracts.ruby.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 25768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rust via the contracts crate.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 29414838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tcl, via the XOTcl object-oriented extension.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Language support", "target_page_ids": [ 39880682, 551037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 14, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Component-based software engineering", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2816674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Correctness (computer science)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 357339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Defensive programming", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 62661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fail-fast", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4611484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Formal methods", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 161883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hoare logic", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 182708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Modular programming", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 939133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Program derivation", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 474691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Program refinement", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1644367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Strong typing", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32046448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Test-driven development", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 357881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Typestate analysis", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36495871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mitchell, Richard, and McKim, Jim: Design by Contract: by example, Addison-Wesley, 2002", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A wikibook describing DBC closely to the original model.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " McNeile, Ashley: A framework for the semantics of behavioral contracts. Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Behaviour Modelling: Foundation and Applications (BM-FA '10). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 2010. This paper discusses generalized notions of Contract and Substitutability'.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Power of Design by Contract(TM) A top-level description of DbC, with links to additional resources.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Building bug-free O-O software: An introduction to Design by Contract(TM) Older material on DbC.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Benefits and drawbacks; implementation in RPS-Obix", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bertrand Meyer, Applying \"Design by Contract\", IEEE Computer, October 1992.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Using Code Contracts for Safer Code", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Software_design", "Programming_paradigms" ]

[ "DbC", "Design-by-Contract" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In computer programming, a precondition is a condition or predicate that must always be true just prior to the execution of some section of code or before an operation in a formal specification.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5311, 285109, 5225, 2567707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 23 ], [ 58, 67 ], [ 140, 144 ], [ 173, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If a precondition is violated, the effect of the section of code becomes undefined and thus may or may not carry out its intended work. Security problems can arise due to incorrect preconditions.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5225, 7398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 64 ], [ 137, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Often, preconditions are simply included in the documentation of the affected section of code. Preconditions are sometimes tested using guards or assertions within the code itself, and some languages have specific syntactic constructions for doing so.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1186249, 234018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 143 ], [ 147, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example: the factorial is only defined for integers greater than or equal to zero. So a program that calculates the factorial of an input number would have preconditions that the number be an integer and that it be greater than or equal to zero.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preconditions in object-oriented software development are an essential part of design by contract. Design by contract also includes notions of postcondition and class invariant. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In object-oriented programming", "target_page_ids": [ 27471338, 39289, 39291, 578465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 32 ], [ 79, 97 ], [ 143, 156 ], [ 161, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The precondition for any routine defines any constraints on object state which are necessary for successful execution. From the program developer's viewpoint, this constitutes the routine caller's portion of the contract. The caller then is obliged to ensure that the precondition holds prior to calling the routine. The reward for the caller's effort is expressed in the called routine's postcondition.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In object-oriented programming", "target_page_ids": [ 39291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 389, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The routine in the following example written in Eiffel takes as an argument an integer which must be a valid value for an hour of the day, i. e., 0 through 23, inclusively. The precondition follows the keyword . It specifies that the argument must be greater than or equal to zero and less than or equal to 23. The tag \"\" describes this precondition clause and serves to identify it in case of a runtime precondition violation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In object-oriented programming", "target_page_ids": [ 9838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the presence of inheritance, the routines inherited by descendant classes (subclasses) do so with their preconditions in force. This means that any implementations or redefinitions of inherited routines also have to be written to comply with their inherited contract. Preconditions can be modified in redefined routines, but they may only be weakened. That is, the redefined routine may lessen the obligation of the client, but not increase it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In object-oriented programming", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Design by contract", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Guard (computer science)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1186249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Postcondition", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hoare logic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 182708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Invariants maintained by conditions", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1126638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Database trigger", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1384316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] } ]

[ "Programming_constructs", "Formal_methods", "Logic_in_computer_science" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In computer programming, a postcondition is a condition or predicate that must always be true just after the execution of some section of code or after an operation in a formal specification. Postconditions are sometimes tested using assertions within the code itself. Often, postconditions are simply included in the documentation of the affected section of code.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5311, 285109, 2567707, 234018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 23 ], [ 59, 68 ], [ 170, 190 ], [ 234, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example: The result of a factorial is always an integer and greater than or equal to 1. So a program that calculates the factorial of an input number would have postconditions that the result after the calculation be an integer and that it be greater than or equal to 1. Another example: a program that calculates the square root of an input number might have the postconditions that the result be a number and that its square be equal to the input.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10606, 29208, 659942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 38 ], [ 323, 334 ], [ 425, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some software design approaches, postconditions, along with preconditions and class invariants, are components of the software construction method design by contract.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Postconditions in object-oriented programming", "target_page_ids": [ 39290, 1126638, 39289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 75 ], [ 87, 97 ], [ 150, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The postcondition for any routine is a declaration of the properties which are guaranteed upon completion of the routine's execution. As it relates to the routine's contract, the postcondition offers assurance to potential callers that in cases in which the routine is called in a state in which its precondition holds, the properties declared by the postcondition are assured.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Postconditions in object-oriented programming", "target_page_ids": [ 39290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 300, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following example written in Eiffel sets the value of a class attribute based on a caller-provided argument . The postcondition follows the keyword . In this example, the postcondition guarantees, in cases in which the precondition holds (i.e., when represents a valid hour of the day), that after the execution of , the class attribute will have the same value as . The tag \"\" describes this postcondition clause and serves to identify it in case of a runtime postcondition violation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Eiffel example", "target_page_ids": [ 9838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the presence of inheritance, the routines inherited by descendant classes (subclasses) do so with their contracts, that is their preconditions and postconditions, in force. This means that any implementations or redefinitions of inherited routines also have to be written to comply with their inherited contracts. Postconditions can be modified in redefined routines, but they may only be strengthened. That is, the redefined routine may increase the benefits it provides to the client, but may not decrease those benefits.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Postconditions and inheritance", "target_page_ids": [ 2617746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Precondition", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Design by contract", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hoare logic", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 182708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Invariants maintained by conditions", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1126638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Database trigger", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1384316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] } ]

[ "Programming_constructs", "Formal_methods", "Logic_in_computer_science", "Mathematics_of_computing", "Articles_with_example_Eiffel_code" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Time Crisis is a light gun shooter arcade game, developed and released by Namco in 1995, and the first title to be released in the series of the same name. The game differentiated itself from other light gun shooters of the time by incorporating a pedal that controls when the player character takes cover to reload and avoid enemy fire. Players have a limited amount of time to clear each section by defeating enemies. The game's story focuses on Richard Miller, a secret agent, who is sent to rescue a kidnapped woman from a ruthless tyrant seeking to reclaim control of their former country from a new regime.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16693228, 67378620, 300208, 3250964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 34 ], [ 35, 46 ], [ 74, 79 ], [ 127, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A port of the game for the PlayStation was released in 1997, as part of a bundle coinciding with the launch of the Guncon light gun controller, and featured a add-on pack of additional stages that are set after the main story. Both the arcade original and the console version were well-received by critics, in particular the gameplay mechanics. The game proved a commercial success and spawned a sequel, Time Crisis II, in 1998, and a spin-off title, Project Titan, in 2001.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23964, 8813706, 78031, 766442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 38 ], [ 115, 121 ], [ 122, 131 ], [ 404, 418 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Time Crisis is a three-dimensional first-person rail shooter similar to Virtua Cop, in that the player holds a light gun and fires at on-screen enemies. However, it differs from such video games by use of its cover system - a gameplay mechanic in which players can duck behind cover to avoid enemy fire and reload their weapons. In the arcade version, a foot pedal is used to toggle between ducking and attacking positions; in console conversions, a button command replicates the foot pedal's functions. The PlayStation version also allows players to use the pedal from a racing wheel peripheral.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Gameplay", "target_page_ids": [ 25395149, 252981, 315119, 78031, 25413696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 47 ], [ 48, 60 ], [ 72, 82 ], [ 111, 120 ], [ 209, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The game consists of three stages, each consisting of three areas and a boss battle. Each area consist of a series of firearms battles, in which players must defeat a set group of enemies in order to advance to the next battle. Each area features a one minute time limit to begin with, which counts down during battles and transitions between each, and is only extended by clearing a current battle; defeating certain optional enemies also gives a few extra seconds. To avoid running down the clock, the player must take risks, shooting enemies rapidly and hiding only when necessary. Each playthrough sees the player given a set number of lives, in which one is deducted when the player is hit by an enemy, or fails to avoid being hit by a hazard in the current battle, with the game being over when the player runs out of lives or time.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Gameplay", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The arcade cabinet's light gun (introduced in Point Blank) utilizes a special memory chip to synchronize areas of the screen's image as the player rotates the gun around. The light gun also features a blowback function which simulates real-life gun recoil; this feature is not retained in the PlayStation port. The PlayStation port can be played either with the GunCon light gun peripheral or by using a controller to aim a cursor around the screen. The port features an exclusive Special mode, in which the player's performance, such as how quickly they can clear an area, affects the path they take through the game, resulting in multiple possibilities and endings.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Gameplay", "target_page_ids": [ 2043233, 8813706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 57 ], [ 362, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1995, the V.S.S.E., an international protection agency, helps Sercian opposition leader William MacPherson engineer a coup that overthrows a century-old authoritarian regime. MacPherson is elected as the Sercian republic's first president. Sherudo Garo, the last survivor of the regime, plots to restore the old order, launching a series of attacks and assassinations that destabilize the nation. As the finishing touch, Sherudo has MacPherson's daughter Rachel abducted and imprisoned in his family's castle on a remote island, demanding vital military secrets in exchange for her life. A desperate MacPherson contacts the V.S.S.E., who in turn dispatches veteran agent Richard Miller, the \"One Man Army\", to infiltrate the castle and rescue Rachel.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Plot", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Miller reaches the island and rams his explosives-rigged boat into the castle's exterior to create an entrance. Sherudo hears the resulting boom, but his head of security, Wild Dog, assures him that Miller will not last long against his highly trained mercenaries. Meanwhile, Miller confronts Wild Dog's troops in the submarine hangar and makes his way to the main courtyard against heavy resistance, eventually reaching Rachel's location. She warns him of a setup before being whisked away. Miller is confronted by Sherudo's chief assassin, Moz, and his unit. He defeats them and interrogates Moz, who reveals that Rachel has been transferred to the clock tower. There, Miller is attacked by Sherudo, a trained knife thrower, and guns him down, only to find Rachel held at gunpoint by Wild Dog. Angered by Sherudo's death, Wild Dog reveals his intentions to blow up the castle with Richard inside and escape with Rachel. Pursuing them to the castle's helipad, Miller arrives just as Rachel manages to break free, leading Wild Dog to shoot her. A furious Miller engages ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Plot", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wild Dog in a fast-and-loose gun battle across the rooftop, during which Wild Dog accidentally sets off his detonator, apparently killing himself in a fiery explosion. Richard collects the wounded Rachel and escapes in Wild Dog's chopper just as the rest of the castle goes up in flames.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Plot", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The PlayStation version features a special mission known as the \"Kantaris Deal\", which takes place several weeks after the main story's events. Miller is alerted by V.S.S.E to the presence of an illegal arms factory posing as a Sercian hotel, with ties to Wild Dog's organization. He is assigned to infiltrate the factory and eliminate its owner, Kantaris. Upon clearing the lobby, Miller has three different paths to his target. The first takes him through the ballroom/casino, where he eliminates Kantaris's boomerang-flinging assassin, Web Spinner. He then pursues her to the swimming pool just as she attempts to escape by air. After shooting down an escort gunship, Miller damages the engines of Kantaris's ship just as it takes off, causing it to crash and explode. Should Miller fail to stop Web Spinner in time, he will instead be taken to the arms factory; and should Miller fail to pursue Kantaris in time, he will instead be taken to Kantaris' office in the lounge. The second path, which can only be accessed if there are less than 22 seconds left on the clock, instead goes through the shopping mall and down into a garbage disposal. There, Miller uses a claw arm to punch a hole in the wall, allowing him to access the underground arms factory. From there, he makes his way to Kantaris' office in the lounge and defeats her personal security droid, which then malfunctions and rolls out the window, taking her with it. Should Miller fail his pursuit in the arms factory, he will instead be redirected to the parking lot. The third path can be made available if Richard does not activate the claw in time. Instead of entering the factory, he goes directly through the parking lot. After defeating a spider-legged battle tank, Miller disables Kantaris's car, forcing it to crash. If in any of these scenarios Miller fails to take action soon enough, Kantaris escapes and the mission is aborted (canonically, the spin-off game Project Titan takes place after the mission's failure).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Plot", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Though both the arcade and PlayStation versions were developed internally at Namco, none of the arcade development team had any direct involvement with the PlayStation version. Since the PlayStation's CPU speed is much lower than that of the System 22 arcade hardware, the team reduced demands on the PlayStation CPU by cutting the game's frame rate in half, reducing the number of polygons used, emulating the real-time lighting by coloring the polygons one-by-one, and delaying the appearance of enemies so that only a certain number of enemies could appear on-screen at any time.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development", "target_page_ids": [ 41173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 339, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The development team took photos of hotels and factories in the Tokyo area as reference for the PlayStation mode's hotel design. To make the large areas in the hotel work on the hardware, the team left the portions of these areas not visible to the player unrendered. Three planned sequences - an outdoor restaurant, a missile room explosion, and a boat race - were left out because the team eventually realized that creating them was not practical, at least not within the time they had to complete the PlayStation version. New music was recorded for the Special Mission mode by Tatsuro Tani and Tomoko Tat2, using a \"synthesized orchestra\" of 50 individually synthesized instruments.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A soundtrack Time Crisis Arcade Soundtrack was released in 1997. Another soundtrack Time Crisis 3D Sound Ensemble was released later. It contains audio dramas that depict events during and before the first game, such as Miller's battle against Sherudo from the game.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Soundtrack", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Japanese arcade magazine Game Machine listed Time Crisis as being the most-successful arcade game of the month in April 1996.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Next Generation hailed the game as being superior even to competitor Sega's Virtua Cop 2, primarily due to the unique foot pedal maneuver. The reviewer remarked that \"By creating this innovative maneuvering technique, in addition to time-based, predetermined path running, providing Story or Attack mode and challenging end-level bosses, Time Crisis thrusts the light-gun genre into a brand-new territory - and develops a whole new way of looking at, and playing, the classic light-gun game.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 1460579, 28222625, 1493786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 69, 73 ], [ 76, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The PlayStation version received \"favorable\" reviews according to the review aggregation website GameRankings. Critics applauded the close conversion of the arcade game, and said the special PlayStation mode greatly extended the game's lifespan, and was even superior to the original arcade campaign. And though GamePro questioned the accuracy of the bundled GunCon peripheral, reporting that \"there are times when dead-on shots seem to miss\", the overwhelming majority of critics deemed it the best light gun yet released for the PlayStation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 16512942, 2758484, 1164252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 88 ], [ 97, 109 ], [ 312, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of critics found that despite the innovative ducking mechanic, the game is too simplistic, in particular that it lacks any powerups or innocent bystanders that the player must avoid shooting. The lack of a multiplayer mode was also criticized, since this was a standard feature in light gun shooters. The British Computer and Video Games complained at the slowness of the PAL conversion, with reviewer Tom Guise saying that though he otherwise preferred Time Crisis over Virtua Cop, when it came to the games' respective British home releases he favored the fully PAL-optimized Virtua Cop. However, these criticisms had little impact on overall recommendations; Guise concluded that \"these factors cannot stop this game from being a High Five\" and Next Generation stated that \"when compared to other light-gun shooters for home systems, Time Crisis is as good as it gets.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 1337333, 24438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 322, 346 ], [ 381, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There was some disagreement over which of the PlayStation version's three methods of emulating the arcade version's foot pedal was best. GameSpot praised the reload button on the GunCon for forcing the player to use a more realistic two-handed grip, while Computer and Video Games and Electronic Gaming Monthly both said stepping on the standard joypad's buttons offers the best combination of accuracy and similarity to the foot pedal.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 990329, 893481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 145 ], [ 285, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electronic Gaming Monthly named the PlayStation version \"Light Gun Game of the Year\" at their 1997 Editors' Choice Awards, noting that the game won the unanimous vote of the editors. While they added that this was not as much of an accomplishment as it normally would be, due to the weakness of that year's competition for the category, they also said the win was well-earned by Time Crisiss graphics, sound effects, and additional modes of play.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arcade-History.com entry", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1995_video_games", "Arcade_video_games", "PlayStation_(console)_games", "PlayStation_2_games", "Light_gun_games", "Namco_System_22_games", "Namco_arcade_games", "Rail_shooters", "Single-player_video_games", "Time_Crisis", "Video_games_developed_in_Japan", "Video_games_set_in_castles", "Video_games_set_in_1995" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In software quality assurance, performance testing is in general a testing practice performed to determine how a system performs in terms of responsiveness and stability under a particular workload. It can also serve to investigate, measure, validate or verify other quality attributes of the system, such as scalability, reliability and resource usage.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1843409, 29090, 8286675, 12115455, 6054720, 185529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 29 ], [ 67, 74 ], [ 113, 119 ], [ 267, 274 ], [ 275, 285 ], [ 309, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Performance testing, a subset of performance engineering, is a computer science practice which strives to build performance standards into the implementation, design and architecture of a system.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6615610, 5323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 56 ], [ 63, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Load testing is the simplest form of performance testing. A load test is usually conducted to understand the behavior of the system under a specific expected load. This load can be the expected concurrent number of users on the application performing a specific number of transactions within the set duration. This test will give out the response times of all the important business critical transactions. The database, application server, etc. are also monitored during the test, this will assist in identifying bottlenecks in the application software and the hardware that the software is installed on.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Testing types", "target_page_ids": [ 380180, 454746, 212409, 8377, 165154, 11912808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 228, 239 ], [ 272, 283 ], [ 410, 418 ], [ 420, 438 ], [ 513, 523 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stress testing is normally used to understand the upper limits of capacity within the system. This kind of test is done to determine the system's robustness in terms of extreme load and helps application administrators to determine if the system will perform sufficiently if the current load goes well above the expected maximum.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Testing types", "target_page_ids": [ 214554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soak testing, also known as endurance testing, is usually done to determine if the system can sustain the continuous expected load. During soak tests, memory utilization is monitored to detect potential leaks. Also important, but often overlooked is performance degradation, i.e. to ensure that the throughput and/or response times after some long period of sustained activity are as good as or better than at the beginning of the test. It essentially involves applying a significant load to a system for an extended, significant period of time. The goal is to discover how the system behaves under sustained use.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Testing types", "target_page_ids": [ 9002673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spike testing is done by suddenly increasing or decreasing the load generated by a very large number of users, and observing the behavior of the system. The goal is to determine whether performance will suffer, the system will fail, or it will be able to handle dramatic changes in load.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Testing types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Breakpoint testing is similar to stress testing. An incremental load is applied over time while the system is monitored for predetermined failure conditions. Breakpoint testing is sometimes referred to as Capacity Testing because it can be said to determine the maximum capacity below which the system will perform to its required specifications or Service Level Agreements. The results of breakpoint analysis applied to a fixed environment can be used to determine the optimal scaling strategy in terms of required hardware or conditions that should trigger scaling-out events in a cloud environment.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Testing types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rather than testing for performance from a load perspective, tests are created to determine the effects of configuration changes to the system's components on the system's performance and behavior. A common example would be experimenting with different methods of load-balancing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Testing types", "target_page_ids": [ 61118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Isolation testing is not unique to performance testing but involves repeating a test execution that resulted in a system problem. Such testing can often isolate and confirm the fault domain.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Testing types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This is a relatively new form of performance testing when global applications such as Facebook, Google and Wikipedia, are performance tested from load generators that are placed on the actual target continent whether physical machines or cloud VMs. These tests usually requires an immense amount of preparation and monitoring to be executed successfully.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Testing types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Performance testing can serve different purposes:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " It can demonstrate that the system meets performance criteria.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " It can compare two systems to find which performs better.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " It can measure which parts of the system or workload cause the system to perform badly.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many performance tests are undertaken without setting sufficiently realistic, goal-oriented performance goals. The first question from a business perspective should always be, \"why are we performance-testing?\". These considerations are part of the business case of the testing. Performance goals will differ depending on the system's technology and purpose, but should always include some of the following:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [ 1511035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If a system identifies end-users by some form of log-in procedure then a concurrency goal is highly desirable. By definition this is the largest number of concurrent system users that the system is expected to support at any given moment. The work-flow of a scripted transaction may impact true concurrency especially if the iterative part contains the log-in and log-out activity.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [ 928467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 295, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the system has no concept of end-users, then performance goal is likely to be based on a maximum throughput or transaction rate.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This refers to the time taken for one system node to respond to the request of another. A simple example would be a HTTP 'GET' request from browser client to web server. In terms of response time this is what all load testing tools actually measure. It may be relevant to set server response time goals between all nodes of the system.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [ 380180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Load-testing tools have difficulty measuring render-response time, since they generally have no concept of what happens within a node apart from recognizing a period of time where there is no activity 'on the wire'. To measure render response time, it is generally necessary to include functional test scripts as part of the performance test scenario. Many load testing tools do not offer this feature.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [ 998116, 1433334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 133 ], [ 297, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is critical to detail performance specifications (requirements) and document them in any performance test plan. Ideally, this is done during the requirements development phase of any system development project, prior to any design effort. See Performance Engineering for more details.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [ 6615610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, performance testing is frequently not performed against a specification; e.g., no one will have expressed what the maximum acceptable response time for a given population of users should be. Performance testing is frequently used as part of the process of performance profile tuning. The idea is to identify the \"weakest link\" – there is inevitably a part of the system which, if it is made to respond faster, will result in the overall system running faster. It is sometimes a difficult task to identify which part of the system represents this critical path, and some test tools include (or can have add-ons that provide) instrumentation that runs on the server (agents) and reports transaction times, database access times, network overhead, and other server monitors, which can be analyzed together with the raw performance statistics. Without such instrumentation one might have to have someone crouched over Windows Task Manager at the server to see how much CPU load the performance tests are generating (assuming a Windows system is under test).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [ 5348289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 923, 943 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Performance testing can be performed across the web, and even done in different parts of the country, since it is known that the response times of the internet itself vary regionally. It can also be done in-house, although routers would then need to be configured to introduce the lag that would typically occur on public networks. Loads should be introduced to the system from realistic points. For example, if 50% of a system's user base will be accessing the system via a 56K modem connection and the other half over a T1, then the load injectors (computers that simulate real users) should either inject load over the same mix of connections (ideal) or simulate the network latency of such connections, following the same user profile.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [ 25748, 41779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 229 ], [ 522, 524 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is always helpful to have a statement of the likely peak number of users that might be expected to use the system at peak times. If there can also be a statement of what constitutes the maximum allowable 95 percentile response time, then an injector configuration could be used to test whether the proposed system met that specification.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Performance specifications should ask the following questions, at a minimum:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In detail, what is the performance test scope? What subsystems, interfaces, components, etc. are in and out of scope for this test?", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " For the user interfaces (UIs) involved, how many concurrent users are expected for each (specify peak vs. nominal)?", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " What does the target system (hardware) look like (specify all server and network appliance configurations)?", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " What is the Application Workload Mix of each system component? (for example: 20% log-in, 40% search, 30% item select, 10% checkout).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " What is the System Workload Mix? [Multiple workloads may be simulated in a single performance test] (for example: 30% Workload A, 20% Workload B, 50% Workload C).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " What are the time requirements for any/all back-end batch processes (specify peak vs. nominal)?", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting performance goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A stable build of the system which must resemble the production environment as closely as is possible.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Prerequisites", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To ensure consistent results, the performance testing environment should be isolated from other environments, such as user acceptance testing (UAT) or development. As a best practice it is always advisable to have a separate performance testing environment resembling the production environment as much as possible.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Prerequisites", "target_page_ids": [ 3233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In performance testing, it is often crucial for the test conditions to be similar to the expected actual use. However, in practice this is hard to arrange and not wholly possible, since production systems are subjected to unpredictable workloads. Test workloads may mimic occurrences in the production environment as far as possible, but only in the simplest systems can one exactly replicate this workload variability.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Prerequisites", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Loosely-coupled architectural implementations (e.g.: SOA) have created additional complexities with performance testing. To truly replicate production-like states, enterprise services or assets that share a common infrastructure or platform require coordinated performance testing, with all consumers creating production-like transaction volumes and load on shared infrastructures or platforms. Because this activity is so complex and costly in money and time, some organizations now use tools to monitor and simulate production-like conditions (also referred as \"noise\") in their performance testing environments (PTE) to understand capacity and resource requirements and verify / validate quality attributes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Prerequisites", "target_page_ids": [ 666924, 174521, 33660916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 56 ], [ 214, 228 ], [ 615, 618 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is critical to the cost performance of a new system that performance test efforts begin at the inception of the development project and extend through to deployment. The later a performance defect is detected, the higher the cost of remediation. This is true in the case of functional testing, but even more so with performance testing, due to the end-to-end nature of its scope. It is crucial for a performance test team to be involved as early as possible, because it is time-consuming to acquire and prepare the testing environment and other key performance requisites.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Prerequisites", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Performance testing is mainly divided into two main categories:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This part of performance testing mainly deals with creating/scripting the work flows of key identified business processes. This can be done using a wide variety of tools.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Each of the tools mentioned in the above list (which is not exhaustive nor complete) either employs a scripting language (C, Java, JS) or some form of visual representation (drag and drop) to create and simulate end user work flows. Most of the tools allow for something called \"Record & Replay\", where in the performance tester will launch the testing tool, hook it on a browser or thick client and capture all the network transactions which happen between the client and server. In doing so a script is developed which can be enhanced/modified to emulate various business scenarios.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This forms the other face of performance testing. With performance monitoring, the behavior and response characteristics of the application under test are observed. The below parameters are usually monitored during the a performance test execution", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Server hardware Parameters", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " CPU Utilization", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Memory Utilization", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Disk utilization", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Network utilization", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As a first step, the patterns generated by these 4 parameters provide a good indication on where the bottleneck lies. To determine the exact root cause of the issue, software engineers use tools such as profilers to measure what parts of a device or software contribute most to the poor performance, or to establish throughput levels (and thresholds) for maintained acceptable response time.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 27010, 2310080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 183 ], [ 203, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Performance testing technology employs one or more PCs or Unix servers to act as injectors, each emulating the presence of numbers of users and each running an automated sequence of interactions (recorded as a script, or as a series of scripts to emulate different types of user interaction) with the host whose performance is being tested. Usually, a separate PC acts as a test conductor, coordinating and gathering metrics from each of the injectors and collating performance data for reporting purposes. The usual sequence is to ramp up the load: to start with a few virtual users and increase the number over time to a predetermined maximum. The test result shows how the performance varies with the load, given as number of users vs. response time. Various tools are available to perform such tests. Tools in this category usually execute a suite of tests which emulate real users against the system. Sometimes the results can reveal oddities, e.g., that while the average response time might be acceptable, there are outliers of a few key transactions that take considerably longer to complete – something that might be caused by inefficient database queries, pictures, etc.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Performance testing can be combined with stress testing, in order to see what happens when an acceptable load is exceeded. Does the system crash? How long does it take to recover if a large load is reduced? Does its failure cause collateral damage?", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 8445754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Analytical Performance Modeling is a method to model the behavior of a system in a spreadsheet. The model is fed with measurements of transaction resource demands (CPU, disk I/O, LAN, WAN), weighted by the transaction-mix (business transactions per hour). The weighted transaction resource demands are added up to obtain the hourly resource demands and divided by the hourly resource capacity to obtain the resource loads. Using the response time formula (R=S/(1-U), R=response time, S=service time, U=load), response times can be calculated and calibrated with the results of the performance tests. Analytical performance modeling allows evaluation of design options and system sizing based on actual or anticipated business use. It is therefore much faster and cheaper than performance testing, though it requires thorough understanding of the hardware platforms.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 40258846, 5218, 17739, 38140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ], [ 164, 167 ], [ 179, 182 ], [ 184, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tasks to perform such a test would include:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Tasks to undertake", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Decide whether to use internal or external resources to perform the tests, depending on inhouse expertise (or lack of it).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Tasks to undertake", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gather or elicit performance requirements (specifications) from users and/or business analysts.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Tasks to undertake", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Develop a high-level plan (or project charter), including requirements, resources, timelines and milestones.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Tasks to undertake", "target_page_ids": [ 179824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Develop a detailed performance test plan (including detailed scenarios and test cases, workloads, environment info, etc.).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Tasks to undertake", "target_page_ids": [ 1584125, 1343949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 41 ], [ 76, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Choose test tool(s).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Tasks to undertake", "target_page_ids": [ 1086547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Specify test data needed and charter effort (often overlooked, but vital to carrying out a valid performance test).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Tasks to undertake", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Develop proof-of-concept scripts for each application/component under test, using chosen test tools and strategies.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Tasks to undertake", "target_page_ids": [ 608668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Develop detailed performance test project plan, including all dependencies and associated timelines.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Tasks to undertake", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Install and configure injectors/controller.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Tasks to undertake", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Configure the test environment (ideally identical hardware to the production platform), router configuration, quiet network (we don't want results upset by other users), deployment of server instrumentation, database test sets developed, etc.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Tasks to undertake", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dry run the tests - before actually executing the load test with predefined users, a dry run is carried out in order to check the correctness of the script.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Tasks to undertake", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Execute tests – probably repeatedly (iteratively) in order to see whether any unaccounted-for factor might affect the results.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Tasks to undertake", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Analyze the results - either pass/fail, or investigation of critical path and recommendation of corrective action.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Tasks to undertake", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Microsoft Developer Network the Performance Testing Methodology consists of the following activities:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Identify the Test Environment. Identify the physical test environment and the production environment as well as the tools and resources available to the test team. The physical environment includes hardware, software, and network configurations. Having a thorough understanding of the entire test environment at the outset enables more efficient test design and planning and helps you identify testing challenges early in the project. In some situations, this process must be revisited periodically throughout the project's life cycle.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 46981896, 28167973, 573528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 70 ], [ 347, 358 ], [ 525, 535 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Identify Performance Acceptance Criteria. Identify the response time, throughput, and resource-use goals and constraints. In general, response time is a user concern, throughput is a business concern, and resource use is a system concern. Additionally, identify project success criteria that may not be captured by those goals and constraints; for example, using performance tests to evaluate which combination of configuration settings will result in the most desirable performance characteristics.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Plan and Design Tests. Identify key scenarios, determine variability among representative users and how to simulate that variability, define test data, and establish metrics to be collected. Consolidate this information into one or more models of system usage to implemented, executed, and analyzed.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 38900, 43444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 45 ], [ 108, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Configure the Test Environment. Prepare the test environment, tools, and resources necessary to execute each strategy, as features and components become available for test. Ensure that the test environment is instrumented for resource monitoring as necessary.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Implement the Test Design. Develop the performance tests in accordance with the test design.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Execute the Test. Run and monitor your tests. Validate the tests, test data, and results collection. Execute validated tests for analysis while monitoring the test and the test environment.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Analyze Results, Tune, and Retest. Analyze, consolidate, and share results data. Make a tuning change and retest. Compare the results of both tests. Each improvement made will return smaller improvement than the previous improvement. When do you stop? When you reach a CPU bottleneck, the choices then are either improve the code or add more CPU.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Test de performance", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Software_testing", "Software_optimization" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Communications Decency Act of 1996 (CDA) was the United States Congress's first notable attempt to regulate pornographic material on the Internet. In the 1997 landmark case Reno v. ACLU, the United States Supreme Court unanimously struck the act's anti-indecency provisions.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 31756, 5710507, 14539, 308739, 31737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 75 ], [ 112, 124 ], [ 141, 149 ], [ 177, 189 ], [ 195, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Act is the short name of Title V of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, as specified in Section 501 of the 1996 Act. Senators James Exon and Slade Gorton introduced it to the Senate Committee of Commerce, Science, and Transportation in 1995. The amendment that became the CDA was added to the Telecommunications Act in the Senate by an 81–18 vote on June 15, 1995.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 196010, 780720, 647693, 625446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 74 ], [ 130, 140 ], [ 145, 157 ], [ 179, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As eventually passed by Congress, Title V affected the Internet (and online communications) in two significant ways. First, it attempted to regulate both indecency (when available to children) and obscenity in cyberspace. Second, Section 230 of title 47 of the U.S. Code, part of a codification of the Communications Act of 1934 (Section 9 of the Communications Decency Act / Section 509 of the Telecommunications Act of 1996) has been interpreted to mean that operators of Internet services are not publishers (and thus not legally liable for the words of third parties who use their services).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 48753248, 22036467, 7381, 21464402, 66040, 68761, 1210255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 163 ], [ 197, 206 ], [ 210, 220 ], [ 230, 241 ], [ 302, 328 ], [ 500, 509 ], [ 525, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The act's most controversial portions were those relating to indecency on the Internet. The relevant sections were introduced in response to fears that Internet pornography was on the rise. Indecency in TV and radio broadcasting had already been regulated by the Federal Communications Commission: broadcasting of offensive speech was restricted to hours of the day when minors were supposedly least likely to be exposed, and violators could be fined and lose their licenses. But the Internet had only recently been opened to commercial interests by the 1992 amendment to the National Science Foundation Act and thus had not been taken into consideration by previous laws. The CDA, which affected both the Internet and cable television, marked the first attempt to expand regulation to these new media.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Anti-indecency and anti-obscenity provisions", "target_page_ids": [ 55974, 157427, 7587, 344859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 296 ], [ 576, 607 ], [ 719, 735 ], [ 792, 801 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Passed by Congress on February 1, 1996, and signed by President Bill Clinton on February 8, 1996, the CDA imposed criminal sanctions on anyone who", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Anti-indecency and anti-obscenity provisions", "target_page_ids": [ 3356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It further criminalized the transmission of \"obscene or indecent\" materials to persons known to be under 18.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Anti-indecency and anti-obscenity provisions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Free speech advocates worked diligently and successfully to overturn the portion relating to indecent, but not obscene, speech. They argued that speech protected under the First Amendment, such as printed novels or the use of the \"seven dirty words\", would suddenly become unlawful when posted online. Critics also claimed the bill would have a chilling effect on the availability of medical information. Online civil liberties organizations arranged protests against the bill, such as the Black World Wide Web protest, which encouraged webmasters to make their sites' backgrounds black for 48 hours after its passage, and the Electronic Frontier Foundation's Blue Ribbon Online Free Speech Campaign.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Anti-indecency and anti-obscenity provisions", "target_page_ids": [ 21401843, 31653, 285205, 1007253, 37476, 1177210, 18949836, 1176851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 172, 187 ], [ 231, 248 ], [ 345, 360 ], [ 412, 427 ], [ 490, 518 ], [ 627, 657 ], [ 660, 699 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On June 12, 1996, a panel of federal judges in Philadelphia blocked part of the CDA, saying it would infringe upon adults' free speech rights. The next month, another federal court in New York struck down the portion of the CDA intended to protect children from indecent speech as too broad. On June 26, 1997, the Supreme Court upheld the Philadelphia court's decision in Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union, stating that the indecency provisions were an unconstitutional abridgement of the First Amendment because they did not permit parents to decide for themselves what material was acceptable for their children, extended to non-commercial speech, and did not carefully define the words \"indecent\" and \"offensive\". (The Court affirmed the New York case, Reno v. Shea, the next day, without a published opinion.)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Anti-indecency and anti-obscenity provisions", "target_page_ids": [ 862046, 50585, 645042, 31737, 308739, 29135130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 43 ], [ 47, 59 ], [ 184, 192 ], [ 314, 327 ], [ 372, 410 ], [ 761, 773 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2003, Congress amended the CDA to remove the indecency provisions struck down in Reno v. ACLU. A separate challenge to the provisions governing obscenity, known as Nitke v. Gonzales, was rejected by a federal court in New York in 2005. The Supreme Court summarily affirmed that decision in 2006.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Anti-indecency and anti-obscenity provisions", "target_page_ids": [ 2316598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Congress has made two narrower attempts to regulate children's exposure to Internet indecency since the Supreme Court overturned the CDA. Court injunction blocked enforcement of the first, the Child Online Protection Act (COPA), almost immediately after its passage in 1998; the law was later overturned. While legal challenges also dogged COPA's successor, the Children's Internet Protection Act (CIPA) of 2000, the Supreme Court upheld it as constitutional in 2004.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Anti-indecency and anti-obscenity provisions", "target_page_ids": [ 315362, 1590120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 220 ], [ 362, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Section 230 of title 47 of the U.S. Code, a codification of the Communications Act of 1934 (added by Section 9 of the Communications Decency Act / Section 509 of the Telecommunications Act of 1996) was not part of the original Senate legislation, but was added in conference with the House, where it had been separately introduced by Representatives Christopher Cox and Ron Wyden as the Internet Freedom and Family Empowerment Act and passed by a near-unanimous vote on the floor. It added protection for online service providers and users from actions against them based on third-party content, stating in part, \"No provider or user of an interactive computer service shall be treated as the publisher or speaker of any information provided by another information content provider.\" Effectively, this section immunizes both ISPs and Internet users from liability for torts others commit on their websites or online forums, even if the provider fails to take action after receiving notice of the harmful or offensive content.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Section 230", "target_page_ids": [ 19468510, 19468510, 409713, 172827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 284, 289 ], [ 334, 349 ], [ 350, 365 ], [ 370, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Through the so-called Good Samaritan provision, this section also protects ISPs from liability for restricting access to certain material or giving others the technical means to restrict access to that material.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Section 230", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On July 23, 2013, the attorneys general of 47 states sent Congress a letter requesting that the criminal and civil immunity in section 230 be removed. The ACLU wrote of the proposal, \"If Section 230 is stripped of its protections, it wouldn't take long for the vibrant culture of free speech to disappear from the web.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Section 230", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Wagner introduced the Allow States and Victims to Fight Online Sex Trafficking Act (FOSTA) in the U.S. House of Representatives in April 2017. Rob Portman introduced the similar Stop Enabling Sex Traffickers Act (SESTA) in the U.S. Senate in August 2017. The combined FOSTA-SESTA package passed the House on February 27, 2018, with a vote of 388–25 and the Senate on March 21, 2018, with a vote of 97–2. President Donald Trump signed the package into law on April 11, 2018.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Section 230", "target_page_ids": [ 2592512, 55288980, 703464, 55288980, 4848272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 26, 86 ], [ 147, 158 ], [ 182, 215 ], [ 418, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The bill makes it illegal to knowingly assist, facilitate, or support sex trafficking, and amends the Communications Decency Act's section 230 safe harbors (which make online services immune from civil liability for their users' actions) to exclude enforcement of federal or state sex trafficking laws from immunity. The intent is to provide serious legal consequences for websites that profit from sex trafficking and give prosecutors tools to protect their communities and give victims a pathway to justice.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Section 230", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The bills were criticized by pro-free speech and pro-Internet groups as a \"disguised internet censorship bill\" that weakens the section 230 safe harbors, places unnecessary burdens on internet companies and intermediaries that handle user-generated content or communications, with service providers required to proactively take action against sex trafficking activities, and requires lawyers to evaluate all possible scenarios under state and federal law (which may be financially unfeasible for smaller companies). Online sex workers argued that the bill would harm their safety, as the platforms they use to offer and discuss their services (as an alternative to street prostitution) had begun to reduce their services or shut down entirely because of the bill's threat of liability. Since FOSTA-SESTA passed, sex workers have reported economic instability and increases in violence, as had been predicted.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Section 230", "target_page_ids": [ 321026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 666, 685 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Jane Doe No. 14 v. Internet Brands, Inc., the plaintiff filed an action alleging that Internet Brands, Inc.'s failure to warn users of its modelmayhem.com networking website caused her to be a victim of a rape scheme. On May 31, 2016, the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that the Communications Decency Act does not bar the plaintiff's failure to warn claim.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Failure-to-warn lawsuits", "target_page_ids": [ 44226178, 325378, 2044451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 43 ], [ 242, 280 ], [ 352, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act portion of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, which contingently protects online service providers from liability for copyright infringement", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18935271, 20648089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 54 ], [ 70, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stanley v. Georgia", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1809480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "United States v. Playboy Entertainment Group, Inc.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2296765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Legislative history of the Communications Decency Act before amendment.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " FCC text of the full act.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Section 230", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Text of FOSTA-SESTA bill that was Presidentially signed into law as Pub.L. 115-164 (PDF (authoritative))", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Internet Library of Law and Court Decisions Court decisions applying section 230 of the Communications Decency Act", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Center for Democracy and Technology Overview of CDA. This refers only to the portion of the act which was struck down.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cybertelecom :: The Communications Decency Act and Sec. 230 Good Samaritan Defense", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " EFF.org, bloggers on section 230", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Communications_Decency_Act", "Acts_of_the_104th_United_States_Congress", "Internet_censorship_in_the_United_States", "United_States_federal_computing_legislation", "Obscenity_law" ]

[ "Title V of the Telecommunications Act of 1996", "Communications Decency Act of 1996", "United States Communications Decency Act of 1996", "CDA", "Public Law 104-104 Title V, Obscenity and Violence", "Title V, Obscenity and Violence" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Hide-and-seek (sometimes known as hide-and-go-seek) is a popular children's game in which at least two players (usually at least three) conceal themselves in a set environment, to be found by one or more seekers. The game is played by one chosen player (designated as being \"it\") counting to a predetermined number with eyes closed while the other players hide. After reaching this number, the player who is \"it\" calls \"Ready or not, here I come!\" or \"Coming, ready or not!\" and then attempts to locate all concealed players.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 402942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The game can end in one of several ways. The most common way of ending is the player chosen as \"it\" locates all players; the player found first is the loser and is chosen to be \"it\" in the next game. The player found last is the winner. Another common variation has the seeker counting at \"home base\"; the hiders can either remain hidden or they can come out of hiding to race to home base; once they touch it, they are \"safe\" and cannot be tagged.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The game is an example of an oral tradition, as it is commonly passed by children.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 81724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Different versions of the game are played around the world, under a variety of names.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One variant is called \"Sardines\", in which only one person hides and the others must find them, hiding with them when they do so. The hiding places become progressively more cramped, like sardines in a tin. The last person to find the hiding group is the loser, and becomes the hider for the next round. A. M. Burrage calls this version of the game \"Smee\" in his 1931 ghost story of the same name.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [ 235436, 16079644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 195 ], [ 304, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some versions of the game, after the first hider is caught or if no other players can be found over a period of time, the seeker calls out a previously-agreed phrase (such as \"Olly olly oxen free\", \"Come out, come out wherever you are\" or \"All in, All in, Everybody out there all in free\") to signal the other hiders to return to base for the next round.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [ 1946100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In another variant called Forty forty, the seeker must return to \"home base\" after finding the hiders, before the hiders get back. Conversely, the hiders must get back to \"home base\" before the seeker sees them and returns. The hiders hide until they are spotted by the seeker, who chants, \"Forty, forty, I see you\" (sometimes shortened to \"Forty, forty, see you\"). Once spotted, the hider must run to \"home base\" (where the seeker was counting while the other players hid) and touch it before they are \"tipped\" (tagged, or touched) by the seeker. If tagged, that hider becomes the new seeker. Forty forty has many regional names including 'block one two three' in North East England and Scotland, 'relievo one two three' in Wilmslow, 'forty forty' in South East England, 'mob' in Bristol and South Wales, 'pom pom' in Norwich, 'I-erkey' in Leicester, 'hicky one two three' in Chester, 'rally one two three' in Coventry, ' Ackey 123' in Birmingham and '44 Homes' in Australia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Variants", "target_page_ids": [ 3281793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hide and seek world championship officially named \"Nascondino World Championship\" is the unique international hide-and-seek competition, a team play for adults, with non-diversified categories by gender. Born in 2010 in the Italian city of Bergamo, it is held annually in Italy, in summer. The game is a derivative of the Italian version of hide and seek, \"nascondino\" (hide-and-seek in Italian), and takes place on a playground in the open air, set up with artificial and natural hideouts. The seventh competition took place in September 2017, with 70 teams from 11 countries.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International competition", "target_page_ids": [ 53951366, 239064, 14532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ], [ 240, 247 ], [ 272, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Princess and monster game", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12249052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Search game", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22585834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sepak Tekong", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52242668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] } ]

[ "Children's_games", "Hide-and-seek_variants", "Outdoor_games" ]

[ "hide and seek", "hide-and-go-seek", "hide and go seek", "all hid" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Bellingham ( ) is the most populous city in, and county seat of Whatcom County in the U.S. state of Washington. It lies south of the U.S.–Canada border in between two major cities of the Pacific Northwest: Vancouver, British Columbia (located to the northwest) and Seattle ( to the south). The city had a population of 92,314 as of 2019.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 51509, 91059, 18618239, 13015878, 630260, 78147, 32706, 11388236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 60 ], [ 64, 78 ], [ 86, 96 ], [ 100, 110 ], [ 134, 152 ], [ 188, 205 ], [ 207, 216 ], [ 267, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city of Bellingham, incorporated in 1903, consolidated four settlements: Bellingham, Whatcom, Fairhaven, and Sehome. It takes its name from Bellingham Bay, named by George Vancouver in 1792, for Sir William Bellingham, the Controller of Storekeeper Accounts of the Royal Navy during the Vancouver Expedition.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10613752, 12867, 18002304, 54251922, 26061, 9284829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 158 ], [ 169, 185 ], [ 199, 221 ], [ 227, 261 ], [ 269, 279 ], [ 291, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today, Bellingham is the northernmost city with a population of more than 90,000 people in the contiguous United States. It is a popular tourist destination known for its easy access to outdoor recreation in the San Juan Islands and North Cascades. More than of former industrial land on the Bellingham waterfront is undergoing redevelopment, with plans for a hotel, conference center, condos, retirement housing, retail and commercial development.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 83759, 36728, 469258, 11739399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 119 ], [ 212, 228 ], [ 233, 247 ], [ 293, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham is the homeland of Coast Salish peoples of the Lummi (or Lhaq'temish) People and neighboring tribes. People of Lummi ancestry continue to live in and around Bellingham Bay, particularly on the nearby Lummi Nation reservation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10670457, 326438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 50 ], [ 58, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first European immigrants reached the area about 1852 when Henry Roeder and Russel Peabody set up a lumber mill at Whatcom, now the northern part of Bellingham. Lumber cutting and milling continues to the present in Whatcom county. At about the same time, Dan Harris arrived, claiming a homestead along Padden Creek, and after acquiring surrounding properties, platted the town of Fairhaven in 1883. In 1858, the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush caused a short lived population growth that established the community.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 53812516, 343289, 2709283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 260, 270 ], [ 385, 394 ], [ 417, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coal was mined in the Bellingham Bay area from the mid-19th to the mid-20th centuries starting when Henry Roeder's agents discovered coal south of Whatcom Creek, in an area called Sehome, now downtown Bellingham, in 1854. They sold the coal-bearing land to San Francisco investors who established the Bellingham Bay Coal Company, eventually a subsidiary of the Black Diamond Coal Mining Company. After a hundred years of extensive mining beneath present-day Bellingham, the last mine closed in 1955.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 60118895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 361, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 1890s, three railroad lines arrived, connecting the bay cities to a nationwide market of builders. In 1889, Pierre Cornwall and an association of investors formed the Bellingham Bay Improvement Company (BBIC). The BBIC invested in several diverse enterprises such as shipping, coal, mining, railroad construction, real estate sales and utilities. Even though their dreams of turning the cities by the bay into a Pacific Northwest metropolis never came to fruition, the BBIC made an immense contribution to the economic development of Bellingham.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "BBIC was not the only outside firm with an interest in the bay area utilities. The General Electric Company of New York purchased the Fairhaven Line and New Whatcom street rail line in 1897. In 1898, the utility merged into the Northern Railway and Improvement Company which prompted the Electric Corporation of Boston to purchase a large block of shares.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1890, Fairhaven developers bought the tiny community of Bellingham. Whatcom and Sehome merged in 1891 to form New Whatcom (1903 act of the State legislature dropped \"New\" from the name.) At first, attempts to combine Fairhaven and Whatcom failed, and there was controversy over the name of the proposed new city. Whatcom citizens would not support a city named Fairhaven, and Fairhaven residents would not support a city named Whatcom. They eventually settled on the name Bellingham, which remains today. Voting a second time for a final merger of Fairhaven and Whatcom into a single city, the resolution passed with 2163 votes for and 596 against.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham was officially incorporated on December 28, 1903, as a result of the incremental consolidation of the four towns initially situated on the east of Bellingham Bay during the final decade of the 19th Century. Whatcom is today's \"Old Town\" area and was founded with Roeder's Mill in 1852. Sehome was an area of downtown founded with the Sehome Coal Mine in 1854. Bellingham was further south near Boulevard Park, founded in 1883 and purchased in 1890 by Fairhaven. Fairhaven was a large commercial district with its own harbor, founded in 1883, by Dan Harris, around his initial homestead on Padden Creek.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 343289, 53812516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 473, 482 ], [ 556, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham was the site of the Bellingham riots against East Indian (Sikh) immigrant workers in 1907. A mob of 400–500 white men, predominantly members of the Asiatic Exclusion League, with intentions to exclude East Indian immigrants from the work force of the local lumber mills, attacked the homes of the South Asian Indians. The Indians were mostly Sikhs but were labelled as Hindus by much of the media of the day.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2663332, 6539362, 1028101, 26998691, 29405, 13677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 47 ], [ 69, 73 ], [ 159, 183 ], [ 212, 223 ], [ 353, 358 ], [ 380, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham's proximity to the Strait of Juan de Fuca and to the Inside Passage to Alaska helped keep some cannery operations here. Pacific American Fisheries (P.A.F.), for example, shipped empty cans to Alaska, where they were packed with fish and shipped back.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 49329, 910570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 52 ], [ 64, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city is situated on Bellingham Bay which is protected by Lummi Island, Portage Island, and the Lummi Peninsula, and opens onto the Strait of Georgia. It lies west of Mount Baker and Lake Whatcom (from which it gets its drinking water) and north of the Chuckanut Mountains and the Skagit Valley. Whatcom Creek runs through the center of the city. Bellingham is south of the US-Canada border and southeast of Vancouver.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 10613752, 6485759, 6981305, 508351, 20897, 2227537, 10623864, 1997536, 35733481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 38 ], [ 61, 73 ], [ 75, 89 ], [ 135, 152 ], [ 170, 181 ], [ 186, 198 ], [ 256, 275 ], [ 284, 297 ], [ 299, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water. The lowest elevations are at sea level along the waterfront. Alabama Hill is one of the higher points in the city at about . Elevations of are found near Yew Street Hill north of Lake Padden and near Galbraith Mountain. South and eastward of the city limits are taller foothills of the North Cascades mountains. Mount Baker is the largest peak in the local area, with a summit elevation of that is only from Bellingham Bay. Mount Baker is visible from many parts of the city and western Whatcom County. Lake Whatcom forms part of the eastern boundary of the city, while many smaller lakes and wetland areas are found around the region.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 57070, 21471337, 469258, 20897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 44 ], [ 291, 302 ], [ 398, 412 ], [ 424, 435 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Situated at a latitude of 48.75 North, and thus north of the 48°34' parallel, Bellingham is one of only a few cities in the continental United States that experience astronomical twilight for the entire night. The phenomenon occurs every year between June 14 and June 28.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 526237, 526237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 76 ], [ 166, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham's neighborhoods are Alabama Hill, Barkley, Birchwood, Columbia, Cordata, Cornwall Park, Downtown Central Business District, Edgemoor, Fairhaven, Happy Valley, Irongate, King Mountain, Lettered Streets, Meridian, Puget, Roosevelt, Samish, Sehome, Silver Beach, South, South Hill, Sunnyland, Whatcom Falls, WWU (including the campus), and York.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 343289, 177826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 154 ], [ 316, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham's climate is generally mild and typical of the Puget Sound region. The year-long average daily high and low temperatures are , respectively. Western Whatcom County has a marine oceanic climate that is strongly influenced by the Cascade Range and Olympic Mountains. The Cascades to the east retain the temperate marine influence, while the Olympics provide a rain shadow effect that buffers Bellingham from much of the rainfall approaching from the southwest.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 19853753, 560047, 76227, 215892, 426426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 76 ], [ 188, 203 ], [ 239, 252 ], [ 257, 274 ], [ 369, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham receives an average annual rainfall of , which is slightly less than nearby Seattle. As evident in the table below, November is typically the wettest month, with numerous frontal rainstorms arriving. Still, precipitation is distributed throughout the rainy period extending from October through April.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham was reported to have the lowest average sunshine amount of any city in the US. Despite this, Bellingham also has mild, pleasant summers and confirmed scientific climate data indicates it is actually less cloudy on average than Seattle (SeaTac), Everett (Paine Field) and Olympia. The hottest summer days rarely exceed and the warmest temperature on record is on August 12, 2021. This is markedly cooler than the record high for Seattle () and most other Washington locations. Drought is rare, although some summers are noticeably drier than others and some normally reliable wells have been known to run dry in August and September. Nevertheless, crops are more frequently ruined by too much rain rather than too little.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham's proximity to the Fraser River valley occasionally subjects it to a harsh winter weather pattern (termed a 'north-Easter') wherein an upper-level trough drives cold Arctic air from the Canadian interior southwesterly through the Fraser River Canyon. Such an event was recorded on November 28, 2006, when air temperatures of were accompanied by winds. Wind chill equivalents reached according to NOAA. Several days into this pattern, local ponds and smaller lakes freeze solidly enough to allow skating. Outflow winds can collide with a Gulf of Alaska moisture and create ice, snow, or heavy rains. This transition can also lead to freezing rain, referred to as a \"silver thaw\" that produces hazardous roads among other inconveniences.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 197739, 37876, 802251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 241, 253 ], [ 410, 414 ], [ 551, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Its reverse, the \"Pineapple Express\", refers to acutely mild autumn and winter spells for most of such a spell, an unusually warm and steady wind comes out of the south. It will typically follow several days of Arctic northeast outflow winds, and it can melt significant snow accumulations quickly, pushing drainage systems to their limits.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 478622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2000, the median income for a household in the city was $32,530, and the median income for a family was $47,196. Males had a median income of $35,288 versus $25,971 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,483. About 9.4% of families and 20.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.2% of those under age 18 and 9.0% of those aged 65 or over.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As of the census of 2010, there were 80,885 people, 34,671 households, and 16,129 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 36,760 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 84.9% White, 1.3% African American, 1.3% Native American, 5.1% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 2.8% from other races, and 4.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.0% of the population.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 6889, 128608, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 16 ], [ 117, 135 ], [ 241, 246 ], [ 253, 269 ], [ 276, 291 ], [ 298, 303 ], [ 310, 326 ], [ 338, 349 ], [ 384, 392 ], [ 396, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were 34,671 households, of which 21.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.2% were married couples living together, 8.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 53.5% were non-families. 35.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.18 and the average family size was 2.79.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 19728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The median age in the city was 31.3 years. 15.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 23.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.9% were from 25 to 44; 22% were from 45 to 64; and 12.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.8% male and 51.2% female.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The mean annual salary of a wage earner in Bellingham is $49,363, which is below the Washington State average of $66,870.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the first quarter of 2017, Bellingham's median home sale was $382,763, compared to the Whatcom County median of $322,779. Strong job and income growth, along with low inventory of homes for sale, have contributed to a median monthly rental payment in February 2017 of $1,526.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Bellingham's 2017 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the largest employers in Bellingham are:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Ski to Sea race is a team relay race made up of seven legs: cross country skiing, downhill skiing (or snowboarding), running, road biking, canoeing (2 person), mountain biking, and kayaking. The racers begin at the Mount Baker Ski Area and make their way down to the finish line on Bellingham Bay. Organized by the Bellingham/Whatcom Chamber of Commerce & Industry, the event was first held in 1973 and traces it roots to the 1911 Mt. Baker Marathon.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 20639365, 2227289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ], [ 220, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Bellingham Bay Marathon, Half Marathon, 10K & 5K is held annually on the last Sunday in September, attracting approximately 2,500 runners and walkers each year. The Boston-qualifier marathon starts near Gooseberry Point on Lummi Nation and circumnavigates Bellingham Bay to finish in downtown Bellingham. The half marathon, 10K, and 5K races all start and end at Depot Market Square.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 326438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Whatcom Artist Studio Tour is an annual event featuring local artists working in a variety of media. On the first two weekends in October, artists open their studios up to the public.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Bellingham Highland Games & Scottish Festival is held every year at Ferndale's Hovander Park the first full weekend in June. The outdoor event celebrates Scottish culture and heritage, with two days of games, spectator sports, dancing, music and food.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "LinuxFest Northwest is a free conference dedicated to discussion and development of the Linux operating system and other open-source and free-software projects. It is a weekend event held at Bellingham Technical College in late April or early May which draws more than a thousand enthusiasts.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 10714897, 6097297, 277663, 10635, 14448243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 88, 110 ], [ 121, 132 ], [ 137, 150 ], [ 191, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The annual International Day of Peace is celebrated in Bellingham on September 21. The holiday was instituted by the United Nations as a 24-hour global cease-fire. The Bellingham-based Whatcom Peace & Justice Center publishes a calendar of upcoming activist events with a theme of non-violence, community dissent, and worldwide peace.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Bellingham Festival of Music is an annual celebration of orchestral and chamber concerts, held in July, hosting musicians from North American orchestral ensembles.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 5707462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham Pride is a gay pride parade and festival held in July each year to celebrate LGBT people and history. The parade passes through the downtown and ends in the public market area.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 66936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Craft beer is a major emerging industry in Bellingham. There are now 14 breweries within Bellingham city limits and three additional breweries in Whatcom County. In 2018, these breweries combined won 46 medals at seven national and international brewery competitions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Bellingham Farmers Market is open on Saturdays from early April to late December. Originally opened in 1993, the Farmers Market now features more than 50 vendors, music and community events. The association also operates a weekly Wednesday market in nearby Fairhaven.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wednesday nights in the summer see Downtown Sounds, a family-friendly concert series featuring food booths and a beer garden with local breweries held on Bay Street.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From May to September, the Downtown Bellingham Partnership runs the Commercial Street Night Market, with local food, artisan vendors, live music and performances.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Whatcom Museum of History and Art sponsors exhibits of painting, sculpture, local history, and is an active participant in the city's monthly Gallery Walks which are pedestrian tours of the historic buildings of the city, offering history and art lessons for local schools and adult groups, and historic cruises on Bellingham Bay.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 19792658, 3090012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 37 ], [ 263, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bellingham Railway Museum has educational displays on the history of railroading in Whatcom County, as well as model trains and a freight-train simulator.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 8949852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The SPARK Museum of Electrical Invention, formerly known as the American Museum of Radio and Electricity, has a collection of rare artifacts from 1580 into the 1950s, providing educational resources about the history of electronics and radio broadcasting. The AMRE also operates KMRE-LP 102.3 FM, a FM radio which broadcasts a number of old shows popular many decades ago, as well as programming of general interest to the community.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 8715201, 8915698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 40 ], [ 279, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mindport is a privately funded arts and science museum.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Whatcom Falls Park is a large () public park encompassing the Whatcom Creek gorge, running directly through the heart of the city. It has four sets of waterfalls and several miles of walking trails. Popular activities during warmer weather include swimming, fishing, and strolling along the numerous walking trails. On 10 June 1999, the Olympic pipeline explosion occurred in Whatcom Falls Park, killing three boys who were playing in the vicinity. Operated by Olympic Pipe Line Company, the gas line that crossed Whatcom and Hanna Creeks leaked highly flammable material that turned the creeks pink, and then exploded into flames.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 7908056, 38676730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 337, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "About east of Bellingham the Mount Baker Ski Area holds the world record for the greatest amount of snowfall in one season (winter 1998–1999). During most years the depth of accumulated snow exceeds .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2227289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "South of the city of Bellingham Chuckanut Drive (Washington State Route 11) has cliffside views of the sea, the San Juan Islands and the Olympic Mountains, the hills and forests of the Chuckanut mountains, and several small bays along the edge of the Salish Sea.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3144656, 5276276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 74 ], [ 251, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several miles from Bellingham in the southern part of Whatcom County there are many places for outdoor recreation, including Larrabee State Park (popular for hiking), Lake Padden (popular for swimming, fishing and golfing), and Lake Samish.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 9750756, 21471337, 2284944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 144 ], [ 167, 178 ], [ 228, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To the east of the city lies Lake Whatcom, which provides the local public water supply and is the source of Whatcom Creek.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2227537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between Lake Whatcom and Lake Padden is North Lookout Mountain, known locally as Galbraith Mountain, with many mountain bike trails.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 20540028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the waters of the Georgia Strait and Puget Sound it is possible to go whale watching to see several pods of orcas (killer whales).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 300591, 17011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 87 ], [ 111, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellis Fair Mall, the city's main shopping mall, opened in 1988.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 41104034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham's location between two major cities, universities, record labels, and music magazines have all contributed to making Bellingham a desirable and recognized local music scene. The presence of a large university-age population has helped Bellingham become home to a number of regionally and nationally noted musical groups such as Death Cab for Cutie, Odesza, The Posies, Crayon, Idiot Pilot, Mono Men, No-Fi Soul Rebellion, Sculptured, Federation X, The Trucks, Black Eyes & Neckties, Black Breath, The High Mountain String Band, and Shook Ones. Local independent record labels include Estrus Records and Clickpop Records. The city was also home to What's Up! Magazine which covered the local music scene for 22 years ending in March 2020, and Lemonade Magazine, devoted to music and entertainment of all kinds.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 594504, 42158783, 2040166, 9844043, 11862020, 3659657, 23490941, 5443222, 8492668, 8624756, 13861977, 26598788, 3123779, 3213269, 8493312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 339, 358 ], [ 360, 366 ], [ 368, 378 ], [ 380, 386 ], [ 388, 399 ], [ 401, 409 ], [ 411, 431 ], [ 433, 443 ], [ 445, 457 ], [ 459, 469 ], [ 471, 492 ], [ 494, 506 ], [ 543, 553 ], [ 595, 609 ], [ 614, 630 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham is also the home of an active classical music scene which includes the Bellingham Symphony Orchestra (formerly the Whatcom Symphony Orchestra), North Sound Youth Symphony, numerous community music groups and choirs, and the internationally recognized Bellingham Festival of Music.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 5707462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 262, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham is home to an active writers community at the local universities and independent of them. Western Washington University's English Department publishes the Bellingham Review. In 2011, the city hosted the first annual Chuckanut Writers Conference, run by Whatcom Community College and Village Books, a local bookstore. Clover, A Literary Rag, a publication of the Independent Writers' Studio, has produced 9 volumes since 2010. The city is home to writers including Steve Martini and George Dyson. Bellingham Public Library provides free library services at the Central Library, Barkley Branch and Fairhaven Branch.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 27992219, 9147327, 2293616, 10248150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 183 ], [ 475, 488 ], [ 493, 505 ], [ 507, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham's theater culture is boosted by the performing arts department at Western Washington University. There are several theaters and productions in Bellingham:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bellingham Theatre Guild– This non-profit community theater was founded in 1929. Hilary Swank performed here before moving to LA to pursue her career in acting.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2022363, 92289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 82, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Historic Mount Baker Theatre– The Mount Baker Theater is the largest performing arts facility north of Seattle and is listed on the register of National Historic Places. The theater is an example of Moorish architecture, with several sections of the 1927 theater having been restored over the past two decades.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 24334258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Upfront Theatre, an improv comedy venue established by Bellingham resident Ryan Stiles of Whose Line Is It Anyway? fame.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 147137, 26239862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 87 ], [ 91, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Northwest Ballet, a regional ballet company, performs classical ballets", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " iDiOM Theater— Non-profit regional theater, and almost every show is new, locally written work.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Firehouse Performing Arts Center, a Fairhaven firehouse converted into a dance classroom and theatre", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Whatcom Peace & Justice Center was founded in 2002 by local activists, and has been one of the most active such centers in the nation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2006, the Bellingham City Council passed a Troops Home! resolution, making Bellingham the first city in the state of Washington to pass the resolution. Two years later, the City Council passed a resolution urging elected representatives and the federal government to avoid war with Iran, becoming the first city in the state to do so. In 2012, the City Council unanimously passed a resolution calling upon the federal government to overturn the Supreme Court's decision in the case of FEC v. Citizens United by declaring that U.S. Constitutional rights apply to natural persons and not to corporations. In 2014, coinciding with Columbus Day that celebrates the arrival of European explorers, the City Council officially established Coast Salish Day to celebrate the Native American peoples who continue to call the geographic region their home.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 22097436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 496, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, the Seattle Arctic drilling protests spread to Bellingham when a protester chained herself to the anchor chain of a Royal Dutch Shell ship for 63 hours.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 46816809, 1358, 23409980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 45 ], [ 107, 113 ], [ 125, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham is frequently named on Best Places to Retire lists; 2008-2013 population growth in the 55+ year old segment outpaced overall population growth, at 3.7% to 0.8% annually. However, the high cost of housing has also caused it to be listed among America's Worst Cities as well. (In 2016, Washington State scored the fastest growing housing prices in the country.)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham saw apartment vacancy hit 0.6% in 2016, and plans to use multi-family housing to accommodate more than 50% of the projected growth in housing units (16,525 units by 2036). According to Aaron Terrazas, senior economist at Zillow, \"Given the area's pace of growth, it would require very aggressive building to keep rent affordability in check.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The city has resisted expanding the Urban Growth Area for many years, and hopes to fit both multi-family and single-family growth within the city limits. Builders counter that even City planners acknowledge that the city is \"largely built out\" and that the remaining land is difficult or expensive to build on. Attempts to increase density, ease restrictions on 'accessory dwelling units', or even to develop land already zoned residential, are regularly met with fierce neighborhood opposition: Padden Trails was opposed by the Samish Neighborhood Association; a dense development at the Sunnyland D.O.T. site was scaled-down; Fairhaven neighbors led the effort to prevent the development of Fairhaven Highlands, (now Chuckanut Ridge), which the City ended up purchasing for $8.2 million, preventing more than 700 new housing units; neighborhood groups pressured the City Council to go against staff recommendation to rezone Squalicum Lofts for residential development.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, the Bellingham City Council began acknowledging housing affordability as a critical issue, and hosted a town hall meeting on housing affordability and homelessness.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Bellingham waterfront has served as an industrial center for more than a century, starting with the arrival of Henry Roeder and Russell Peabody in the mid-1800s.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Georgia-Pacific purchased the Puget Sound Pulp and Timber Company in 1963 and operated a pulp mill on the central downtown waterfront until 2001. In 1965, G-P built a Chlor-Alkali facility, which became a source of mercury contamination in the Whatcom Waterway and on the uplands of the site for decades. The documentary film, \"Smells Like Money– The Story of Bellingham's Georgia Pacific Plant\" tells the story of the site, which has since been purchased by the Port of Bellingham chiefly to create a marina in the wastewater lagoon. The Port of Bellingham purchased the G-P site for $10 with the understanding that the port would assume liability for the contamination. The City of Bellingham and the Port of Bellingham entered into several interlocal agreements in which the City agreed to pay for all infrastructure costs, and the Port would create a marina, clean up the site, and retain all zoning.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 293574, 4634261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 463, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The cleanup site (approximately ) was divided into two areas: Pulp and Tissue Mill area and the Chlor-Alkali area. Contaminated soils and building materials were removed in 2011 and 2013; the Department of Ecology finalized the Interim Cleanup Work Plan in January 2017, and that work was completed in April 2017 when 31 acres were capped with a protective barrier. Work continues on evaluating cleanup alternatives for the entire Chlor-Alkali area of the site.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The City and Port have entered into a partnership to redevelop the property, and in 2013 contracted with Harcourt Developments to develop . The Granary Building remodel will be completed in 2017; Harcourt has submitted plans for two waterfront condo buildings in 2018 and 2019; the city will be constructing two main roads through the side in 2017.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Arts and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The people of Bellingham pursue a diverse range of amateur sports, with skiing and snowboarding at the Mount Baker Ski Area popular in the winter and kayaking and cycling in the summer. Mt. Baker claims a world record for seasonal snowfall, with recorded in the 1998–1999 season.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 28478, 38957, 40275, 5931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 78 ], [ 83, 95 ], [ 150, 158 ], [ 163, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Western Washington University is home to NCAA Division II National Women's Rowing Champions. The Lady Vikings became Western's very first NCAA champion team in 2005 and won again in 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2011. The 2011-2012 Western Men's Basketball team won the NCAA Division II National Championship. In 2016, the nationally ranked Western Women's Soccer Team won the NCAA Division II National Championship.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 60706, 25736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 45 ], [ 75, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Western Washington University also operates a collegiate road cycling program that took top-5 positions nationwide at the 2006 nationals.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Future Hall of Famer Ken Griffey Jr. began his professional career with the short-season class A Bellingham Mariners of the Northwest League in 1987.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 63493, 12468044, 70301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 36 ], [ 97, 116 ], [ 124, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The City of Bellingham has a non-partisan strong-mayor, weak-council form of government. The directly elected mayor serves a four-year term. Six of the seven city council members are elected by ward for staggered four-year terms. The seventh council member is elected at-large every two years.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 23809142, 3532493, 6041640, 3995387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 68 ], [ 158, 170 ], [ 194, 198 ], [ 268, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A municipal court judge is also elected for four-year terms.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The city maintains Bellingham Police Department and fire department and operates the countywide Medic One medical emergency response service through an agreement with Whatcom County. According to Uniform Crime Report statistics compiled by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 2010, there were 282violent crimes and 3,653property crimes per 100,000residents. Of these, the violent crimes consisted of 37 forcible rapes, 73 robberies and 170 aggravated assaults, while 589burglaries, 2,931larceny-thefts, 133 motor vehicle thefts and six arson defined the property offenses.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 61580718, 189002, 723197, 213934, 11127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 47 ], [ 52, 67 ], [ 96, 105 ], [ 196, 216 ], [ 244, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham School District is the local school district. There are four public high schools in Bellingham: Bellingham High School, Options High School, Sehome High School, and Squalicum High School. Bellingham has four public middle schools: Kulshan Middle School, Shuksan Middle School, Fairhaven Middle School, and Whatcom Middle School which was recently rebuilt after extensive fire damage in 2009.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 3090012, 21511103, 5763500, 18494332, 3090012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 107, 129 ], [ 152, 170 ], [ 176, 197 ], [ 242, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Private schools in Bellingham include Whatcom Hills Waldorf School (Prekindergarten through 8th grade), Whatcom Day Academy (Prekindergarten to 8th grade), St. Paul's Academy (Prekindergarten to 12th grade), and Assumption Catholic School (Kindergarten to 9th grade). Western Washington University is located in Bellingham. It has more than 16,000 students. The Northwest Film School is a private, non-profit educational institution specializing in digital media production. It operates in a partnership with Western Washington University to offer a one-year certificate in Video Production.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 7443768, 15733366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 212, 238 ], [ 362, 383 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham has two community colleges:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Whatcom Community College", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 18540909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham Technical College", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 14448243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For-profit schools include Charter College, Lean Leadership Institute, Washington Engineering Institute and Washington Technology Institute.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 3195510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lummi Nation School has a Bellingham postal address but it is away from the city limits in an unincorporated area on the Lummi reservation.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 68229821, 232346, 326438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 94, 113 ], [ 121, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bellingham Herald is published daily in Bellingham. Other newspapers include Cascadia Weekly (until 2021), The Front, Whatcom Watch, and The Bellingham Business Journal (until 2020). Cascadia Daily News debuted on January 24, 2022 as a daily online publication and weekly print publication, replacing Cascadia Weekly.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 3325185, 40061360, 14460049, 69930897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 81, 96 ], [ 141, 172 ], [ 187, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham and Whatcom County are part of the Seattle television market. The area has had exceptionally early and strong penetration of cable television since the 1950s, and there have never been any local translators of the major Seattle TV stations.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 1030221, 7587, 12828393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 53 ], [ 136, 152 ], [ 206, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stations in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, can be viewed over the air with a suitable antenna, but those in Seattle are too distant to receive in most locations in the county. Whatcom County residents can also receive CBC and CTV stations via cable service. The KVOS-TV broadcast is available in most parts of Bellingham with an antenna as well.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 2240363, 1747236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 99 ], [ 268, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The City of Bellingham also operates a public access channel available to Comcast cable customers on Channel 10.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bellingham on Tap is a monthly nightlife magazine featuring complete happy hour and bar special listings, reviews, events, local interest articles, and columns including sex advice, rants, and astrology.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bellingham Alive Magazine is a bi-monthly lifestyle magazine focusing on life in Whatcom, Skagit, San Juan and Island counties.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Snowboarder's Journal is an independent snowboarding magazine based in Bellingham, published quarterly.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " What's Up! is a monthly music magazine focused on local music. It covers live shows, band bios and new artist releases.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Business Pulse has been covering Bellingham and Whatcom County business news and business profiles since 1975.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Southside Living is mailed directly to residents of Bellingham's Chuckanut Drive, Edgemoor, Fairhaven, and South Hill neighborhoods.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham is bisected by Interstate 5 (I-5), which connects it to Seattle, Vancouver, and Portland, Oregon. The city also has three state highways: State Route 11, a scenic byway through the Chuckanut Mountains; State Route 539, which connects to Lynden and the Canadian border; and State Route 542, which travels east to the Mount Baker Ski Area.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 12645977, 11388236, 32706, 23503, 3144656, 4846976, 138314, 2226987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 38 ], [ 67, 74 ], [ 76, 85 ], [ 91, 107 ], [ 149, 163 ], [ 213, 228 ], [ 248, 254 ], [ 284, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bellingham International Airport offers scheduled commuter flights to and from Seattle and Friday Harbor, Washington, and regularly scheduled jet service to various West Coast airports via Alaska Airlines, Allegiant Air, and Southwest Airlines. Alaska Airlines and Allegiant Air used to fly to Hawaii from Bellingham, serving Honolulu, Kahului, and Kona at various times, but this service ceased by 2019. The airport is home of the first Air and Marine Operations Center, to assist the US Department of Homeland Security with border surveillance.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 2541093, 138169, 264796, 1372018, 63032, 58236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 36 ], [ 95, 120 ], [ 193, 208 ], [ 210, 223 ], [ 229, 247 ], [ 490, 524 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Whatcom Transportation Authority (WTA) is the county's public transit agency and operates fixed bus service within Bellingham and its neighboring cities. The agency has several hubs, including the downtown station, the Western Washington University campus, and Cordata Station near Bellis Fair Mall, which is served by BoltBus intercity express buses to Seattle and Vancouver. Several corridors have frequent service that is branded as \"GO Lines\", with service every 15 minutes. WTA also offers intercity service to Mount Vernon, connecting with Skagit Transit for onward service to Everett.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 8011634, 26162030, 16657170, 138185, 8011444, 21131991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 36 ], [ 59, 73 ], [ 323, 330 ], [ 520, 532 ], [ 550, 564 ], [ 587, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city's main train station, Fairhaven Station, is served by scheduled Amtrak Cascades service to Vancouver and Seattle twice a day. Amtrak also operates one Thruway bus trip to supplement its train service on the corridor. The Bellingham Cruise Terminal is adjacent to the Amtrak station and serves as the southern terminus of the Alaska Marine Highway, a state-run ferry for passengers and vehicles. The ferries provide service to Ketchikan, Juneau, and Haines. The terminal is also served by San Juan Cruises, which provides seasonal passenger ferry service to the San Juan Islands and Friday Harbor.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 10034203, 905553, 1307322, 60446657, 924030, 50771, 105496, 87469, 105455, 36728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 48 ], [ 73, 88 ], [ 160, 167 ], [ 230, 256 ], [ 334, 355 ], [ 369, 374 ], [ 435, 444 ], [ 446, 452 ], [ 458, 464 ], [ 570, 586 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Danny Abramowicz – former NFL wide receiver", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 2856220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bob Arbogast – radio-television host and voice actor", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 4723941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jon Auer – vocalist, guitarist, songwriter, founding member of the Posies", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 3960721, 2040166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 63, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Steve Baker – professional motorcycle racer and member of the AMA Motorcycle Hall of Fame", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 8671118, 468071, 947915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 62, 65 ], [ 66, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Carlos Becerra – Carlos from Carspotting on Discovery", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 54903012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Billy Burke – television and film actor, Twilight, Zoo", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 6115066, 14277334, 43223749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 41, 49 ], [ 51, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Misha Collins – actor, Supernatural", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 2171614, 2170969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 23, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ramsey Denison – documentary filmmaker, editor", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 58163317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "J. J. Donovan – Washington state businessman and politician", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 66245049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ben Gibbard – lead singer for Death Cab for Cutie", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 631190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ryan Hietala – professional golfer", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 22544752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Yolanda Hughes-Heying – IFBB professional bodybuilder", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 42876904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paul Jessup – world record holder for discus; competed in the 1932 Summer Olympics", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 39308839, 84727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 62, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oscar Jimenez – soccer player for Louisville City FC", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 46434001, 42957365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 34, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anna Leader – poet and novelist", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 55997601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jake Locker – (born in Bellingham), quarterback for University of Washington and NFL's Tennessee Titans", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 13393826, 5954250, 30839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 52, 76 ], [ 87, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dana Lyons – folk and alternative rock musician, author, environmentalist", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 1927954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cuddles Marshall – major league baseball player for the New York Yankees and St. Louis Browns", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 1997461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Philip McCracken – artist, sculptor, activist", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 7254906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jason McGerr – drummer for Death Cab for Cutie", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 2070829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tommy Noonan – Actor. He played a wealthy fiancé of Lorelei Lee (Marilyn Monroe) in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 7662397, 19318, 418598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 65, 79 ], [ 84, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Doug Pederson – head coach of the Jacksonville Jaguars of the National Football League", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 1142255, 533149, 16156, 21211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 16, 26 ], [ 34, 54 ], [ 62, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alfred Pettibone (1835–1914) – Washington state pioneer, one of the first residents of Bellingham", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 66837219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jeff Ragsdale – author, activist, national game show champion", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 36876581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Taylor Rapp – NFL safety for the Los Angeles Rams", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 52558744, 23408886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 33, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roger Repoz – major league baseball player", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 12448033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles Roehl (1857–1927) – Bellingham pioneer and businessman", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 66732343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Roehl (1890–1968) – Bellingham pioneer and businessman", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 66732344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jim Sterk - former athletic director for Missouri", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 68308698, 23964683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 41, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ryan Stiles – comedian on Whose Line Is It Anyway?, actor on The Drew Carey Show and Two and a Half Men", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 147137, 26239862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 26, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ken Stringfellow – vocalist, guitarist, songwriter, founding member of the Posies", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 3306430, 2040166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 71, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hilary Swank – actress", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 92289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al Swift, former member of the United States House of Representatives who resided in Bellingham.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 819155, 19468510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 31, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ben Weber – film and television actor", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 22284681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christopher Wise – author", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 6803551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham maintains sister city relationships with five Pacific Rim port cities and Vaasa, Finland.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 1155299, 318083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ], [ 57, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tateyama and Port Stephens are also sister cities with each other.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sister cities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bellingham Sister Cities Association promotes Bellingham's sister city relationships. The relationship with Tateyama is the most active and includes regular events such as an annual city hall staff exchange and community cultural visits. Tateyama frequently fields a team for the annual Ski to Sea race, or at minimum has representation in the Ski to Sea parade.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sister cities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Olympic pipeline explosion", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38676730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "City of Bellingham Website", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Bellingham,_Washington", "Cities_in_Washington_(state)", "County_seats_in_Washington_(state)", "Populated_places_established_in_1854", "Cities_in_Whatcom_County,_Washington", "1854_establishments_in_Washington_Territory" ]

[ "Bellingham, WA", "Bellingham, Washington" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In art history, literature and cultural studies, Orientalism is the imitation or depiction of aspects in the Eastern world. These depictions are usually done by writers, designers, and artists from the Western world. In particular, Orientalist painting, depicting more specifically the Middle East, was one of the many specialisms of 19th-century academic art, and the literature of Western countries took a similar interest in Oriental themes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21207536, 18963870, 37961224, 18984987, 21208200, 19323, 380097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 16, 26 ], [ 31, 47 ], [ 109, 122 ], [ 202, 215 ], [ 286, 297 ], [ 347, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the publication of Edward Said's Orientalism in 1978, much academic discourse has begun to use the term \"Orientalism\" to refer to a general patronizing Western attitude towards Middle Eastern, Asian, and North African societies. In Said's analysis, the West essentializes these societies as static and undeveloped—thereby fabricating a view of Oriental culture that can be studied, depicted, and reproduced in the service of imperial power. Implicit in this fabrication, writes Said, is the idea that Western society is developed, rational, flexible, and superior.This allows Western imagination to see “Eastern” cultures and people as both alluring and a threat to Western civilization. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18247304, 3473169, 21714, 48081, 15316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ], [ 39, 50 ], [ 210, 222 ], [ 264, 277 ], [ 431, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Orientalism refers to the Orient, in reference and opposition to the Occident; the East and the West, respectively. The word Orient entered the English language as the Middle French orient. The root word oriēns, from the Latin Oriēns, has synonymous denotations: The eastern part of the world; the sky whence comes the sun; the east; the rising sun, etc.; yet the denotation changed as a term of geography.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 241261, 49065892, 694163, 17730, 252063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 32 ], [ 69, 77 ], [ 168, 181 ], [ 221, 226 ], [ 250, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the \"Monk's Tale\" (1375), Geoffrey Chaucer wrote: \"That they conquered many regnes grete / In the orient, with many a fair citee.\" The term orient refers to countries east of the Mediterranean Sea and Southern Europe. In In Place of Fear (1952), Aneurin Bevan used an expanded denotation of the Orient that comprehended East Asia: \"the awakening of the Orient under the impact of Western ideas.\" Edward Said said that Orientalism \"enables the political, economic, cultural and social domination of the West, not just during colonial times, but also in the present.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 2063035, 12787, 19006, 410666, 66845, 19605700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 19 ], [ 29, 45 ], [ 182, 199 ], [ 204, 219 ], [ 249, 262 ], [ 323, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In art history, the term Orientalism refers to the works of mostly 19th-century Western artists who specialized in Oriental subjects, produced from their travels in Western Asia, during the 19th century. In that time, artists and scholars were described as Orientalists, especially in France, where the dismissive use of the term \"Orientalist\" was made popular by the art critic Jules-Antoine Castagnary. Despite such social disdain for a style of representational art, the French Society of Orientalist Painters was founded in 1893, with Jean-Léon Gérôme as the honorary president; whereas in Britain, the term Orientalist identified \"an artist.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 21207536, 399656, 35685351, 2653427, 37006572, 469851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 165, 177 ], [ 379, 403 ], [ 448, 468 ], [ 474, 512 ], [ 539, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The formation of the French Orientalist Painters Society changed the consciousness of practitioners towards the end of the 19th century, since artists could now see themselves as part of a distinct art movement. As an art movement, Orientalist painting is generally treated as one of the many branches of 19th-century academic art; however, many different styles of Orientalist art were in evidence. Art historians tend to identify two broad types of Orientalist artist: the realists who carefully painted what they observed and those who imagined Orientalist scenes without ever leaving the studio. French painters such as Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863) and Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904) are widely regarded as the leading luminaries of the Orientalist movement.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 380097, 169832, 469851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 318, 330 ], [ 624, 640 ], [ 657, 673 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 18th and 19th centuries, the term Orientalist identified a scholar who specialized in the languages and literatures of the Eastern world. Among such scholars were officials of the East India Company, who said that the Arab culture, the Indian culture, and the Islamic cultures should be studied as equal to the cultures of Europe. Among such scholars is the philologist William Jones, whose studies of Indo-European languages established modern philology. Company rule in India favored Orientalism as a technique for developing and maintaining positive relations with the Indians—until the 1820s, when the influence of \"anglicists\" such as Thomas Babington Macaulay and John Stuart Mill led to the promotion of a Western-style education.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 4349112, 18984987, 43281, 4087576, 293133, 1946196, 1256013, 28952, 14848, 23193, 295335, 158449, 15626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 52 ], [ 130, 143 ], [ 187, 205 ], [ 225, 237 ], [ 243, 257 ], [ 267, 282 ], [ 318, 336 ], [ 377, 390 ], [ 409, 432 ], [ 452, 461 ], [ 463, 484 ], [ 647, 672 ], [ 677, 693 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Additionally, Hebraism and Jewish studies gained popularity among British and German scholars in the 19th and 20th centuries. The academic field of Oriental studies, which comprehended the cultures of the Near East and the Far East, became the fields of Asian studies and Middle Eastern studies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 2784585, 1230430, 4349112, 214632, 11672, 2256463, 1912857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 22 ], [ 27, 41 ], [ 148, 164 ], [ 205, 214 ], [ 223, 231 ], [ 254, 267 ], [ 272, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his book Orientalism (1978), cultural critic Edward Said redefines the term Orientalism to describe a pervasive Western tradition—academic and artistic—of prejudiced outsider-interpretations of the Eastern world, which was shaped by the cultural attitudes of European imperialism in the 18th and 19th centuries. The thesis of Orientalism develops Antonio Gramsci's theory of cultural hegemony, and Michel Foucault's theorisation of discourse (the knowledge-power relation) to criticise the scholarly tradition of Oriental studies. Said criticised contemporary scholars who perpetuated the tradition of outsider-interpretation of Arabo-Islamic cultures, especially Bernard Lewis and Fouad Ajami. Furthermore, Said said that \"The idea of representation is a theatrical one: the Orient is the stage on which the whole East is confined\", and that the subject of learned Orientalists \"is not so much the East itself as the East made known, and therefore less fearsome, to the Western reading public\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 3473169, 1509154, 18984987, 15316, 56244, 410722, 47643, 45134, 243391, 147885, 2185, 185034, 1167558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 23 ], [ 32, 47 ], [ 201, 214 ], [ 271, 282 ], [ 350, 365 ], [ 378, 395 ], [ 401, 416 ], [ 435, 444 ], [ 450, 459 ], [ 460, 465 ], [ 632, 636 ], [ 667, 680 ], [ 685, 696 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the academy, the book Orientalism (1978) became a foundational text of post-colonial cultural studies. The analyses in Said's works are of Orientalism in European literature, especially French literature, and do not analyse visual art and Orientalist painting. In that vein, the art historian Linda Nochlin applied Said's methods of critical analysis to art, \"with uneven results\". Other scholars see Orientalist paintings as depicting a myth and a fantasy that didn't often correlate with reality.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 18247316, 172553, 33734529, 39301, 5929235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 104 ], [ 189, 206 ], [ 227, 237 ], [ 242, 262 ], [ 296, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is also a critical trend within the Islamic world. In 2002 it was estimated that in Saudi Arabia alone some 200 books and 2000 articles discussing Orientalism had been penned by local or foreign scholars.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 191429, 349303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 55 ], [ 90, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the Bolsháya sovétskaya entsiklopédiya (1951):", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 379406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reflecting the colonialist-racist worldview of the European and American bourgeoisie, from the very beginning bourgeois orientology diametrically opposed the civilizations of the so-called \"West\" with those of the \"East\" slanderously declaring that Asian peoples are racially inferior, somehow primordially backward, incapable of determining their own fates, and that they appeared only as history's objects rather than its subject.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Moresque style of Renaissance ornament is a European adaptation of the Islamic arabesque that began in the late 15th century and was to be used in some types of work, such as bookbinding, until almost the present day. Early architectural use of motifs lifted from the Indian subcontinent is known as Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture. One of the earliest examples is the façade of Guildhall, London (1788–1789). The style gained momentum in the west with the publication of views of India by William Hodges, and William and Thomas Daniell from about 1795. Examples of \"Hindoo\" architecture are Sezincote House (c. 1805) in Gloucestershire, built for a nabob returned from Bengal, and the Royal Pavilion in Brighton.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "In European architecture and design", "target_page_ids": [ 18593140, 25532, 1807613, 36915, 23277840, 1527621, 387695, 2343535, 2288147, 1841611, 7262723, 47751, 34741295, 4862, 101181, 49796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 22, 33 ], [ 34, 42 ], [ 83, 92 ], [ 179, 190 ], [ 304, 339 ], [ 387, 404 ], [ 498, 512 ], [ 518, 525 ], [ 530, 544 ], [ 600, 615 ], [ 629, 644 ], [ 658, 663 ], [ 678, 684 ], [ 694, 708 ], [ 712, 720 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Turquerie, which began as early as the late 15th century, continued until at least the 18th century, and included both the use of \"Turkish\" styles in the decorative arts, the adoption of Turkish costume at times, and interest in art depicting the Ottoman Empire itself. Venice, the traditional trading partner of the Ottomans, was the earliest centre, with France becoming more prominent in the 18th century.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "In European architecture and design", "target_page_ids": [ 16743222, 22278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 247, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chinoiserie is the catch-all term for the fashion for Chinese themes in decoration in Western Europe, beginning in the late 17th century and peaking in waves, especially Rococo Chinoiserie, c. 1740–1770. From the Renaissance to the 18th century, Western designers attempted to imitate the technical sophistication of Chinese ceramics with only partial success. Early hints of Chinoiserie appeared in the 17th century in nations with active East India companies: England (the East India Company), Denmark (the Danish East India Company), the Netherlands (the Dutch East India Company) and France (the French East India Company). Tin-glazed pottery made at Delft and other Dutch towns adopted genuine Ming-era blue and white porcelain from the early 17th century. Early ceramic wares made at Meissen and other centers of true porcelain imitated Chinese shapes for dishes, vases and teawares (see Chinese export porcelain).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "In European architecture and design", "target_page_ids": [ 1063807, 36886, 25532, 43281, 592792, 42737, 156062, 8308, 43449, 1861591, 40674, 167718, 981047, 1861091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 170, 176 ], [ 213, 224 ], [ 475, 493 ], [ 509, 534 ], [ 558, 582 ], [ 600, 625 ], [ 655, 660 ], [ 699, 703 ], [ 708, 732 ], [ 790, 797 ], [ 824, 833 ], [ 880, 887 ], [ 894, 918 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pleasure pavilions in \"Chinese taste\" appeared in the formal parterres of late Baroque and Rococo German palaces, and in tile panels at Aranjuez near Madrid. Thomas Chippendale's mahogany tea tables and china cabinets, especially, were embellished with fretwork glazing and railings, c. 1753–70. Sober homages to early Xing scholars' furnishings were also naturalized, as the tang evolved into a mid-Georgian side table and squared slat-back armchairs that suited English gentlemen as well as Chinese scholars. Not every adaptation of Chinese design principles falls within mainstream \"chinoiserie\". Chinoiserie media included imitations of lacquer and painted tin (tôle) ware that imitated japanning, early painted wallpapers in sheets, and ceramic figurines and table ornaments. Small pagodas appeared on chimneypieces and full-sized ones in gardens. Kew has a magnificent Great Pagoda designed by William Chambers. The Wilhelma (1846) in Stuttgart is an example of Moorish Revival architecture. Leighton House, built for the artist Frederic Leighton, has a conventional facade but elaborate Arab-style interiors, including original Islamic tiles and other elements as well as Victorian Orientalizing work.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "In European architecture and design", "target_page_ids": [ 145208, 41188263, 151357, 1063807, 287061, 94142, 67678352, 143684, 2084259, 28565, 5007829, 2563445, 330700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 144 ], [ 150, 156 ], [ 158, 176 ], [ 586, 597 ], [ 787, 793 ], [ 853, 856 ], [ 875, 887 ], [ 900, 916 ], [ 922, 930 ], [ 941, 950 ], [ 968, 996 ], [ 998, 1012 ], [ 1035, 1052 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After 1860, Japonism, sparked by the importing of ukiyo-e, became an important influence in the western arts. In particular, many modern French artists such as Claude Monet and Edgar Degas were influenced by the Japanese style. Mary Cassatt, an American artist who worked in France, used elements of combined patterns, flat planes and shifting perspective of Japanese prints in her own images. The paintings of James Abbott McNeill Whistler's The Peacock Room demonstrated how he used aspects of Japanese tradition and are some of the finest works of the genre. California architects Greene and Greene were inspired by Japanese elements in their design of the Gamble House and other buildings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "In European architecture and design", "target_page_ids": [ 1794655, 43351, 6548, 63146, 20308, 74097, 11526137, 2059474, 463581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 20 ], [ 50, 57 ], [ 160, 172 ], [ 177, 188 ], [ 228, 240 ], [ 411, 440 ], [ 443, 459 ], [ 584, 601 ], [ 660, 672 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Egyptian Revival architecture became popular in the early and mid-19th century and continued as a minor style into the early 20th century. Moorish Revival architecture began in the early 19th century in the German states and was particularly popular for building synagogues. Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture was a genre that arose in the late 19th century in the British Raj.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "In European architecture and design", "target_page_ids": [ 515939, 5007829, 1527621, 4208015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ], [ 139, 167 ], [ 275, 310 ], [ 366, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Depictions of Islamic \"Moors\" and \" Turks\" (imprecisely named Muslim groups of southern Europe, North Africa and West Asia) can be found in Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque art. In Biblical scenes in Early Netherlandish painting, secondary figures, especially Romans, were given exotic costumes that distantly reflected the clothes of the Near East. The Three Magi in Nativity scenes were an especial focus for this. In general art with Biblical settings would not be considered as Orientalist except where contemporary or historicist Middle Eastern detail or settings is a feature of works, as with some paintings by Gentile Bellini and others, and a number of 19th-century works. Renaissance Venice had a phase of particular interest in depictions of the Ottoman Empire in painting and prints. Gentile Bellini, who travelled to Constantinople and painted the Sultan, and Vittore Carpaccio were the leading painters. By then the depictions were more accurate, with men typically dressed all in white. The depiction of Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting sometimes draws from Orientalist interest, but more often just reflects the prestige these expensive objects had in the period.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Orientalist art", "target_page_ids": [ 45127, 2088822, 19541, 410666, 21714, 399656, 799881, 214632, 209068, 14658719, 214195, 32616, 22278, 7603861, 5646, 803888, 22570146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 28 ], [ 36, 41 ], [ 62, 68 ], [ 79, 94 ], [ 96, 108 ], [ 113, 122 ], [ 202, 230 ], [ 341, 350 ], [ 356, 366 ], [ 370, 385 ], [ 620, 635 ], [ 696, 702 ], [ 759, 773 ], [ 790, 796 ], [ 832, 846 ], [ 875, 892 ], [ 1021, 1061 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jean-Étienne Liotard (1702–1789) visited Istanbul and painted numerous pastels of Turkish domestic scenes; he also continued to wear Turkish attire for much of the time when he was back in Europe. The ambitious Scottish 18th-century artist Gavin Hamilton found a solution to the problem of using modern dress, considered unheroic and inelegant, in history painting by using Middle Eastern settings with Europeans wearing local costume, as travelers were advised to do. His huge James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra (1758, now Edinburgh) elevates tourism to the heroic, with the two travelers wearing what look very like togas. Many travelers had themselves painted in exotic Eastern dress on their return, including Lord Byron, as did many who had never left Europe, including Madame de Pompadour. The growing French interest in exotic Oriental luxury and lack of liberty in the 18th century to some extent reflected a pointed analogy with France's own absolute monarchy. Byron's poetry was highly influential in introducing Europe to the heady cocktail of Romanticism in exotic Oriental settings which was to dominate 19th century Oriental art.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Orientalist art", "target_page_ids": [ 2633519, 3391396, 24533, 4083225, 14051, 46709309, 187381, 17566665, 194128, 67366, 26094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 41, 49 ], [ 71, 77 ], [ 240, 254 ], [ 348, 364 ], [ 533, 540 ], [ 646, 650 ], [ 742, 752 ], [ 803, 822 ], [ 979, 996 ], [ 1083, 1094 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "French Orientalist painting was transformed by Napoleon's ultimately unsuccessful invasion of Egypt and Syria in 1798–1801, which stimulated great public interest in Egyptology, and was also recorded in subsequent years by Napoleon's court painters, especially Antoine-Jean Gros, although the Middle Eastern campaign was not one on which he accompanied the army. Two of his most successful paintings, Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa (1804) and Battle of Abukir (1806) focus on the Emperor, as he was by then, but include many Egyptian figures, as does the less effective Napoleon at the Battle of the Pyramids (1810). Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson's La Révolte du Caire (1810) was another large and prominent example. A well-illustrated Description de l'Égypte was published by the French Government in twenty volumes between 1809 and 1828, concentrating on antiquities.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Orientalist art", "target_page_ids": [ 69880, 5913449, 78689, 854593, 16886434, 1951079, 602184, 1431051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 55 ], [ 82, 109 ], [ 166, 176 ], [ 261, 278 ], [ 401, 447 ], [ 459, 475 ], [ 633, 669 ], [ 880, 891 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eugène Delacroix's first great success, The Massacre at Chios (1824) was painted before he visited Greece or the East, and followed his friend Théodore Géricault's The Raft of the Medusa in showing a recent incident in distant parts that had aroused public opinion. Greece was still fighting for independence from the Ottomans, and was effectively as exotic as the more Near Eastern parts of the empire. Delacroix followed up with Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi (1827), commemorating a siege of the previous year, and The Death of Sardanapalus, inspired by Lord Byron, which although set in antiquity has been credited with beginning the mixture of sex, violence, lassitude and exoticism which runs through much French Orientalist painting. In 1832, Delacroix finally visited what is now Algeria, recently conquered by the French, and Morocco, as part of a diplomatic mission to the Sultan of Morocco. He was greatly struck by what he saw, comparing the North African way of life to that of the Ancient Romans, and continued to paint subjects from his trip on his return to France. Like many later Orientalist painters, he was frustrated by the difficulty of sketching women, and many of his scenes featured Jews or warriors on horses. However, he was apparently able to get into the women's quarters or harem of a house to sketch what became Women of Algiers; few later harem scenes had this claim to authenticity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Orientalist art", "target_page_ids": [ 169832, 23906536, 511567, 561510, 12108, 29627849, 3355350, 17566665, 358, 19291, 409565, 25955086, 1991315, 3508424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 40, 61 ], [ 143, 161 ], [ 164, 186 ], [ 266, 272 ], [ 431, 465 ], [ 522, 547 ], [ 561, 571 ], [ 792, 799 ], [ 839, 846 ], [ 887, 904 ], [ 1212, 1216 ], [ 1308, 1313 ], [ 1347, 1363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Ingres, the director of the French Académie de peinture, painted a highly colored vision of a Turkish bath, he made his eroticized Orient publicly acceptable by his diffuse generalizing of the female forms (who might all have been the same model). More open sensuality was seen as acceptable in the exotic Orient. This imagery persisted in art into the early 20th century, as evidenced in Henri Matisse's orientalist semi-nudes from his Nice period, and his use of Oriental costumes and patterns. Ingres' pupil Théodore Chassériau (1819–1856) had already achieved success with his nude The Toilette of Esther (1841, Louvre) and equestrian portrait of Ali-Ben-Hamet, Caliph of Constantine and Chief of the Haractas, Followed by his Escort (1846) before he first visited the East, but in later decades the steamship made travel much easier and increasing numbers of artists traveled to the Middle East and beyond, painting a wide range of Oriental scenes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Orientalist art", "target_page_ids": [ 304947, 60203, 861782, 27311824, 17546, 146635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 111 ], [ 394, 407 ], [ 516, 535 ], [ 591, 613 ], [ 621, 627 ], [ 809, 818 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many of these works, they portrayed the Orient as exotic, colorful and sensual, not to say stereotyped. Such works typically concentrated on Arab, Jewish, and other Semitic cultures, as those were the ones visited by artists as France became more engaged in North Africa. French artists such as Eugène Delacroix, Jean-Léon Gérôme and Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres painted many works depicting Islamic culture, often including lounging odalisques. They stressed both lassitude and visual spectacle. Other scenes, especially in genre painting, have been seen as either closely comparable to their equivalents set in modern-day or historical Europe, or as also reflecting an Orientalist mind-set in the Saidian sense of the term. Gérôme was the precursor, and often the master, of a number of French painters in the later part of the century whose works were often frankly salacious, frequently featuring scenes in harems, public baths and slave auctions (the last two also available with classical decor), and responsible, with others, for \"the equation of Orientalism with the nude in pornographic mode\"; (Gallery, below)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Orientalist art", "target_page_ids": [ 18956166, 169832, 469851, 48030, 387430, 7749214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 104 ], [ 298, 314 ], [ 316, 332 ], [ 337, 366 ], [ 438, 447 ], [ 529, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though British political interest in the territories of the unravelling Ottoman Empire was as intense as in France, it was mostly more discreetly exercised. The origins of British Orientalist 19th-century painting owe more to religion than military conquest or the search for plausible locations for nude women. The leading British genre painter, Sir David Wilkie was 55 when he travelled to Istanbul and Jerusalem in 1840, dying off Gibraltar during the return voyage. Though not noted as a religious painter, Wilkie made the trip with a Protestant agenda to reform religious painting, as he believed that: \"a Martin Luther in painting is as much called for as in theology, to sweep away the abuses by which our divine pursuit is encumbered\", by which he meant traditional Christian iconography. He hoped to find more authentic settings and decor for Biblical subjects at their original location, though his death prevented more than studies being made. Other artists including the Pre-Raphaelite William Holman Hunt and David Roberts (in The Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia) had similar motivations, giving an emphasis on realism in British Orientalist art from the start. The French artist James Tissot also used contemporary Middle Eastern landscape and decor for Biblical subjects, with little regard for historical costumes or other fittings.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Orientalist art", "target_page_ids": [ 7749214, 225143, 3391396, 16043, 7607314, 25814008, 7567080, 523499, 103326, 118449, 376734, 62774081, 1440880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 332, 345 ], [ 347, 363 ], [ 392, 400 ], [ 405, 414 ], [ 434, 443 ], [ 539, 549 ], [ 611, 624 ], [ 784, 795 ], [ 983, 997 ], [ 998, 1017 ], [ 1022, 1035 ], [ 1040, 1094 ], [ 1212, 1224 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Holman Hunt produced a number of major paintings of Biblical subjects drawing on his Middle Eastern travels, improvising variants of contemporary Arab costume and furnishings to avoid specifically Islamic styles, and also some landscapes and genre subjects. The biblical subjects included The Scapegoat (1856), The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple (1860), and The Shadow of Death (1871). The Miracle of the Holy Fire (1899) was intended as a picturesque satire on the local Eastern Christians, of whom, like most European visitors, Hunt took a very dim view. His A Street Scene in Cairo; The Lantern-Maker's Courtship (1854–61) is a rare contemporary narrative scene, as the young man feels his fiancé's face, which he is not allowed to see, through her veil, as a Westerner in the background beats his way up the street with his stick. This a rare intrusion of a clearly contemporary figure into an Orientalist scene; mostly they claim the picturesqueness of the historical painting so popular at the time, without the trouble of researching authentic costumes and settings.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Orientalist art", "target_page_ids": [ 10367608, 10795521, 7291024, 10442539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 297, 310 ], [ 319, 359 ], [ 372, 391 ], [ 400, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Gérôme exhibited For Sale; Slaves at Cairo at the Royal Academy in London in 1871, it was \"widely found offensive\", partly because the British involvement in successfully suppressed the slave trade in Egypt, but also for cruelty and \"representing fleshiness for its own sake\". But Rana Kabbani believes that \"French Orientalist painting, as exemplified by the works of Gérôme, may appear more sensual, gaudy, gory and sexually explicit than its British counterpart, but this is a difference of style not substance ... Similar strains of fascination and repulsion convulsed their artists\" Nonetheless, nudity and violence are more evident in British paintings set in the ancient world, and \"the iconography of the odalisque ... the Oriental sex slave whose image is offered up to the viewer as freely as she herself supposedly was to her master – is almost entirely French in origin\", though taken up with enthusiasm by Italian and other European painters.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Orientalist art", "target_page_ids": [ 161778, 10983626, 387430, 173634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 68 ], [ 191, 202 ], [ 718, 727 ], [ 745, 754 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Frederick Lewis, who lived for several years in a traditional mansion in Cairo, painted highly detailed works showing both realistic genre scenes of Middle Eastern life and more idealized scenes in upper class Egyptian interiors with no traces of Western cultural influence yet apparent. His careful and seemingly affectionate representation of Islamic architecture, furnishings, screens, and costumes set new standards of realism, which influenced other artists, including Gérôme in his later works. He \"never painted a nude\", and his wife modelled for several of his harem scenes, which, with the rare examples by the classicist painter Lord Leighton, imagine \"the harem as a place of almost English domesticity, ... [where]... women's fully clothed respectability suggests a moral healthiness to go with their natural good looks\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Orientalist art", "target_page_ids": [ 2005739, 6293, 7749214, 330700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 78, 83 ], [ 138, 150 ], [ 644, 657 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other artists concentrated on landscape painting, often of desert scenes, including Richard Dadd and Edward Lear. David Roberts (1796–1864) produced architectural and landscape views, many of antiquities, and published very successful books of lithographs from them.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Orientalist art", "target_page_ids": [ 1359329, 65096, 10408, 376734, 1431051, 18426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 48 ], [ 84, 96 ], [ 101, 112 ], [ 114, 127 ], [ 192, 203 ], [ 244, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Russian Orientalist art was largely concerned with the areas of Central Asia that Russia was conquering during the century, and also in historical painting with the Mongols who had dominated Russia for much of the Middle Ages, who were rarely shown in a good light. The explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky played a major role in popularising an exotic view of \"the Orient\" and advocating imperial expansion.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Orientalist art", "target_page_ids": [ 6742, 18984, 529282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 76 ], [ 165, 171 ], [ 279, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"The Five\" Russian composers were prominent 19th-century Russian composers who worked together to create a distinct national style of classical music. One hallmark of \"The Five\" composers was their reliance on orientalism. Many quintessentially \"Russian\" works were composed in orientalist style, such as Balakirev's Islamey, Borodin's Prince Igor and Rimsky-Korsakov's Scheherazade. As leader of \"The Five,\" Balakirev encouraged the use of eastern themes and harmonies to set their \"Russian\" music apart from the German symphonism of Anton Rubinstein and other Western-oriented composers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Orientalist art", "target_page_ids": [ 75849, 198778, 13716821, 527945, 39143, 2691025, 152755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 65, 74 ], [ 116, 149 ], [ 317, 324 ], [ 336, 347 ], [ 370, 382 ], [ 535, 551 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward Said originally wrote that Germany did not have a politically motivated Orientalism because its colonial empire did not expand in the same areas as France and Britain. Said later stated that Germany \"had in common with Anglo-French and later American Orientalism [...] a kind of intellectual authority over the Orient,\" However, Said also wrote that \"there was nothing in Germany to correspond to the Anglo-French presence in India, the Levant, North Africa. Moreover, the German Orient was almost exclusively a scholarly, or at least a classical, Orient: it was made the subject of lyrics, fantasies, and even novels, but it was never actual.\" According to Suzanne L. Marchand, German scholars were the \"pace-setters\" in oriental studies. Robert Irwin wrote that \"until the outbreak of the Second World War, German dominance of Orientalism was practically unchallenged.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Orientalist art", "target_page_ids": [ 47395556, 2324835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 665, 684 ], [ 747, 759 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nationalist historical painting in Central Europe and the Balkans dwelt on oppression during the Ottoman Empire period, battles between Ottoman and Christian armies, as well as themes like the Ottoman Imperial Harem, although the latter was a less common theme than in French depictions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Orientalist art", "target_page_ids": [ 21748, 5188, 4829, 5295016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 35, 49 ], [ 58, 65 ], [ 193, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Saidian analysis has not prevented a strong revival of interest in, and collecting of, 19th century Orientalist works since the 1970s, the latter was in large part led by Middle Eastern buyers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Orientalist art", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Authors and composers are not commonly referred to as \"Orientalist\" in the way that artists are, and relatively few specialized in Oriental topics or styles, or are even best known for their works including them. But many major figures, from Mozart to Flaubert, have produced significant works with Oriental subjects or treatments. Lord Byron with his four long \"Turkish tales\" in poetry, is one of the most important writers to make exotic fantasy Oriental settings a significant theme in the literature of Romanticism. Giuseppe Verdi's opera Aida (1871) is set in Egypt as portrayed through the content and the visual spectacle. \"Aida\" depicts a militaristic Egypt's tyranny over Ethiopia.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pop culture", "target_page_ids": [ 17566665, 26094, 12958, 37888, 8087628, 199160, 187749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 332, 342 ], [ 508, 519 ], [ 521, 535 ], [ 544, 548 ], [ 566, 571 ], [ 648, 660 ], [ 682, 690 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Irish Orientalism had a particular character, drawing on various beliefs about early historical links between Ireland and the East, few of which are now regarded as historically correct. The mythical Milesians are one example of this. The Irish were also conscious of the views of other nations seeing them as comparably backward to the East, and Europe's \"backyard Orient.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pop culture", "target_page_ids": [ 245156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In music, Orientalism may be applied to styles occurring in different periods, such as the alla Turca, used by multiple composers including Mozart and Beethoven. The musicologist Richard Taruskin identified in 19th-century Russian music a strain of Orientalism: \"the East as a sign or metaphor, as imaginary geography, as historical fiction, as the reduced and totalized other against which we construct our (not less reduced and totalized) sense of ourselves.\" Taruskin conceded Russian composers, unlike those in France and Germany, felt an \"ambivalence\" to the theme since \"Russia was a contiguous empire in which Europeans, living side by side with 'orientals', identified (and intermarried) with them far more than in the case of other colonial powers\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pop culture", "target_page_ids": [ 8911769, 33163, 17914, 20458, 2822690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 101 ], [ 140, 146 ], [ 151, 160 ], [ 166, 178 ], [ 179, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nonetheless, Taruskin characterized Orientalism in Romantic Russian music as having melodies \"full of close little ornaments and melismas,\" chromatic accompanying lines, drone bass—characteristics which were used by Glinka, Balakirev, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakov, Lyapunov, and Rachmaninov. These musical characteristics evoke:not just the East, but the seductive East that emasculates, enslaves, renders passive. In a word, it signifies the promise of the experience of nega, a prime attribute of the orient as imagined by the Russians.... In opera and song, nega often simply denotes S-E-X a la russe, desired or achieved.Orientalism is also traceable in music that is considered to have effects of exoticism, including the Japonisme in Claude Debussy's piano music all the way to the sitar being used in recordings by the Beatles.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pop culture", "target_page_ids": [ 254773, 143712, 143605, 75847, 1531242, 99340, 2327352, 1794655, 6260, 74195, 29812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 222 ], [ 224, 233 ], [ 235, 242 ], [ 244, 259 ], [ 261, 269 ], [ 275, 286 ], [ 698, 707 ], [ 723, 732 ], [ 736, 750 ], [ 784, 789 ], [ 818, 829 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United Kingdom, Gustav Holst composed Beni Mora evoking a languid, heady Arabian atmosphere.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pop culture", "target_page_ids": [ 49241, 44488240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 35 ], [ 45, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Orientalism, in a more camp fashion also found its way into exotica music in the late 1950s, especially the works of Les Baxter, for example, his composition \"City of Veils.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pop culture", "target_page_ids": [ 83987, 314566, 302051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 27 ], [ 60, 67 ], [ 117, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Romantic movement in literature began in 1785 and ended around 1830. The term Romantic references the ideas and culture that writers of the time reflected in their work. During this time, the culture and objects of the East began to have a profound effect on Europe. Extensive traveling by artists and members of the European elite brought travelogues and sensational tales back to the West creating a great interest in all things \"foreign.\" Romantic Orientalism incorporates African and Asian geographic locations, well-known colonial and \"native\" personalities, folklore, and philosophies to create a literary environment of colonial exploration from a distinctly European worldview. The current trend in analysis of this movement references a belief in this literature as a mode to justify European colonial endeavors with the expansion of territory.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pop culture", "target_page_ids": [ 26094, 1854, 1318227, 11303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 480, 487 ], [ 492, 497 ], [ 568, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his novel Salammbô, Gustave Flaubert used ancient Carthage in North Africa as a foil to ancient Rome. He portrayed its culture as morally corrupting and suffused with dangerously alluring eroticism. This novel proved hugely influential on later portrayals of ancient Semitic cultures.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pop culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1935323, 12307, 6555, 520956, 25458, 58695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 21 ], [ 23, 39 ], [ 53, 61 ], [ 83, 87 ], [ 99, 103 ], [ 270, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Said argues that the continuity of Orientalism into the present can be found in influential images, particularly through the Cinema of the United States, as the West has now grown to include the United States. Many blockbuster feature films, such as the Indiana Jones series, The Mummy films, and Disney's Aladdin film series demonstrate the imagined geographies of the East. The films usually portray the lead heroic characters as being from the Western world, while the villains often come from the East. The representation of the Orient has continued in film, although this representation does not necessarily have any truth to it.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pop culture", "target_page_ids": [ 418334, 408230, 11903589, 16736415, 41591279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 152 ], [ 215, 226 ], [ 254, 267 ], [ 276, 285 ], [ 306, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In The Tea House of the August Moon (1956), as argued by Pedro Iacobelli, there are tropes of orientalism. He notes, that the film \"tells us more about the Americans and the American's image of Okinawa rather than about the Okinawan people.\" The film characterizes the Okinawans as \"merry but backward\" and \"de-politicized,\" which ignored the real-life Okinawan political protests over forceful land acquisition by the American military at the time.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pop culture", "target_page_ids": [ 691154, 22477, 166271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 35 ], [ 194, 201 ], [ 224, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kimiko Akita, in Orientalism and the Binary of Fact and Fiction in 'Memoirs of a Geisha, argues that Memoirs of a Geisha (2005) contains orientalist tropes and deep \"cultural misrepresentations.\" She states that Memoirs of a Geisha \"reinforces the idea of Japanese culture and geisha as exotic, backward, irrational, dirty, profane, promiscuous, bizarre, and enigmatic.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pop culture", "target_page_ids": [ 5541530, 167104, 18617998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 120 ], [ 256, 272 ], [ 277, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Romantic period of the 19th century, ballet developed a preoccupation with the exotic. This exoticism ranged from ballets set in Scotland to those based on ethereal creatures. By the later part of the century, ballets were capturing the presumed essence of the mysterious East. These ballets often included sexual themes and tended to be based on assumptions of people rather than on concrete facts. Orientalism is apparent in numerous ballets.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pop culture", "target_page_ids": [ 49733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Orient motivated several major ballets, which have survived since the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Le Corsaire premiered in 1856 at the Paris Opera, with choreography by Joseph Mazilier. Marius Petipa re-choreographed the ballet for the Maryinsky Ballet in St. Petersburg, Russia in 1899. Its complex storyline, loosely based on Lord Byron's poem, takes place in Turkey and focuses on a love story between a pirate and a beautiful slave girl. Scenes include a bazaar where women are sold to men as slaves, and the Pasha's Palace, which features his harem of wives. In 1877, Marius Petipa choreographed La Bayadère, the love story of an Indian temple dancer and Indian warrior. This ballet was based on Kalidasa's play Sakuntala. La Bayadere used vaguely Indian costuming, and incorporated Indian inspired hand gestures into classical ballet. In addition, it included a 'Hindu Dance,' motivated by Kathak, an Indian dance form. Another ballet, Sheherazade, choreographed by Michel Fokine in 1910 to music by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, is a story involving a shah's wife and her illicit relations with a Golden Slave, originally played by Vaslav Nijinsky. The ballet's controversial fixation on sex includes an orgy in an oriental harem. When the shah discovers the actions of his numerous wives and their lovers, he orders the deaths of those involved. Sheherazade was loosely based on folktales of questionable authenticity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pop culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2119332, 4670249, 1709914, 1129396, 5049142, 2174235, 477185, 75847, 63148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 132 ], [ 192, 207 ], [ 209, 222 ], [ 364, 368 ], [ 624, 635 ], [ 740, 749 ], [ 995, 1008 ], [ 1029, 1052 ], [ 1157, 1172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several lesser-known ballets of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century also show their Orientalism. For instance, in Petipa's The Pharaoh's Daughter (1862), an Englishman imagines himself, in an opium-induced dream, as an Egyptian boy who wins the love of the Pharaoh's daughter, Aspicia. Aspicia's costume consisted of 'Egyptian' décor on a tutu. Another ballet, Hippolyte Monplaisir's Brahma, which premiered in 1868 in La Scala, Italy, is a story that involves romantic relations between a slave girl and Brahma, the Hindu god, when he visits earth. In addition, in 1909, Serge Diagilev included Cléopâtre in the Ballets Russes' repertory. With its theme of sex, this revision of Fokine's Une Nuit d'Egypte combined the \"exoticism and grandeur\" that audiences of this time craved.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pop culture", "target_page_ids": [ 877050, 22713, 832326, 20646911, 99585, 53610306, 4802982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 157 ], [ 204, 209 ], [ 351, 355 ], [ 517, 523 ], [ 529, 538 ], [ 608, 617 ], [ 625, 639 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As one of the pioneers of modern dance in America, Ruth St Denis also explored Orientalism in her dancing. Her dances were not authentic; she drew inspiration from photographs, books, and later from museums in Europe. Yet, the exoticism of her dances catered to the interests of society women in America. She included Radha and The Cobras in her 'Indian' program in 1906. In addition, she found success in Europe with another Indian-themed ballet, The Nautch in 1908. In 1909, upon her return to America, St Denis created her first 'Egyptian' work, Egypta. Her preference for Orientalism continued, culminating with Ishtar of the Seven Gates in 1923, about a Babylonian goddess.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pop culture", "target_page_ids": [ 697050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Orientalism in dance climaxed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it is still present in modern times. For instance, major ballet companies regularly perform Le Corsaire, La Bayadere, and Sheherazade. Furthermore, Orientalism is also found within newer versions of ballets. In versions of The Nutcracker, such as the 2010 American Ballet Theatre production, the Chinese dance uses an arm position with the arms bent at a ninety-degree angle and the index fingers pointed upwards, while the Arabian dance uses two dimensional bent arm movements. Inspired by ballets of the past, stereotypical 'Oriental' movements and arm positions have developed and remain.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pop culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2119332, 5049142, 2691025, 284925, 875053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 193 ], [ 195, 206 ], [ 212, 223 ], [ 313, 327 ], [ 346, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An exchange of Western and Eastern ideas about spirituality developed as the West traded with and established colonies in Asia. The first Western translation of a Sanskrit text appeared in 1785, marking the growing interest in Indian culture and languages. Translations of the Upanishads, which Arthur Schopenhauer called \"the consolation of my life\", first appeared in 1801 and 1802. Early translations also appeared in other European languages. 19th-century transcendentalism was influenced by Asian spirituality, prompting Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) to pioneer the idea of spirituality as a distinct field.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 700, 164646, 26202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 295, 314 ], [ 460, 477 ], [ 526, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A major force in the mutual influence of Eastern and Western spirituality and religiosity was the Theosophical Society, a group searching for ancient wisdom from the East and spreading Eastern religious ideas in the West. One of its salient features was the belief in \"Masters of Wisdom\", \"beings, human or once human, who have transcended the normal frontiers of knowledge, and who make their wisdom available to others\". The Theosophical Society also spread Western ideas in the East, contributing to its modernisation and a growing nationalism in the Asian colonies.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 28387, 200264, 24162217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 73 ], [ 98, 118 ], [ 269, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Theosophical Society had a major influence on Buddhist modernism and Hindu reform movements. Between 1878 and 1882, the Society and the Arya Samaj were united as the Theosophical Society of the Arya Samaj. Helena Blavatsky, along with H. S. Olcott and Anagarika Dharmapala, was instrumental in the Western transmission and revival of Theravada Buddhism.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 200264, 22611558, 285979, 173436, 7423966, 168171, 200262, 585377, 30994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ], [ 50, 68 ], [ 73, 95 ], [ 140, 150 ], [ 170, 208 ], [ 210, 226 ], [ 239, 251 ], [ 256, 276 ], [ 338, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another major influence was Vivekananda, who popularised his modernised interpretation of Advaita Vedanta during the later 19th and early 20th century in both India and the West, emphasising anubhava (\"personal experience\") over scriptural authority.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 45660, 301496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 39 ], [ 90, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the spread of Eastern religious and cultural ideals towards the West, came in with studies and certain illustrations that depicts certain regions and religions under the Western perspective. Many the aspects or views are often turned into the ideas that the West have adopted onto those cultural and religious ideals. One of the more adopted views can be depicted through Western context on Islam and the Middle East. Under the adopted view of Islam under the Western context, Orientalism falls under the category of the Western perspective of thinking that shifts through social constructs that refers towards representations of the religion or culture in a subjective view point. The concept of Orientalism dates back to precolonial eras, as the main European powers acquired and perceived of territory, resources, knowledge, and control of the regions in the East. The term Orientalism, depicts further into the historical context of antagonism and misrepresentation into the tendencies of a growing layer of Western inclusion and influence on foreign culture and ideals.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 151419, 21208200, 21208200, 21208200, 21208200, 6037917, 19323, 6037917, 3473169, 9239, 21208200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 26 ], [ 69, 73 ], [ 175, 182 ], [ 263, 267 ], [ 377, 384 ], [ 396, 401 ], [ 410, 421 ], [ 449, 454 ], [ 482, 493 ], [ 758, 764 ], [ 1017, 1024 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the religious perspective under Islam, the term Orientalism applies in similar meaning as the outlook from the Western perspective, mainly in the eyes of the Christian majority. The main contributor of the depiction of Oriental perspectives or illustrations on Islam and other Middle Eastern cultures derives from the imperial and colonial influences and powers that attribute to formation of multiple fields of geographical, political, educational, and scientific elements. The combination of these different genres reveal significant division among people of those cultures and reinforces the ideals set from the Western perspective. With Islam, historically scientific discoveries, research, inventions, or ideas that were presented before and contributed to many other European breakthroughs are not affiliated with the previous Islamic scientists. From the exclusion of past contributions and initial works further lead to narrative of the concept of Orientalism with the passing of time generated a history and directive of presence within region and religion that historically influences the image of the East.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 186855, 6037917, 6037917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 170 ], [ 264, 269 ], [ 836, 841 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Through the recent years, Orientalism has been influenced and shirted to altering representations of various forms that all derive from the same meaning. From the nineteenth century, among the Western perspectives on Orientalism, differed as the split of American and European Orientalism viewed different illustrations. With mainstream media and popular production reveal many depictions of Oriental cultures and Islamic references to the current event of radicalization for Non-western cultures. With references and mainstream media often utilized to contribute to an extended agenda under the construct judgement of alternate motives. The approach with the generalization of the term Orientalism was embedded with under beginning of colonialism as the root of the main complexity of within modern societies perspectives of foreign cultures. As mainstream media depicts illustrations to utilize many instances of discourse and on certain regions mainly among the conflict within regions in the Middle East and Africa. With agenda of influencing views on non-western societies to be deemed non-compatible with differing ideologies and cultures, the elements that present diversion among Eastern societies and aspects.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 9239, 7299, 19323, 5334607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 269, 275 ], [ 737, 748 ], [ 997, 1008 ], [ 1013, 1019 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The concept of Orientalism has been adopted by scholars in East-Central and Eastern Europe, among them Maria Todorova, Attila Melegh, Tomasz Zarycki, and Dariusz Skórczewski as an analytical tool for exploring the images of East-Central and Eastern European societies in cultural discourses of the West in the 19th century and during the Soviet domination.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Eastern views of the West and Western views of the East", "target_page_ids": [ 16800883, 37403, 3025755, 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 71 ], [ 76, 90 ], [ 103, 117 ], [ 338, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term \"re-orientalism'''\" was used by Lisa Lau and Ana Cristina Mendes to refer to how Eastern self-representation is based on western referential points:Re-Orientalism differs from Orientalism in its manner of and reasons for referencing the West: while challenging the metanarratives of Orientalism, re-Orientalism sets up alternative metanarratives of its own in order to articulate eastern identities, simultaneously deconstructing and reinforcing Orientalism.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Eastern views of the West and Western views of the East", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The term occidentalism is often used to refer to negative views of the Western world found in Eastern societies, and is founded on the sense of nationalism that spread in reaction to colonialism (see Pan-Asianism). Edward Said has been accused of Occidentalizing the west in his critique of Orientalism; of being guilty of falsely characterizing the West in the same way that he accuses Western scholars of falsely characterizing the East. Said essentialized the West by creating a homogenous image of the area. Currently, the West consists not only of Europe, but also the United States and Canada, which have become more influential over the years.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Eastern views of the West and Western views of the East", "target_page_ids": [ 1852708, 21208200, 18984987, 21748, 7299, 3399112, 18247304, 3473169, 48081, 3180547, 9239, 3434750, 5042916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ], [ 71, 84 ], [ 94, 111 ], [ 144, 155 ], [ 183, 194 ], [ 200, 212 ], [ 215, 226 ], [ 279, 302 ], [ 445, 458 ], [ 482, 492 ], [ 553, 559 ], [ 574, 587 ], [ 592, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "18th century Qing emperors in China had a material fascination with Occidenterie, or objects inspired by Western art and architecture (an analogue to Europe's chinoiserie or material imitation of Chinese artistic traditions). Although the phenomenon was strongly associated with the emperor's court and the architecture project of Xiyang Lou, nonetheless, a wide spectrum of China's social classes had some access to Occidenterie objects as they were domestically produced.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Eastern views of the West and Western views of the East", "target_page_ids": [ 25310, 1063807, 1695019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 17 ], [ 159, 170 ], [ 331, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The action of othering cultures occurs when groups are labeled as different due to characteristics that distinguish them from the perceived norm. Edward Said, author of the book Orientalism, argued that western powers and influential individuals such as social scientists and artists othered \"the Orient.\" The evolution of ideologies is often initially embedded in the language, and continues to ripple through the fabric of society by taking over the culture, economy and political sphere. Much of Said's criticism of Western Orientalism is based on what he describes as articularizing trends. These ideologies are present in Asian works by Indian, Chinese, and Japanese writers and artists, in their views of Western culture and tradition. A particularly significant development is the manner in which Orientalism has taken shape in non-Western cinema, as for instance in Hindi-language cinema.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Eastern views of the West and Western views of the East", "target_page_ids": [ 972208, 18247304, 3473169, 26781, 241261, 4246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 22 ], [ 146, 157 ], [ 178, 189 ], [ 254, 271 ], [ 293, 303 ], [ 874, 895 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Allosemitism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 51292018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arabist", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1653918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Black orientalism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10435184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Borealism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 61358941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chinoiserie", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1063807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cultural appropriation", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1982394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dahesh Museum", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1591919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ethnocentrism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Exoticism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2327352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hebraist", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2784585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hellenocentrism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 62423085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Indomania", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5620565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Japonisme", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1794655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " La belle juive", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37481550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of artistic works with Orientalist influences", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 44660882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Orientalist artists", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 44660758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Neo-orientalism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28986298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Noble savage", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Objectification", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 413043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Othering", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 972208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Outsider art", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 173096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pizza effect", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27702479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Primitivism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2169442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Racial fetishism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 50227895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Romantic racism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17194344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Soviet Orientalist studies in Islam", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25721647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims in the United States", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5966674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stereotypes of Jews", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20900142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stereotypes of South Asians", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7196982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Turquerie", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16743222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " World music", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Xenocentrism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2259738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beard, David and Kenneth Gloag. 2005. Musicology: The Key Concepts. New York: Routledge.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cristofi, Renato Brancaglione. Architectural Orientalism in São Paulo - 1895 - 1937. 2016. São Paulo: University of São Paulo online, accessed July 11, 2018", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Harding, James, Artistes Pompiers: French Academic Art in the 19th Century, 1979, Academy Editions, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " C F Ives, \"The Great Wave: The Influence of Japanese Woodcuts on French Prints\", 1974, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gabriel, Karen & P.K. Vijayan (2012): Orientalism, terrorism and Bombay cinema, Journal of Postcolonial Writing, 48:3, 299–310", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Holloway, Steven W., ed. (2006). Orientalism, Assyriology and the Bible. Hebrew Bible Monographs, 10. Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2006. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " King, Donald and Sylvester, David eds. The Eastern Carpet in the Western World, From the 15th to the 17th century, Arts Council of Great Britain, London, 1983, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 4249690, 428408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 34 ], [ 116, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mack, Rosamond E. Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art, 1300–1600, University of California Press, 2001 ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Meagher, Jennifer. Orientalism in Nineteenth-Century Art. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. online, accessed April 11, 2011", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nochlin, Linda, The Imaginary Orient, 1983, page numbers from reprint in The nineteenth-century visual culture reader,google books, a reaction to Rosenthal's exhibition and book.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 5929235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978 ).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 18247304, 3473169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 17, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Taruskin, Richard. Defining Russia Musically. Princeton University Press, 1997 .", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 2822690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tromans, Nicholas, and others, The Lure of the East, British Orientalist Painting, 2008, Tate Publishing, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 66101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alazard, Jean. L'Orient et la peinture française.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 44651604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Behdad, Ali. 2013. Photography's Orientalism: New Essays on Colonial Representation. Getty Publications. 224 pages.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 7851087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Benjamin, Roger. 2003. Orientalist Aesthetics, Art, Colonialism and French North Africa: 1880–1930. University of California Press.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 2296203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peltre, Christine. 1998. Orientalism in Art. New York: Abbeville Publishing Group. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 14005843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rosenthal, Donald A. 1982. Orientalism: The Near East in French Painting, 1800–1880. Rochester, NY: Memorial Art Gallery, University of Rochester.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 12215119, 31918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 121 ], [ 123, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stevens, Mary Anne, ed. 1984. The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse: European Painters in North Africa and the Near East (exhibition catalogue). London: Royal Academy of Arts.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 161778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Balagangadhara, S. N. 2012. Reconceptualizing India studies. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 7489105, 48518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 73, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bessis, Sophie (2003). Western Supremacy: The Triumph of an Idea?. Zed Books. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 60487459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Clarke, J. J. 1997. \"Oriental Enlightenment.\" London: Routledge.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 803136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chatterjee, Indrani. 1999. \"Gender, Slavery and Law in Colonial India.\" Oxford University Press.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 48518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frank, Andre Gunder. 1998. \"ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age.\" University of California Press.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1114866, 2296203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 73, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Halliday, Fred. 1993. \"'Orientalism' and its critics.\" British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 20(2):145–63. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 3729877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Inden, Ronald. 2000. \"Imagining India.\" Indiana University Press.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 8629840, 4494783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 41, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Irwin, Robert. 2006. For lust of knowing: The Orientalists and their enemies. London: Penguin/Allen Lane. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 2324835, 551953, 3229873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 87, 94 ], [ 95, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Isin, Engin, ed. 2015. Citizenship After Orientalism: Transforming Political Theory. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 6599943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kabbani, Rana. 1994. Imperial Fictions: Europe's Myths of Orient. London: Pandora Press. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 54214630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Van der Pijl, Kees (2014). The Discipline of Western Supremacy: Modes of Foreign Relations and Political Economy, Volume III, Pluto Press, ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 21560699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " King, Richard. 1999. \"Orientalism and Religion.\" Routledge.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kontje, Todd. 2004. German Orientalisms. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 9386687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lach, Donald, and Edwin Van Kley. 1993. \"Asia in the Making of Europe. Volume III.\" University of Chicago Press.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 48906973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lindqvist, Sven (1996). Exterminate all the brutes. New Press, New York. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 2591199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Little, Douglas. 2002. American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East Since 1945. (2nd ed.) .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 5944201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lowe, Lisa. 1992. Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 16668737, 3186173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 79, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Macfie, Alexander Lyon. 2002. Orientalism. White Plains, NY: Longman. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 46854011, 213375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 62, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MacKenzie, John. 1995. Orientalism: History, theory and the arts. Manchester: Manchester University Press. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 10085570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " McEvilley, Thomas. 2002. \"The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies.\" New York: Allworth Press.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 13870090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Murti, Kamakshi P. 2001. India: The Seductive and Seduced \"Other\" of German Orientalism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 15687863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oueijan, Naji. 1996. The Progress of an Image: The East in English Literature. New York: Peter Lang Publishers.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 5556264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Skórczewski, Dariusz. 2020. Polish Literature and National Identity: A Postcolonial Perspective. Rochester: University of Rochester Press. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1001260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Steiner, Evgeny, ed. 2012. Orientalism/Occidentalism: Languages of Cultures vs. Languages of Description''. Moscow: Sovpadenie. [English & Russian]. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Orientalist Painters", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Arab world in art", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Arab women in art", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Orientalism", "Admiration_of_foreign_cultures", "Art_history", "Cultural_appropriation", "Orientalist_painters", "History_of_racism_in_the_cinema_of_the_United_States" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Crack frequently refers to: ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Crack, a fracture in a body", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 261967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crack, a fracture (geology) in a rock", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6985160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crack, short for crack cocaine", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19681345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crack may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cracks (film), a 2009 independent thriller", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 24870003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crack Movement, a Mexican literary movement", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 7182360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crack (band), a Spanish progressive rock group", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 47637645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crack (album), an album by Z-RO", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 19401562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cracks (album), an album by Nabiha", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 26328997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Crack, first album by The Ruts", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 2009916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crack Magazine, a UK-based European music and culture monthly", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 54246996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Crack (magazine), a free culture magazine covering the North East of England", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 3986466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crack, slang for intergluteal cleft", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Slang", "target_page_ids": [ 2451691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Safe cracking, the process of opening a safe without the combination or the key", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gaining entry", "target_page_ids": [ 1251889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crack (password software), a UNIX/Linux password hacking program for systems administrators", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gaining entry", "target_page_ids": [ 4860768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Software cracking, a computer program that modifies other software to remove or disable features usually related to digital rights management", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gaining entry", "target_page_ids": [ 29213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " No-disc crack, software to circumvent Compact Disc and DVD copy protection", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gaining entry", "target_page_ids": [ 1492472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Password cracking, the process of recovering passwords from data stored in or transmitted by a computer system", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gaining entry", "target_page_ids": [ 477981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Security hacker, cracking a system to gain unauthorized access (sometimes mislabeled as \"hacking\")", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gaining entry", "target_page_ids": [ 2471540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cracking (chemistry), the process whereby complex organic molecules are broken down into simpler molecules ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 423933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crack spread, the value difference between crude oil and oil products or between different oil products, usually expressed as a per-barrel value", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1818025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CRACK, an acronym for 'Children Requiring A Caring Kommunity', now called 'Project Prevention'", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 564370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CRACK International Art Camp", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 50642267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Craic, or crack, an Irish term for discourse, news, etc.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1372832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CRAC (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3444403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crack-Up (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2346893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cracker (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22986225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cracking (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crak!, 1963 pop art lithograph by Roy Lichtenstein", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39783938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Krack (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28933450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Krak (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5952914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] } ]

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[]

[ { "plaintext": "Adrian of Nicomedia (also known as Hadrian) or Saint Adrian (, died 4 March 306) was a Herculian Guard of the Roman Emperor Galerius Maximian. After becoming a convert to Christianity with his wife Natalia (Ναταλία), Adrian was martyred at Nicomedia in Asia-Minor (Turkey). Hadrian was the chief military saint of Northern Europe for many ages, second only to Saint George, and is much revered in Flanders, Germany and the north of France.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 671415, 219117, 74631, 5211, 48588, 166592, 854, 11125639, 2556046, 29010, 10878, 11867, 5843419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 102 ], [ 110, 123 ], [ 124, 141 ], [ 171, 183 ], [ 228, 234 ], [ 240, 249 ], [ 253, 263 ], [ 277, 283 ], [ 308, 322 ], [ 372, 384 ], [ 409, 417 ], [ 419, 426 ], [ 444, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adrian and Natalia lived in Nicomedia during the time of Emperor Maximian in the early fourth century. The twenty-eight-year-old Adrian was head of the praetorium.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Martyrdom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is said that while presiding over the torture of a band of Christians, he asked them what reward they expected to receive from God. They replied, \"Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love him.\" He was so amazed at their courage that he publicly confessed his faith, though he had not yet been baptized. He was then immediately imprisoned. He was forbidden visitors, but accounts state that his wife Natalia came to visit him, dressed as a boy, to ask for his prayers when he entered Heaven.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Martyrdom", "target_page_ids": [ 4298, 13811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 387, 395 ], [ 577, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The executioners wanted to burn the bodies of the dead, but a storm arose and quenched the fire. Natalia recovered one of Adrian's hands.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Martyrdom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The accuracy of the recorded story has been questioned. A second Hadrian, is said to have been a son of the Emperor Probus, and, having embraced Christianity, to have been put to death (A.D. 320), at Nicomedia in Asia Minor, by the Emperor Licinius. But no reliable information concerning him is extant. He is commemorated on August 26.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historicity", "target_page_ids": [ 74635, 74639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 122 ], [ 240, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Saint Adrian shares a feast day with his wife on 8 September; he also has feast days alone on 4 March. In the Roman Catholic Church, he is venerated alone, without his wife, on September 8. The Coptic Orthodox Church likewise venerates St. Adrian and his companions on the third day of the Coptic month known as Nesi (corresponding to September 8), mentioning his wife's role during the Synaxarion reading of that day; spelling in the Coptic Synaxarion (likely a result of translating from Arabic to English) yields the names Andrianus and Anatolia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Feast day and patronage", "target_page_ids": [ 10186, 180283, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 30 ], [ 54, 63 ], [ 142, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Saint Hadrian was the chief military saint of Northern Europe for many ages, second only to Saint George, and is much revered in Flanders, Germany and the north of France. He is usually represented armed, with an anvil in his hands or at his feet.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Feast day and patronage", "target_page_ids": [ 2556046, 29010, 10878, 11867, 5843419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 42 ], [ 92, 104 ], [ 129, 137 ], [ 139, 146 ], [ 164, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sant'Adriano al Foro, a church in the Roman Forum (founded AD 630), was named in his honour. The name was later transferred to Santa Maria della Mercede e Sant'Adriano a Villa Albani (1958) when the old church was demolished.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Feast day and patronage", "target_page_ids": [ 9392640, 92894, 70083031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 38, 49 ], [ 127, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saint Adrian or Hadrian of Nicomedia, patron saint archive", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Members_and_leaders_of_the_Praetorian_Guard", "Saints_from_Roman_Anatolia", "Married_couples", "Converts_to_Christianity_from_pagan_religions", "4th-century_Christian_martyrs", "4th-century_Romans", "Late_Ancient_Christian_female_saints", "3rd-century_births", "306_deaths", "Military_saints", "4th-century_Roman_women" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "JFK is a 1991 American epic political thriller film that examines the events leading to the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963 and alleged cover-up through the eyes of former New Orleans district attorney Jim Garrison. Garrison filed charges against New Orleans businessman Clay Shaw for his alleged participation in a conspiracy to assassinate Kennedy, for which Lee Harvey Oswald was found responsible by the Warren Commission.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2084367, 10495848, 286369, 53842, 236473, 7273492, 411255, 32866171, 17652, 69186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 27 ], [ 28, 46 ], [ 92, 124 ], [ 181, 192 ], [ 211, 223 ], [ 234, 247 ], [ 280, 289 ], [ 325, 358 ], [ 370, 387 ], [ 417, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The film was directed by Oliver Stone, adapted by Stone and Zachary Sklar from the books On the Trail of the Assassins (1988) by Jim Garrison and Crossfire: The Plot That Killed Kennedy (1989) by Jim Marrs. Stone described this account as a \"counter-myth\" to the Warren Commission's \"fictional myth.\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21486951, 19750478, 223203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 37 ], [ 89, 118 ], [ 196, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The film became embroiled in controversy at the time of its release. Upon its theatrical release, many major American newspapers ran editorials accusing Stone of taking liberties with historical facts, including the film's implication that Kennedy's own vice president (and eventual successor) Lyndon B. Johnson was part of a coup d'état to kill Kennedy. Despite the controversy surrounding its historical depiction, JFK received critical praise for the performances of its cast, Stone's directing, score, editing, and cinematography. The film gradually picked up momentum at the box office after a slow start, earning over $205million in worldwide gross, making it the sixth highest-grossing film of 1991 worldwide.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 48086963, 54533, 171587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 250, 253 ], [ 294, 311 ], [ 670, 715 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "JFK was nominated for eight Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Supporting Actor for Tommy Lee Jones, and won two for Best Cinematography and Best Film Editing. It was the first of three films Stone made about American presidents, followed by Nixon with Anthony Hopkins in the title role and W. with Josh Brolin as George W. Bush.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 324, 61702, 62009, 23251708, 61834, 76841, 171078, 2397, 25473, 15352210, 909444, 3414021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 42 ], [ 54, 66 ], [ 68, 81 ], [ 87, 108 ], [ 146, 165 ], [ 170, 187 ], [ 271, 276 ], [ 282, 297 ], [ 305, 315 ], [ 320, 322 ], [ 328, 339 ], [ 343, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his farewell address in 1961, outgoing President Dwight D. Eisenhower warns about the build-up of the \"military-industrial complex\". He is succeeded by John F. Kennedy as president, whose time in office is marked by the Bay of Pigs Invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis until his assassination in Dealey Plaza on November 22, 1963. Kennedy's suspected assassin Lee Harvey Oswald is arrested for the murder of police officer J. D. Tippit but is killed by Jack Ruby. New Orleans District Attorney Jim Garrison and his team investigate potential New Orleans links to the JFK assassination, including private pilot David Ferrie, but their investigation is publicly rebuked by the federal government and Garrison closes the investigation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plot", "target_page_ids": [ 30513111, 8182, 211683, 5119376, 184511, 6827, 286369, 322461, 17652, 374231, 16277, 53842, 402653, 236473, 1666780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ], [ 56, 76 ], [ 110, 137 ], [ 159, 174 ], [ 227, 247 ], [ 256, 276 ], [ 283, 300 ], [ 304, 316 ], [ 368, 385 ], [ 431, 443 ], [ 461, 470 ], [ 472, 483 ], [ 484, 501 ], [ 502, 514 ], [ 618, 630 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The investigation is reopened in 1966 after Garrison reads the Warren Report and notices what he believes to be multiple inaccuracies. Garrison and his staff interrogate people involved with Oswald and Ferrie. One such witness is Willie O'Keefe, a male prostitute serving five years in prison for soliciting, who says he witnessed Ferrie discussing about assassinating the President, as well as briefly meeting Oswald, and romantically involved with a man called \"Clay Bertrand\". Garrison and his team theorize Oswald was an agent of the Intelligence Agency and was framed for the assassination.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plot", "target_page_ids": [ 69186, 304057, 4541530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 76 ], [ 297, 307 ], [ 464, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1967, Garrison and his team talk to several witnesses to the Kennedy assassination, including Jean Hill, a teacher who says she witnessed a gunman shooting from the grassy knoll, that Secret Service threatened her into saying three shots came from the book depository, and her testimony was altered by the Warren Commission. Garrison's staff also test fire an empty rifle from the Texas School Book Depository from which Oswald was alleged to have shot Kennedy and conclude that Oswald was too poor a marksman to make the shots, indicating more than one shooter were involved. Garrison comes to believe New Orleans-based international businessman Clay Shaw is the same man as Bertrand. When Shaw is interrogated, the businessman denies any knowledge of meeting Ferrie, O'Keefe or Oswald. Some key witnesses become scared and refuse to testify while others, such as Ruby and Ferrie, are killed in suspicious circumstances. Before his death, Ferrie tells Garrison that he believes people are after him, and reveals there was a conspiracy to kill Kennedy. Garrison meets a high-level figure in Washington D.C. who identifies himself as \"X\". He suggests a coup d'état at the highest levels of government, implicating members of the CIA, the Mafia, the military-industrial complex, Secret Service, FBI, and Kennedy's vice-president and then president Lyndon Baines Johnson as either co-conspirators or as having motives to cover up the truth of the assassination. X suggests that Kennedy was killed because he wanted to pull the United States out of the Vietnam War and dismantle the CIA. X encourages Garrison to keep digging and prosecute Shaw. Shaw is soon charged with conspiring to murder the President.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plot", "target_page_ids": [ 308695, 58221, 69186, 411255, 5183633, 18293303, 58221, 11127, 54533, 32611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 106 ], [ 187, 201 ], [ 309, 326 ], [ 650, 659 ], [ 1231, 1234 ], [ 1240, 1245 ], [ 1280, 1294 ], [ 1296, 1299 ], [ 1349, 1370 ], [ 1552, 1563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some of Garrison's staff begin to doubt his motives and disagree with his methods, and leave the investigation. Garrison's marriage is strained when his wife Liz complains that he is spending more time on the case than with his own family. After a sinister phone call is made to their daughter, Liz accuses Garrison of being selfish and attacking Shaw only because of his homosexuality. In addition, the media launches attacks on television and in newspapers attacking Garrison's character and criticizing the way his office is spending taxpayers' money. Garrison suspects a connection with the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. and the assassination of Robert F. Kennedy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plot", "target_page_ids": [ 21189400, 21131596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 595, 634 ], [ 643, 677 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The trial of Clay Shaw takes place in 1969. Garrison presents the court with a dismissal of the single-bullet theory, proposing a scenario involving three assassins firing six shots and framing Oswald for the murders of Kennedy and Tippit, but the jury acquits Shaw after less than one hour of deliberation. Members of that jury state publicly that they believe there was a conspiracy behind the assassination, but not enough evidence to link Shaw to that conspiracy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plot", "target_page_ids": [ 7273492, 320425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ], [ 96, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kevin Costner as Jim Garrison", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 144152, 236473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 18, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kevin Bacon as Willie O'Keefe", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 16827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tommy Lee Jones as Clay Shaw / Clay Bertrand", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 248127, 411255, 4541530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 20, 29 ], [ 32, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Laurie Metcalf as Susie Cox", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 299968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gary Oldman as Lee Harvey Oswald", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 213163, 17652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 16, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michael Rooker as Bill Broussard", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 651347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jay O. Sanders as Lou Ivon", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 8378929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sissy Spacek as Liz Garrison", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 63523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joe Pesci as David Ferrie", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 277463, 1666780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 14, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beata Poźniak as Marina Oswald Porter ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 2313300, 809560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 18, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jack Lemmon as Jack Martin", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 15821, 7273492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 16, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Walter Matthau as Senator Russell B. Long", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 62811, 224657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 27, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Donald Sutherland as Mr. X", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 129237, 460360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 22, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ed Asner as Guy Banister", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 594844, 1969514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 13, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brian Doyle-Murray as Jack Ruby", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 103017, 16277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 23, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Candy as Dean Andrews Jr.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 90239, 24603608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 15, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sally Kirkland as Rose Cheramie", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 246568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wayne Knight as Numa Bertel", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 21188606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pruitt Taylor Vince as Lee Bowers", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 2712093, 670638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 24, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tony Plana as Carlos Bringuier", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 906048, 1687134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 15, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vincent D'Onofrio as Bill Newman", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 231089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dale Dye as General Y", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 1921567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lolita Davidovich as Beverly Oliver", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 1069763, 337539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 22, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ellen McElduff as Jean Hill", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 66490675, 308695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 19, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Larroquette as Jerry Johnson", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 1338047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Willem Oltmans as George de Mohrenschildt", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 2202827, 2650128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 19, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tomas Milian as Leopoldo", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 4698423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gary Grubbs as Al Oser", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 6269275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ron Rifkin as Mr. Goldberg / Spiesel", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 365334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peter Maloney as Colonel Finck", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 48626323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Finnegan as Judge Haggerty", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 6333606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wayne Tippit as FBI Agent Frank", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 24220488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jo Anderson as Julia Ann Mercer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 11708972, 32866171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 16, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bob Gunton as News Anchor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 1584240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frank Whaley as Imposter Oswald ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 2624250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jim Garrison as Earl Warren", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cast", "target_page_ids": [ 236473, 71908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 17, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zachary Sklar, a journalist and a professor of journalism at the Columbia School of Journalism, met Garrison in 1987 and helped him rewrite a manuscript that he was working on about Kennedy's assassination. He changed it from a scholarly book in the third person to \"a detective story – a whydunnit\" in the first person. Sklar edited the book and it was published in 1988. While attending the Latin American Film Festival in Havana, Cuba, Stone met Sheridan Square Press publisher Ellen Ray on an elevator. She had published Jim Garrison's book On the Trail of the Assassins. Ray had gone to New Orleans and worked with Garrison in 1967. She gave Stone a copy of Garrison's book and told him to read it. He did and quickly bought the film rights with $250,000 of his own money to prevent talk going around the studios about projects he might be developing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 391273, 49719, 5042481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 94 ], [ 425, 431 ], [ 433, 437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kennedy's assassination had always had a profound effect on Stone: \"The Kennedy murder was one of the signal events of the postwar generation, my generation.\" Stone met Garrison and grilled him with a variety of questions for three hours. Garrison stood up to Stone's questioning and then got up and left. His pride and dignity impressed the director. Stone's impressions from their meeting were that \"Garrison made many mistakes. He trusted a lot of weirdos and followed a lot of fake leads. But he went out on a limb, way out. And he kept going, even when he knew he was facing long odds.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stone was not interested in making a film about Garrison's life, but rather the story behind the conspiracy to kill Kennedy. He also bought the film rights to Jim Marrs' book Crossfire: The Plot That Killed Kennedy. One of the filmmaker's primary goals with JFK was to provide a rebuttal to the Warren Commission's report that he believed was \"a great myth. And in order to fight a myth, maybe you have to create another one, a counter-myth.\" Even though Marrs' book collected many theories, Stone was hungry for more and hired Jane Rusconi, a recent Yale University graduate, to lead a team of researchers and assemble as much information about the assassination as possible while the director completed post-production on Born on the Fourth of July. Stone read two dozen books on the assassination while Rusconi read between 100 and 200 books on the subject.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 223203, 34273, 4457806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 168 ], [ 551, 566 ], [ 724, 750 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By December 1989, Stone began approaching studios to back his film. While in pre-production on The Doors, he met with three executives at Warner Bros. who wanted him to make a film about Howard Hughes. However, Warren Beatty owned the rights and so Stone pitched JFK. Studio president and chief operating officer Terry Semel liked the idea. He had a reputation for making political and controversial films, including All the President's Men, The Parallax View and The Killing Fields. Stone made a handshake deal with Warner Bros. whereby the studio would get all the rights to the film and put up $20million for the budget. The director did this so that the screenplay would not be widely read and bid on, and he also knew that the material was potentially dangerous and wanted only one studio to finance it. Finally, Stone liked Semel's track record of producing political films.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 604150, 34052, 14059, 62809, 5401251, 3876620, 192469, 1217079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 104 ], [ 138, 150 ], [ 187, 200 ], [ 211, 224 ], [ 313, 324 ], [ 417, 440 ], [ 442, 459 ], [ 464, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Stone set out to write the screenplay, he asked Sklar (who also edited Marrs' book) to co-write it with him and distill the Garrison and Marrs books and Rusconi's research into a script that would resemble what he called \"a great detective movie.\" Stone told Sklar his vision of the film:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Although he did employ ideas from Rashomon, his principal model for JFK was Z:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stone broke the film's structure down into four stories: Garrison investigating the New Orleans connection to the assassination; the research that revealed what Stone calls, \"Oswald legend: who he was and how to try to inculcate that\"; the recreation of the assassination at Dealey Plaza; and the information that the character of \"X\" imparts on Garrison, which Stone saw as the \"means by which we were able to move between New Orleans, local, into the wider story of Dealey Plaza.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sklar worked on the Garrison side of the story while Stone added the Oswald story, the events at Dealey Plaza and the \"Mr. X\" character. Sklar spent a year researching and writing a 550-page triple-spaced screenplay and then Stone rewrote it and condensed it closer to normal screenplay length. Stone and Sklar used composite characters, most notably the \"Mr. X\" character played by Donald Sutherland. This was a technique that would be criticized in the press. He was a mix of Richard Case Nagell and retired Air Force colonel Fletcher Prouty, another adviser for the film and who was a military liaison between the CIA and the Pentagon. Meeting Prouty was, for Stone, \"one of the most extraordinary afternoons I've ever spent. Pretty much like in the movie, he just started to talk.\" According to Stone, ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 7491390, 32090, 460360, 20740978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 478, 497 ], [ 510, 519 ], [ 528, 543 ], [ 625, 637 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The screenplay's early drafts suggested a four and a half-hour film with a potential budget of $40million – double what Stone had agreed to with Warner Bros. The director knew film mogul Arnon Milchan and met with him to help finance the film. Milchan was eager to work on the project and launch his new company, Regency Enterprises, with a high profile film like JFK. Milchan made a deal with Warner Bros. to put up the money for the film. Stone managed to pare down his initial revision, a 190-page draft, to a 156-page shooting script.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 18717338, 1280440, 4467319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 96 ], [ 187, 200 ], [ 313, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were many advisers for the film, including Gerald Hemming, a former Marine who claimed involvement in various CIA activities, and Robert Groden, a self-proclaimed photographic expert and longtime JFK assassination researcher and author.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 11731991, 17349325, 5294215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 63 ], [ 74, 80 ], [ 136, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stone later published JFK: The Documented Screenplay, a heavily annotated version of the screenplay in which he cites sources for nearly every claim made in the film ().", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Trying to cast the role of Garrison, Stone sent copies of the script to Costner, Mel Gibson, and Harrison Ford. Initially, Costner turned Stone down. However, the actor's agent, Michael Ovitz, was a big fan of the project and helped Stone convince the actor to take the role. Before accepting the role, Costner conducted extensive research on Garrison, including meeting the man and his enemies. Two months after finally signing on to play Garrison in January 1991, his film Dances with Wolves won seven Academy Awards and so his presence greatly enhanced JFKs bankability in the studio's eyes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 44219, 44059, 373874, 129585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 91 ], [ 97, 110 ], [ 178, 191 ], [ 475, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tommy Lee Jones was originally considered for another role that was ultimately cut from the film and Stone then decided to cast him as Shaw. In preparation for the film, Jones interviewed Garrison on three different occasions and talked to others who had worked with Shaw and knew him.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stone originally wanted James Woods to play David Ferrie, but Woods wanted to play Garrison. Stone also approached Willem Dafoe and John Malkovich, who both turned down the role.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 168576, 213237, 175431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 35 ], [ 115, 127 ], [ 132, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stone considered Marlon Brando for the role of Mr. X.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 19903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Gary Oldman, very little was written about Oswald in the script. Stone gave him several plane tickets, a list of contacts, and told him to do his own research. Oldman met with Oswald's wife, Marina, and her two daughters to prepare for the role. Beata Poźniak studied 26 volumes of the Warren Report and spent time living with Marina Oswald. Since the script contained few lines for the Oswalds, Poźniak interviewed acquaintances of the Oswalds in order to improvise her scenes with Gary Oldman.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 809560, 69186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 210 ], [ 299, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many actors were willing to waive their normal fees because of the nature of the project and to lend their support. Martin Sheen provided the opening narration. Jim Garrison played Chief Justice Earl Warren, during the scene in which he questions Jack Ruby in a Dallas jail and in a TV appearance. Assassination witness Beverly Oliver, who claims to be the \"Babushka Lady\" seen in the Zapruder film, also appeared in a cameo in Ruby's club. Sean Stone, Oliver Stone's son, plays Garrison's oldest son Jasper. Perry Russo, one of the sources for the fictional character Willie O'Keefe, appeared in a cameo as an angry bar patron who says Oswald should get a medal for shooting Kennedy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 68131, 71908, 337539, 337539, 18960158, 34776645, 16565107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 128 ], [ 195, 206 ], [ 320, 334 ], [ 358, 371 ], [ 385, 398 ], [ 441, 451 ], [ 509, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The story revolves around Costner's Jim Garrison, with a large cast of well-known actors in supporting roles. Stone was inspired by the casting model of the documentary epic The Longest Day, which he had admired as a child: \"It was realistic, but it had a lot of stars ... the supporting cast provides a map of the American psyche: familiar, comfortable faces that walk you through a winding path in the dark woods.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 1343139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cinematographer Robert Richardson was a week and a half into shooting City of Hope for John Sayles when he got word that Stone was thinking about making JFK. By the time principal photography wrapped on City of Hope, Richardson was ready to make Stone's film. To prepare, Richardson read up on various JFK assassination books starting with On the Trail of the Assassins and Crossfire: The Plot That Killed Kennedy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 2168928, 10479762, 16111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 33 ], [ 70, 82 ], [ 87, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The original idea was to film the opening sequence in 1.33:1 aspect ratio in order to simulate the TV screens that were available at the time of the assassination, then transition to 1.85:1 when Garrison began his investigation, and finally switch to 2.35:1 for scenes occurring in 1968 and later. However, because of time constraints and logistics, Richardson was forced to abandon this approach.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 30876233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stone wanted to recreate the Kennedy assassination in Dealey Plaza. His producers had to pay the Dallas City Council a substantial amount of money to hire police to reroute traffic and close streets for three weeks. He only had ten days to shoot all of the footage he needed and so he used seven cameras (two 35mm and five 16mm) and 14 film stocks. Getting permission to shoot in the Texas School Book Depository was more difficult. They had to pay $50,000 to put someone in the window from which Oswald was supposed to have shot Kennedy. They were allowed to film in that location only between certain hours with only five people on the floor at one time: the camera crew, an actor and Stone. Co-producer Clayton Townsend has said that the hardest part was getting the permission to restore the building to the way it looked back in 1963. It took five months of negotiation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 845081, 56506539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 384, 412 ], [ 706, 722 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The production spent $4 million to restore Dealey Plaza to 1963 conditions. Stone utilized a variety of film stocks. Richardson said, \"It depends whether you want to shoot in 35 or 16 or Super 8. In many cases the lighting has to be different.\" For certain shots in the film, Stone employed multiple camera crews shooting at once, using five cameras at the same time in different formats. Richardson said of Stone's style of direction, \"Oliver disdains convention, he tries to force you into things that are not classic. There's this constant need to stretch.\" This forced the cinematographer to use lighting in diverse positions and rely very little on classic lighting modes. Shooting began on April 15, 1991 and ended on July 31, lasting 78 days with filming finished four-and-a-half months before the release date.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 46203, 46224, 46231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 177 ], [ 181, 183 ], [ 187, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "JFK marked a fundamental change in the way that Stone constructed his films: a subjective lateral presentation of the plot, with the editing's rhythm carrying the story. Stone brought in Hank Corwin, an editor of commercials, to help edit the film. Stone chose him because his \"chaotic mind\" was \"totally alien to the film form.\" \"But he had not developed the long form yet. And so a lot of his cuts were very chaotic.\" Stone employed extensive use of flashbacks within flashbacks for a specific effect. He said in an interview, Because of being shot on various sized film stocks, conventional 35mm film editing was impossible. Although digital editing was in nascent form, LightWorks and AVID were still not available as editing systems when editing began on JFK. For that reason, all the footage was transferred to 3/4\" videotape and edited on videotape. The 35mm film negative, along with the other sized film stocks were then conformed to match the videotape edit.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 49148325, 198669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 198 ], [ 691, 695 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Years after its release, Stone said of the film that it \"was the beginning of a new era for me in terms of film making because it's not just about a conspiracy to kill John Kennedy. It's also about the way we look at our recent history ... It shifts from black and white to color, and then back again, and views people from offbeat angles.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Because of his enormous commitment to Steven Spielberg's Hook, which opened the same month as JFK, composer John Williams did not have time to compose a conventional score for the entire film. Instead he composed and conducted six musical sequences in full for JFK before he saw the film in its entirety. Soon after recording this music, he traveled to New Orleans where Stone was still shooting the film and saw approximately an hour's worth of edited footage and dailies. Williams remembers, \"I thought his handling of Lee Harvey Oswald was particularly strong, and I understood some of the atmosphere of the film – the sordid elements, the underside of New Orleans.\" Stone and his team then actually cut the film to fit Williams' music after the composer had scored and recorded musical cues in addition to the six he had done prior to seeing the film. For the motorcade sequence, Williams described the score he composed as \"strongly kinetic music, music of interlocking rhythmic disciplines.\" The composer remembered the moment he learned of Kennedy's assassination and it stuck with him for years. This was a significant factor in his deciding to work on the film. Williams said, \"This is a very resonant subject for people of my generation, and that's why I welcomed the opportunity to participate in this film.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 26940, 443972, 154554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 54 ], [ 57, 61 ], [ 108, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The film has been well received by both cinema critics and regular audiences. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 84% based on 64 reviews, with an average rating of 7.70/10. The website's critics consensus reads, \"As history, Oliver Stone's JFK is dubious, but as filmmaking it's electric, cramming a ton of information and excitement into its three-hour runtime and making great use of its outstanding cast.\" On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average of 72 out of 100 based on 29 reviews, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"A\" on an A+ to F scale.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 832482, 805870, 33274, 18525704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 114 ], [ 453, 463 ], [ 480, 496 ], [ 597, 608 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The film's production and release were subject to intense scrutiny and criticism. A few weeks after shooting had begun, on May 14, 1991, Jon Margolis wrote in the Chicago Tribune that JFK was \"an insult to the intelligence.\" Five days later, The Washington Post ran a scathing article by national security correspondent George Lardner titled, \"On the Set: Dallas in Wonderland\" that used the first draft of the JFK screenplay to blast it for \"the absurdities and palpable untruths in Garrison's book and Stone's rendition of it.\" The article pointed out that Garrison lost his case against Clay Shaw and that he inflated his case by trying to use Shaw's homosexual relationships to prove guilt by association. Stone responded to Lardner's article by hiring a public relations firm that specialized in political issues. Other critical articles soon followed. Anthony Lewis in The New York Times stated that the film \"tells us that our government cannot be trusted to give an honest account of a Presidential assassination.\" Washington Post columnist George Will called Stone \"a man of technical skill, scant education and negligible conscience.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 60961, 102226, 235596, 30680, 620102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 179 ], [ 243, 262 ], [ 689, 709 ], [ 876, 894 ], [ 1050, 1061 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Time ran its own critique of the film-in-progress on June 10, 1991 and alleged that Stone was trying to suppress a rival JFK assassination film based on Don DeLillo's 1988 novel Libra. Stone rebutted these claims in a letter to the magazine.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 31600, 93585, 665199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 153, 164 ], [ 178, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Richard Corliss, Times film critic, wrote:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 2480495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whatever one's suspicions about its use or abuse of the evidence, JFK is a knockout. Part history book, part comic book, the movie rushes toward judgment for three breathless hours, lassoing facts and factoids by the thousands, then bundling them together into an incendiary device that would frag any viewer's complacency. Stone's picture is, in both meanings of the word, sensational: it's tip-top tabloid journalism. In its bravura and breadth, JFK is seditiously enthralling; in its craft, wondrously complex.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The filmmaker ended up splitting his time between making his film, responding to criticism, and conducting a publicity campaign of his own that saw him \"omnipresent, from CBS Evening News, to Oprah.\" However, the Lardner Post piece stung the most because Lardner had stolen a copy of the script. Stone recalls, \"He had the first draft, and I went through probably six or seven drafts.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 194740, 61949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 187 ], [ 192, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon theatrical release, it polarized critics. The New York Times ran an article by Bernard Weinraub entitled, \"Hollywood Wonders If Warner Brothers let JFK Go Too Far.\" The article called for intervention by the studio: \"At what point does a studio exercise its leverage and blunt the highly charged message of a film maker like Oliver Stone?\" The newspaper also ran a review of the film by Vincent Canby who wrote, \"Mr. Stone's hyperbolic style of film making is familiar: lots of short, often hysterical scenes tumbling one after another, backed by a soundtrack that is layered, strudel-like, with noises, dialogue, music, more noises, more dialogue.\" Pat Dowell, film critic for The Washingtonian, had her 34-word capsule review for the January issue rejected by her editor John Limpert on the grounds that he did not want the magazine to give a positive review to a film he felt was \"preposterous.\" Dowell resigned in protest.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 44877327, 2225851, 4908383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 100 ], [ 392, 405 ], [ 683, 700 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Miami Herald said about the controversy in its review, \"the focus on the trivialities of personality conveniently prevents us from having to confront the tough questions [Stone's] film raises.\" However, Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert gave the film two thumbs up on their television show. Writing for the Chicago Tribune, Siskel called the film \"thoroughly compelling\" and suggested that while it contained \"gross alterations of fact,\" Stone had \"the right to speculate on American history.\" Ebert praised the film in his review for the Chicago Sun-Times, saying,", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 607797, 372312, 50908, 741997, 60961, 245107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 207, 218 ], [ 223, 234 ], [ 249, 262 ], [ 305, 320 ], [ 537, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rita Kempley in The Washington Post wrote,", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 102226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On Christmas Day, the Los Angeles Times ran a critical article entitled \"Suppression of the Facts Grants Stone a Broad Brush.\" New York Newsday followed suit the next day with two articles – \"The Blurred Vision of JFK\" and \"The Many Theories of a Jolly Green Giant.\" A few days later, the Chicago Sun-Times followed suit with \"Stone's Film Trashes Facts, Dishonors J.F.K.\" Jack Valenti, then president and chief executive of the Motion Picture Association of America, denounced Stone's film in a seven-page statement. He wrote: \"In much the same way, young German boys and girls in 1941 were mesmerized by Leni Riefenstahl's Triumph of the Will, in which Adolf Hitler was depicted as a newborn God. Both JFK and Triumph of the Will are equally a propaganda masterpiece and equally a hoax. Mr. Stone and Leni Riefenstahl have another genetic linkage: neither of them carried a disclaimer on their film that its contents were mostly pure fiction.\" Stone recalls in an interview, \"I can't even remember all the threats, there were so many of them.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 273319, 245107, 172528, 18932641, 17562, 30039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 39 ], [ 289, 306 ], [ 373, 385 ], [ 429, 466 ], [ 606, 622 ], [ 625, 644 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "TIME magazine ranked it the fourth best film of 1991, while also including it in \"Top 10 Historically Misleading Films\" in 2011.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Roger Ebert went on to name Stone's film as the year's best and one of the top ten films of the decade as well as one of The Great Movies. Gene Siskel ranked it the seventh best film of the year. The Sydney Morning Herald named JFK as the best film of 1991. Entertainment Weekly ranked it the 5th Most Controversial Movie Ever.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 46234655, 259082, 541239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 137 ], [ 200, 221 ], [ 258, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ebert's future colleague Richard Roeper was less complimentary: \"One can admire Stone's filmmaking skills and the performances here while denouncing the utter crapola presented as 'evidence' of a conspiracy to murder.\" Roeper applauded the film's \"dazzling array of filmmaking techniques and a stellar roster of actors\" but criticized Stone's narrative: \"As a work of fantastical fiction, JFK is an interesting if overblown vision of a parallel universe. As a dramatic interpretation of events, it's journalistically bankrupt nonsense.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 416998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harry Connick Sr., the New Orleans district attorney who defeated Garrison in 1973, criticized Stone's view of the assassination: \"Stone was either unaware of the details and particulars of the Clay Shaw investigation and trial or, if he was aware, that didn't get in his way of what he perceived to be the way the case should have been.\" In his book The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy, a history of the assassination published 16 years after the film's release, Vincent Bugliosi devoted an entire chapter to Garrison's prosecution of Shaw and Stone's subsequent film. Bugliosi lists thirty-two separate \"lies and fabrications\" in Stone's film and describes the film as \"one continuous lie in which Stone couldn't find any level of deception and invention beyond which he was unwilling to go.\" David R. Wrone stated that \"80 percent of the film is in factual error\" and rejected the premise of a conspiracy involving the CIA and the so-called military-industrial complex as \"irrational.\" Warren Commission investigator David Belin called the film \"a big lie that would make Adolf Hitler proud\". Former Indiana Representative Floyd Fithian, who had served on the House Select Committee on Assassinations said the film had manipulated the past.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 2893085, 370936, 33199038, 9586673, 11587644, 379600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 476, 492 ], [ 807, 821 ], [ 1032, 1043 ], [ 1138, 1151 ], [ 1175, 1215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "JFK was released in theaters on December 20, 1991. In its first week of release, JFK tied with Beauty and the Beast for fifth place in the U.S. box office and its critics began to say it was a flop. Warner Brothers executives argued that this was at least partly because the film's long running time meant it had had fewer screenings than other films. Box-office picked up momentum, however, in part due to a $15million marketing campaign from the studio. By the first week in January 1992, it had grossed over $50million worldwide, eventually earning over $200million worldwide and $70million in the United States during its initial run.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 133462, 524502, 18717338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 115 ], [ 193, 197 ], [ 511, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Garrison's estate subsequently sued Warner Bros. for a share of the film's profits, alleging fraud perpetrated through a book-keeping practice known as \"Hollywood accounting.\" The lawsuit contended that JFK made in excess of $150million worldwide but the studio claimed that, under its \"net profits\" accounting formula, the film earned no money, and that Garrison's estate did not receive any of the more than $1million net profits income he was due.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 34052, 2358469, 1076393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 48 ], [ 153, 173 ], [ 287, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon winning the Golden Globe Award for Best Director – Motion Picture, Stone said in his acceptance speech: A terrible lie was told to us 28 years ago. I hope that this film can be the first step in righting that wrong.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 186061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Entertainment Weekly ranked JFK as one of the 25 \"Powerful Political Thrillers\". In 2012, the Motion Picture Editors Guild listed the film as the ninth best-edited film of all time based on a survey of its membership.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 541239, 8859408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 94, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The final report of the Assassination Records Review Board (ARRB) partially credited concern over the conclusions in JFK with the passage of the President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection Act of 1992, also known as the JFK Act.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legislative impact", "target_page_ids": [ 13736278, 13736278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 58 ], [ 145, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ARRB stated that the film \"popularized a version of President Kennedy's assassination that featured U.S. government agents from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the military as conspirators.\" While describing the film as \"largely fictional\", the ARRB acknowledged Stone's point that official records were to be sealed from the public until 2029, and his suggestion that \"Americans could not trust official public conclusions when those conclusions had been made in secret.\" By ARRB law, all existing assassination-related documents were to be made public by 2017, and most are now released.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legislative impact", "target_page_ids": [ 13736278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 634, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The original theatrical cut of JFK was released on VHS and Laserdisc on May 20, 1992. The \"Director's Cut\" of the film, extending it to 206 minutes, was released on VHS and laserdisc in 1993. The Director's Cut was released on DVD in 1997. The theatrical cut has not been released on physical media in the US since the 1992 laserdisc, although it has been released on both DVD and Blu-ray internationally. As of 2018, the theatrical cut and the director's cut are both available for digital download and streaming in the United States.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Home media and alternate versions", "target_page_ids": [ 52124, 255849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 54 ], [ 59, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On January 16, 2001, the Director's Cut was re-released on DVD as part of the Oliver Stone Collection box-set, with the film on one disc and supplemental material on the second. Stone contributed several extras to this edition, including an audio commentary, two multimedia essays, and 54 minutes' worth of deleted/extended scenes with optional commentary by Stone.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Home media and alternate versions", "target_page_ids": [ 1385720, 3777235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 241, 257 ], [ 307, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On November 11, 2003, a \"Special Edition\" DVD of the Director's Cut was released with the film on one disc and all of the extras from the 2001 edition on a second disc, in addition to a 90-minute documentary entitled, Beyond JFK: The Question of Conspiracy.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Home media and alternate versions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Director's Cut was released on Blu-ray on November 11, 2008. The disc features many of the extras included on the previous DVD releases, including the Beyond JFK: The Question of Conspiracy documentary.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Home media and alternate versions", "target_page_ids": [ 8731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was also released on commercial 8 millimeter video.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Home media and alternate versions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Seinfeld spoofed the film in the 1992 episode \"The Boyfriend\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 28606, 5072895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 47, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"back and to the left\" scene was parodied on an episode on the cult animated sitcom The Critic.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 839756, 1977915, 595549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 71 ], [ 72, 87 ], [ 88, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The film is referenced twice in the 90s sitcom Family Matters by Waldo Faldo, who pronounces the name literally. During a date with Laura Winslow, he says \"We should've seen 'Jifkuh'.\" When Laura corrects him with \"Oh you mean JFK.\", he responds \"I know how it's spelled!\" The second time was following his date with Maxine, where the movie choices were either Malcolm X (which he believes stood for the Roman numeral 10) or \"Jifkuh\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 340422, 300972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 61 ], [ 364, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32866171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Assassination of John F. Kennedy in popular culture", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10663147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cultural depictions of John F. Kennedy", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 43367262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Riordan, James (September 1996) Stone: A Biography of Oliver Stone. New York: Aurum Press. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Salewicz, Chris (February 1998) Oliver Stone: Close Up: The Making of His Movies. Thunder's Mouth Press. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 40058912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stone, Oliver (February 2000) JFK: The Book of the Film. New York: Applause Books. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Robert Brent Toplin (1996). History by Hollywood \"JFK: Fact, Fiction, and Supposition,\" pp.45–78. University of Illinois Press. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " JFK (motion picture): A Selective Bibliography of Materials in the UC Berkeley Library", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The JFK 100: One Hundred Errors of Fact and Judgment in Oliver Stone's JFK, by Dave Reitzes", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Assassination Goes Hollywood! (concise overview of frequent criticisms)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Why they hate Oliver Stone\", Sam Smith, Progressive Review, February 1992", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1991_films", "1991_controversies", "1990s_historical_films", "1990s_political_drama_films", "1990s_thriller_drama_films", "American_historical_films", "American_political_drama_films", "American_political_thriller_films", "BAFTA_winners_(films)", "1990s_English-language_films", "Cold_War_films", "Films_scored_by_John_Williams", "Films_based_on_non-fiction_books", "Films_about_conspiracy_theories", "Films_about_presidents_of_the_United_States", "Films_about_the_assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy", "Films_based_on_multiple_works", "Films_directed_by_Oliver_Stone", "Films_produced_by_Oliver_Stone", "Films_set_in_Dallas", "Films_set_in_New_Orleans", "Films_set_in_1963", "Films_set_in_1966", "Films_set_in_1969", "Films_set_in_Washington,_D.C.", "Films_shot_in_Dallas", "Films_shot_in_New_Orleans", "Films_shot_in_Virginia", "Films_shot_in_Washington,_D.C.", "Films_partially_in_color", "Films_whose_cinematographer_won_the_Best_Cinematography_Academy_Award", "Films_whose_director_won_the_Best_Director_Golden_Globe", "Films_whose_editor_won_the_Best_Film_Editing_Academy_Award", "Regency_Enterprises_films", "Films_with_screenplays_by_Oliver_Stone", "Historical_mystery_films", "StudioCanal_films", "Vietnam_War_films", "Warner_Bros._films", "Cultural_depictions_of_John_F._Kennedy", "Cultural_depictions_of_Lee_Harvey_Oswald", "Cultural_depictions_of_Jack_Ruby", "Films_set_in_the_1960s", "1990s_American_films" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "\"The Manifesto of the Italian Fasces of Combat\" (), commonly known as the Fascist Manifesto, was the initial declaration of the political stance of the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (\"Italian Fasces of Combat\") the movement founded in Milan by Benito Mussolini in 1919 and an early exponent of Fascism. The Manifesto was authored by national syndicalist Alceste De Ambris and the futurist poet Filippo Marinetti.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5449604, 36511, 19283178, 5142662, 38340874, 639027, 15944015, 11801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 183 ], [ 237, 242 ], [ 246, 262 ], [ 296, 303 ], [ 335, 355 ], [ 356, 373 ], [ 382, 395 ], [ 396, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Manifesto (published in Il Popolo d'Italia on June 6, 1919) is divided into four sections, describing the movement's objectives in political, social, military and financial fields.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [ 6804285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Politically, the Manifesto calls for:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Universal suffrage with a lowered voting age to 18 years, and voting and electoral office eligibility for all ages 25 and up;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [ 220636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Proportional representation on a regional basis;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [ 23298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Voting for women;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Representation at government level of newly created national councils by economic sector;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The abolition of the Italian Senate (at the time, the Senate, as the upper house of parliament, was by process elected by the wealthier citizens, but were in reality direct appointments by the king. It has been described as a sort of extended council of the crown);", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [ 18531209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The formation of a national council of experts for labor, for industry, for transportation, for the public health, for communications, etc. Selections to be made of professionals or of tradesmen with legislative powers, and elected directly to a general commission with ministerial powers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In labor and social policy, the Manifesto calls for:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The quick enactment of a law of the state that sanctions an eight-hour workday for all workers;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [ 2100109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A minimum wage;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [ 18862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The participation of workers' representatives in the functions of industry commissions;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " To show the same confidence in the labor unions (that prove to be technically and morally worthy) as is given to industry executives or public servants;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [ 17626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reorganization of the railways and the public transport sector;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Revision of the draft law on invalidity insurance;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Reduction of the retirement age from 65 to 55.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [ 1026695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In military affairs, the Manifesto advocates:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Creation of a short-service national militia with specifically defensive responsibilities;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Armaments factories are to be nationalized;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A peaceful but competitive foreign policy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In finance, the Manifesto advocates:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A strong extraordinary tax on capital of a progressive nature, which takes the form of true partial expropriation of all wealth;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The seizure of all the possessions of the religious congregations and the abolition of all the bishoprics, which constitute an enormous liability on the Nation and on the privileges of the poor;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [ 50549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Revision of all contracts for military provisions;", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The revision of all military contracts and the seizure of 85 percent of the profits therein.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These early positions reflected in the Manifesto would later be characterized by Mussolini in \"The Doctrine of Fascism\" as \"a series of pointers, forecasts, hints which, when freed from the inevitable matrix of contingencies, were to develop in a few years time into a series of doctrinal positions entitling Fascism to rank as a political doctrine differing from all others, past or present.\" However in Practice a Fascist State is often a reflection of the leaders values and opinions, as seen in Nazi Germany, and their policies towards the Jewish Population.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Contents of the Fascist Manifesto", "target_page_ids": [ 803217, 21212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 118 ], [ 499, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of the Manifesto's proposals, the commitment to corporative organisation of economic interests was to be the longest lasting. Far from becoming a medium of extended democracy, parliament became by law an exclusively Fascist-picked body in 1929; being replaced by the \"chamber of corporations\" a decade later.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The Manifesto in practice", "target_page_ids": [ 52635137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fascism's pacifist foreign policy ceased during its first year of Italian government. In September 1923, the Corfu crisis demonstrated the regime's willingness to use force internationally. Perhaps the greatest success of Fascist diplomacy was the Lateran Treaty of February 1929, which accepted the principle of non-interference in the affairs of the Church. This ended the 59-year-old dispute between Italy and the Papacy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The Manifesto in practice", "target_page_ids": [ 1941706, 69898, 23056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 121 ], [ 248, 262 ], [ 417, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Communist Manifesto", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Manifesto of Futurism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 430444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Constitution of Fiume", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4289134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Manifesto of the Fascist Intellectuals\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10095724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Manifesto of Race\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3117295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 19 ] ] } ]

[ "1919_in_Italy", "1919_in_politics", "1919_documents", "Italian_fascist_works", "Manifestos" ]

[ "Il manifesto dei fasci italiani di combattimento", "The Manifesto of the Italian Fasci of Combat" ]

[ { "plaintext": "A compass is a device that shows the cardinal directions used for navigation and geographic orientation. It commonly consists of a magnetized needle or other element, such as a compass card or compass rose, which can pivot to align itself with magnetic north. Other methods may be used, including gyroscopes, magnetometers, and GPS receivers.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 200085, 21854, 316410, 30871810, 83060, 11866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 55 ], [ 66, 76 ], [ 193, 205 ], [ 244, 258 ], [ 309, 321 ], [ 328, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compasses often show angles in degrees: north corresponds to 0°, and the angles increase clockwise, so east is 90°, south is 180°, and west is 270°. These numbers allow the compass to show azimuths or bearings which are commonly stated in degrees. If local variation between magnetic north and true north is known, then direction of magnetic north also gives direction of true north.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26569682, 47487, 221429, 308058, 3666492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 98 ], [ 189, 196 ], [ 201, 209 ], [ 257, 266 ], [ 294, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among the Four Great Inventions, the magnetic compass was first invented as a device for divination as early as the Chinese Han Dynasty (since c. 206 BC), and later adopted for navigation by the Song Dynasty Chinese during the 11th century. The first usage of a compass recorded in Western Europe and the Islamic world occurred around 1190.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1671446, 8691, 9311753, 43460, 56978, 33800, 191429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 31 ], [ 89, 99 ], [ 116, 123 ], [ 124, 135 ], [ 195, 207 ], [ 282, 296 ], [ 305, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The magnetic compass is the most familiar compass type. It functions as a pointer to \"magnetic north\", the local magnetic meridian, because the magnetized needle at its heart aligns itself with the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field. The magnetic field exerts a torque on the needle, pulling the North end or pole of the needle approximately toward the Earth's North magnetic pole, and pulling the other toward the Earth's South magnetic pole. The needle is mounted on a low-friction pivot point, in better compasses a jewel bearing, so it can turn easily. When the compass is held level, the needle turns until, after a few seconds to allow oscillations to die out, it settles into its equilibrium orientation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Magnetic compass", "target_page_ids": [ 308058, 19716, 146983, 36563, 30400, 30871810, 30871821, 627411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 100 ], [ 144, 153 ], [ 226, 248 ], [ 254, 268 ], [ 278, 284 ], [ 377, 396 ], [ 439, 458 ], [ 536, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In navigation, directions on maps are usually expressed with reference to geographical or true north, the direction toward the Geographical North Pole, the rotation axis of the Earth. Depending on where the compass is located on the surface of the Earth the angle between true north and magnetic north, called magnetic declination can vary widely with geographic location. The local magnetic declination is given on most maps, to allow the map to be oriented with a compass parallel to true north. The locations of the Earth's magnetic poles slowly change with time, which is referred to as geomagnetic secular variation. The effect of this means a map with the latest declination information should be used. Some magnetic compasses include means to manually compensate for the magnetic declination, so that the compass shows true directions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Magnetic compass", "target_page_ids": [ 3666492, 21836, 3666492, 30871810, 308058, 25340789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 100 ], [ 127, 150 ], [ 272, 282 ], [ 287, 301 ], [ 310, 330 ], [ 591, 620 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are other ways to find north than the use of magnetism, and from a navigational point of view a total of seven possible ways exist (where magnetism is one of the seven). Two sensors that utilize two of the remaining six principles are often also called compasses, i.e. the gyrocompass and GPS-compass.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Non-magnetic compasses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A gyrocompass is similar to a gyroscope. It is a non-magnetic compass that finds true north by using an (electrically powered) fast-spinning wheel and friction forces in order to exploit the rotation of the Earth. Gyrocompasses are widely used on ships. They have two main advantages over magnetic compasses:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Non-magnetic compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 44125, 3666492, 27008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 39 ], [ 81, 91 ], [ 247, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " they find true north, i.e., the direction of Earth's rotational axis, as opposed to magnetic north,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Non-magnetic compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 9228, 30871810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 51 ], [ 85, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " they are not affected by ferromagnetic metal (including iron, steel, cobalt, nickel, and various alloys) in a ship's hull. (No compass is affected by nonferromagnetic metal, although a magnetic compass will be affected by any kind of wires with electric current passing through them.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Non-magnetic compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 11807, 6207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 39 ], [ 246, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Large ships typically rely on a gyrocompass, using the magnetic compass only as a backup. Increasingly, electronic fluxgate compasses are used on smaller vessels. However, magnetic compasses are still widely in use as they can be small, use simple reliable technology, are comparatively cheap, are often easier to use than GPS, require no energy supply, and unlike GPS, are not affected by objects, e.g. trees, that can block the reception of electronic signals.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Non-magnetic compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 1952496, 11866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 131 ], [ 323, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GPS receivers using two or more antennae mounted separately and blending the data with an inertial motion unit (IMU) can now achieve 0.02° in heading accuracy and have startup times in seconds rather than hours for gyrocompass systems. The devices accurately determine the positions (latitudes, longitudes and altitude) of the antennae on the Earth, from which the cardinal directions can be calculated. Manufactured primarily for maritime and aviation applications, they can also detect pitch and roll of ships. Small, portable GPS receivers with only a single antenna can also determine directions if they are being moved, even if only at walking pace. By accurately determining its position on the Earth at times a few seconds apart, the device can calculate its speed and the true bearing (relative to true north) of its direction of motion. Frequently, it is preferable to measure the direction in which a vehicle is actually moving, rather than its heading, i.e. the direction in which its nose is pointing. These directions may be different if there is a crosswind or tidal current.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Non-magnetic compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 17800413, 3666492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 806, 816 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GPS compasses share the main advantages of gyrocompasses. They determine true North, as opposed to magnetic North, and they are unaffected by perturbations of the Earth's magnetic field. Additionally, compared with gyrocompasses, they are much cheaper, they work better in polar regions, they are less prone to be affected by mechanical vibration, and they can be initialized far more quickly. However, they depend on the functioning of, and communication with, the GPS satellites, which might be disrupted by an electronic attack or by the effects of a severe solar storm. Gyrocompasses remain in use for military purposes (especially in submarines, where magnetic and GPS compasses are useless), but have been largely superseded by GPS compasses, with magnetic backups, in civilian contexts.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Non-magnetic compasses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first compasses in ancient Han dynasty China were made of lodestone, a naturally magnetized ore of iron. Later compasses were made of iron needles, magnetized by striking them with a lodestone, which appeared in China by 1088 during the Song Dynasty, as described by Shen Kuo. Dry compasses began to appear around 1300 in Medieval Europe and the Islamic world. This was supplanted in the early 20th century by the liquid-filled magnetic compass.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 43460, 211177, 56978, 10923902, 1102000, 18836, 191429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 42 ], [ 62, 71 ], [ 241, 253 ], [ 255, 267 ], [ 271, 279 ], [ 326, 341 ], [ 350, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern compasses usually use a magnetized needle or dial inside a capsule completely filled with a liquid (lamp oil, mineral oil, white spirits, purified kerosene, or ethyl alcohol are common). While older designs commonly incorporated a flexible rubber diaphragm or airspace inside the capsule to allow for volume changes caused by temperature or altitude, some modern liquid compasses utilize smaller housings and/or flexible capsule materials to accomplish the same result. The liquid inside the capsule serves to damp the movement of the needle, reducing oscillation time and increasing stability. Key points on the compass, including the north end of the needle are often marked with phosphorescent, photoluminescent, or self-luminous materials to enable the compass to be read at night or in poor light. As the compass fill liquid is noncompressible under pressure, many ordinary liquid-filled compasses will operate accurately underwater to considerable depths.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 2331922, 60874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 690, 704 ], [ 706, 722 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many modern compasses incorporate a baseplate and protractor tool, and are referred to variously as \"orienteering\", \"baseplate\", \"map compass\" or \"protractor\" designs. This type of compass uses a separate magnetized needle inside a rotating capsule, an orienting \"box\" or gate for aligning the needle with magnetic north, a transparent base containing map orienting lines, and a bezel (outer dial) marked in degrees or other units of angular measurement. The capsule is mounted in a transparent baseplate containing a direction-of-travel (DOT) indicator for use in taking bearings directly from a map.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 837995, 22520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 60 ], [ 101, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other features found on modern orienteering compasses are map and romer scales for measuring distances and plotting positions on maps, luminous markings on the face or bezels, various sighting mechanisms (mirror, prism, etc.) for taking bearings of distant objects with greater precision, gimbal-mounted, \"global\" needles for use in differing hemispheres, special rare-earth magnets to stabilize compass needles, adjustable declination for obtaining instant true bearings without resorting to arithmetic, and devices such as inclinometers for measuring gradients. The sport of orienteering has also resulted in the development of models with extremely fast-settling and stable needles utilizing rare-earth magnets for optimal use with a topographic map, a land navigation technique known as terrain association. Many marine compasses designed for use on boats with constantly shifting angles use dampening fluids such as isopar M or isopar L to limit the rapid fluctuation and direction of the needle.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 227282, 16640557, 889183, 70713, 62388510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 71 ], [ 184, 203 ], [ 526, 538 ], [ 738, 753 ], [ 923, 931 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The military forces of a few nations, notably the United States Army, continue to issue field compasses with magnetized compass dials or cards instead of needles. A magnetic card compass is usually equipped with an optical, lensatic, or prismatic sight, which allows the user to read the bearing or azimuth off the compass card while simultaneously aligning the compass with the objective (see photo). Magnetic card compass designs normally require a separate protractor tool in order to take bearings directly from a map.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 71489882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The U.S. M-1950 military lensatic compass does not use a liquid-filled capsule as a damping mechanism, but rather electromagnetic induction to control oscillation of its magnetized card. A \"deep-well\" design is used to allow the compass to be used globally with a card tilt of up to 8 degrees without impairing accuracy. As induction forces provide less damping than fluid-filled designs, a needle lock is fitted to the compass to reduce wear, operated by the folding action of the rear sight/lens holder. The use of air-filled induction compasses has declined over the years, as they may become inoperative or inaccurate in freezing temperatures or extremely humid environments due to condensation or water ingress.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 65888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some military compasses, like the U.S. M-1950 (Cammenga 3H) military lensatic compass, the Silva 4b Militaire, and the Suunto M-5N(T) contain the radioactive material tritium () and a combination of phosphors. The U.S. M-1950 equipped with self-luminous lighting contains 120 mCi (millicuries) of tritium. The purpose of the tritium and phosphors is to provide illumination for the compass, via radioluminescent tritium illumination, which does not require the compass to be \"recharged\" by sunlight or artificial light. However, tritium has a half-life of only about 12 years, so a compass that contains 120mCi of tritium when new will contain only 60 when it is 12 years old, 30 when it is 24 years old, and so on. Consequently, the illumination of the display will fade.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 14088143, 6500706, 3174135, 31306, 188386, 2055164, 805752, 13606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 55 ], [ 91, 109 ], [ 119, 125 ], [ 167, 174 ], [ 362, 374 ], [ 396, 412 ], [ 413, 433 ], [ 544, 553 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mariners' compasses can have two or more magnets permanently attached to a compass card, which moves freely on a pivot. A lubber line, which can be a marking on the compass bowl or a small fixed needle, indicates the ship's heading on the compass card. Traditionally the card is divided into thirty-two points (known as rhumbs), although modern compasses are marked in degrees rather than cardinal points. The glass-covered box (or bowl) contains a suspended gimbal within a binnacle. This preserves the horizontal position.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 342078, 2982483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 459, 465 ], [ 475, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A thumb compass is a type of compass commonly used in orienteering, a sport in which map reading and terrain association are paramount. Consequently, most thumb compasses have minimal or no degree markings at all, and are normally used only to orient the map to magnetic north. An oversized rectangular needle or north indicator aids visibility. Thumb compasses are also often transparent so that an orienteer can hold a map in the hand with the compass and see the map through the compass. The best models use rare-earth magnets to reduce needle settling time to 1 second or less.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 22520, 351077, 17974754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 66 ], [ 379, 390 ], [ 423, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Small compasses found in clocks, mobile phones, and other electronic devices are solid-state microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) compasses, usually built out of two or three magnetic field sensors that provide data for a microprocessor. Often, the device is a discrete component which outputs either a digital or analog signal proportional to its orientation. This signal is interpreted by a controller or microprocessor and either used internally, or sent to a display unit. The sensor uses highly calibrated internal electronics to measure the response of the device to the Earth's magnetic field.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 19644137, 3656002, 19638, 83060, 21017, 19553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 45 ], [ 81, 92 ], [ 93, 123 ], [ 176, 198 ], [ 394, 404 ], [ 408, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apart from navigational compasses, other specialty compasses have also been designed to accommodate specific uses. These include:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern compasses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Qibla compass, which is used by Muslims to show the direction to Mecca for prayers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 492449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Optical or prismatic compass, most often used by surveyors, but also by cave explorers, foresters, and geologists. These compasses generally use a liquid-damped capsule and magnetized floating compass dial with an integral optical sight, often fitted with built-in photoluminescent or battery-powered illumination. Using the optical sight, such compasses can be read with extreme accuracy when taking bearings to an object, often to fractions of a degree. Most of these compasses are designed for heavy-duty use, with high-quality needles and jeweled bearings, and many are fitted for tripod mounting for additional accuracy.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 44706428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trough compasses, mounted in a rectangular box whose length was often several times its width, date back several centuries. They were used for land surveying, particularly with plane tables.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern compasses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The magnetic compass is very reliable at moderate latitudes, but in geographic regions near the Earth's magnetic poles it becomes unusable. As the compass is moved closer to one of the magnetic poles, the magnetic declination, the difference between the direction to geographical north and magnetic north, becomes greater and greater. At some point close to the magnetic pole the compass will not indicate any particular direction but will begin to drift. Also, the needle starts to point up or down when getting closer to the poles, because of the so-called magnetic inclination. Cheap compasses with bad bearings may get stuck because of this and therefore indicate a wrong direction.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 7528635, 221430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 560, 580 ], [ 607, 615 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magnetic compasses are influenced by any fields other than Earth's. Local environments may contain magnetic mineral deposits and artificial sources such as MRIs, large iron or steel bodies, electrical engines or strong permanent magnets. Any electrically conductive body produces its own magnetic field when it is carrying an electric current. Magnetic compasses are prone to errors in the neighborhood of such bodies. Some compasses include magnets which can be adjusted to compensate for external magnetic fields, making the compass more reliable and accurate.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern compasses", "target_page_ids": [ 19446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A compass is also subject to errors when the compass is accelerated or decelerated in an airplane or automobile. Depending on which of the Earth's hemispheres the compass is located and if the force is acceleration or deceleration the compass will increase or decrease the indicated heading. Compasses that include compensating magnets are especially prone to these errors, since accelerations tilt the needle, bringing it closer or further from the magnets.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern compasses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another error of the mechanical compass is turning error. When one turns from a heading of east or west the compass will lag behind the turn or lead ahead of the turn. Magnetometers, and substitutes such as gyrocompasses, are more stable in such situations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern compasses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A magnetic rod is required when constructing a compass. This can be created by aligning an iron or steel rod with Earth's magnetic field and then tempering or striking it. However, this method produces only a weak magnet so other methods are preferred. For example, a magnetised rod can be created by repeatedly rubbing an iron rod with a magnetic lodestone. This magnetised rod (or magnetic needle) is then placed on a low friction surface to allow it to freely pivot to align itself with the magnetic field. It is then labeled so the user can distinguish the north-pointing from the south-pointing end; in modern convention the north end is typically marked in some way.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Construction of a magnetic compass", "target_page_ids": [ 211177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 348, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If a needle is rubbed on a lodestone or other magnet, the needle becomes magnetized. When it is inserted in a cork or piece of wood, and placed in a bowl of water it becomes a compass. Such devices were universally used as compass until the invention of the box-like compass with a 'dry' pivoting needle sometime around 1300.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Construction of a magnetic compass", "target_page_ids": [ 211177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Originally, many compasses were marked only as to the direction of magnetic north, or to the four cardinal points (north, south, east, west). Later, these were divided, in China into 24, and in Europe into 32 equally spaced points around the compass card. For a table of the thirty-two points, see compass points.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Construction of a magnetic compass", "target_page_ids": [ 339183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 298, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the modern era, the 360-degree system took hold. This system is still in use today for civilian navigators. The degree system spaces 360 equidistant points located clockwise around the compass dial. In the 19th century some European nations adopted the \"grad\" (also called grade or gon) system instead, where a right angle is 100 grads to give a circle of 400 grads. Dividing grads into tenths to give a circle of 4000 decigrades has also been used in armies.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Construction of a magnetic compass", "target_page_ids": [ 201629, 201629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 257, 261 ], [ 423, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most military forces have adopted the French \"millieme\" system. This is an approximation of a milli-radian (6283 per circle), in which the compass dial is spaced into 6400 units or \"mils\" for additional precision when measuring angles, laying artillery, etc. The value to the military is that one angular mil subtends approximately one metre at a distance of one kilometer. Imperial Russia used a system derived by dividing the circumference of a circle into chords of the same length as the radius. Each of these was divided into 100 spaces, giving a circle of 600. The Soviet Union divided these into tenths to give a circle of 6000 units, usually translated as \"mils\". This system was adopted by the former Warsaw Pact countries (e.g. Soviet Union, East Germany), often counterclockwise (see picture of wrist compass). This is still in use in Russia.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Construction of a magnetic compass", "target_page_ids": [ 1730553, 1730553, 26779, 33622, 26779, 13058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 54 ], [ 298, 309 ], [ 572, 584 ], [ 712, 723 ], [ 740, 752 ], [ 754, 766 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because the Earth's magnetic field's inclination and intensity vary at different latitudes, compasses are often balanced during manufacture so that the dial or needle will be level, eliminating needle drag which can give inaccurate readings. Most manufacturers balance their compass needles for one of five zones, ranging from zone 1, covering most of the Northern Hemisphere, to zone 5 covering Australia and the southern oceans. This individual zone balancing prevents excessive dipping of one end of the needle which can cause the compass card to stick and give false readings.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Construction of a magnetic compass", "target_page_ids": [ 22126, 4689264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 357, 376 ], [ 397, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some compasses feature a special needle balancing system that will accurately indicate magnetic north regardless of the particular magnetic zone. Other magnetic compasses have a small sliding counterweight installed on the needle itself. This sliding counterweight, called a 'rider', can be used for counterbalancing the needle against the dip caused by inclination if the compass is taken to a zone with a higher or lower dip.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Construction of a magnetic compass", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Like any magnetic device, compasses are affected by nearby ferrous materials, as well as by strong local electromagnetic forces. Compasses used for wilderness land navigation should not be used in proximity to ferrous metal objects or electromagnetic fields (car electrical systems, automobile engines, steel pitons, etc.) as that can affect their accuracy. Compasses are particularly difficult to use accurately in or near trucks, cars or other mechanized vehicles even when corrected for deviation by the use of built-in magnets or other devices. Large amounts of ferrous metal combined with the on-and-off electrical fields caused by the vehicle's ignition and charging systems generally result in significant compass errors.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Construction of a magnetic compass", "target_page_ids": [ 784500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 309, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At sea, a ship's compass must also be corrected for errors, called deviation, caused by iron and steel in its structure and equipment. The ship is swung, that is rotated about a fixed point while its heading is noted by alignment with fixed points on the shore. A compass deviation card is prepared so that the navigator can convert between compass and magnetic headings. The compass can be corrected in three ways. First the lubber line can be adjusted so that it is aligned with the direction in which the ship travels, then the effects of permanent magnets can be corrected for by small magnets fitted within the case of the compass. The effect of ferromagnetic materials in the compass's environment can be corrected by two iron balls mounted on either side of the compass binnacle in concert with permanent magnets and a Flinders bar. The coefficient represents the error in the lubber line, while the ferromagnetic effects and the non-ferromagnetic component.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Construction of a magnetic compass", "target_page_ids": [ 1986817, 1643103, 11807, 12533217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 76 ], [ 426, 437 ], [ 651, 664 ], [ 826, 838 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A similar process is used to calibrate the compass in light general aviation aircraft, with the compass deviation card often mounted permanently just above or below the magnetic compass on the instrument panel. Fluxgate electronic compasses can be calibrated automatically, and can also be programmed with the correct local compass variation so as to indicate the true heading.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Construction of a magnetic compass", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A magnetic compass points to magnetic north pole, which is approximately 1,000 miles from the true geographic North Pole. A magnetic compass's user can determine true North by finding the magnetic north and then correcting for variation and deviation. Variation is defined as the angle between the direction of true (geographic) north and the direction of the meridian between the magnetic poles. Variation values for most of the oceans had been calculated and published by 1914. Deviation refers to the response of the compass to local magnetic fields caused by the presence of iron and electric currents; one can partly compensate for these by careful location of the compass and the placement of compensating magnets under the compass itself. Mariners have long known that these measures do not completely cancel deviation; hence, they performed an additional step by measuring the compass bearing of a landmark with a known magnetic bearing. They then pointed their ship to the next compass point and measured again, graphing their results. In this way, correction tables could be created, which would be consulted when compasses were used when traveling in those locations.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Using a magnetic compass", "target_page_ids": [ 308058, 629028, 1986817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 252, 261 ], [ 360, 368 ], [ 480, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mariners are concerned about very accurate measurements; however, casual users need not be concerned with differences between magnetic and true North. Except in areas of extreme magnetic declination variance (20 degrees or more), this is enough to protect from walking in a substantially different direction than expected over short distances, provided the terrain is fairly flat and visibility is not impaired. By carefully recording distances (time or paces) and magnetic bearings traveled, one can plot a course and return to one's starting point using the compass alone.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Using a magnetic compass", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Compass navigation in conjunction with a map (terrain association) requires a different method. To take a map bearing or true bearing (a bearing taken in reference to true, not magnetic north) to a destination with a protractor compass, the edge of the compass is placed on the map so that it connects the current location with the desired destination (some sources recommend physically drawing a line). The orienting lines in the base of the compass dial are then rotated to align with actual or true north by aligning them with a marked line of longitude (or the vertical margin of the map), ignoring the compass needle entirely. The resulting true bearing or map bearing may then be read at the degree indicator or direction-of-travel (DOT) line, which may be followed as an azimuth (course) to the destination. If a magnetic north bearing or compass bearing is desired, the compass must be adjusted by the amount of magnetic declination before using the bearing so that both map and compass are in agreement. In the given example, the large mountain in the second photo was selected as the target destination on the map. Some compasses allow the scale to be adjusted to compensate for the local magnetic declination; if adjusted correctly, the compass will give the true bearing instead of the magnetic bearing.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Using a magnetic compass", "target_page_ids": [ 39316, 47487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 217, 235 ], [ 779, 786 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The modern hand-held protractor compass always has an additional direction-of-travel (DOT) arrow or indicator inscribed on the baseplate. To check one's progress along a course or azimuth, or to ensure that the object in view is indeed the destination, a new compass reading may be taken to the target if visible (here, the large mountain). After pointing the DOT arrow on the baseplate at the target, the compass is oriented so that the needle is superimposed over the orienting arrow in the capsule. The resulting bearing indicated is the magnetic bearing to the target. Again, if one is using \"true\" or map bearings, and the compass does not have preset, pre-adjusted declination, one must additionally add or subtract magnetic declination to convert the magnetic bearing into a true bearing. The exact value of the magnetic declination is place-dependent and varies over time, though declination is frequently given on the map itself or obtainable on-line from various sites. If the hiker has been following the correct path, the compass' corrected (true) indicated bearing should closely correspond to the true bearing previously obtained from the map.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Using a magnetic compass", "target_page_ids": [ 39316, 308058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 39 ], [ 722, 742 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A compass should be laid down on a level surface so that the needle only rests or hangs on the bearing fused to the compass casing – if used at a tilt, the needle might touch the casing on the compass and not move freely, hence not pointing to the magnetic north accurately, giving a faulty reading. To see if the needle is well leveled, look closely at the needle, and tilt it slightly to see if the needle is swaying side to side freely and the needle is not contacting the casing of the compass. If the needle tilts to one direction, tilt the compass slightly and gently to the opposing direction until the compass needle is horizontal, lengthwise. Items to avoid around compasses are magnets of any kind and any electronics. Magnetic fields from electronics can easily disrupt the needle, preventing it from aligning with the Earth's magnetic fields, causing inaccurate readings. The Earth's natural magnetic forces are considerably weak, measuring at 0.5 gauss and magnetic fields from household electronics can easily exceed it, overpowering the compass needle. Exposure to strong magnets, or magnetic interference can sometimes cause the magnetic poles of the compass needle to differ or even reverse. Avoid iron rich deposits when using a compass, for example, certain rocks which contain magnetic minerals, like Magnetite. This is often indicated by a rock with a surface which is dark and has a metallic luster, not all magnetic mineral bearing rocks have this indication. To see if a rock or an area is causing interference on a compass, get out of the area, and see if the needle on the compass moves. If it does, it means that the area or rock the compass was previously at is causing interference and should be avoided.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Using a magnetic compass", "target_page_ids": [ 12462, 277295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 960, 965 ], [ 1321, 1330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Absolute bearing", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 221429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aircraft compass turns", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 974216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Astrocompass", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2097169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Binnacle", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2982483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Boxing the compass", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 339183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brunton compass", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4303898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Coordinates", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 81931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Earth inductor compass", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7748358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fibre optic gyrocompass", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20710863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fluxgate compass", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1952496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Geological compass", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36263210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gyrocompass", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 45832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hand compass", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16640557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Inertial navigation system", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24050869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnetic declination", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 308058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnetic deviation", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1986817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnetic dip", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7528635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnetometer", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 83060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MEMS magnetic field sensor", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31578087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marching line", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5987739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pelorus (instrument)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1757077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Radio compass", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 820724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Radio direction finder", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 820724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Relative bearing", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 221429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Solar compass", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 64474587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " South-pointing chariot", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1437746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wrist compass", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4448919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Admiralty, Great Britain (1915) Admiralty manual of navigation, 1914, Chapter XXV: \"The Magnetic Compass (continued): the analysis and correction of the deviation\", London : HMSO, 525 p.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aczel, Amir D. (2001) The Riddle of the Compass: The Invention that Changed the World, 1st Ed., New York : Harcourt, ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 5969484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gies, Frances and Gies, Joseph (1994) Cathedral, Forge, and Waterwheel: Technology and Invention in the Middle Age, New York : HarperCollins, ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 17186575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gubbins, David, Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism, Springer Press (2007), ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gurney, Alan (2004) Compass: A Story of Exploration and Innovation, London : Norton, ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ludwig, Karl-Heinz and Schmidtchen, Volker (1997) Metalle und Macht: 1000 bis 1600, Propyläen Technikgeschichte, Berlin: Propyläen Verlag, ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ma, Huan (1997) Ying-yai sheng-lan [The overall survey of the ocean's shores (1433)], Feng, Ch'eng-chün (ed.) and Mills, J.V.G. (transl.), Bangkok : White Lotus Press, ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Seidman, David, and Cleveland, Paul, The Essential Wilderness Navigator, Ragged Mountain Press (2001), ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Williams, J.E.D. (1992) From Sails to Satellites: the origin and development of navigational science, Oxford University Press, ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wright, Monte Duane (1972) Most Probable Position: A History of Aerial Navigation to 1941, The University Press of Kansas, ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Zhou, Daguan (2007) The customs of Cambodia, translated into English from the French version by Paul Pelliot of Zhou's Chinese original by J. Gilman d'Arcy Paul, Phnom Penh : Indochina Books, prev publ. by Bangkok : Siam Society (1993), ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Handbook of Magnetic Compass Adjustment", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Paul J. Gans, The Medieval Technology Pages: Compass", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Evening Lecture To The British Association At The Southampton Meeting on Friday, August 25, 1882. Refers to compass correction by Fourier series.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 59038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 145 ] ] } ]

[ "Chinese_inventions", "Magnetic_devices", "Navigational_equipment", "Ancient_inventions" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In geometry, two figures or objects are congruent if they have the same shape and size, or if one has the same shape and size as the mirror image of the other.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18973446, 169191, 148234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 72, 77 ], [ 133, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More formally, two sets of points are called congruent if, and only if, one can be transformed into the other by an isometry, i.e., a combination of rigid motions, namely a translation, a rotation, and a reflection. This means that either object can be repositioned and reflected (but not resized) so as to coincide precisely with the other object. So two distinct plane figures on a piece of paper are congruent if we can cut them out and then match them up completely. Turning the paper over is permitted.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 593693, 254777, 27832980, 204682, 39789, 295829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 33 ], [ 116, 124 ], [ 149, 161 ], [ 173, 184 ], [ 188, 196 ], [ 204, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In elementary geometry the word congruent is often used as follows. The word equal is often used in place of congruent for these objects.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Two line segments are congruent if they have the same length. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22634860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two angles are congruent if they have the same measure.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two circles are congruent if they have the same diameter.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In this sense, two plane figures are congruent implies that their corresponding characteristics are \"congruent\" or \"equal\" including not just their corresponding sides and angles, but also their corresponding diagonals, perimeters, and areas.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The related concept of similarity applies if the objects have the same shape but do not necessarily have the same size. (Most definitions consider congruence to be a form of similarity, although a minority require that the objects have different sizes in order to qualify as similar.)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For two polygons to be congruent, they must have an equal number of sides (and hence an equal numberthe same numberof vertices). Two polygons with n sides are congruent if and only if they each have numerically identical sequences (even if clockwise for one polygon and counterclockwise for the other) side-angle-side-angle-... for n sides and n angles.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Determining congruence of polygons", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Congruence of polygons can be established graphically as follows:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Determining congruence of polygons", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "First, match and label the corresponding vertices of the two figures.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Determining congruence of polygons", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Second, draw a vector from one of the vertices of the one of the figures to the corresponding vertex of the other figure. Translate the first figure by this vector so that these two vertices match.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Determining congruence of polygons", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Third, rotate the translated figure about the matched vertex until one pair of corresponding sides matches.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Determining congruence of polygons", "target_page_ids": [ 3407326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fourth, reflect the rotated figure about this matched side until the figures match.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Determining congruence of polygons", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If at any time the step cannot be completed, the polygons are not congruent.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Determining congruence of polygons", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Two triangles are congruent if their corresponding sides are equal in length, and their corresponding angles are equal in measure.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 30654, 12158034, 1196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 51, 56 ], [ 102, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Symbolically, we write the congruency and incongruency of two triangles and as follows:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In many cases it is sufficient to establish the equality of three corresponding parts and use one of the following results to deduce the congruence of the two triangles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sufficient evidence for congruence between two triangles in Euclidean space can be shown through the following comparisons:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 9697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "SAS (side-angle-side): If two pairs of sides of two triangles are equal in length, and the included angles are equal in measurement, then the triangles are congruent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "SSS (side-side-side): If three pairs of sides of two triangles are equal in length, then the triangles are congruent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "ASA (angle-side-angle): If two pairs of angles of two triangles are equal in measurement, and the included sides are equal in length, then the triangles are congruent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ASA postulate was contributed by Thales of Miletus (Greek). In most systems of axioms, the three criteria – SAS, SSS and ASA – are established as theorems. In the School Mathematics Study Group system SAS is taken as one (#15) of 22 postulates.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 30072, 30977, 1700591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 54 ], [ 150, 157 ], [ 167, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AAS (angle-angle-side): If two pairs of angles of two triangles are equal in measurement, and a pair of corresponding non-included sides are equal in length, then the triangles are congruent. AAS is equivalent to an ASA condition, by the fact that if any two angles are given, so is the third angle, since their sum should be 180°. ASA and AAS are sometimes combined into a single condition, AAcorrS – any two angles and a corresponding side.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "RHS (right-angle-hypotenuse-side), also known as HL (hypotenuse-leg): If two right-angled triangles have their hypotenuses equal in length, and a pair of other sides are equal in length, then the triangles are congruent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The SSA condition (side-side-angle) which specifies two sides and a non-included angle (also known as ASS, or angle-side-side) does not by itself prove congruence. In order to show congruence, additional information is required such as the measure of the corresponding angles and in some cases the lengths of the two pairs of corresponding sides. There are a few possible cases:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If two triangles satisfy the SSA condition and the length of the side opposite the angle is greater than or equal to the length of the adjacent side (SSA, or long side-short side-angle), then the two triangles are congruent. The opposite side is sometimes longer when the corresponding angles are acute, but it is always longer when the corresponding angles are right or obtuse. Where the angle is a right angle, also known as the hypotenuse-leg (HL) postulate or the right-angle-hypotenuse-side (RHS) condition, the third side can be calculated using the Pythagorean theorem thus allowing the SSS postulate to be applied.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 26513034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 556, 575 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If two triangles satisfy the SSA condition and the corresponding angles are acute and the length of the side opposite the angle is equal to the length of the adjacent side multiplied by the sine of the angle, then the two triangles are congruent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If two triangles satisfy the SSA condition and the corresponding angles are acute and the length of the side opposite the angle is greater than the length of the adjacent side multiplied by the sine of the angle (but less than the length of the adjacent side), then the two triangles cannot be shown to be congruent. This is the ambiguous case and two different triangles can be formed from the given information, but further information distinguishing them can lead to a proof of congruence.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 113222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 329, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Euclidean geometry, AAA (angle-angle-angle) (or just AA, since in Euclidean geometry the angles of a triangle add up to 180°) does not provide information regarding the size of the two triangles and hence proves only similarity and not congruence in Euclidean space.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 39377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, in spherical geometry and hyperbolic geometry (where the sum of the angles of a triangle varies with size) AAA is sufficient for congruence on a given curvature of surface.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 174026, 241291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 30 ], [ 35, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This acronym stands for Corresponding Parts of Congruent Triangles are Congruent, which is an abbreviated version of the definition of congruent triangles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 1052571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In more detail, it is a succinct way to say that if triangles and are congruent, that is,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "with corresponding pairs of angles at vertices and ; and ; and and , and with corresponding pairs of sides and ; and ; and and , then the following statements are true:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The statement is often used as a justification in elementary geometry proofs when a conclusion of the congruence of parts of two triangles is needed after the congruence of the triangles has been established. For example, if two triangles have been shown to be congruent by the SSS criteria and a statement that corresponding angles are congruent is needed in a proof, then CPCTC may be used as a justification of this statement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A related theorem is CPCFC, in which \"triangles\" is replaced with \"figures\" so that the theorem applies to any pair of polygons or polyhedrons that are congruent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Congruence of triangles", "target_page_ids": [ 23621, 23470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 126 ], [ 131, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a Euclidean system, congruence is fundamental; it is the counterpart of equality for numbers. In analytic geometry, congruence may be defined intuitively thus: two mappings of figures onto one Cartesian coordinate system are congruent if and only if, for any two points in the first mapping, the Euclidean distance between them is equal to the Euclidean distance between the corresponding points in the second mapping.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Definition of congruence in analytic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 9417, 2202, 53932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 21 ], [ 101, 118 ], [ 300, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A more formal definition states that two subsets A and B of Euclidean space Rn are called congruent if there exists an isometry f : Rn → Rn (an element of the Euclidean group E(n)) with f(A) = B. Congruence is an equivalence relation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Definition of congruence in analytic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 27631, 9697, 254777, 652164, 9259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 47 ], [ 60, 75 ], [ 119, 127 ], [ 160, 175 ], [ 214, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two conic sections are congruent if their eccentricities and one other distinct parameter characterizing them are equal. Their eccentricities establish their shapes, equality of which is sufficient to establish similarity, and the second parameter then establishes size. Since two circles, parabolas, or rectangular hyperbolas always have the same eccentricity (specifically 0 in the case of circles, 1 in the case of parabolas, and in the case of rectangular hyperbolas), two circles, parabolas, or rectangular hyperbolas need to have only one other common parameter value, establishing their size, for them to be congruent.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Congruent conic sections", "target_page_ids": [ 1239472, 6220, 23231, 14052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 56 ], [ 281, 287 ], [ 290, 298 ], [ 304, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For two polyhedra with the same combinatorial type (that is, the same ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Congruent polyhedra", "target_page_ids": [ 23470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "number E of edges, the same number of faces, and the same number of sides on corresponding faces), there exists a set of E measurements that can establish whether or not the polyhedra are congruent.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Congruent polyhedra", "target_page_ids": [ 149926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The number is tight, meaning that less than E measurements are not enough if the polyhedra are generic among their combinatorial type. But less measurements can work for special cases. For example, cubes have 12 edges, but 9 measurements are enough to decide if a polyhedron of that combinatorial type is congruent to a given regular cube.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Congruent polyhedra", "target_page_ids": [ 6285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As with plane triangles, on a sphere two triangles sharing the same sequence of angle-side-angle (ASA) are necessarily congruent (that is, they have three identical sides and three identical angles). This can be seen as follows: One can situate one of the vertices with a given angle at the south pole and run the side with given length up the prime meridian. Knowing both angles at either end of the segment of fixed length ensures that the other two sides emanate with a uniquely determined trajectory, and thus will meet each other at a uniquely determined point; thus ASA is valid.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Congruent triangles on a sphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The congruence theorems side-angle-side (SAS) and side-side-side (SSS) also hold on a sphere; in addition, if two spherical triangles have an identical angle-angle-angle (AAA) sequence, they are congruent (unlike for plane triangles).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Congruent triangles on a sphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The plane-triangle congruence theorem angle-angle-side (AAS) does not hold for spherical triangles. As in plane geometry, side-side-angle (SSA) does not imply congruence.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Congruent triangles on a sphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A symbol commonly used for congruence is an equals symbol with a tilde above it, ≅, corresponding to the Unicode character 'approximately equal to' (U+2245). In the UK, the three-bar equal sign ≡ (U+2261) is sometimes used.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notation", "target_page_ids": [ 212390, 31742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 70 ], [ 105, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Euclidean plane isometry", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1989599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Isometry", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 254777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The SSS at Cut-the-Knot", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 3260411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The SSA at Cut-the-Knot", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 3260411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Interactive animations demonstrating Congruent polygons, Congruent angles, Congruent line segments, Congruent triangles at Math Open Reference", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Euclidean_geometry", "Equivalence_(mathematics)" ]

[ "congruent to" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Stigmata (, plural of , 'mark, spot, brand'), in Christianity, are the appearance of bodily wounds, scars and pain in locations corresponding to the crucifixion wounds of Jesus Christ, such as the hands, wrists, and feet.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5211, 22852566, 1396185, 364322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 62 ], [ 150, 161 ], [ 162, 168 ], [ 172, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stigmata are exclusively associated with Roman Catholicism. Many reported stigmatics are members of Catholic religious orders. St. Francis of Assisi was the first recorded stigmatic. For over fifty years, St. Padre Pio of Pietrelcina of the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin reported stigmata which were studied by several 20th-century physicians. Stigmata are notably foreign to the Eastern Orthodox Church, which professes no official view on the matter; the first and only stigmatics have been Catholics who lived after the Great Schism of 1054.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 11638, 320349, 101369, 10186, 543935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 58 ], [ 131, 148 ], [ 209, 218 ], [ 241, 271 ], [ 381, 404 ], [ 524, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A high percentage (perhaps over 80%) of all stigmatics are women. In his book Stigmata: A Medieval Phenomenon in a Modern Age, Ted Harrison suggests that there is no single mechanism whereby the marks of stigmata were produced. What is important is that the marks are recognised by others as of religious significance. Most cases of stigmata have been debunked as trickery. Some cases have also included reportings of a mysterious chalice in visions being given to stigmatics to drink from or the feeling of a sharp sword being driven into one's chest.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An individual bearing the wounds of stigmata is a stigmatist or a stigmatic. In , Saint Paul says:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 24140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From henceforth let no man trouble me: for I bear in my body the marks of the Lord Jesus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A () is a mark on the skin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Reported cases of stigmata take various forms. Many show some or all of five Holy Wounds that were, according to the Bible, inflicted on Jesus during his crucifixion: wounds in the wrists and feet, from nails; and in the side, from a lance. Some stigmatics display wounds to the forehead similar to those caused by the crown of thorns. Stigmata as crown of thorns appearing in the 20th century, e.g. on Marie Rose Ferron, have been repeatedly photographed. Other reported forms include tears of blood or sweating blood, and wounds to the back as from scourging.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 1396185, 3390, 607345, 30033844, 168175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 88 ], [ 117, 122 ], [ 319, 334 ], [ 403, 420 ], [ 551, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many stigmata show recurring bleeding that stops and then starts, at times after receiving Holy Communion; a significant proportion of stigmatics have shown a strong desire to receive Holy Communion frequently. A relatively high percentage of stigmatics also exhibit inedia, claiming to live with minimal (or no) food or water for long periods of time, except for the Holy Eucharist. Some exhibit weight loss, and closer investigation often reveals evidence of fakery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 9767, 5040, 9767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 105 ], [ 267, 273 ], [ 368, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some stigmatics claim to feel the pain of wounds with no external marks; these are referred to as \"invisible stigmata\". Some stigmatics' wounds do not appear to clot, and seem to stay fresh and uninfected. The blood from the wounds is said, in some cases, to have a pleasant, perfumed odor, known as the Odour of Sanctity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 5207014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 304, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Individuals who have obtained the stigmata are many times described as ecstatics, overwhelmed with emotions upon receiving the stigmata. No case of stigmata is known to have occurred before the thirteenth century.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 178311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his paper Hospitality and Pain, Christian theologian Ivan Illich states: \"Compassion with Christ... is faith so strong and so deeply incarnate that it leads to the individual embodiment of the contemplated pain.\" His thesis is that stigmata result from exceptional poignancy of religious faith and desire to associate oneself with the suffering Messiah.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 30503, 236515, 19616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 55 ], [ 56, 67 ], [ 348, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Differently from the Five Holy Wounds of Christ, some mystics like Francis of Assisi and father Pio of Petralcina reported a spontaneous regression and closure of their stigmata in the days following their death. Both of them claimed to have received the divine stigmata in their hands as well as in their feet.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 1396185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "St. Francis of Assisi is the first recorded stigmatic in Christian history. In 1224, two years before his death, he embarked on a journey to Mount La Verna for a forty-day fast. The legend states that one morning, near the feast of the Exaltation of the Cross, a six-winged angel appeared to Francis while he prayed. As the angel approached, Francis could see that the angel was crucified. He was humbled by the sight, and his heart was filled with elation joined by pain and suffering. When the angel departed, Francis was left with wounds in his hands, feet, and side as if caused by the same lance that pierced Christ’s side. The image of nails immediately appeared in his hands and feet, and the wound in his side often seeped blood. In traditional artistic depictions of the incident, Francis is accompanied by a Franciscan brother.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specific cases", "target_page_ids": [ 11638, 3897276, 1293823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 141, 155 ], [ 236, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "St. Francis' first biographer, Thomas of Celano, reports the event in his 1230 First Life of St. Francis:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specific cases", "target_page_ids": [ 184410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the blessed servant of God saw these things he was filled with wonder, but he did not know what the vision meant. He rejoiced greatly in the benign and gracious expression with which he saw himself regarded by the seraph, whose beauty was indescribable; yet he was alarmed by the fact that the seraph was affixed to the cross and was suffering terribly. Thus Francis rose, one might say, sad and happy, joy and grief alternating in him. He wondered anxiously what this vision could mean, and his soul was uneasy as it searched for understanding. And as his understanding sought in vain for an explanation and his heart was filled with perplexity at the great novelty of this vision, the marks of nails began to appear in his hands and feet, just as he had seen them slightly earlier in the crucified man above him.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specific cases", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "His wrists and feet seemed to be pierced by nails, with the heads of the nails appearing on his wrists and on the upper sides of his feet, the points appearing on the other side. The marks were round on the palm of each hand but elongated on the other side, and small pieces of flesh jutting out from the rest took on the appearance of the nail-ends, bent and driven back. In the same way the marks of nails were impressed on his feet and projected beyond the rest of the flesh. Moreover, his right side had a large wound as if it had been pierced with a spear, and it often bled so that his tunic and trousers were soaked with his sacred blood.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specific cases", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From the records of St. Francis' physical ailments and symptoms, Edward Frederick Hartung concluded in 1935 that he knew what health problems plagued St. Francis. Hartung believed that he had an eye ailment known as trachoma and quartan malaria.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specific cases", "target_page_ids": [ 1209178, 2191408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 224 ], [ 229, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Quartan malaria infects the liver, spleen, and stomach, causing the victim intense pain. One complication of quartan malaria occasionally seen around Francis' time is known as purpura, a purple hemorrhage of blood into the skin. According to Hartung \"If this were the case of St. Francis, he would have been afflicted by ecchymoses, an exceedingly large purpura. The purple spots of blood may have been punctured while in the wilderness and there appear as an open wound like that of Christ.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specific cases", "target_page_ids": [ 17384301, 42567, 39747, 1157632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 33 ], [ 35, 41 ], [ 47, 54 ], [ 176, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A later medical hypothesis was proposed in 1987 to explain the wounds, it claimed that St. Francis may have contracted leprosy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specific cases", "target_page_ids": [ 44700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For over fifty years, Padre Pio of Pietrelcina reported stigmata which were studied by several 20th-century physicians, whose independence from the Church is not known.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specific cases", "target_page_ids": [ 320349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The observations were reportedly inexplicable and the wounds never became infected. His wounds healed once, but reappeared. The wounds were examined by Luigi Romanelli, chief physician of the City Hospital of Barletta, for about one year. The physician Angelo Maria Merla noted that the wounds were not tubercular in origin but could not make an official diagnosis without further tests. The surgeon Giorgio Festa, a private practitioner, also examined them in 1920 and 1925. Professor Giuseppe Bastianelli, physician to Pope Benedict XV, examined the wounds, but no report of his examinations was made. Pathologist Amico Bignami of the University of Rome also observed the wounds, describing them as shallow. Festa, who had originally agreed with Bignami, later described the wounds as superficial when covered with a scab. Giorgio Festa noted that \"at the edges of the lesions, the skin is perfectly normal and does not show any sign of edema, of penetration, or of redness, even when examined with a good magnifying glass\". Alberto Caserta took X-rays of the hands in 1954 and found no abnormality in the bone structure. Giuseppe Sala who worked as a physician for Pio between 1956 and 1968 commented that tests revealed his blood had no signs of abnormality.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specific cases", "target_page_ids": [ 936265, 30653, 45186516, 15603756, 147855, 15487431, 1222318, 70426, 34197, 50397014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 217 ], [ 303, 313 ], [ 400, 413 ], [ 486, 506 ], [ 521, 537 ], [ 616, 629 ], [ 637, 655 ], [ 939, 944 ], [ 1048, 1053 ], [ 1124, 1137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were both religious and non-religious critics who accused Padre Pio of faking his stigmata, saying he used carbolic acid to make the wounds. The historian Sergio Luzzatto recounted that in 1919, according to one document in the Vatican's archive, Pio had requested carbolic acid from a pharmacist. She said it was for sterilizing syringes used for vaccination.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specific cases", "target_page_ids": [ 24085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amico Bignami in a report wrote that the wounds were caused by \"neurotic necrosis\". He suggested they had been inflicted unconsciously by suggestion and artificially maintained by iodine that Pio had used as a disinfectant. In 1922, physician Agostino Gemelli wrote that Pio was an hysteric and his stigmata were self-induced, not of supernatural origin. Gemelli also speculated that his wounds were kept open with carbolic acid. Giorgio Festa, who examined the stigmata of the friar on October 28, 1919, wrote in his report that they \"are not the product of a trauma of external origin, nor are they due to the application of potently irritating chemicals\". In September 2009, Professor Ezio Fulcheri, professor of pathological anatomy at the University of Genoa and of paleopathology at the University of Turin, said that he had examined photographic and documentary material on the stigmata of Padre Pio and on this basis said: \"I cannot imagine what substances allow wounds to be kept open for fifty years, preventing their natural evolution. ... The more one studies the anatomy and pathophysiology of wounds, the more one realizes that a wound cannot remain open as it happened instead for Padre Pio's stigmata, without complications, without consequences for muscles, nerves, tendons\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specific cases", "target_page_ids": [ 15487431, 47588, 39936, 2481523, 14750, 1692940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 64, 72 ], [ 73, 81 ], [ 138, 148 ], [ 180, 186 ], [ 243, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout his life, Pio had hidden his wounds by wearing fingerless gloves. At death there were no wounds, only \"unblemished skin\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specific cases", "target_page_ids": [ 172120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first saint from India with stigmata was nun Mariam Thresia Chiramel. She was canonised on 13 October 2019 by Pope Francis.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Specific cases", "target_page_ids": [ 3398158, 1687680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 72 ], [ 114, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late nineteenth century, a French physician named Dr. A Imbert-Goubeyre began compiling a census of known stigmatics from the thirteenth century to his own time. This census includes 280 female and 41 male stigmatics, meaning women comprise a little over 87% of the list. Additionally, the University of Antwerp released a database of information on 244 stigmatics in April 2019. 92% of the stigmatics in the database are female. In some cases, convent sisters have attempted to shield stigmatic women from public scrutiny, often out of fear of how their condition would affect the convent's reputation. So, the amount of women stigmatics may be even higher than historical record shows.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stigmata and gender", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the high number of women stigmatics throughout history, the best-known and least contested stigmatics, such as Francis of Assisi and Padre Pio, have been men.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stigmata and gender", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many stigmatics have been exposed for using trickery. Magdalena de la Cruz for example confessed before she died that her stigmata was deliberate deception.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Scientific research", "target_page_ids": [ 1962973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early neurologist Désiré-Magloire Bourneville published works which stated that saints claiming to produce miracles or stigmata, and those claiming to be possessed, were actually suffering from epilepsy or hysteria. Some modern research has indicated stigmata are of hysterical origin or linked to dissociative identity disorder.<ref>Seidl, O. (2008). Stigmatisation and Absence of Nutrition in the Case of Therese Neumann (1898–1962). Nervenarzt'_ 79 (7): 836–843.</ref>", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Scientific research", "target_page_ids": [ 7882106, 28436, 52041, 45936, 10511, 184000, 39653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 45 ], [ 80, 85 ], [ 107, 114 ], [ 154, 163 ], [ 194, 202 ], [ 206, 214 ], [ 298, 328 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a link between dietary constriction by self-starvation, dissociative mental states and self-mutilation, in the context of a religious belief. Anorexia nervosa cases often display self-mutilation similar to stigmata as part of a ritualistic, obsessive–compulsive disorder. A relationship between starvation and self-mutilation has been reported amongst prisoners of war and during famines.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Scientific research", "target_page_ids": [ 215891, 529089, 150374, 26534334, 20082214, 25008, 51329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 63 ], [ 65, 91 ], [ 96, 111 ], [ 151, 167 ], [ 250, 279 ], [ 361, 377 ], [ 389, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The psychologist Leonard Zusne in his book Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical Thinking (1989) has written:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Scientific research", "target_page_ids": [ 49591860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his Stigmata: A Medieval Phenomenon in a Modern Age, Ted Harrison suggests that there is no single mechanism whereby the marks of stigmata were produced. Harrison found no evidence from a study of contemporary cases that the marks were supernatural in origin. He concluded, however, that marks of natural origin need not be hoaxes. Some stigmatics marked themselves in attempt to suffer with Christ as a form of piety. Others marked themselves accidentally and their marks were noted as stigmata by witnesses. Often marks of human origin produced profound and genuine religious responses.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Scientific research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison also noted the male-to-female ratio of stigmatics, which for many centuries had been of the order of 7 to 1, had changed since the late 1800s to a ratio of 5 to 4. Appearance of stigmata frequently coincided with times when issues of authority loomed large in the Church. What was significant about stigmatics was not that they were predominantly men, but that they were non-ordained. Having stigmata gave them direct access to the body of Christ without requiring the permission of the Church through the Eucharist. Only in the last century have priests been stigmatised.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Scientific research", "target_page_ids": [ 9767, 8655005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 515, 524 ], [ 556, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One suggestion is that painful bruising syndrome may explain rare cases of non self-induced stigmata.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Scientific research", "target_page_ids": [ 22279700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Skeptical investigator Joe Nickell, who investigated recent cases of stigmata such as Katya Rivas, commented that they are indistinguishable from hoaxing.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Scientific research", "target_page_ids": [ 3287389, 52239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 34 ], [ 146, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2002, a psychoanalytic study of stigmatic Therese Neumann suggested her stigmata resulted from post-traumatic stress symptoms expressed in unconscious self-mutilation through abnormal autosuggestibility.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Scientific research", "target_page_ids": [ 1931836, 82974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 60 ], [ 98, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among the Warao of the Orinoco Delta, a contemplator of tutelary spirits may mystically induce the development of \"...(imagined) openings in the palms of his hands.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Non-Christian stigmata", "target_page_ids": [ 3031720, 3672448, 207848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 15 ], [ 23, 36 ], [ 56, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Buddhist \"stigmata\" are regularly indicated in Buddhist art.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Non-Christian stigmata", "target_page_ids": [ 3267529, 5517266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 47, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some spiritualist mediums have also produced stigmata. During the séances of German medium Maria Vollhardt, it was alleged that bleeding wounds appeared. However, Albert Moll, a psychiatrist, considered her phenomena to be fraudulent.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Non-Christian stigmata", "target_page_ids": [ 2269697, 5007783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 25 ], [ 163, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Biot, René. (1962). The Enigma of the Stigmata. Hawthorn Books.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carroll, Robert Todd. (2003). Stigmata. In The Skeptic's Dictionary. Wiley. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1352885, 46106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 43, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harrison, Ted. (1994). Stigmata: A Medieval Phenomenon in a Modern Age. St Martins Press. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mazzoni, Cristina. (1996). Saint Hysteria: Neurosis, Mysticism, and Gender in European Culture. Cornell University Press. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nickell, Joe. (1993). Looking for a Miracle: Weeping Icons, Relics, Stigmata, Visions & Healing Cures. Prometheus Books. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 3287389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Radford, Benjamin. (2014). What is Stigmata?. LiveScience. Retrieved 12 May 2016.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 6953049, 21781636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 46, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wilson, Ian. (1988). The Bleeding Mind: An Investigation into the Mysterious Phenomena of Stigmata. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 778259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Yarom, Nitza. (1992). Body, Blood, and Sexuality: A Psychoanalytic Study of St. Francis' Stigmata and Their Historical Context''. Peter Lang Publisher.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Catholic_spirituality", "Christian_mythology", "Christian_miracles", "Stigmatics", "Crucifixion_of_Jesus" ]

[ "crucifixion wounds of Jesus Christ" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Hubert Languet (1518 – 30 September 1581, in Antwerp) was a French diplomat and reformer. The leading idea of his diplomacy was that of religious and civil liberty for the protection and expansion of Protestantism. He did everything in his power to advance the union of the Protestant churches.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32149462, 82433, 37857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 52 ], [ 67, 75 ], [ 80, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Languet was born in 1518 in Vitteaux, France, located west of Dijon, France.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 15572045, 99187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 44 ], [ 63, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He entered the University of Poitiers in order to study law but he was interested also in theology, history, and science and political science. He visited the universities of Padua and Bologna, and traveled in Italy and Spain.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 533895, 18949668, 30503, 10772350, 38890, 24388, 378253, 263329, 14532, 26667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 37 ], [ 56, 59 ], [ 90, 98 ], [ 100, 107 ], [ 113, 120 ], [ 125, 142 ], [ 175, 180 ], [ 185, 192 ], [ 210, 215 ], [ 220, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was greatly influenced by Melanchthon's Loci theologici, which put an end to his doubts. In 1549 Languet went to Wittenberg, where he was kindly received by Melanchthon as a guest, frequently accompanying him on his travels and being on intimate terms with his friends. Expelled from France by the persecutions of the Protestants, he settled at Wittenberg, spending the winters there, but making extensive journeys in the summer and autumn.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 39209, 48827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 40 ], [ 116, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1559 Languet, on the recommendation of Melanchthon, entered the service of the elector of Saxony as diplomatic agent, which position he held until 1577. The elector sent him to various courts: to Paris, Vienna, Prague, Frankfurt, Cologne, and the Netherlands.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 6488945, 22989, 55866, 23844, 10992, 6187, 21148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 99 ], [ 199, 204 ], [ 206, 212 ], [ 214, 220 ], [ 222, 231 ], [ 233, 240 ], [ 250, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a friend of Melanchthon he opposed the growing party of strict Lutherans; but still he did everything in his power to reconcile the opposing parties, even trying to effect the recognition of the French Huguenots at the diet of Frankfurt in 1562, but without success. In May 1561, he went to France in order to bring about a closer connection between the German princes and the French Protestants, and was present at the Religious Conference of Poissy. In 1562 he was in Antwerp; the following years were spent in diplomatic journeys to France and back to Saxony.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 75899, 6587621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 213 ], [ 433, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1571 the elector sent him together with the ambassadors of other Protestant princes of Germany to King Charles IX of France to congratulate him on the Peace of Saint Germain. On this occasion Languet advocated the equal recognition of both confessions, but the answer was the St Bartholomew's Day massacre; having narrowly escaped death, he left France in October 1572, and returned there only once more, shortly before his death.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 11867, 75908, 4288521, 162947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 97 ], [ 106, 126 ], [ 154, 176 ], [ 279, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1573 to 1576 he was at the court of Emperor Maximilian II, whom he accompanied on his various journeys. With the death of Maximilian II in 1576 his connection with the court of Vienna was dissolved. The bitter feelings against him as the friend of Melanchthon and a Calvinist caused him to ask for dismissal from the court. The elector granted his desire, but continued his salary. In 1577 he went to Cologne in order to be nearer to the Netherlands, as he was greatly attracted by William of Orange.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 39380, 6024, 74344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 62 ], [ 271, 280 ], [ 487, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Languet is one possible candidate for the authorship of the influential Huguenot pamphlet, Vindiciae contra tyrannos (1579). The book is divided into four parts each of which proposes and answers a question:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 9913155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Must God in a case of dispute be obeyed rather than a ruler? ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "May a ruler who violates the law of God and devastates the Church, be opposed? ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "How far, and with what right may it be allowed to oppose a ruler who suppresses or destroys the state? ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Have neighboring rulers a right to assist the subjects oppressed by his ruler?", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The correspondence with the Elector August of Saxony and with Mordeisen were edited by T. P. Ludovicus under the title Arcana seculi xvi. (Halle, 1699). Other collections of letters are Epistolae politicae et historicae ad P. Sydnaeum (Frankfort, 1633); Epistolae ad J. Camerarium, Patrem et filium (Groningen, 1646).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Béatrice Nicollier : 'Hubert Languet (1518 - 1581) : un réseau politique international de Mélanchthon à Guillaume D'Orange'', Ed. Droz, 1995, ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1518_births", "1581_deaths", "French_Calvinist_and_Reformed_Christians", "16th-century_French_diplomats", "16th-century_Calvinist_and_Reformed_Christians", "People_from_Montbard" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "An injunction is a legal and equitable remedy in the form of a special court order that compels a party to do or refrain from specific acts. \"When a court employs the extraordinary remedy of injunction, it directs the conduct of a party, and does so with the backing of its full coercive powers.\" A party that fails to comply with an injunction faces criminal or civil penalties, including possible monetary sanctions and even imprisonment. They can also be charged with contempt of court. Counterinjunctions are injunctions that stop or reverse the enforcement of another injunction.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1584306, 3786959, 153237, 601627, 75358, 3519449, 1633582, 8983183, 213806, 7201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 24 ], [ 29, 45 ], [ 71, 82 ], [ 98, 103 ], [ 149, 154 ], [ 274, 294 ], [ 363, 378 ], [ 399, 407 ], [ 427, 439 ], [ 471, 488 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The injunction is an equitable remedy, that is, a remedy that originated in the English courts of equity. Like other equitable remedies, it has traditionally been given when a wrong cannot be effectively remedied by an award of money damages. (The doctrine that reflects this is the requirement that an injunction can be given only when there is \"no adequate remedy at law.\") Injunctions are intended to make whole again someone whose rights have been violated. Nevertheless, when deciding whether to grant an injunction, courts also take into account the interests of non-parties (that is, the public interest). When deciding whether to give an injunction, and deciding what its scope should be, courts give special attention to questions of fairness and good faith. One manifestation of this is that injunctions are subject to equitable defenses, such as laches and unclean hands.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Rationale", "target_page_ids": [ 1096271, 18465, 1299398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 104 ], [ 857, 863 ], [ 868, 881 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Injunctions are given in many different kinds of cases. They can prohibit future violations of the law, such as trespass to real property, infringement of a patent, or the violation of a constitutional right (e.g., the free exercise of religion). Or they can require the defendant to repair past violations of the law.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Rationale", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An injunction can require someone to do something, like clean up an oil spill or remove a spite fence. Or it can prohibit someone from doing something, like using an illegally obtained trade secret. An injunction that requires conduct is called a \"mandatory injunction.\" An injunction that prohibits conduct is called a \"prohibitory injunction.\" Many injunctions are both—that is, they have both mandatory and prohibitory components, because they require some conduct and forbid other conduct.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Rationale", "target_page_ids": [ 6234915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When an injunction is given, it can be enforced with equitable enforcement mechanisms such as contempt. It can also be modified or dissolved (upon a proper motion to the court) if circumstances change in the future. These features of the injunction allow a court granting one to manage the behavior of the parties. That is the most important distinction between the injunction and another non-monetary remedy in American law, the declaratory judgment. Another way these two remedies are distinguished is that the declaratory judgment is sometimes available at an earlier point in a dispute than the injunction.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Rationale", "target_page_ids": [ 984654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 430, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the state of New South Wales, a court may grant an apprehended violence order (AVO) to a person who fears violence, harassment, abuse, or stalking. The order prohibits the defendant from assaulting, harassing, threatening, stalking, or intimidating the person seeking the order. Other conditions may be included, such as a prohibition against contacting the person or attempting to find the person online. A court may issue the order if it believes a person has reasonable grounds for their fears or has no reasonable grounds for their fears. Non-compliance may result in the imposition of a fine, imprisonment, or both, and deportation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [ 21654, 25272420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 31 ], [ 141, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Interim injunctions are a provisional form of injunctive relief, which can compel a party to do something (mandatory injunction) or stop it from doing something (prohibitory injunction).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [ 17489152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A plaintiff seeking an interim injunction must establish that he is likely to succeed on the merits, that he is likely to suffer severe harm in the absence of preliminary relief, and that an injunction is in the public interest.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [ 17489152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Turkish law, interim injunction is an extraordinary remedy that is never awarded as of right. In each case, courts balance the competing claims of injury and consider the likely hardship on the defendant.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [ 17489152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Injunctions have been especially important at two moments in American history.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "First, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, federal courts used injunctions to break strikes by unions. For example, after the United States government successfully used an injunction to outlaw the Pullman boycott in 1894 in In re Debs, employers found that they could obtain federal court injunctions to ban strikes and organizing activities of all kinds by unions. These injunctions were often extremely broad; one injunction issued by a federal court in the 1920s effectively barred the United Mine Workers of America from talking to workers who had signed yellow dog contracts with their employers. Unable to limit what they called \"government by injunction\" in the courts, labor and its allies persuaded the United States Congress in 1932 to pass the Norris-LaGuardia Act, which imposed so many procedural and substantive limits on the federal courts' power to issue injunctions that it effectively prohibited federal court from issuing injunctions in cases arising out of labor disputes. A number of states followed suit and enacted \"Little Norris-LaGuardia Acts\" that imposed similar limitations on state courts' powers. The courts have since recognized a limited exception to the Norris-LaGuardia Act's strict limitations in those cases in which a party seeks injunctive relief to enforce the grievance arbitration provisions of a collective bargaining agreement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [ 195149, 226206, 4221502, 1636627, 17626, 219724, 657264, 31756, 55766, 28919492, 6973884, 253421, 19280537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 166 ], [ 213, 220 ], [ 240, 250 ], [ 291, 304 ], [ 374, 380 ], [ 505, 535 ], [ 575, 585 ], [ 728, 750 ], [ 771, 791 ], [ 1316, 1325 ], [ 1326, 1337 ], [ 1354, 1375 ], [ 1376, 1385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Second, injunctions were crucial to the second half of the twentieth century in the desegregation of American schools. Federal courts gave injunctions that carried out the command of Brown v Board of Education to integrate public schools in the United States, and at times courts took over the management of public schools in order to ensure compliance. (An injunction that puts a court in the position of taking over and administering an institution—such as a school, a prison, or a hospital—is often called a \"structural injunction\".)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [ 66402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Injunctions remain widely used to require government officials to comply with the Constitution, and they are also frequently used in private law disputes about intellectual property, real property, and contracts. Many state and federal statutes, including environmental statutes, civil rights statutes and employment-discrimination statutes, are enforced with injunctions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [ 10091, 37071, 7372773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 256, 278 ], [ 280, 301 ], [ 306, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Injunctions in the United States tend to come in three main forms, temporary injunctions, preliminary injunctions and permanent injunctions. For both temporary restraining orders and preliminary injunctions, the goal is usually to preserve the status quo until the court is able to decide the case.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A special kind of injunction that may be issued before trial is called a \"temporary restraining order\" or TRO. A TRO may be issued without notice to the other party or a hearing. A TRO will be given only for a short period of time before a court can schedule a hearing at which the restrained person may appear and contest the order. If the TRO is contested, the court must decide whether to issue a preliminary injunction. Temporary restraining orders are often, but not exclusively, given to prevent domestic violence, stalking, sexual assault, or harassment.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Preliminary injunctions are given before trial. Because they are issued at an early stage, before the court has heard the evidence and made a decision in the case, they are more rarely given. The requirements for a preliminary injunction tend to be the same as for a permanent injunction, with the additional requirement that the party asking for the injunction is likely to succeed on the merits.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Permanent injunctions are issued after trial. Different federal and state courts sometimes have slightly different requirements for obtaining a permanent injunction. The Supreme Court enumerated the traditional four-factor test in eBay Inc. v. MercExchange, L.L.C. as:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [ 5156746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the plaintiff has suffered irreparable injury;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " remedies available at law are inadequate to compensate that injury;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [ 1584306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " considering the balance of hardships between the plaintiff and defendant, a remedy in equity is warranted; and", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [ 3786959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the public interest would not be disserved by an injunction.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The balance of hardships inquiry is also sometimes called the \"undue hardship defense\". A stay pending appeal is a mechanism allowing a losing party to delay enforcement of an injunction while appeal is pending after final judgment has been granted by a lower court.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The DOJ and the FTC have investigated patent holders in the United States for seeking preliminary injunctions against accused infringers of standard-essential patents, or patents that the patent holder must license on reasonable and non-discriminatory terms. There is an ongoing debate among legal and economic scholars with major implications for antitrust policy in the United States as well as in other countries over the statutory limits to the patent holder's right to seek and obtain injunctive relief against infringers of standard-essential patents. Citing concerns of the absence of competition facing the patent holder once its technology is locked-in to the standard, some scholars argue that the holder of a standard-essential patent should face antitrust liability when seeking an injunction against an implementer of a standard. Other scholars assert that patent holders are not contractually restrained from pursuing injunctions for standard-essential patent claims and that patent law is already capable of determining whether an injunction against an infringer of standard-essential patents will impose a net cost on consumers, thus obviating the role of antitrust enforcement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [ 657137, 18934904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 257 ], [ 669, 677 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Interim injunctions or interim orders are granted as a means of providing interim relief while a case is being heard, to prevent actions being implemented which potentially may be barred by a final ruling.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [ 17489152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In England and Wales, injunctions whose existence and details may not be legally reported, in addition to facts or allegations which may not be disclosed, have been issued; they have been informally dubbed \"super-injunctions\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An example was the super-injunction raised in September 2009 by Carter-Ruck solicitors on behalf of oil trader Trafigura, prohibiting the reporting of an internal Trafigura report into the 2006 Ivory Coast toxic waste dump scandal. The existence of the super-injunction was revealed only when it was referred to in a parliamentary question that was subsequently circulated on the Internet (parliamentary privilege protects statements by MPs in Parliament which would otherwise be held to be in contempt of court). Before it could be challenged in court, the injunction was varied to permit reporting of the question. By long legal tradition, parliamentary proceedings may be reported without restriction. Parliamentary proceedings are covered by absolute privilege, but the reporting of those proceedings in newspapers is only covered by qualified privilege. Another example of the use of a super-injunction was in a libel case in which a plaintiff who claimed he was defamed by family members in a dispute over a multimillion-pound family trust obtained anonymity for himself and for his relatives.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [ 16340699, 7251017, 7274002, 738084, 23459171, 15276902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 75 ], [ 111, 120 ], [ 189, 222 ], [ 390, 413 ], [ 746, 764 ], [ 968, 975 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roy Greenslade credits the former editor of The Guardian, Alan Rusbridger, with coining the word \"super-injunction\" in an article about the Trafigura affair in September 2009.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [ 6455251, 19344515, 1001464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 44, 56 ], [ 58, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term \"hyper-injunction\" has also been used to describe an injunction similar to a super-injunction but also including an order that the injunction must not be discussed with members of Parliament, journalists, or lawyers. One known hyper-injunction was obtained at the High Court in 2006, preventing its subject from saying that paint used in water tanks on passenger ships can break down and release potentially toxic chemicals. This example became public knowledge in Parliament under parliamentary privilege.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By May 2011, Private Eye claimed to be aware of 53 super-injunctions and anonymised privacy injunctions, though Lord Neuberger's report into the use of super-injunctions revealed that only two super-injunctions had been granted since January 2010. Many media sources were wrongly describing all gagging orders as super-injunctions. The widespread media coverage of super-injunctions led to a drop in numbers after 2011; however four were granted in the first five months of 2015.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [ 21463728, 5351942, 1197501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 24 ], [ 112, 128 ], [ 295, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Injunctions defined by the European Commission as injunctions which can be issued for instance in cases in which materially the same website becomes available immediately after issuing the injunction with a different IP address or URL and which is drafted in a way that allows to also cover the new IP address or URL without the need for a new judicial procedure to obtain a new injunction.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [ 9974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An injunction described by the European Commission as allowing the repeated blocking of a website every time a live broadcast is in progress. These injunctions are generally used during live sporting events.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worldwide", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (Mareva injunction)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " On the Difference Between Lawsuit, a Restraining Order, and an Injunction", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Equity_(law)", "Judicial_remedies", "Judicial_legal_terminology", "Common_law_legal_terminology", "Court_orders" ]

[ "temporary restraining order" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Franchise may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Franchising, a business method that involves licensing of trademarks and methods of doing business to franchisees", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Business and law", "target_page_ids": [ 11616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Franchise, a privilege to operate a type of business such as a cable television provider, public utility, or taxicab company, sometimes requiring the filing of tariff schedules, as in:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Business and law", "target_page_ids": [ 61468490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Television franchise, a right to operate a television network", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Business and law", "target_page_ids": [ 36937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cable franchise, a right to operate a cable television network", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Business and law", "target_page_ids": [ 7587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cable television franchise fee, an annual fee charged by a local government to a private cable television company ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Business and law", "target_page_ids": [ 31809227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Passenger rail franchising in Great Britain, a system of contracting out the operation of the passenger services on the railways of Great Britain", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Business and law", "target_page_ids": [ 14050500, 25715, 4384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ], [ 95, 113 ], [ 121, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Franchise, a clause used by insurance companies as a threshold for policy payments, as in deductible", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Business and law", "target_page_ids": [ 636959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Franchise, political franchise, or suffrage, the civil right to vote", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Business and law", "target_page_ids": [ 70322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Franchise jurisdiction, in English history, a jurisdiction held as private property", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Business and law", "target_page_ids": [ 16392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Franchise Pictures, a film production company", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Business and law", "target_page_ids": [ 15041768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Media franchise, a collection of related creative works, such as films, video games, books, etc., particularly in North American usage", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 3592846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Franchise\" (short story), a 1955 short story by Isaac Asimov", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 4746058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dem Franchize Boyz, an American hip hop group from Atlanta", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 2686253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Franchise Times, a business magazine for franchises in the United States", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 49021985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Franchise\" (song), a 2020 song by Travis Scott", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 65342321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Franchised School, school which operates as franchise", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 28022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Franchise, a term for a team in the type of professional sports league organization most commonly found in North America; see North American professional sports league organization", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 21139, 4496150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 121 ], [ 127, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Franchise player, a player on such a team around whom an entire competitive squad can be built", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 8136159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Franchise tag, a designation of a player in the US National Football League whose contract is soon to expire that binds them to the team for one year at an enhanced salary", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 4172316, 21211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 52, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sports league franchise, or League franchise, a local or regional business franchising operation under a particular sporting league in activities such as pool, darts, etc.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 685328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Franchise (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7217773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Etholfraint", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Captain Robert von Ranke Graves (24 July 1895– 7 December 1985) was a British poet, historical novelist and critic. His father was Alfred Perceval Graves, a celebrated Irish poet and figure in the Gaelic revival; they were both Celticists and students of Irish mythology. Graves produced more than 140 works in his lifetime. His poems, his translations and innovative analysis of the Greek myths, his memoir of his early life—including his role in World War I—Good-Bye to All That, and his speculative study of poetic inspiration The White Goddess have never been out of print. He is also a renowned short story writer, with stories such as 'The Tenement' still being popular today", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 47671806, 42142, 1031828, 556872, 2736470, 15175, 23416994, 4764461, 39360, 90167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 84, 103 ], [ 131, 153 ], [ 197, 211 ], [ 228, 238 ], [ 255, 270 ], [ 384, 395 ], [ 448, 459 ], [ 460, 480 ], [ 530, 547 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He earned his living from writing, particularly popular historical novels such as I, Claudius; King Jesus; The Golden Fleece; and Count Belisarius. He also was a prominent translator of Classical Latin and Ancient Greek texts; his versions of The Twelve Caesars and The Golden Ass remain popular for their clarity and entertaining style. Graves was awarded the 1934 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for both I, Claudius and Claudius the God.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 167245, 5443021, 434138, 106286, 148363, 4358254, 759793, 1635944, 167245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 93 ], [ 95, 105 ], [ 130, 146 ], [ 186, 201 ], [ 206, 219 ], [ 243, 261 ], [ 266, 280 ], [ 366, 397 ], [ 423, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Graves was born into a middle-class family in Wimbledon, then part of Surrey, now part of south London. He was the third of five children born to Alfred Perceval Graves (1846–1931), who was the sixth child and second son of Charles Graves, Bishop of Limerick, Ardfert and Aghadoe. His father was an Irish school inspector, Gaelic scholar and the author of the popular song \"Father O'Flynn\", and his mother was his father's second wife, Amalie Elisabeth Sophie von Ranke (1857–1951), the niece of the historian Leopold von Ranke.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 2755992, 48189, 1031828, 17582874, 21859680, 22216220, 237925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 55 ], [ 70, 76 ], [ 146, 168 ], [ 224, 238 ], [ 240, 279 ], [ 323, 329 ], [ 510, 527 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the age of seven, double pneumonia following measles almost took Graves's life, the first of three occasions when he was despaired of by his doctors as a result of afflictions of the lungs, the second being the result of a war wound and the third when he contracted Spanish influenza in late 1918, immediately before demobilisation. At school, Graves was enrolled as Robert von Ranke Graves, and in Germany his books are published under that name, but before and during the First World War the name caused him difficulties.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 31488973, 58911, 198796, 1110114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 37 ], [ 48, 55 ], [ 269, 286 ], [ 320, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 1916 an officer who disliked him spread the rumour that he was the brother of a captured German spy who had assumed the name \"Karl Graves\". The problem resurfaced in a minor way in the Second World War, when a suspicious rural policeman blocked his appointment to the Special Constabulary. Graves's eldest half-brother, Philip Perceval Graves, achieved success as a journalist and his younger brother, Charles Patrick Graves, was a writer and journalist.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 62319331, 32927, 982072, 4145657, 10930183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 147 ], [ 195, 211 ], [ 278, 298 ], [ 330, 352 ], [ 412, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Graves received his early education at a series of six preparatory schools, including King's College School in Wimbledon, Penrallt in Wales, Hillbrow School in Rugby, Rokeby School in Kingston upon Thames and Copthorne in Sussex, from which last in 1909 he won a scholarship to Charterhouse. There he began to write poetry, and took up boxing, in due course becoming school champion at both welter- and middleweight. He claimed that this was in response to persecution because of the German element in his name, his outspokenness, his scholarly and moral seriousness, and his poverty relative to the other boys. He also sang in the choir, meeting there an aristocratic boy three years younger, G. H. \"Peter\" Johnstone, with whom he began an intense romantic friendship, the scandal of which led ultimately to an interview with the headmaster. However, Graves himself called it \"chaste and sentimental\" and \"proto-homosexual,\" and though he was clearly in love with \"Peter\" (disguised by the name \"Dick\" in Good-Bye to All That), he denied that their relationship was ever sexual. He was warned about Peter's morals by other contemporaries. Among the masters his chief influence was George Mallory, who introduced him to contemporary literature and took him mountaineering in the holidays. In his final year at Charterhouse, he won a classical exhibition to St John's College, Oxford, but did not take his place there until after the war.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 2467778, 8110000, 94392, 35061533, 181566, 16883562, 16876, 4905820, 188959, 787597, 401298, 34437899, 39360, 361977, 5178, 2777708, 128382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 74 ], [ 86, 107 ], [ 111, 120 ], [ 141, 156 ], [ 160, 165 ], [ 167, 180 ], [ 184, 204 ], [ 209, 218 ], [ 278, 290 ], [ 391, 398 ], [ 403, 415 ], [ 694, 717 ], [ 1006, 1026 ], [ 1182, 1196 ], [ 1333, 1342 ], [ 1343, 1353 ], [ 1357, 1382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, Graves enlisted almost immediately, taking a commission in the 3rd Battalion of the Royal Welch Fusiliers as a second lieutenant (on probation) on 12 August. He was confirmed in his rank on 10 March 1915, and received rapid promotion, being promoted to lieutenant on 5 May 1915 and to captain on 26October. He published his first volume of poems, Over the Brazier, in 1916. He developed an early reputation as a war poet and was one of the first to write realistic poems about the experience of frontline conflict. In later years, he omitted his war poems from his collections, on the grounds that they were too obviously \"part of the war poetry boom.\" At the Battle of the Somme, he was so badly wounded by a shell-fragment through the lung that he was expected to die and was officially reported as having died of wounds. He gradually recovered and, apart from a brief spell back in France, spent the remainder of the war in England.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 59195, 60921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 38 ], [ 139, 160 ], [ 715, 734 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of Graves's friends at this time was the poet Siegfried Sassoon, a fellow officer in his regiment. They both convalesced at Somerville College, Oxford, which was used as a hospital for officers. \"How unlike you to crib my idea of going to the Ladies' College at Oxford,\" Sassoon wrote to him in 1917.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [ 46233, 53554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 67 ], [ 128, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At Somerville College, Graves met and fell in love with Marjorie, a nurse and professional pianist, but stopped writing to her once he learned she was engaged. About his time at Somerville, he wrote: \"I enjoyed my stay at Somerville. The sun shone, and the discipline was easy.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1917, Sassoon rebelled against the conduct of the war by making a public anti-war statement. Graves feared Sassoon could face a court martial and intervened with the military authorities, persuading them that Sassoon was experiencing shell shock and that they should treat him accordingly. As a result, Sassoon was sent to Craiglockhart, a military hospital in Edinburgh, where he was treated by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers and met fellow patient Wilfred Owen. Graves was treated here as well. Graves also had shell shock, or neurasthenia as it was then called, but he was never hospitalised for it:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [ 58625, 22290028, 659490, 63708, 46525, 1021088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 144 ], [ 237, 248 ], [ 326, 339 ], [ 403, 418 ], [ 442, 454 ], [ 521, 533 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "I thought of going back to France, but realized the absurdity of the notion. Since 1916, the fear of gas obsessed me: any unusual smell, even a sudden strong scent of flowers in a garden, was enough to send me trembling. And I couldn't face the sound of heavy shelling now; the noise of a car back-firing would send me flat on my face, or running for cover.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The friendship between Graves and Sassoon is documented in Graves's letters and biographies; the story is fictionalised in Pat Barker's novel Regeneration. Barker also addresses Graves's experiences with homosexuality in his youth; at the end of the novel Graves asserts that his \"affections have been running in more normal channels\" after a friend was accused of \"soliciting\" with another man. The intensity of their early relationship is demonstrated in Graves's collection Fairies and Fusiliers (1917), which contains many poems celebrating their friendship. Sassoon remarked upon a \"heavy sexual element\" within it, an observation supported by the sentimental nature of much of the surviving correspondence between the two men. Through Sassoon, Graves became a friend of Wilfred Owen, \"who often used to send me poems from France.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [ 659648, 90022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 133 ], [ 142, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 1917, Graves was seconded for duty with a garrison battalion. Graves's army career ended dramatically with an incident which could have led to a charge of desertion. Having been posted to Limerick in late 1918, he \"woke up with a sudden chill, which I recognized as the first symptoms of Spanish influenza.\" \"I decided to make a run for it,\" he wrote, \"I should at least have my influenza in an English, and not an Irish, hospital.\" Arriving at Waterloo with a high fever but without the official papers that would secure his release from the army, he chanced to share a taxi with a demobilisation officer also returning from Ireland, who completed his papers for him with the necessary secret codes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [ 488824, 56885, 198796, 78377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 177 ], [ 201, 209 ], [ 301, 318 ], [ 458, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Immediately after the war, Graves with his wife, Nancy Nicholson had a growing family, but he was financially insecure and weakened physically and mentally:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Postwar", "target_page_ids": [ 333868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Very thin, very nervous and with about four years' loss of sleep to make up, I was waiting until I got well enough to go to Oxford on the Government educational grant. I knew that it would be years before I could face anything but a quiet country life. My disabilities were many: I could not use a telephone, I felt sick every time I travelled by train, and to see more than two new people in a single day prevented me from sleeping. I felt ashamed of myself as a drag on Nancy, but had sworn on the very day of my demobilization never to be under anyone's orders for the rest of my life. Somehow I must live by writing.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Postwar", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In October 1919, he took up his place at the University of Oxford, soon changing course to English Language and Literature, though managing to retain his Classics exhibition. In consideration of his health, he was permitted to live a little outside Oxford, on Boars Hill, where the residents included Robert Bridges, John Masefield (his landlord), Edmund Blunden, Gilbert Murray and Robert Nichols. Later, the family moved to Worlds End Cottage on Collice Street, Islip, Oxfordshire. His most notable Oxford companion was T. E. Lawrence, then a Fellow of All Souls', with whom he discussed contemporary poetry and shared in the planning of elaborate pranks. By this time, he had become an atheist. His work was part of the literature event in the art competition at the 1924 Summer Olympics.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Postwar", "target_page_ids": [ 31797, 18973384, 2777708, 22308, 4975740, 144460, 16319, 49791, 917201, 1029843, 2265184, 43468, 381889, 128284, 15247542, 16581439, 16581439, 94180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 65 ], [ 91, 122 ], [ 163, 173 ], [ 249, 255 ], [ 260, 270 ], [ 301, 315 ], [ 317, 331 ], [ 348, 362 ], [ 364, 378 ], [ 383, 397 ], [ 464, 469 ], [ 522, 536 ], [ 545, 551 ], [ 555, 565 ], [ 689, 696 ], [ 723, 739 ], [ 747, 762 ], [ 770, 790 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While still an undergraduate he established a grocers shop on the outskirts of Oxford but the business soon failed. He also failed his BA degree but was exceptionally permitted to take a B.Litt. by dissertation instead, allowing him to pursue a teaching career. In 1926, he took up a post as a Professor of English Literature at Cairo University, accompanied by his wife, their children and the poet Laura Riding. Graves later claimed that one of his pupils was a young Gamal Abdel Nasser. He returned to London briefly, where he separated from his wife under highly emotional circumstances (at one point Riding attempted suicide) before leaving to live with Riding in Deià, Majorca. There they continued to publish letterpress books under the rubric of the Seizin Press, founded and edited the literary journal, Epilogue and wrote two successful academic books together: A Survey of Modernist Poetry (1927) and A Pamphlet Against Anthologies (1928); both had great influence on modern literary criticism, particularly New Criticism.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Postwar", "target_page_ids": [ 156992, 29181285, 609874, 163040, 51879, 306141, 59310, 1079095, 438005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 137 ], [ 187, 194 ], [ 329, 345 ], [ 400, 412 ], [ 470, 488 ], [ 669, 673 ], [ 675, 682 ], [ 758, 770 ], [ 1019, 1032 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1927, he published Lawrence and the Arabs, a commercially successful biography of T. E. Lawrence. The autobiographical Good-Bye to All That (1929, revised by him and republished in 1957) proved a success but cost him many of his friends, notably Siegfried Sassoon. In 1934, he published his most commercially successful work, I, Claudius. Using classical sources (under the advice of classics scholar Eirlys Roberts) he constructed a complex and compelling tale of the life of the Roman emperor Claudius, a tale extended in the sequel Claudius the God (1935). The Claudius books were turned into the very popular television series I, Claudius shown in both Britain and United States in the 1970s. Another historical novel by Graves, Count Belisarius (1938), recounts the career of the Byzantine general Belisarius.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [ 43468, 39360, 167245, 55692011, 6140, 167245, 8333924, 434138, 16972981, 23476714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 99 ], [ 122, 142 ], [ 329, 340 ], [ 404, 418 ], [ 498, 506 ], [ 538, 554 ], [ 634, 645 ], [ 736, 752 ], [ 788, 797 ], [ 806, 816 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Graves and Riding left Majorca in 1936 at the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War and in 1939, they moved to the United States, taking lodging in New Hope, Pennsylvania. Their volatile relationship and eventual breakup was described by Robert's nephew Richard Perceval Graves in Robert Graves: 1927–1940: the Years with Laura, and T. S. Matthews's Jacks or Better (1977). It was also the basis for Miranda Seymour's novel The Summer of '39 (1998).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [ 18842471, 131539, 32869239, 1201726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 79 ], [ 144, 152 ], [ 250, 273 ], [ 396, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After returning to Britain, Graves began a relationship with Beryl Hodge, the wife of Alan Hodge, his collaborator on The Long Week-End (1940) and The Reader Over Your Shoulder (1943; republished in 1947 as The Use and Abuse of the English Language but subsequently republished several times under its original title). Graves and Beryl (they were not to marry until 1950) lived in Galmpton, Torbay until 1946, when they re-established a home with their three children, in Deià, Majorca. The house is now a museum. The year 1946 also saw the publication of his historical novel King Jesus. He published The White Goddess: A Historical Grammar of Poetic Myth in 1948; it is a study of the nature of poetic inspiration, interpreted in terms of the classical and Celtic mythology he knew so well. He turned to science fiction with Seven Days in New Crete (1949) and in 1953 he published The Nazarene Gospel Restored with Joshua Podro. He also wrote Hercules, My Shipmate, published under that name in 1945 (but first published as The Golden Fleece in 1944).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [ 56659625, 30820837, 65841730, 17736350, 306141, 5443021, 90167, 477936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 96 ], [ 118, 135 ], [ 147, 176 ], [ 381, 397 ], [ 472, 476 ], [ 577, 587 ], [ 602, 619 ], [ 827, 850 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1955, he published The Greek Myths, which retells a large body of Greek myths, each tale followed by extensive commentary drawn from the system of The White Goddess. His retellings are well respected; many of his unconventional interpretations and etymologies are dismissed by classicists. Graves in turn dismissed the reactions of classical scholars, arguing that they are too specialised and \"prose-minded\" to interpret \"ancient poetic meaning,\" and that \"the few independent thinkers... [are] the poets, who try to keep civilisation alive.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [ 1267520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He published a volume of short stories, ¡Catacrok! Mostly Stories, Mostly Funny, in 1956. In 1961, he became Professor of Poetry at Oxford, a post he held until 1966.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1967, Robert Graves published, together with Omar Ali-Shah, a new translation of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. The translation quickly became controversial; Graves was attacked for trying to break the spell of famed passages in Edward FitzGerald's Victorian translation, and L. P. Elwell-Sutton, an orientalist at Edinburgh University, maintained that the manuscript used by Ali-Shah and Graves, which Ali-Shah and his brother Idries Shah claimed had been in their family for 800 years, was a forgery. The translation was a critical disaster and Graves's reputation suffered severely due to what the public perceived as his gullibility in falling for the Shah brothers' deception.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [ 3290656, 25686, 23291455, 23592200, 184030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 61 ], [ 88, 112 ], [ 231, 248 ], [ 317, 337 ], [ 430, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1968, Graves was awarded the Queen’s Gold Medal for Poetry by Queen Elizabeth II. His private audience with the Queen was shown in the BBC documentary film Royal Family, which aired in 1969.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [ 996425, 12153654, 19344654, 32072288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 61 ], [ 65, 83 ], [ 138, 141 ], [ 159, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the 1960s until his death, Robert Graves frequently exchanged letters with Spike Milligan. Many of their letters to each other are collected in the book Dear Robert, Dear Spike.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [ 28698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 11 November 1985, Graves was among sixteen Great War poets commemorated on a slate stone unveiled in Westminster Abbey's Poets' Corner. The inscription on the stone was written by friend and fellow Great War poet Wilfred Owen. It reads: \"My subject is War, and the pity of War. The Poetry is in the pity.\" Of the 16 poets, Graves was the only one still living at the time of the commemoration ceremony.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [ 43245, 670749, 46525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 121 ], [ 124, 137 ], [ 216, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "UK government documents released in 2012 indicate that Graves turned down a CBE in 1957. In 2012, the Nobel Records were opened after 50 years, and it was revealed that Graves was among a shortlist of authors considered for the 1962 Nobel Prize in Literature, along with John Steinbeck (who was that year's recipient of the prize), Lawrence Durrell, Jean Anouilh and Karen Blixen. Graves was rejected because, even though he had written several historical novels, he was still primarily seen as a poet, and committee member Henry Olsson was reluctant to award any Anglo-Saxon poet the prize before the death of Ezra Pound, believing that other writers did not match his talent.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [ 212182, 23385442, 15825, 65137, 63743, 65133, 62103762, 44203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 79 ], [ 233, 258 ], [ 271, 285 ], [ 332, 348 ], [ 350, 362 ], [ 367, 379 ], [ 524, 536 ], [ 611, 621 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, Seven Stories Press began its Robert Graves Project. Fourteen of Graves's out-of-print books were to be republished.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [ 3389001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His religious belief has been examined by Patrick Grant, \"Belief in anarchy: Robert Graves as mythographer,\" in Six Modern Authors and Problems of Belief.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Robert Graves was bisexual, having intense romantic relationships with both men and women, though the word he coined for it was \"pseudo-homosexual.\" Graves was raised to be \"prudishly innocent, as my mother had planned I should be.\" His mother, Amy, forbade speaking about sex, save in a \"gruesome\" context, and all skin \"must be covered.\" At his days in Penrallt, he had \"innocent crushes\" on boys; one in particular was a boy named Ronny, who \"climbed trees, killed pigeons with a catapult and broke all the school rules while never seeming to get caught.\" At Charterhouse, an all-boys school, it was common for boys to develop \"amorous but seldom erotic\" relationships, which the headmaster mostly ignored. Graves described boxing with a friend, Raymond Rodakowski, as having a \"a lot of sex feeling\". And although Graves admitted to loving Raymond, he would dismiss it as \"more comradely than amorous.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sexuality", "target_page_ids": [ 21378368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his fourth year at Charterhouse, Graves would meet \"Dick\" (George \"Peter\" Harcourt Johnstone) with whom he would develop \"an even stronger relationship\". Johnstone was an object of adoration in Graves's early poems. Graves's feelings for Johnstone were exploited by bullies, who led Graves to believe that Johnstone was seen kissing the choir-master. Graves, jealous, demanded the choir-master's resignation. During the First World War, Johnstone remained a \"solace\" to Graves. Despite Graves's own \"pure and innocent\" view of Johnstone, Graves's cousin Gerald wrote in a letter that Johnstone was: \"not at all the innocent fellow I took him for, but as bad as anyone could be\". Johnstone remained a subject for Graves's poems despite this. Communication between them ended when Johnstone's mother found their letters and forbade further contact with Graves. Johnstone would later be arrested for attempting to seduce a Canadian soldier, which removed Graves's denial about Johnstone's infidelity, causing Graves to collapse.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sexuality", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1917, Graves met Marjorie Machin, an auxiliary nurse from Kent. He admired her \"direct manner and practical approach to life\". Graves did not pursue the relationship when he realised Machin had a fiancé on the Front. This began a period where Graves would begin to take interest in women with more masculine traits. Nancy Nicholson, his future wife, was an ardent feminist: she kept her hair short, wore trousers, and had \"boyish directness and youth.\" Her feminism never conflicted with Graves's own ideas of female superiority. Siegfried Sassoon, who felt as if Graves and he had a relationship of a fashion, felt betrayed by Graves's new relationship and declined to go to the wedding. Graves apparently never loved Sassoon in the same fashion that Sassoon loved Graves.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sexuality", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Graves's and Nicholson's marriage was strained, with Graves living with \"shell shock\", and having an insatiable need for sex, which Nicholson did not reciprocate. Nancy forbade any mention of the war, which added to the conflict. In 1926, he would meet Laura Riding, with whom he would run away in 1929 while still married to Nicholson. Prior to this, Graves, Riding and Nicholson would attempt a triadic relationship called \"The Trinity.\" Despite the implications, Riding and Nicholson were most likely heterosexual. This triangle became the \"Holy Circle\" with the addition of Irish poet Geoffrey Phibbs, who himself was still married to Irish artist Norah McGuinness. This relationship revolved around the worship and reverence of Riding. Graves and Phibbs were both to sleep with Riding. When Phibbs attempted to leave the relationship, Graves was sent to track him down, even threatening to kill Phibbs if he did not return to the circle. When Phibbs resisted, Riding threw herself out of a window, with Graves following suit to reach her. Graves's commitment to Riding was so strong that he entered, on her word, a period of enforced celibacy, \"which he had not enjoyed\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sexuality", "target_page_ids": [ 22290028, 321686, 17214440, 1575321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 84 ], [ 397, 404 ], [ 589, 604 ], [ 652, 668 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1938, no longer entranced by Riding, Graves fell in love with the then-married Beryl Hodge. In 1950, after much dispute with Nicholson (whom he had not divorced yet), he married Beryl. Despite having a loving marriage with Beryl, Graves would take on a 17-year-old muse, Judith Bledsoe, in 1950. Although the relationship would be described as \"not overtly sexual\", Graves would later in 1952 attack Judith's new fiancé, getting the police called on him in the process. He would later have three successive female muses, who came to dominate his poetry.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sexuality", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the early 1970s, Graves began to experience increasingly severe memory loss. By his 80thbirthday in 1975, he had come to the end of his working life. He lived for another decade, in an increasingly dependent condition, until he died from heart failure on 7December 1985 at the age of 90years. His body was buried the next morning in the small churchyard on a hill at Deià, at the site of a shrine that had once been sacred to the White Goddess of Pelion. His second wife, Beryl Graves, died on 27October 2003 and her body was interred in the same grave.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Death and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 306141, 90167, 757221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 374, 378 ], [ 433, 450 ], [ 454, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three of his former houses have a blue plaque on them: in Wimbledon, Brixham, and Islip.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Death and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 310649, 94392, 177235, 2265184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 45 ], [ 58, 67 ], [ 69, 76 ], [ 82, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Graves had eight children. With his first wife, Nancy Nicholson, he had Jennie (who married journalist Alexander Clifford), David (who was killed in the Second World War), Catherine (who married nuclear scientist Clifford Dalton at Aldershot), and Sam. With his second wife, Beryl Pritchard (1915–2003), he had William, Lucia (a translator), Juan, and Tomás (a writer and musician).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Death and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 25252009, 3684192, 52061054, 3832342, 20108022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 121 ], [ 213, 228 ], [ 232, 241 ], [ 320, 325 ], [ 352, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Country Sentiment, New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1920", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Over the Brazier. London: William Heinemann, 1923; New York: Alfred. A. Knopf, 1923.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Feather Bed. Richmond, Surrey: Hogarth Press, 1923.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mock Beggar Hall. London: Hogarth Press, 1924.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Welchmans Hose. London: The Fleuron, 1925.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poems. London: Ernest Benn, 1925.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Marmosites Miscellany (as John Doyle). London: Hogarth Press, 1925.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poems (1914–1926). London: William Heinemann, 1927; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1929.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poems (1914–1927). London: William Heinemann", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " To Whom Else? Deyá, Majorca: Seizin Press, 1931.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poems 1930–1933. London: Arthur Barker, 1933.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collected Poems. London: Cassell, 1938; New York: Random House, 1938.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " No More Ghosts: Selected Poems. London: Faber & Faber, 1940.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Work in Hand, with Norman Cameron and Alan Hodge. London: Hogarth Press, 1942.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poems. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1943.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poems 1938–1945. London: Cassell, 1945; New York: Creative Age Press, 1946.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collected Poems (1914–1947). London: Cassell, 1948.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poems and Satires. London: Cassell, 1951.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poems 1953. London: Cassell, 1953.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collected Poems 1955. New York: Doubleday, 1955.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poems Selected by Himself. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1957; rev. 1961, 1966, 1972, 1978.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Poems of Robert Graves. New York: Doubleday, 1958.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collected Poems 1959. London: Cassell, 1959.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Penny Fiddle: Poems for Children. London: Cassell, 1960; New York: Doubleday, 1961.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " More Poems 1961. London: Cassell, 1961.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collected Poems. New York: Doubleday, 1961.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " New Poems 1962. London: Cassell, 1962; as New Poems. New York: Doubleday, 1963.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The More Deserving Cases: Eighteen Old Poems for Reconsideration. Marlborough College Press, 1962.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Man Does, Woman Is. London: Cassell, 1964/New York:Doubleday, 1964.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ann at Highwood Hall: Poems for Children. London: Cassell, 1964; New York: Triangle Square, 2017.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Love Respelt. London: Cassell, 1965/New York: Doubleday, 1966.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " One Hard Look, 1965", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collected Poems, 1965. London: Cassell, 1965.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Seventeen Poems Missing from \"Love Respelt\". privately printed, 1966.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Colophon to \"Love Respelt\". Privately printed, 1967.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poems 1965–1968. London: Cassell, 1968; New York: Doubleday, 1969.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poems About Love. London: Cassell, 1969; New York: Doubleday, 1969.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Love Respelt Again. New York: Doubleday, 1969.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Beyond Giving. privately printed, 1969.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poems 1968–1970. London: Cassell, 1970; New York: Doubleday, 1971.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Green-Sailed Vessel. privately printed, 1971.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poems: Abridged for Dolls and Princes. London: Cassell, 1971.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poems 1970–1972. London: Cassell, 1972; New York: Doubleday, 1973.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Deyá, A Portfolio. London: Motif Editions, 1972.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Timeless Meeting: Poems. privately printed, 1973.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " At the Gate. privately printed, London, 1974.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collected Poems 1975. London: Cassell, 1975.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " New Collected Poems. New York: Doubleday, 1977.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Selected Poems, ed. Paul O'Prey. London: Penguin, 1986", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 6390295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Centenary Selected Poems, ed. Patrick Quinn. Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1995.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Complete Poems Volume 1, ed. Beryl Graves and Dunstan Ward. Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1995.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 11720337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Complete Poems Volume 2, ed. Beryl Graves and Dunstan Ward. Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1996.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 11720337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Complete Poems Volume 3, ed. Beryl Graves and Dunstan Ward. Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1999.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 11720337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Complete Poems in One Volume, ed. Beryl Graves and Dunstan Ward. Manchester: Penguin Books, 2004.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 551953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Selected Poems, ed. Michael Longley. Faber & Faber, 2012.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 692115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " My Head! My Head!. London: Secker, 1925; Alfred. A. Knopf, New York, 1925.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Shout. London: Mathews & Marrot, 1929.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 7990852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " No Decency Left. (with Laura Riding) (as Barbara Rich). London: Jonathan Cape, 1932.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Real David Copperfield. London: Arthur Barker, 1933; as David Copperfield, by Charles Dickens, Condensed by Robert Graves, ed. M. P. Paine. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1934.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " I, Claudius. London: Arthur Barker, 1934; New York: Smith & Haas, 1934.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 167245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sequel: Claudius the God and his Wife Messalina. London: Arthur Barker, 1934; New York: Smith & Haas, 1935.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 167245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antigua, Penny, Puce. Deyá, Majorca/London: Seizin Press/Constable, 1936; New York: Random House, 1937.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Count Belisarius. London: Cassell, 1938: Random House, New York, 1938.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 434138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sergeant Lamb of the Ninth. London: Methuen, 1940; as Sergeant Lamb's America. New York: Random House, 1940.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 47505774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sequel: Proceed, Sergeant Lamb. London: Methuen, 1941; New York: Random House, 1941.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 47505774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wife to Mr. Milton. London: Cassell, 1943; as Wife to Mr Milton: The Story of Marie Powell. New York: Creative Age Press, 1944.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Golden Fleece. London: Cassell, 1944; as Hercules, My Shipmate, New York: Creative Age Press, 1945; New York: Seven Stories Press, 2017.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 3389001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " King Jesus. New York: Creative Age Press, 1946; London: Cassell, 1946.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 5443021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Watch the North Wind Rise. New York: Creative Age Press, 1949; as Seven Days in New Crete. London: Cassell, 1949.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 477936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Islands of Unwisdom. New York: Doubleday, 1949; as The Isles of Unwisdom. 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Doubleday: New York, 1964; Cassell, London, 1965.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An Ancient Castle. London: Peter Owen, 1980.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " On English Poetry. New York: Alfred. A. Knopf, 1922; London: Heinemann, 1922.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Meaning of Dreams. London: Cecil Palmer, 1924; New York: Greenberg, 1925.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poetic Unreason and Other Studies. London: Cecil Palmer, 1925.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Contemporary Techniques of Poetry: A Political Analogy. London: Hogarth Press, 1925.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Kemp's Wager: A Ballad Opera. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1925.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Another Future of Poetry. London: Hogarth Press, 1926.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Impenetrability or the Proper Habit of English. London: Hogarth Press, 1927.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The English Ballad: A Short Critical Survey. London: Ernest Benn, 1927; revised as English and Scottish Ballads. London: William Heinemann, 1957; New York: Macmillan, 1957.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 4278060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lars Porsena or the Future of Swearing and Improper Language. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1927; E. P. Dutton, New York, 1927; revised as The Future of Swearing and Improper Language. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1936.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Survey of Modernist Poetry (with Laura Riding). London: William Heinemann, 1927; New York: Doubleday, 1928.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lawrence and the Arabs. London: Jonathan Cape, 1927; as Lawrence and the Arabian Adventure. New York: Doubleday, 1928.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Pamphlet Against Anthologies (with Laura Riding). London: Jonathan Cape, 1928; as Against Anthologies. New York: Doubleday, 1928.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mrs. Fisher or the Future of Humour. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1928.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Good-bye to All That: An Autobiography. London: Jonathan Cape, 1929; New York: Jonathan Cape and Smith, 1930; rev., New York: Doubleday, 1957; London: Cassell, 1957; Penguin: Harmondsworth, 1960.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 39360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " But It Still Goes On: An Accumulation. London: Jonathan Cape, 1930; New York: Jonathan Cape and Smith, 1931.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " T. E. Lawrence to His Biographer Robert Graves. New York: Doubleday, 1938; London: Faber & Faber, 1939.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Long Weekend (with Alan Hodge). London: Faber & Faber, 1940; New York: Macmillan, 1941.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Reader Over Your Shoulder (with Alan Hodge). London: Jonathan Cape, 1943; New York: Macmillan, 1943; New York, Seven Stories Press, 2017.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The White Goddess. London: Faber & Faber, 1948; New York: Creative Age Press, 1948; rev., London: Faber & Faber, 1952, 1961; New York: Alfred. A. Knopf, 1958.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 90167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Common Asphodel: Collected Essays on Poetry 1922–1949. London: Hamish Hamilton, 1949.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Occupation: Writer. New York: Creative Age Press, 1950; London: Cassell, 1951.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Golden Ass of Apuleius, New York: Farrar, Straus, 1951.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 759793, 1789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 19, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Nazarene Gospel Restored (with Joshua Podro). London: Cassell, 1953; New York: Doubleday, 1954.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Greek Myths. London: Penguin, 1955; Baltimore: Penguin, 1955.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1267520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Crowning Privilege: The Clark Lectures, 1954–1955. London: Cassell, 1955; New York: Doubleday, 1956.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Adam's Rib. London: Trianon Press, 1955; New York: Yoseloff, 1958.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jesus in Rome (with Joshua Podro). London: Cassell, 1957.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Steps. London: Cassell, 1958.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 5 Pens in Hand. New York: Doubleday, 1958.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Anger of Achilles. New York: Doubleday, 1959.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Food for Centaurs. New York: Doubleday, 1960.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Greek Gods and Heroes. New York: Doubleday, 1960; as Myths of Ancient Greece. London: Cassell, 1961.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 5 November address, X magazine, Volume One, Number Three, June 1960; An Anthology from X (Oxford University Press 1988).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 25667936, 25667936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ], [ 88, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Selected Poetry and Prose (ed. James Reeves). London: Hutchinson, 1961.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Oxford Addresses on Poetry. London: Cassell, 1962; New York: Doubleday, 1962.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Siege and Fall of Troy. London: Cassell, 1962; New York: Doubleday, 1963; New York, Seven Stories Press, 2017.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Big Green Book. New York: Crowell Collier, 1962; Penguin: Harmondsworth, 1978. Illustrated by Maurice Sendak", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 284848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hebrew Myths: The Book of Genesis (with Raphael Patai). New York: Doubleday, 1964; London: Cassell, 1964.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 5138501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Majorca Observed. London: Cassell, 1965; New York: Doubleday, 1965.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mammon and the Black Goddess. London: Cassell, 1965; New York: Doubleday, 1965.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two Wise Children. New York: Harlin Quist, 1966; London: Harlin Quist, 1967.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 50979251, 50979251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 42 ], [ 58, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Rubaiyyat of Omar Khayyam (with Omar Ali-Shah). London: Cassell, 1967.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 3290656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Poetic Craft and Principle. London: Cassell, 1967.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Poor Boy Who Followed His Star. London: Cassell, 1968; New York: Doubleday, 1969.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Greek Myths and Legends. London: Cassell, 1968.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Crane Bag. London: Cassell, 1969.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " On Poetry: Collected Talks and Essays. New York: Doubleday, 1969.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Difficult Questions, Easy Answers. London: Cassell, 1972; New York: Doubleday, 1973.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In Broken Images: Selected Letters 1914–1946, ed. Paul O'Prey. London: Hutchinson, 1982", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 6390295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Between Moon and Moon: Selected Letters 1946–1972, ed. Paul O'Prey. London: Hutchinson, 1984", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 6390295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Life of the Poet Gnaeus Robertulus Gravesa, ed. Beryl & Lucia Graves. Deià: The New Seizin Press, 1990", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collected Writings on Poetry, ed. Paul O'Prey, Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1995.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 6390295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Complete Short Stories, ed. Lucia Graves, Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1995.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 3832342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Some Speculations on Literature, History, and Religion, ed. Patrick Quinn, Manchester: Carcanet Press, 2000.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Joseph Campbell", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mircea Eliade", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 155406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " James Frazer", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 317349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret Murray", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Graves, Robert (1960). Good-Bye to All That, London: Penguin.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "General sources", "target_page_ids": [ 39360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Seymour, Miranda (1995). Robert Graves: Life on the Edge, London: Doubleday. .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "General sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Robert Graves Trust and Society Information Portal", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Robert Graves Foundation", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Profile at Poetry Foundation", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Profile, poems written and audio at poets.org", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Profile, poems written and audio at Poetry Archive", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gallery of Graves's portraits, National Portrait Gallery, London", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Papers of Robert Graves: Correspondence, 1915–1996", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Robert Graves's blue plaque at Islip, Oxfordshire; Blue Plaques Scheme", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Translated Penguin Books – at Penguin First Editions reference site of early first edition Penguin Books.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Robert Graves Digital Archive by the University of Oxford", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 31797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robert Graves collection at University of Victoria, Special Collections", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Robert Graves Papers at Southern Illinois University Carbondale Special Collections Research Center", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " William S. Reese Collection of Robert Graves. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1965 BBC television interview (29 mins)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Article by Robert H. Canary, \"Utopian and Fantastic Dualities in Robert Graves's Watch the North Wind Rise\"", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Cool Web: A Robert Graves Oratorio\" – First World War commemoration piece based on texts from Robert Graves's poems", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "I,_Claudius", "1895_births", "1985_deaths", "20th-century_atheists", "20th-century_British_non-fiction_writers", "20th-century_British_poets", "20th-century_British_short_story_writers", "20th-century_English_male_writers", "20th-century_English_novelists", "20th-century_English_poets", "20th-century_translators", "Alumni_of_St_John's_College,_Oxford", "Bisexual_men", "Bisexual_writers", "British_Army_personnel_of_World_War_I", "Cultural_critics", "English_atheists", "English_expatriates_in_Spain", "English_historical_novelists", "English_LGBT_novelists", "English_LGBT_poets", "English_literary_critics", "English_male_non-fiction_writers", "English_male_novelists", "English_male_poets", "English_male_short_story_writers", "English_memoirists", "English_people_of_German_descent", "English_people_of_Irish_descent", "English_short_story_writers", "English_World_War_I_poets", "Graves_family", "James_Tait_Black_Memorial_Prize_recipients", "Matriarchy", "Olympic_competitors_in_art_competitions", "Oxford_Professors_of_Poetry", "People_educated_at_Charterhouse_School", "People_educated_at_Copthorne_Preparatory_School", "People_educated_at_King's_College_School,_London", "People_from_Wimbledon,_London", "People_with_post-traumatic_stress_disorder", "Prix_Italia_winners", "Royal_Welch_Fusiliers_officers", "Translators_of_Omar_Khayyám", "Writers_of_historical_fiction_set_in_antiquity", "Writers_of_style_guides", "Military_personnel_from_Surrey" ]

[ "Robert von Ranke-Graves", "Robert Von Ranke-Graves", "Robert Ranke Graves", "Robert von Ranke Graves" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Compact as used in politics may refer broadly to a pact or treaty; in more specific cases it may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 29764781, 30432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 55 ], [ 59, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Interstate compact", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 449380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Blood compact, an ancient ritual of the Philippines", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8028236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compact government, a type of colonial rule utilized in British North America", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 591406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compact of Free Association whereby the sovereign states of the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands and the Republic of Palau have entered into as associated states with the United States.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 750957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mayflower Compact, the first governing document of Plymouth Colony", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 176303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " United Nations Global Compact", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 757969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Global Compact for Migration, a UN non-binding intergovernmental agreement", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 57914988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compact element, those elements of a partially ordered set that cannot be subsumed by a supremum of any directed set that does not already contain them", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 680261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compact operator, a linear operator that takes bounded subsets to relatively compact subsets, in functional analysis", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 577441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compact space, a topological space such that every open cover has a finite subcover", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 6042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Quasi-compact morphism, a morphism of schemes for which the inverse image of any quasi-compact open set is again quasi-compact", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 12410777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compact (American magazine), a U.S.-based online magazine", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [ 70373975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compact (German magazine), a far-right German magazine", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [ 62366913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compact (newspaper), a broadsheet-quality newspaper printed in a tabloid format", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [ 1124235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compact car, a classification of automobile size", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 588474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compact sport utility vehicle", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1460440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compact (cosmetics), a case containing one or more of the following, a mirror, pressed powder, and/or a powder puff", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 13117577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compact disc", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 6429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compact Software, a technology company founded in 1973", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 15669403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compact (TV series), a 1960s British soap opera", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2570124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compact star, also called a compact object, a degenerate star like a neutron star", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 207820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Campact, a German nongovernmental organization", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 67257139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kompakt, a German record label", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3687090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In computational complexity theory, PSPACE is the set of all decision problems that can be solved by a Turing machine using a polynomial amount of space.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7543, 8336, 30403, 23000, 338946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 34 ], [ 61, 77 ], [ 103, 117 ], [ 126, 136 ], [ 137, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If we denote by SPACE(t(n)), the set of all problems that can be solved by Turing machines using O(t(n)) space for some function t of the input size n, then we can define PSPACE formally as", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [ 30403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "PSPACE is a strict superset of the set of context-sensitive languages.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [ 6212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It turns out that allowing the Turing machine to be nondeterministic does not add any extra power. Because of Savitch's theorem, NPSPACE is equivalent to PSPACE, essentially because a deterministic Turing machine can simulate a non-deterministic Turing machine without needing much more space (even though it may use much more time). Also, the complements of all problems in PSPACE are also in PSPACE, meaning that co-PSPACE PSPACE.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formal definition", "target_page_ids": [ 665957, 658501, 21935, 1929955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 68 ], [ 111, 128 ], [ 229, 261 ], [ 346, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following relations are known between PSPACE and the complexity classes NL, P, NP, PH, EXPTIME and EXPSPACE (note that ⊊, meaning strict containment, is not the same as ⊈):", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relation among other classes", "target_page_ids": [ 1145955, 658550, 21562, 658608, 54694, 54703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 78 ], [ 80, 81 ], [ 83, 85 ], [ 87, 89 ], [ 91, 98 ], [ 103, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the third line, it follows that both in the first and in the second line, at least one of the set containments must be strict, but it is not known which. It is widely suspected that all are strict.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relation among other classes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The containments in the third line are both known to be strict. The first follows from direct diagonalization (the space hierarchy theorem, NL ⊊ NPSPACE) and the fact that PSPACE NPSPACE via Savitch's theorem. The second follows simply from the space hierarchy theorem.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relation among other classes", "target_page_ids": [ 663050, 658501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 139 ], [ 193, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The hardest problems in PSPACE are the PSPACE-complete problems. See PSPACE-complete for examples of problems that are suspected to be in PSPACE but not in NP.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relation among other classes", "target_page_ids": [ 54685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The class PSPACE is closed under operations union, complementation, and Kleene star.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Closure properties", "target_page_ids": [ 47949, 54347, 16750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 49 ], [ 51, 66 ], [ 72, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An alternative characterization of PSPACE is the set of problems decidable by an alternating Turing machine in polynomial time, sometimes called APTIME or just AP.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 753230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A logical characterization of PSPACE from descriptive complexity theory is that it is the set of problems expressible in second-order logic with the addition of a transitive closure operator. A full transitive closure is not needed; a commutative transitive closure and even weaker forms suffice. It is the addition of this operator that (possibly) distinguishes PSPACE from PH.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 1212009, 341428, 292239, 658608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 64 ], [ 121, 139 ], [ 163, 181 ], [ 375, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A major result of complexity theory is that PSPACE can be characterized as all the languages recognizable by a particular interactive proof system, the one defining the class IP. In this system, there is an all-powerful prover trying to convince a randomized polynomial-time verifier that a string is in the language. It should be able to convince the verifier with high probability if the string is in the language, but should not be able to convince it except with low probability if the string is not in the language.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 160255, 2197070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 146 ], [ 175, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "PSPACE can be characterized as the quantum complexity class QIP.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 25608560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "PSPACE is also equal to PCTC, problems solvable by classical computers using closed timelike curves, as well as to BQPCTC, problems solvable by quantum computers using closed timelike curves.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other characterizations", "target_page_ids": [ 287091, 25220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 98 ], [ 144, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A language B is PSPACE-complete if it is in PSPACE and it is PSPACE-hard, which means for all A ∈ PSPACE, , where means that there is a polynomial-time many-one reduction from A to B. PSPACE-complete problems are of great importance to studying PSPACE problems because they represent the most difficult problems in PSPACE. Finding a simple solution to a PSPACE-complete problem would mean we have a simple solution to all other problems in PSPACE because all PSPACE problems could be reduced to a PSPACE-complete problem.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "PSPACE-completeness", "target_page_ids": [ 54685, 159695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 31 ], [ 137, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An example of a PSPACE-complete problem is the quantified Boolean formula problem (usually abbreviated to QBF or TQBF; the T stands for \"true\").", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "PSPACE-completeness", "target_page_ids": [ 20768715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Section 8.2–8.3 (The Class PSPACE, PSPACE-completeness), pp.281–294.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chapter 19: Polynomial space, pp.455–490.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chapter 8: Space Complexity", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Complexity_classes" ]

[ "Polynomial Space class" ]

[ { "plaintext": "__NOTOC__", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This is a list of telecommunications encryption terms. This list is derived in part from the Glossary of Telecommunication Terms published as Federal Standard 1037C.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A5/1a stream cipher used to provide over-the-air communication privacy in the GSM cellular telephone standard.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 294149, 49007, 25009, 12808, 19644137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 63, 70 ], [ 78, 81 ], [ 82, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bulk encryption", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1065304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cellular Message Encryption Algorithma block cipher which was used for securing mobile phones in the United States.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 662990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cipher", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cipher system", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 34280953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cipher text", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 175560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ciphony", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1560035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Civision", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Codress message", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1062532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "COMSEC equipment", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cryptanalysis", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cryptographic key", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 53039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CRYPTO (International Cryptology Conference)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 87043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crypto phone", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Crypto-shredding", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 53764660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Data Encryption Standard (DES) ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Decipher", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Decode", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Decrypt", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DECT Standard Cipher", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Descrambler", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dncipher", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Encode", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Encoding law", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33784232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Encrypt", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "End-to-end encryption", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1065362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "group", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IMSI-catcheran eavesdropping device used for interception of cellular phones and usually is undetectable for users of mobile phones.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2089044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Key distribution center (KDC)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 483191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Key management", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 631063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Key stream", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10441065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "KSD-64", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1068844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Link encryption", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1065304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MISTY1", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 612515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Multiplex link encryption", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1065304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Net control station (NCS)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Null cipher", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 247381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One-time pad", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over the Air Rekeying (OTAR)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2375255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Plaintext", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 157935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "PPPoX", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4166125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Protected distribution system (PDS)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Protection interval (PI)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pseudorandom number generator", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 45524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Public-key cryptography", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "RED/BLACK concept", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1065533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "RED signal", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1065533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Remote rekeying", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Security management", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spoofing", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 503209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Squirtto load or transfer code key from an electronic key storage device. See Over the Air Rekeying.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2375255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "STU-IIIa family of secure telephones introduced in 1987 by the National Security Agency for use by the United States government, its contractors, and its allies.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 794541, 21939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 63, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superencryption", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1062541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Synchronous crypto-operation", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Transmission security key (TSK)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1070569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trunk encryption device (TED)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Type 1 encryption", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Type 2 encryption", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Type 3 encryption", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Type 4 encryption", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unique key", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6850099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "VoIP VPNcombines voice over IP and virtual private network technologies to offer a method for delivering secure voice.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5264791, 147130, 1560035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 35, 58 ], [ 105, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ZRTPa cryptographic key-agreement protocol used in Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) phone telephony.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4422674, 75028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 52, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Communications security", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CONDOR secure cell phone", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10177943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cryptography standards", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 788203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Secure communication", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1467336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Secure telephone", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2088863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Telecommunication", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33094374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rutenbeck, Jeff (2006). Tech terms: what every telecommunications and digital media person should know. Elsevier, Inc. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Kissel, Richard (editor). (February, 2011). Glossary of Key Information Security Terms (NIST IR 7298 Revision 1). National Institute of Standards and Technology.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Federal Standard 1037C.\"Telecommunications: Glossary of Telecommunication Terms", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Embedding Security into Handsets Would Boost Data Usage - Report (2005) from Cellular-news.com", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wireless, Telecom and Computer Glossary from Cellular Network Perspectives", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Cryptography_lists_and_comparisons" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Operetta is a form of theatre and a genre of light opera. It includes spoken dialogue, songs, and dances. It is lighter than opera in terms of its music, orchestral size, length of the work, and at face value, subject matter. Apart from its shorter length, the operetta is usually of a light and amusing character. It sometimes also includes satirical commentaries.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 690708, 22348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 56 ], [ 125, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Operetta\" is the Italian diminutive of \"opera\" and was used originally to describe a shorter, perhaps less ambitious work than an opera. Operetta provides an alternative to operatic performances in an accessible form targeting a different audience. Operetta became a recognizable form in the mid-1800s in France, and its popularity led to the development of many national styles of operetta. Distinctive styles emerged across countries including Austria-Hungary, Germany, England, Spain, the Philippines, Mexico, Cuba, and the United States. Through the transfer of operetta among different countries, cultural cosmopolitanism emerged in the previous century. Operetta as a genre lost favor in the 1930s and gave way to modern musical theatre. Important operetta composers include Johann Strauss, Jacques Offenbach, Franz Lehar, and Francisco Alonso.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 599178, 20572, 133392, 65414, 253328, 33983367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 612, 627 ], [ 728, 743 ], [ 782, 796 ], [ 798, 815 ], [ 817, 828 ], [ 834, 850 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term operetta arises in the mid-eighteenth century Italy and it is first acknowledged as an independent genre in Paris around 1850. Castil-Blaze's Dictionnaire de la musique moderne claims that this term has a long history and that Mozart was one of the first people to use the word operetta, disparagingly, describing operettas as \"certain dramatic abortions, those miniature compositions full of bullshit in which one finds only cold songs and couplets from vaudeville\". The definition of operetta has changed over the centuries and ranges depending on each country's history with the genre. It is often used to refer to pieces that resemble the one-act compositions by Offenbach in contrast with his full length compositions, ‘opéra-bouffe’. Offenbach invented this art form in response to the French government's oppressive laws surrounding the stagings of works that were larger than one act or contained more than four characters. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 11573669, 33163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 148 ], [ 236, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Operetta became recognized as a musical genre around 1850 in Paris. In 1870, the centre for operetta shifted to Vienna when Paris fell to the Prussians. The form of operetta continued to evolve through the First World War.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are some common characteristics among operettas that flourished from the mid-1850s through the early 1900s, beginning with the French opéra-bouffe. They contain spoken dialogue interspersed between musical numbers, and often the principal characters, as well as the chorus, are called upon to dance, although the music is largely derived from 19th-century operatic styles, with an emphasis on singable melodies. Operetta in the twentieth century is more complex and reached its prosperity in Austria and Germany.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5883827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Operetta is a precursor of the modern musical theatre or the \"musical\". In the early decades of the 20th century, operetta continued to exist alongside the newer musicals, with each influencing the other. The distinctive traits of operetta are found in the musical theatre works of Jerome Kern, Richard Rodgers and Stephen Sondheim.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 20572, 16227, 52274, 29268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 53 ], [ 282, 293 ], [ 295, 310 ], [ 315, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Operetta was first created in Paris, France in the middle of the 19th century in order to satisfy a need for short, light works in contrast to the full-length entertainment of the increasingly serious opéra comique. By this time, the \"comique\" part of the genre name had become misleading: Georges Bizet's Carmen (1875) is an example of an opéra comique with a tragic plot. The definition of \"comique\" meant something closer to \"humanistic\", meant to portray \"real life\" in a more realistic way, representing tragedy and comedy next to each other, as Shakespeare had done centuries earlier. With this new connotation, opéra comique had dominated the French operatic stage since the decline of tragédie lyrique. The origins of French operetta began when comic actors would perform dances and songs to crowds of people at fairs on open-air stages. In the beginning of the 18th century these actors began to perform comic parodies of known operas. These performances formed operetta as a casual genre derived from opéra comique, while returning to a simpler form of music. Many scholars have debated as to which composer should be credited as the inventor of operetta; Jaques Offenbach or Hervé. It is concluded that Hervé completed the groundwork, and Offenbach refined and developed the art form into the concept of operetta as we know it today. Therefore, \"Offenbach is considered the father of French operetta- but so is Hervé.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operetta in French", "target_page_ids": [ 1249682, 67955, 37914, 32897, 1447627, 65414, 4353669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 201, 214 ], [ 290, 303 ], [ 306, 312 ], [ 551, 562 ], [ 693, 709 ], [ 1166, 1182 ], [ 1186, 1192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hervé was a singer, composer, librettist, conductor, and scene painter. In 1842, he wrote the one act opérette, L'Ours et le pacha, based on the popular vaudeville by Eugène Scribe and X. B. Saintine. In 1848, Hervé made his first notable appearance on the Parisian stage, with Don Quichotte et Sancho Pança (after Cervantes), which can be considered the starting point for the new French musical theatre tradition. Hervé's most famous works are the Gounod parody Le petit Faust (1869) and Mam'zelle Nitouche (1883).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operetta in French", "target_page_ids": [ 12401666, 359750, 15975007, 19444, 87319, 56128370, 4364289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 163 ], [ 167, 180 ], [ 185, 199 ], [ 315, 324 ], [ 450, 456 ], [ 464, 478 ], [ 490, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jacques Offenbach is most responsible for the development and popularization of operetta—also called or —giving it its enormous vogue during the Second Empire and afterwards. In 1849, Offenbach obtained permission to open the Théâtre des Bouffes Parisiens, a theatre company that offered programs of two or three satirical one-act sketches. The company was so successful that it led to the elongation of these sketches into an evening's duration. However, Offenbach's productions were bound by the police prefecture in Paris, which specified the type of performance that would be allowed: \"pantomimes with at most five performers, one-act comic musical dialogues for two to three actors, and dance routines with no more than five dancers; choruses were strictly forbidden.\" These rules defined what came to be defined as operetta: \"a small unpretentious operatic work that had no tragic implications and was designed to entertain the public\". Two other French composers, Robert Planquette and Charles Lecocq, followed Offenbach's model and wrote the operettas Les Cloches de Corneville (The Bells of Normandy) and La Fille de Madame Angot (The Daughter of Madame Angot). The two operettas were considered a major hit.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operetta in French", "target_page_ids": [ 216066, 221331, 2641371, 7243944, 16187042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 159 ], [ 972, 989 ], [ 994, 1008 ], [ 1061, 1086 ], [ 1115, 1139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The political limitations placed on Offenbach and Parisian theatre were gradually lifted, and operetta gained wide popularity. While Offenbach's earliest one-act pieces included Les deux aveugles, Le violoneux and Ba-ta-clan (all 1855) did well, his first full-length operetta, Orphée aux enfers (1858), was by far the most successful. It became the first repertory operetta and was staged hundreds of times across Europe and beyond. Offenbach's legacy is seen in operettas throughout the late 19th century and beyond by encouraging Strauss the Younger to bring the genre to Austria-Hungary. Offenbach also traveled to the US and England educating musicians on the more than 100 operettas he wrote during his lifetime. This international travel resulted in the appearance of strong national schools in both nations. By the 1870s, however, Offenbach's popularity declined. The public showed more interest in romantic operettas that showed the \"grace and refinement\" of the late Romantic period. This included Messager's operetta Véronique and Louis Ganne's Les saltimbanques. The 20th century found French operetta even more out of favor as the international public turned to Anglo-American and Viennese operettas, which continued to develop the art form into the late Romantic era.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Operetta in French", "target_page_ids": [ 10215102, 30811136, 2097847, 47203, 133392, 1435357, 7090248, 11095279, 16991341 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 195 ], [ 197, 209 ], [ 214, 224 ], [ 278, 295 ], [ 534, 553 ], [ 1009, 1017 ], [ 1029, 1038 ], [ 1043, 1054 ], [ 1057, 1074 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Offenbach was unabashed about spreading operetta around the continent. In 1861, he staged some of his recent works at the Carltheater in Vienna, which paved the way for Austrian and German composers. Soon, Vienna became the epicenter of operetta productions. It is because of the Viennese operetta, not the French, that the term is used to describe a full-length work. Additionally, after the Prussian defeat in 1866, operetta became the sign of a new age in Austria, marked by modernity and industrialization.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operetta in German", "target_page_ids": [ 55866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most significant composer of operetta in the German language was the Austrian Johann Strauss II (1825–1899). Strauss was recruited from the dance hall and introduced a distinct Viennese style to the genre. Strauss was highly influenced by the work of Offenbach, so much so that he collaborated with many of Offenbach’s librettists for his most popular works. His operetta, Die Fledermaus (1874), became the most performed operetta in the world, and remains his most popular stage work. In all, Strauss wrote 16 operettas and one opera, most with great success when first premiered.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operetta in German", "target_page_ids": [ 11884, 133392, 46677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 64 ], [ 82, 99 ], [ 378, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Strauss’s satire was often generic, unlike Offenbach who commented on real-life matters", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operetta in German", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Strauss's operettas, waltzes, polkas, and marches often have a strongly Viennese style, and his popularity causes many to think of him as the national composer of Austria. The Theater an der Wien never failed to draw huge crowds when his stage works were first performed. After many of the numbers the audience would call noisily for encores.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operetta in German", "target_page_ids": [ 55866, 891231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 80 ], [ 176, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Franz von Suppé, also known as Francesco Ezechiele Ermenegildo, Cavaliere Suppé-Demelli, was born in 1819 and his fame rivals that of Offenbach. Suppé was a leading composer and conductor in Vienna and most known for his operetta Leichte Kavallerie (1866), Fatinitza (1876), and Boccaccio (1879) Suppé was a contemporary to Strauss and composed over 30 operettas 180 farces, ballets and other stage works. Recently, most of his works have been lost into obscurity, many of them have been reprised within films, cartoons, advertisements and so on. Both Strauss and Suppé are considered to be the most notable composers of the Golden Age of Viennese operetta.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operetta in German", "target_page_ids": [ 380132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the death of Johann Strauss and his contemporary, Franz von Suppé, Franz Lehár was the heir apparent. Lehar is widely considered the leading operetta composer of the 20th century and his most successful operetta, Die lustige Witwe (The Merry Widow), is one of the classic operettas still in repertory.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operetta in German", "target_page_ids": [ 380132, 253328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 75 ], [ 77, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lehár assisted in leading operetta into the Silver Age of Viennese Operetta. During this time, Viennese Censorship laws were changed in 1919. Lehár is most responsible for giving the genre renewed vitality. Studying at the Prague Conservatory Lehár began as a theatre violinist and then took off as a composer in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During this 1905, Lehár’s Die lustige Witwe (The Merry Widow) paved a pathway for composers such as Fall, Oscar Straus, and Kálmán to continue the tradition of Operetta. Lehár, was also one of the first composers who began to incorporate into film. %20ftn2]", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operetta in German", "target_page_ids": [ 3967211, 728561, 368673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 443, 447 ], [ 449, 461 ], [ 467, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Viennese tradition was carried on by Oscar Straus, Carl Zeller, Karl Millöcker, Leo Fall, Richard Heuberger, Edmund Eysler, Ralph Benatzky, Robert Stolz, Emmerich Kálmán, Nico Dostal, Fred Raymond, Igo Hofstetter, Paul Abraham and Ivo Tijardović in the 20th century.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operetta in German", "target_page_ids": [ 728561, 3713615, 3710798, 3967211, 3680340, 13165978, 2226779, 4341628, 368673, 13165180, 13401091, 48119911, 3748570, 3326648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 53 ], [ 55, 66 ], [ 68, 82 ], [ 84, 92 ], [ 94, 111 ], [ 113, 126 ], [ 128, 142 ], [ 144, 156 ], [ 158, 173 ], [ 175, 186 ], [ 188, 200 ], [ 202, 216 ], [ 218, 230 ], [ 235, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the same way that Vienna was the center of Austrian operetta, Berlin was the center of German operetta. Berlin operetta often had its own style, including, especially after World War I, elements of jazz and other syncopated dance rhythms, a transatlantic style, and the presence of ragged marching tunes. Berlin operettas also sometimes included aspects of burlesque, revue, farce, or cabaret.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operetta in German", "target_page_ids": [ 3354, 4764461, 339806, 776763, 142464, 59467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 71 ], [ 176, 187 ], [ 360, 369 ], [ 371, 376 ], [ 378, 383 ], [ 388, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paul Lincke pioneered the Berlin operetta in 1899 with Frau Luna, which includes \"Berliner Luft\" (\"Berlin Air\"), which became the unofficial anthem of Berlin. His Lysistrata (1902) includes the song and tune \"The Glow-Worm\", which remains quite popular internationally. Much later, in the 1920s and 1930s, Kurt Weill took a more extreme form of the Berlin operetta style and used it in his operas, operettas, and musicals. It is arguable that some of Kurt Weill's compositions could be considered modernist operetta.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operetta in German", "target_page_ids": [ 158242, 7047888, 51097, 51097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 209, 222 ], [ 306, 316 ], [ 451, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Berlin-style operetta coexisted with more bourgeois, charming, home-loving, and nationalistic German operettas – some of which were called Volksoperetten (folk operettas). A prime example is Leon Jessel's extremely popular 1917 Schwarzwaldmädel (Black Forest Girl). These bucolic, nostalgic, home-loving operettas were officially preferred over Berlin-style operettas after 1933, when the Nazis came to power and instituted the Reichsmusikkammer (State Music Institute), which deprecated and banned \"decadent\" music like jazz and similar \"foreign\" musical forms. In the beginning of twenty-first century, German revival of operetta was an unforeseen theatrical development.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operetta in German", "target_page_ids": [ 6193599, 29212987, 24148386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 206 ], [ 232, 248 ], [ 432, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Notable German operetta composers include Paul Lincke, Eduard Künneke, Walter Kollo, Jean Gilbert, Leon Jessel, Rudolf Dellinger, Walter Goetze and Ludwig Schmidseder.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operetta in German", "target_page_ids": [ 158242, 3699001, 4364826, 4480233, 6193599, 13165113, 13931225, 13179925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 53 ], [ 55, 69 ], [ 71, 83 ], [ 85, 97 ], [ 99, 110 ], [ 112, 128 ], [ 130, 143 ], [ 148, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Offenbach's influence reached England by the 1860s. Arthur Sullivan, of the Gilbert and Sullivan duo, composed Cox and Box (1866) as a direct reaction to Offenbach's Les deux aveugles (1855). Gilbert and Sullivan solidified the format in England with their long-running collaboration during the Victorian era. With W. S. Gilbert writing the libretti and Sullivan composing the music, the pair produced 14 comic operas, which were later called Savoy Operas. Most were enormously popular in Britain, the U.S., and elsewhere. Gilbert, Sullivan, and their producer Richard D'Oyly Carte themselves call their joint works comic operas to distinguish this family-friendly fare from the risqué French operettas of the 1850s and 1860s. Their works, such as H.M.S. Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado, continue to enjoy regular performances throughout the English-speaking world. While many of these operas seem to be very light-hearted, works such as the Mikado were making political commentaries on the British government and military with one of the main topics being capital punishment which was still widely used at the time.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Operetta in English", "target_page_ids": [ 45280, 2292301, 13021, 32798, 7993134, 84371, 45416, 690708, 47801, 46667, 46747, 46747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 67 ], [ 111, 122 ], [ 192, 212 ], [ 295, 308 ], [ 316, 329 ], [ 444, 455 ], [ 563, 583 ], [ 618, 629 ], [ 751, 766 ], [ 768, 791 ], [ 796, 806 ], [ 958, 968 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "English operetta continued into the 1890s, with works by composers such as Edward German, Ivan Caryll and Sidney Jones. These quickly evolved into the lighter song-and-dance pieces known as Edwardian musical comedy. Beginning in 1907, with The Merry Widow, many of the Viennese operettas were adapted very successfully for the English stage. To explain this phenomenon, Derek Scott writes,In January 1908, London’s Daily Mail claimed that The Merry Widow had been performed 450 times in Vienna, 400 times in Berlin, 350 times in St Petersburg, 300 times in Copenhagen, and was currently playing every evening in Europe in nine languages. In the USA, five companies were presenting it, and \"the rush for tickets at the New Amsterdam Theatre\" was likened to \"the feverish crowding round the doors of a threatened bank\". Stan Czech, in his Lehár biography, claims that by 1910 it had been performed \"around 18,000 times in ten languages on 154 American, 142 German, and 135 British stages\".The international embrace of operetta directly correlated with the development of both the West End in London and Broadway in New York. American audiences were first introduced to operetta through Gilbert and Sullivan's H.M.S. Pinafore in 1878. American operetta composers included Victor Herbert, whose works at the beginning of the 20th century were influenced by both Viennese operetta and Gilbert and Sullivan. He was followed by Sigmund Romberg and Rudolph Friml. Nevertheless, American operetta largely gave way, by the end of World War I, to musicals, such as the Princess Theatre musicals, and revues, followed by the musicals of Rodgers and Hart, Cole Porter, Irving Berlin and others. Another notable operetta in English is Candide by Leonard Bernstein. It was advertised as a “comic operetta. ” Candide’s score in some ways was typical for its announced genre with some waltzes, but Bernstein added the schottische, gavotte, and other dances, and also entered the opera house with the aria “Glitter and Be Gay”", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Operetta in English", "target_page_ids": [ 241920, 2492500, 2468255, 11665131, 560587, 1154952, 249115, 400166, 605699, 20572, 4555929, 776763, 199824, 53360, 48351, 1423416, 43282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 88 ], [ 90, 101 ], [ 106, 118 ], [ 190, 214 ], [ 240, 255 ], [ 1078, 1086 ], [ 1269, 1283 ], [ 1421, 1436 ], [ 1441, 1454 ], [ 1536, 1544 ], [ 1558, 1574 ], [ 1589, 1595 ], [ 1625, 1641 ], [ 1643, 1654 ], [ 1656, 1669 ], [ 1721, 1728 ], [ 1732, 1749 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Operetta was the first imported vocal genre in Italy. Since the 1860s, French and Viennese composers such as Offenbach, Hervé, Suppé, Strauss Jr and Lehár have significantly influenced the operatic tradition of Italy. The widespread popularity of foreign operetta in Italy reached its climax at the turn of the century, in particular with the success of La vedova allegra, which premiered in Milan in 1907. Italian operetta composers tended to stretch the definition of an \"operetta\" more than other nations in order to fit the beauty of Italian Romantic opera style. An example would be Giacomo Puccini, who developed his work in the realistic verisimo style, and would compose \"operettas in three acts\". Other notable composers of Italian operetta include Vincenzo Valente, Ruggero Leoncavallo, Pasquale Mario Costa, Pietro Mascagni, Carlo Lombardo, Enrico Toselli, Virgilio Ranzato and Giuseppe Pietri.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Operetta in Italian", "target_page_ids": [ 65414, 4353669, 380132, 133392, 253328, 560587, 12750, 304519, 17128726, 37938, 56117396, 37931, 34382551, 11093213, 6988542, 23020117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 118 ], [ 120, 125 ], [ 127, 132 ], [ 134, 144 ], [ 149, 154 ], [ 354, 371 ], [ 588, 603 ], [ 645, 653 ], [ 758, 774 ], [ 776, 795 ], [ 797, 817 ], [ 819, 834 ], [ 836, 850 ], [ 852, 866 ], [ 868, 884 ], [ 889, 904 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The audiences of operetta during the 1860s and 1870s are described as rowdy and loud. Operetta was considered one of the major controversies about Italian music and culture between the 1860s and the 1920s. During that period, strong nationalistic undertones in Italy strived to unify its national identity. Recognizing operetta as a foreign genre, operetta was perceived as an art form that would contaminate Italian opera or illegitimately undermine its primacy on the stage. It was not until the early twentieth century that Italian composers systematically engaged in writing operetta.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Operetta in Italian", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Comic opera", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 690708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of operetta composers", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18152893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Musical theatre", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Operetta film", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 35794208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zarzuela", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Informational notes", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Citations", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bibliography", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Further reading", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bordman, Gerald (1981) American Operetta. New York: Oxford University Press.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Clarke, Kevin (2007) Glitter and be Gay: Die authentische Operette und ihre schwulen Verehrer. Hamburg: Männerschwarm Verlag.(German)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ganzl, Kurt (2001) The Encyclopedia of Musical Theatre (3 Volumes). New York: Schirmer Books.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Goulet, Charles (1981) Sur la scène et dans la coulisse. Québec, Qc.: Ministère des Affaires culturelles. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Linhardt, Marion (2006) Residenzstadt und Metropole. Zu einer kulturellen Topographie des Wiener Unterhaltungstheaters (1858–1918). Berlin: Max Niemeyer Verlag. (German)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Traubner, Richard (1983) Operetta: A Theatrical History. Garden City, New York: Doubleday.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Viagrande, iccardo (2009) Tu che m'hai preso il cuor. Un viaggio nel mondo dell'operetta. Monza: Casa Musicale Eco. (Italian)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Extensive site with information about operettas, light operas and their composers", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Essay on operettas of Offenbach, Johann Strauss Jr. and their contemporaries", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Operetta Research Center (with a large archive of historical reviews)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Kurt Ganzl's 2019 favourite operettas", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Schwarzkopf Sings Operetta [Streaming Audio]. (2005). Warner Music. (2005). Retrieved from Alexander Street database. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Differences in an Operetta & a Musical: The Business of Singing – Youtube video posted by Expert Village Leaf Group", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Famous Operettas – Youtube video posted by Kaleb Fair", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Operetta", "Opera_genres", "Italian_opera_terminology" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Uracil () (symbol U or Ura) is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid RNA that are represented by the letters A, G, C and U. The others are adenine (A), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). In RNA, uracil binds to adenine via two hydrogen bonds. In DNA, the uracil nucleobase is replaced by thymine. Uracil is a demethylated form of thymine.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 89095, 89080, 21496, 25758, 38571, 6016, 12439, 38571, 13609, 7955, 58550, 89241, 58550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 47, 57 ], [ 66, 78 ], [ 79, 82 ], [ 149, 156 ], [ 162, 170 ], [ 180, 187 ], [ 217, 224 ], [ 233, 247 ], [ 252, 255 ], [ 294, 301 ], [ 315, 327 ], [ 336, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Uracil is a common and naturally occurring pyrimidine derivative. The name \"uracil\" was coined in 1885 by the German chemist Robert Behrend, who was attempting to synthesize derivatives of uric acid. Originally discovered in 1900 by Alberto Ascoli, it was isolated by hydrolysis of yeast nuclein; it was also found in bovine thymus and spleen, herring sperm, and wheat germ. It is a planar, unsaturated compound that has the ability to absorb light.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23653, 65204395, 31736, 14304913, 14385, 34385, 21496, 75098, 56265, 42567, 49890, 2324040, 36858, 1437652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 53 ], [ 125, 139 ], [ 189, 198 ], [ 233, 247 ], [ 268, 278 ], [ 282, 287 ], [ 288, 295 ], [ 318, 324 ], [ 325, 331 ], [ 336, 342 ], [ 344, 351 ], [ 352, 357 ], [ 363, 368 ], [ 369, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Based on 12C/13C isotopic ratios of organic compounds found in the Murchison meteorite, it is believed that uracil, xanthine, and related molecules can also be formed extraterrestrially.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 61648, 22203, 1886716, 52432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 31 ], [ 36, 53 ], [ 67, 86 ], [ 116, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2012, an analysis of data from the Cassini mission orbiting in the Saturn system showed that Titan's surface composition may include uracil.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 67941, 44474, 47402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 53 ], [ 70, 76 ], [ 96, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In RNA, uracil base-pairs with adenine and replaces thymine during DNA transcription. Methylation of uracil produces thymine. In DNA, the evolutionary substitution of thymine for uracil may have increased DNA stability and improved the efficiency of DNA replication (discussed below). Uracil pairs with adenine through hydrogen bonding. When base pairing with adenine, uracil acts as both a hydrogen bond acceptor and a hydrogen bond donor. In RNA, uracil binds with a ribose sugar to form the ribonucleoside uridine. When a phosphate attaches to uridine, uridine 5'-monophosphate is produced.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 4292, 89188, 9015, 13609, 4292, 13609, 61981357, 18199450, 89105, 23690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 25 ], [ 86, 97 ], [ 250, 265 ], [ 319, 335 ], [ 342, 354 ], [ 391, 404 ], [ 469, 475 ], [ 494, 508 ], [ 509, 516 ], [ 525, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Uracil undergoes amide-imidic acid tautomeric shifts because any nuclear instability the molecule may have from the lack of formal aromaticity is compensated by the cyclic-amidic stability. The amide tautomer is referred to as the lactam structure, while the imidic acid tautomer is referred to as the lactim structure. These tautomeric forms are predominant at pH7. The lactam structure is the most common form of uracil.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 239836, 1325949, 1700882, 1700882, 24530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 142 ], [ 200, 208 ], [ 231, 237 ], [ 302, 308 ], [ 362, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Uracil also recycles itself to form nucleotides by undergoing a series of phosphoribosyltransferase reactions. Degradation of uracil produces the substrates aspartate, carbon dioxide, and ammonia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 63540, 5906, 1365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 166 ], [ 168, 182 ], [ 188, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "C4H4N2O2 → H3NCH2CH2COO− + NH4+ + CO2", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Oxidative degradation of uracil produces urea and maleic acid in the presence of H2O2 and Fe2+ or in the presence of diatomic oxygen and Fe2+.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 14403, 14734, 22303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 85 ], [ 90, 92 ], [ 126, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Uracil is a weak acid. The first site of ionization of uracil is not known. The negative charge is placed on the oxygen anion and produces a pKa of less than or equal to 12. The basic pKa=-3.4, while the acidic pKa = 9.389. In the gas phase, uracil has 4 sites that are more acidic than water.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 34251640, 59611, 57555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 21 ], [ 41, 51 ], [ 141, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Uracil is rarely found in DNA, and this may have been an evolutionary change to increase genetic stability. This is because cytosine can deaminate spontaneously to produce uracil through hydrolytic deamination. Therefore, if there were an organism that used uracil in its DNA, the deamination of cytosine (which undergoes base pairing with guanine) would lead to formation of uracil (which would base pair with adenine) during DNA synthesis.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Uracil-DNA glycosylase excises uracil bases from double-stranded DNA. This enzyme would therefore recognize and cut out both types of uracil – the one incorporated naturally, and the one formed due to cytosine deamination, which would trigger unnecessary and inappropriate repair processes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 14723725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This problem is believed to have been solved in terms of evolution, i.e. by \"tagging\" (methylating) uracil. Methylated uracil is identical to thymine. Hence the hypothesis that, over time, thymine became standard in DNA instead of uracil. So cells continue to use uracil in RNA, and not in DNA, because RNA is shorter-lived than DNA, and any potential uracil-related errors do not lead to lasting damage. Apparently, either there was no evolutionary pressure to replace uracil in RNA with the more complex thymine, or uracil has some chemical property that is useful in RNA, which thymine lacks. Uracil-containing DNA still exists, for example in ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " DNA of several phages", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Endopterygote development", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 799158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hypermutations during the synthesis of vertebrate antibodies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a scholarly article published in October 2009, NASA scientists reported having reproduced uracil from pyrimidine by exposing it to ultraviolet light under space-like conditions. This suggests that one possible natural original source for uracil in the RNA world could have been panspermia. More recently, in March 2015, NASA scientists reported that, for the first time, additional complex DNA and RNA organic compounds of life, including uracil, cytosine and thymine, have been formed in the laboratory under outer space conditions, using starting chemicals, such as pyrimidine, found in meteorites. Pyrimidine, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the most carbon-rich chemical found in the Universe, may have been formed in red giants or in interstellar dust and gas clouds, according to the scientists.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synthesis", "target_page_ids": [ 18426568, 23653, 31990, 25765, 23678, 7955, 25758, 22203, 18393, 6016, 58550, 177602, 23653, 19937, 653006, 31880, 21245707, 2178570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 54 ], [ 105, 115 ], [ 134, 151 ], [ 255, 264 ], [ 281, 291 ], [ 393, 396 ], [ 401, 404 ], [ 405, 421 ], [ 426, 430 ], [ 450, 458 ], [ 463, 470 ], [ 513, 524 ], [ 571, 581 ], [ 592, 601 ], [ 621, 653 ], [ 705, 713 ], [ 739, 748 ], [ 756, 773 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are many laboratory syntheses of uracil available. The first reaction is the simplest of the syntheses, by adding water to cytosine to produce uracil and ammonia:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synthesis", "target_page_ids": [ 85029, 6016, 1365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 35 ], [ 129, 137 ], [ 160, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "C4H5N3O + H2O → C4H4N2O2 + NH3", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synthesis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most common way to synthesize uracil is by the condensation of malic acid with urea in fuming sulfuric acid:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synthesis", "target_page_ids": [ 47521, 243074, 227914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 63 ], [ 67, 77 ], [ 91, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "C4H4O4 + NH2CONH2 → C4H4N2O2 + 2 H2O + CO", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synthesis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Uracil can also be synthesized by a double decomposition of thiouracil in aqueous chloroacetic acid.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synthesis", "target_page_ids": [ 12398544, 413216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 70 ], [ 82, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Photodehydrogenation of 5,6-diuracil, which is synthesized by beta-alanine reacting with urea, produces uracil.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Synthesis", "target_page_ids": [ 1034265, 63539, 31734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 67, 74 ], [ 89, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Uracil readily undergoes regular reactions including oxidation, nitration, and alkylation. While in the presence of phenol (PhOH) and sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), uracil can be visualized in ultraviolet light. Uracil also has the capability to react with elemental halogens because of the presence of more than one strongly electron donating group.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [ 66313, 692867, 487433, 24085, 209959, 31990, 13258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 62 ], [ 64, 73 ], [ 79, 89 ], [ 116, 122 ], [ 134, 153 ], [ 191, 208 ], [ 265, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Uracil readily undergoes addition to ribose sugars and phosphates to partake in synthesis and further reactions in the body. Uracil becomes uridine, uridine monophosphate (UMP), uridine diphosphate (UDP), uridine triphosphate (UTP), and uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP-glucose). Each one of these molecules is synthesized in the body and has specific functions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [ 61981357, 27712, 23690, 89105, 1728633, 1745780, 495471, 9713318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 43 ], [ 44, 49 ], [ 55, 64 ], [ 141, 148 ], [ 150, 171 ], [ 179, 198 ], [ 206, 226 ], [ 238, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When uracil reacts with anhydrous hydrazine, a first-order kinetic reaction occurs and the uracil ring opens up. If the pH of the reaction increases to >10.5, the uracil anion forms, making the reaction go much more slowly. The same slowing of the reaction occurs if the pH decreases, because of the protonation of the hydrazine. The reactivity of uracil remains unchanged, even if the temperature changes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [ 69955, 24530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 43 ], [ 120, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Uracil's use in the body is to help carry out the synthesis of many enzymes necessary for cell function through bonding with riboses and phosphates. Uracil serves as allosteric regulator and coenzyme for reactions in animals and in plants. UMP controls the activity of carbamoyl phosphate synthetase and aspartate transcarbamoylase in plants, while UDP and UTP regulate CPSase II activity in animals. UDP-glucose regulates the conversion of glucose to galactose in the liver and other tissues in the process of carbohydrate metabolism. Uracil is also involved in the biosynthesis of polysaccharides and the transportation of sugars containing aldehydes. Uracil is important for the detoxification of many carcinogens, for instance those found in tobacco smoke. Uracil is also required to detoxify many drugs such as cannabinoids (THC) and morphine (opioids). It can also slightly increase the risk for cancer in unusual cases in which the body is extremely deficient in folate. The deficiency in folate leads to increased ratio of deoxyuridine monophosphates (dUMP)/deoxythymidine monophosphates (dTMP) and uracil misincorporation into DNA and eventually low production of DNA.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 106256, 543048, 11274275, 474354, 11039790, 12950, 56527, 17384301, 383675, 1123902, 23978, 37329, 6445, 54117, 11453355, 1728603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 176 ], [ 191, 199 ], [ 269, 299 ], [ 304, 331 ], [ 392, 398 ], [ 441, 448 ], [ 452, 461 ], [ 469, 474 ], [ 511, 534 ], [ 567, 579 ], [ 583, 598 ], [ 643, 652 ], [ 705, 716 ], [ 970, 976 ], [ 1031, 1058 ], [ 1066, 1095 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Uracil can be used for drug delivery and as a pharmaceutical. When elemental fluorine reacts with uracil, they produce 5-fluorouracil. 5-Fluorouracil is an anticancer drug (antimetabolite) used to masquerade as uracil during the nucleic acid replication process. Because 5-fluorouracil is similar in shape to, but does not undergo the same chemistry as, uracil, the drug inhibits RNA transcription enzymes, thereby blocking RNA synthesis and stopping the growth of cancerous cells. Uracil can also be used in the synthesis of caffeine. Uracil has also shown potential as a HIV viral capsid inhibitor. Uracil derivatives have anti-tubercular and anti-leishmanial activity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 6354378, 180121, 17481271, 1300684, 1867108, 25758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 36 ], [ 46, 60 ], [ 77, 85 ], [ 119, 133 ], [ 173, 187 ], [ 380, 383 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Uracil can be used to determine microbial contamination of tomatoes. The presence of uracil indicates lactic acid bacteria contamination of the fruit. Uracil derivatives containing a diazine ring are used in pesticides. Uracil derivatives are more often used as antiphotosynthetic herbicides, destroying weeds in cotton, sugar beet, turnips, soya, peas, sunflower crops, vineyards, berry plantations, and orchards.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 20377, 9940234, 172474, 9028799, 3002879, 48340, 53916, 36806, 50245, 46576, 62784, 59407, 57622, 167276, 52948, 168008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 41 ], [ 59, 65 ], [ 102, 113 ], [ 114, 122 ], [ 183, 190 ], [ 208, 217 ], [ 281, 290 ], [ 313, 319 ], [ 321, 331 ], [ 333, 339 ], [ 342, 346 ], [ 348, 351 ], [ 354, 363 ], [ 371, 379 ], [ 382, 387 ], [ 405, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In yeast, uracil concentrations are inversely proportional to uracil permease.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 34385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mixtures containing uracil are also commonly used to test reversed-phase HPLC columns. As uracil is essentially unretained by the non-polar stationary phase, this can be used to determine the dwell time (and subsequently dwell volume, given a known flow rate) of the system.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 5979294, 168651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 72 ], [ 73, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Uracil MS Spectrum", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Nucleobases", "Pyrimidinediones" ]

[ "Ura", "Urazil", "2,4(1H,3H)-pyrimidinedione", "2,4-Pyrimidinedione", "2,4-Dioxopyrimidine", "2,4-Pyrimidinediol", "Hybar X", "2,4-Dihydroxypyrimidine", "Pyrod", "Pirod", "1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrimidine-2,4-dione", "Uracil" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Anne Boleyn (; 1501 or 1507 – 19 May 1536) was Queen of England from 1533 to 1536, as the second wife of King Henry VIII. The circumstances of her marriage and of her execution by beheading for treason and other charges made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval that marked the start of the English Reformation. Anne was the daughter of Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, and his wife, Lady Elizabeth Howard, and was educated in the Netherlands and France, largely as a maid of honour to Queen Claude of France. Anne returned to England in early 1522, to marry her Irish cousin James Butler, 9th Earl of Ormond; the marriage plans were broken off, and instead she secured a post at court as maid of honour to Henry VIII's wife, Catherine of Aragon.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14909875, 1702660, 14187, 18974659, 72165, 585409, 73588, 2687967, 1058883, 5642176, 6942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 64 ], [ 91, 102 ], [ 106, 121 ], [ 312, 331 ], [ 358, 394 ], [ 410, 431 ], [ 457, 468 ], [ 473, 479 ], [ 518, 534 ], [ 602, 634 ], [ 752, 771 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early in 1523, Anne was secretly betrothed to Henry Percy, son of Henry Percy, 5th Earl of Northumberland, but the betrothal was broken off when the Earl refused to support their engagement. Cardinal Thomas Wolsey refused the match in January 1524 and Anne was sent home to Hever Castle. In February or March 1526 Henry VIII began his pursuit of Anne. She resisted his attempts to seduce her, refusing to become his mistress, as her sister Mary had previously been. Henry soon focused his desires on annulling his marriage to Catherine so he would be free to marry Anne. Wolsey failed to obtain an annulment of Henry's marriage from Pope Clement VII, and when it became clear that Clement would not annul the marriage, Henry and his advisers, such as Thomas Cromwell, began the breaking of the Catholic Church's power in England and closing the monasteries and the nunneries. In 1532, Henry made Anne the Marquess of Pembroke.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 429144, 2863112, 6221, 31035, 74178, 18835858, 24119, 48701, 606848, 95214, 558358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 57 ], [ 66, 105 ], [ 191, 199 ], [ 200, 213 ], [ 274, 286 ], [ 440, 444 ], [ 633, 649 ], [ 751, 766 ], [ 794, 809 ], [ 833, 874 ], [ 905, 925 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henry and Anne formally married on 25 January 1533, after a secret wedding on 14 November 1532. On 23 May 1533, the newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer declared Henry and Catherine's marriage null and void; five days later, he declared Henry and Anne's marriage valid. Shortly afterwards, Clement excommunicated Henry and Cranmer. As a result of this marriage and these excommunications, the first break between the Church of England and the Catholic Church took place, and the king took control of the Church of England. Anne was crowned Queen of England on 1 June 1533. On 7 September, she gave birth to the future Queen Elizabeth I. Henry was disappointed to have a daughter rather than a son but hoped a son would follow and professed to love Elizabeth. Anne subsequently had three miscarriages and by March 1536, Henry was courting Jane Seymour. In order to marry Seymour, Henry had to find reasons to end the marriage to Anne.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2345, 30502, 5955, 10128, 46383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 156 ], [ 157, 171 ], [ 436, 453 ], [ 637, 654 ], [ 857, 869 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henry VIII had Anne investigated for high treason in April 1536. On 2 May, she was arrested and sent to the Tower of London, where she was tried before a jury of peers, including Henry Percy, her former betrothed, and her uncle Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk; she was convicted on 15 May and beheaded four days later. Modern historians view the charges against her, which included adultery, incest and plotting to kill the king, as unconvincing.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 31165, 233857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 123 ], [ 228, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After her daughter, Elizabeth, became Queen in 1558, Anne became venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly through the written works of John Foxe. She has inspired, or been mentioned in, many artistic and cultural works and retained her hold on the popular imagination. She has been called \"the most influential and important queen consort England has ever had\", as she provided the occasion for Henry VIII to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon and declare the English church's independence from the Vatican.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18974659, 298309, 16393863, 170435, 13393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 125 ], [ 169, 178 ], [ 225, 252 ], [ 359, 372 ], [ 536, 547 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne was the daughter of Thomas Boleyn, later Earl of Wiltshire and Earl of Ormond, and his wife, Lady Elizabeth Howard, daughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk. Thomas Boleyn was a well-respected diplomat with a gift for languages; he was also a favourite of Henry VII of England, who sent him on many diplomatic missions abroad. Anne and her siblings grew up at Hever Castle in Kent. They were born in Norfolk at the Boleyn home at Blickling. A lack of parish records has made it impossible to establish Anne's date of birth. Contemporary evidence is contradictory, with several dates having been put forward by various historians. An Italian, writing in 1600, suggested that she had been born in 1499, while Sir Thomas More's son-in-law William Roper gave a date of 1512. Her birth is widely accepted by scholars and historians as most likely between 1501 and 1507.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 72165, 503327, 570946, 585409, 233855, 5670063, 14186, 74178, 16766, 37605, 145161, 30479, 1241767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 38 ], [ 46, 63 ], [ 68, 82 ], [ 98, 119 ], [ 133, 167 ], [ 254, 263 ], [ 267, 287 ], [ 371, 383 ], [ 387, 391 ], [ 411, 418 ], [ 441, 450 ], [ 718, 733 ], [ 747, 760 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As with Anne, it is uncertain when her two siblings were born, but it seems clear that her sister Mary was older than Anne. Mary's children clearly believed their mother was the elder sister. Mary's grandson claimed the Ormonde title in 1596 on the basis that she was the elder daughter, which Elizabeth I accepted. Their brother George was born around 1504.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 18835858, 247961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 102 ], [ 330, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The academic debate about Anne's birth date focuses on two key dates: c. 1501 and c. 1507. Eric Ives, a British historian and legal expert, advocates 1501, while Retha Warnicke, an American scholar who has also written a biography of Anne, prefers 1507. The key piece of surviving written evidence is a letter Anne wrote sometime in 1514. She wrote it in French to her father, who was still living in England while Anne was completing her education at Mechelen, in the Burgundian Netherlands, now Belgium. Ives argues that the style of the letter and its mature handwriting prove that Anne must have been about 13 at the time of its composition, while Warnicke argues that the numerous misspellings and grammar errors show that the letter was written by a child. In Ives's view, this would also be around the minimum age that a girl could be a maid of honour, as Anne was to the regent, Margaret of Austria. This is supported by claims of a chronicler from the late 16th century, who wrote that Anne was 20 when she returned from France. These findings are contested by Warnicke in several books and articles, and the evidence does not conclusively support either date.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 2258187, 1260280, 407950, 156169, 1516642, 959186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 100 ], [ 162, 176 ], [ 401, 408 ], [ 452, 460 ], [ 469, 491 ], [ 887, 906 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two independent contemporary sources support the 1507 date. Author Gareth Russell wrote a summary of the evidence and relates that Jane Dormer, Duchess of Feria, wrote her memoirs shortly before her death in 1612. The former lady-in-waiting and confidante to Queen Mary I wrote of Anne Boleyn: \"She was convicted and condemned and was not yet twenty-nine years of age.\" William Camden wrote a history of the reign of Elizabeth I and was granted access to the private papers of Lord Burghley and to the state archives. In that history, in the chapter dealing with Elizabeth's early life, he records in the margin that Anne was born in MDVII (1507).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 33375410, 10686635, 27617737, 20713, 102497, 10128, 51112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 81 ], [ 131, 142 ], [ 144, 160 ], [ 259, 271 ], [ 370, 384 ], [ 417, 428 ], [ 477, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne's great-great-great-grandparents included a Lord Mayor of London, a duke, an earl, two aristocratic ladies and a knight. One of them, Geoffrey Boleyn, had been a mercer and wool merchant before becoming Lord Mayor. The Boleyn family originally came from Blickling in Norfolk, north of Norwich. Anne's relatives included the Howards, one of the preeminent families in England; and Anne's ancestors included King Edward I of England. According to Eric Ives, she was certainly of more noble birth than Jane Seymour and Catherine Parr, Henry VIII's other English wives. The spelling of the Boleyn name was variable, as common at the time. Sometimes it was written as Bullen, hence the bull heads which formed part of her family arms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 40339, 490747, 3277233, 103443, 588438, 46373, 46383, 47406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 69 ], [ 208, 218 ], [ 259, 268 ], [ 291, 298 ], [ 330, 337 ], [ 417, 436 ], [ 505, 517 ], [ 522, 536 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the court of Margaret of Austria in the Netherlands Anne is listed as Boullan. From there she signed the letter to her father as Anna de Boullan. She was also called \"Anna Bolina\"; this Latinised form is used in most portraits of her.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anne's early education was typical for women of her class. In 1513, she was invited to join the schoolroom of Margaret of Austria and her four wards. Her academic education was limited to arithmetic, her family genealogy, grammar, history, reading, spelling and writing. She also developed domestic skills such as dancing, embroidery, good manners, household management, music, needlework and singing. Anne learned to play games, such as cards, chess and dice. She was also taught archery, falconry, horseback riding and hunting.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anne's father continued his diplomatic career under Henry VIII. In Europe, his charm won many admirers, including Margaret of Austria, daughter of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. During this period, Margaret ruled the Netherlands on her nephew Charles's behalf and was so impressed with Boleyn that she offered his daughter Anne a place in her household. Ordinarily, a girl had to be 12 years old to have such an honour, but Anne may have been younger, as Margaret affectionately called her . Anne made a good impression in the Netherlands with her manners and studiousness; Margaret reported that she was well spoken and pleasant for her young age, and told Thomas that his daughter was \"so presentable and so pleasant, considering her youthful age, that I am more beholden to you for sending her to me, than you to me\" (E. W. Ives, op.cit.). Anne stayed at the Court of Savoy in Mechelen from spring 1513 until her father arranged for her to attend Henry VIII's sister Mary, who was about to marry Louis XII of France in October 1514.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 959186, 39070, 70716, 22629868, 156169, 70449, 77655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 133 ], [ 147, 179 ], [ 246, 253 ], [ 866, 880 ], [ 884, 892 ], [ 974, 978 ], [ 1003, 1022 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In France, Anne was a maid of honour to Queen Mary, and then to Mary's 15-year-old stepdaughter Queen Claude, with whom she stayed nearly seven years. In the Queen's household, she completed her study of French and developed interests in art, fashion, illuminated manuscripts, literature, music, poetry and religious philosophy. She also acquired knowledge of French culture, dance, etiquette, literature, music and poetry; and gained experience in flirtation and courtly love. Though all knowledge of Anne's experiences in the French court is conjecture, even Ives suggests that she was likely to have made the acquaintance of King Francis I's sister, Marguerite de Navarre, a patron of humanists and reformers. Marguerite de Navarre was also an author in her own right, and her works include elements of Christian mysticism and reform that verged on heresy, though she was protected by her status as the French king's beloved sister. She or her circle may have encouraged Anne's interest in religious reform, as well as in poetry and literature. Anne's education in France proved itself in later years, inspiring many new trends among the ladies and courtiers of England. It may have been instrumental in pressing their King toward the culture-shattering contretemps with the Papacy. William Forrest, author of a contemporary poem about Catherine of Aragon, complimented Anne's \"passing excellent\" skill as a dancer. \"Here\", he wrote, \"was [a] fresh young damsel, that could trip and go.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 70449, 1058883, 50012, 2764030, 612916, 31862747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 50 ], [ 96, 108 ], [ 628, 642 ], [ 653, 674 ], [ 806, 825 ], [ 1286, 1301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne was of average height and had a slender build with long straight and thick black or dark brown hair, dark brown (nearly black) eyes, a strong nose, a definite wide mouth with slim lips, and an olive complexion. She was considered brilliant, charming, driven, elegant, forthright and graceful, with a keen wit and a lively, opinionated and passionate personality. Anne was depicted as \"sweet and cheerful\" in her youth and enjoyed cards and dice games, drinking wine, French cuisine, flirting, gambling, gossiping and good jokes. She was fond of archery, falconry, hunting and the occasional game of bowls. She also had a sharp tongue and a terrible temper.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 11002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 472, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne exerted a powerful charm on those who met her, though opinions differed on her attractiveness. The Venetian diarist Marino Sanuto, who saw Anne when Henry VIII met Francis I at Calais in October 1532, described her as \"not one of the handsomest women in the world; she is of middling stature, swarthy complexion, long neck, wide mouth, bosom not much raised... eyes, which are black and beautiful\". Simon Grynée wrote to Martin Bucer in September 1531 that Anne was \"young, good-looking, of a rather dark complexion\". Lancelot de Carle called her \"beautiful with an elegant figure\", and a Venetian in Paris in 1528 also reported that she was said to be beautiful.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 3239297, 85468, 153642, 41397869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 134 ], [ 182, 188 ], [ 426, 438 ], [ 523, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most influential description of Anne, but also the least reliable, was written by the Catholic propagandist and polemicist Nicholas Sanders in 1586, half a century after Anne's death: ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 2633585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Sanders held Anne responsible for Henry VIII's rejection of the Catholic Church, writing 50 years after her death, he was keen to demonise her. Sanders's description contributed to what Ives calls the \"monster legend\" of Anne Boleyn. Though his details were fictitious, they have formed the basis for references to Anne's appearance even in some modern textbooks.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anne's experience in France made her a devout Christian in the new tradition of Renaissance humanism. Anne knew little Latin and, trained at a French court, she was influenced by an \"evangelical variety of French humanism\", which led her to champion the vernacular Bible. She later held the reformist position that the papacy was a corrupting influence on Christianity, but her conservative tendencies could be seen in her devotion to the Virgin Mary. Anne's European education ended in 1521, when her father summoned her back to England. She sailed from Calais in January 1522.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 290237, 17730, 3390, 73513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 100 ], [ 119, 124 ], [ 265, 270 ], [ 439, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne was recalled to marry her Irish cousin, James Butler, a young man several years older than she who was living at the English court. The marriage was intended to settle a dispute over the title and estates of the Earldom of Ormond. The 7th Earl of Ormond died in 1515, leaving his daughters, Margaret Boleyn and Anne St Leger, as co-heiresses. In Ireland, the great-great-grandson of the third earl, Sir Piers Butler, contested the will and claimed the earldom himself. He was already in possession of Kilkenny Castle, the earls' ancestral seat. Sir Thomas Boleyn, being the son of the eldest daughter, believed the title properly belonged to him and protested to his brother-in-law, the Duke of Norfolk, who spoke to Henry about the matter. Henry, fearful the dispute could ignite civil war in Ireland, sought to resolve the matter by arranging an alliance between Piers's son, James and Anne Boleyn. She would bring her Ormond inheritance as dowry and thus end the dispute. The plan ended in failure, perhaps because Sir Thomas hoped for a grander marriage for his daughter or because he himself coveted the titles. Whatever the reason, the marriage negotiations came to a complete halt. James Butler later married Lady Joan Fitzgerald, daughter and heiress of James FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Desmond and Amy O'Brien.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 5642176, 570946, 5653642, 14774070, 2345370, 424539, 233857, 25792630, 36257704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 57 ], [ 217, 234 ], [ 240, 258 ], [ 296, 311 ], [ 404, 420 ], [ 506, 521 ], [ 692, 707 ], [ 1221, 1241 ], [ 1267, 1305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mary Boleyn, Anne Boleyn's older sister, had been recalled from France in late 1519, ostensibly to end her affairs with the French king and his courtiers. She married William Carey, a minor noble, in February 1520, at Greenwich, with Henry VIII in attendance. Soon after, Mary became the English King's mistress. Historians dispute Henry VIII's paternity of one or both of Mary Boleyn's children born during this marriage. Henry VIII: The King and His Court, by Alison Weir, questions the paternity of Henry Carey; Dr. G.W. Bernard (The King's Reformation) and Joanna Denny (Anne Boleyn: A New Life of England's Tragic Queen) argue that Henry VIII was their father. Henry did not acknowledge either child, but he did recognize his son Henry Fitzroy, his illegitimate son by Elizabeth Blount, Lady Talboys.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 18835858, 2536463, 95840, 13960253, 890273, 49273015, 22537780, 588548, 588539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 167, 180 ], [ 218, 227 ], [ 462, 473 ], [ 502, 513 ], [ 519, 531 ], [ 561, 573 ], [ 735, 748 ], [ 774, 790 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne made her début at the Château Vert (Green Castle) pageant in honour of the imperial ambassadors on 4 March 1522, playing \"Perseverance\" (one of the characters in the play). There she took part in an elaborate dance accompanying Henry's younger sister Mary, several other ladies of the court and her sister. All wore gowns of white satin embroidered with gold thread. She quickly established herself as one of the most stylish and accomplished women at the court, and soon a number of young men were competing for her.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 4330083, 70449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 100 ], [ 256, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Warnicke writes that Anne was \"the perfect woman courtier... her carriage was graceful and her French clothes were pleasing and stylish; she danced with ease, had a pleasant singing voice, played the lute and several other musical instruments well, and spoke French fluently... A remarkable, intelligent, quick-witted young noblewoman... that first drew people into conversation with her and then amused and entertained them. In short, her energy and vitality made her the center of attention in any social gathering.\" Henry VIII's biographer J. J. Scarisbrick adds that Anne \"revelled in\" the attention she received from her admirers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 36615208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 543, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During this time, Anne was courted by Henry Percy, son of the Earl of Northumberland, and entered into a secret betrothal with him. Thomas Wolsey's gentleman usher, George Cavendish, maintained the two had not been lovers. The romance was broken off when Percy's father refused to support their engagement. Wolsey refused the match for several conjectured reasons. According to Cavendish, Anne was sent from court to her family's countryside estates, but it is not known for how long. Upon her return to court, she again entered the service of Catherine of Aragon. Percy was married to Lady Mary Talbot, to whom he had been betrothed since adolescence.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 429144, 429133, 31035, 3681657, 125337, 2863112, 23103413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 49 ], [ 62, 84 ], [ 132, 145 ], [ 148, 163 ], [ 165, 181 ], [ 255, 269 ], [ 586, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before marrying Henry VIII, Anne had befriended Sir Thomas Wyatt, one of the greatest poets of the Tudor period. In 1520, Wyatt married Elizabeth Cobham, who by many accounts was not a wife of his choosing. In 1525, Wyatt charged his wife with adultery and separated from her; coincidentally, historians believe that it was also the year where his interest in Anne intensified. In 1532, Wyatt accompanied the royal couple to Calais.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 72173, 1307053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 64 ], [ 99, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1526, Henry VIII became enamoured of Anne and began his pursuit. Anne was a skilful player at the game of courtly love, which was often played in the antechambers. This may have been how she caught the eye of Henry, who was also an experienced player. Some say that Anne resisted Henry's attempts to seduce her, refusing to become his mistress, and often leaving court for the seclusion of Hever Castle. But within a year, he proposed marriage to her, and she accepted. Both assumed an annulment could be obtained within months. There is no evidence to suggest that they engaged in a sexual relationship until very shortly before their marriage; Henry's love letters to Anne suggest that their love affair remained unconsummated for much of their seven-year courtship.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is probable that Henry had thought of the idea of annulment (not divorce as commonly assumed) much earlier than this as he strongly desired a male heir to secure the Tudor claim to the crown. Before Henry VII ascended the throne, England was beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the crown, and Henry VIII wanted to avoid similar uncertainty over the succession. He and Catherine had no living sons: all Catherine's children except Mary died in infancy. Catherine had first come to England to be bride to Henry's brother Arthur, who died soon after their marriage. Since Spain and England still wanted an alliance, Pope Julius II granted a dispensation for their marriage on the grounds that Catherine was still a virgin.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 31278, 14186, 30275656, 20713, 177655, 24755, 4086742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 174 ], [ 202, 211 ], [ 254, 267 ], [ 441, 445 ], [ 530, 536 ], [ 624, 638 ], [ 649, 661 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Catherine and Henry married in 1509, but eventually he became dubious about the marriage's validity, claiming that Catherine's inability to provide an heir was a sign of God's displeasure. His feelings for Anne, and her refusals to become his mistress, probably contributed to Henry's decision that no Pope had a right to overrule the Bible. This meant that he had been living in sin with Catherine all these years, though Catherine hotly contested this and refused to concede that her marriage to Arthur had been consummated. It also meant that his daughter Mary was a bastard, and that the new pope (Clement VII) would have to admit the previous pope's mistake and annul the marriage. Henry's quest for an annulment became euphemistically known as the \"King's Great Matter\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 24119, 6942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 603, 614 ], [ 756, 775 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne saw an opportunity in Henry's infatuation and the convenient moral quandary. She determined that she would yield to his embraces only as his acknowledged queen. She began to take her place at his side in policy and in state, but not yet in his bed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scholars and historians hold various opinions as to how deep Anne's commitment to the Reformation was, how much she was perhaps only personally ambitious, and how much she had to do with Henry's defiance of papal power. There is anecdotal evidence, related to biographer George Wyatt by her former lady-in-waiting Anne Gainsford, that Anne brought to Henry's attention a heretical pamphlet, perhaps Tyndale's The Obedience of a Christian Man or one by Simon Fish called A Supplication for the Beggars, which cried out to monarchs to rein in the evil excesses of the Catholic Church. She was sympathetic to those seeking further reformation of the Church, and actively protected scholars working on English translations of the scriptures. According to Maria Dowling, \"Anne tried to educate her waiting-women in scriptural piety\" and is believed to have reproved her cousin, Mary Shelton, for \"having 'idle poesies' written in her prayer book.\" If Cavendish is to be believed, Anne's outrage at Wolsey may have personalised whatever philosophical defiance she brought with her from France. Further, the most recent edition of Ives's biography admits that Anne may very well have had a personal spiritual awakening in her youth that spurred her on, not just as catalyst but expediter for Henry's Reformation, though the process took years.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 31590520, 25727239, 37669, 28267189, 10454059, 41998170, 14970735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 271, 283 ], [ 314, 328 ], [ 399, 406 ], [ 409, 441 ], [ 452, 462 ], [ 751, 764 ], [ 873, 885 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1528, sweating sickness broke out with great severity. In London, the mortality rate was great and the court was dispersed. Henry left London, frequently changing his residence; Anne Boleyn retreated to the Boleyn residence at Hever Castle, but contracted the illness; her brother-in-law, William Carey, died. Henry sent his own physician to Hever Castle to care for Anne, and shortly afterwards, she recovered.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 956462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henry was soon absorbed in securing an annulment from Catherine. He set his hopes upon a direct appeal to the Holy See, acting independently of Wolsey, to whom he at first communicated nothing of his plans related to Anne. In 1527 William Knight, the king's secretary, was sent to Pope Clement VII to sue for the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine, on the grounds that the dispensing bull of Julius II permitting him to marry his brother's widow, Catherine, had been obtained under false pretences. Henry also petitioned, in the event of his becoming free, a dispensation to contract a new marriage with any woman even in the first degree of affinity, whether the affinity was contracted by lawful or unlawful connection. This clearly referred to Anne.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 13393, 959976, 24119, 210043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 118 ], [ 231, 245 ], [ 281, 297 ], [ 392, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Clement was at that time a prisoner of Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, as a result of the Sack of Rome in May 1527, Knight had some difficulty obtaining access. In the end he had to return with a conditional dispensation, which Wolsey insisted was technically insufficient. Henry then had no choice but to put his great matter into Wolsey's hands, who did all he could to secure a decision in Henry's favour, even going so far as to convene an ecclesiastical court in England, with a special emissary, Lorenzo Campeggio, from Clement to decide the matter. But Clement had not empowered his deputy to make a decision. He was still Charles V's hostage, and Charles V was loyal to his aunt Catherine. The pope forbade Henry to contract a new marriage until a decision was reached in Rome, not in England. Convinced that Wolsey's loyalties lay with the pope, not England, Anne, as well as Wolsey's many enemies, ensured his dismissal from public office in 1529. Cavendish, Wolsey's chamberlain, records that the servants who waited on the king and Anne at dinner in 1529 in Grafton heard her say that the dishonour Wolsey had brought upon the realm would have cost any other Englishman his head. Henry replied, \"Why then I perceive...you are not the Cardinal's friend.\" Henry finally agreed to Wolsey's arrest on grounds of praemunire. Had it not been for his death from illness in 1530, Wolsey might have been executed for treason. In 1531 (two years before Henry's marriage to Anne), Catherine was banished from court and her rooms given to Anne.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 70716, 50853, 676377, 221223, 1792247, 175234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 51 ], [ 57, 75 ], [ 96, 108 ], [ 450, 470 ], [ 508, 525 ], [ 1326, 1336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Public support remained with Catherine. One evening, in the autumn of 1531, Anne was dining at a manor house on the River Thames and was almost seized by a crowd of angry women. Anne just managed to escape by boat.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 49031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died in 1532, the Boleyn family chaplain, Thomas Cranmer, was appointed, with papal approval.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 2345, 153644, 30502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 29 ], [ 30, 44 ], [ 87, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1532, Thomas Cromwell brought before Parliament a number of acts, including the Supplication against the Ordinaries and Submission of the Clergy, which recognised royal supremacy over the church, thus finalising the break with Rome. Following these acts, Thomas More resigned as Chancellor, leaving Cromwell as Henry's chief minister.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 48701, 667412, 2802469, 2796997, 367969, 30479, 226197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 40, 50 ], [ 83, 118 ], [ 123, 147 ], [ 166, 181 ], [ 258, 269 ], [ 282, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even before her marriage, Anne Boleyn was able to grant petitions, receive diplomats and give patronage, and had an influence over Henry to plead the cause of foreign diplomats.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During this period, Anne played an important role in England's international position by solidifying an alliance with France. She established an excellent rapport with the French ambassador, Gilles de la Pommeraie. Anne and Henry attended a meeting with the French king at Calais in winter 1532, at which Henry hoped to enlist the support of Francis I of France for his intended marriage. On 1 September 1532, Henry granted her the Marquessate of Pembroke, an appropriate peerage for a future queen; as such she became a rich and important woman: the three dukes and two marquesses who existed in 1532 were Henry's brother-in-law, Henry's illegitimate son and other descendants of royalty; she ranked above all other peeresses. The Pembroke lands and the title of Earl of Pembroke had been held by Henry's great-uncle, and Henry performed the investiture himself.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 15641540, 50012, 558358, 47126688, 80984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 191, 213 ], [ 342, 361 ], [ 432, 455 ], [ 472, 479 ], [ 764, 780 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne's family also profited from the relationship. Her father, already Viscount Rochford, was created Earl of Wiltshire. Henry also came to an arrangement with Anne's Irish cousin and created him Earl of Ormond. At the magnificent banquet to celebrate her father's elevation, Anne took precedence over the Duchesses of Suffolk and Norfolk, seated in the place of honour beside the king that was usually occupied by the queen. Thanks to Anne's intervention, her widowed sister Mary received an annual pension of £100, and Mary's son, Henry Carey, was educated at a prestigious Cistercian monastery.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 503327, 570946, 890273, 50409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 119 ], [ 196, 210 ], [ 533, 544 ], [ 576, 586 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The conference at Calais was something of a political triumph, but even though the French government gave implicit support for Henry's remarriage and Francis I had a private conference with Anne, the French king maintained alliances with the Pope that he could not explicitly defy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Soon after returning to Dover, Henry and Anne married in a secret ceremony on 14 November 1532. She soon became pregnant and, to legalise the first wedding considered to be unlawful at the time, there was a second wedding service, also private in accordance with The Royal Book, in London on 25 January 1533. Events now began to move at a quick pace. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer (who had been hastened, with the Pope's assent, into the position of Archbishop of Canterbury recently vacated by the death of Warham) sat in judgement at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of Henry's marriage to Catherine. He declared it null and void. Five days later, on 28 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne good and valid.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533", "target_page_ids": [ 40419, 153644, 11500128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 29 ], [ 502, 508 ], [ 558, 574 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Catherine was formally stripped of her title as queen and Anne was consequently crowned queen consort on 1 June 1533 in a magnificent ceremony at Westminster Abbey with a banquet afterwards. She was the last queen consort of England to be crowned separately from her husband. Unlike any other queen consort, Anne was crowned with St Edward's Crown, which had previously been used to crown only monarchs. Historian Alice Hunt suggests that this was done because Anne's pregnancy was visible by then and the child was presumed to be male. On the previous day, Anne had taken part in an elaborate procession through the streets of London seated in a litter of \"white cloth of gold\" that rested on two palfreys clothed to the ground in white damask, while the barons of the Cinque Ports held a canopy of cloth of gold over her head. In accordance with tradition she wore white, and on her head a gold coronet beneath which her long dark hair hung down freely. The public's response to her appearance was lukewarm.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Queen of England: 1533–1536", "target_page_ids": [ 70991206, 14909875, 43245, 401198, 13462164, 3124562, 1118823, 235279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 87 ], [ 88, 101 ], [ 146, 163 ], [ 330, 347 ], [ 584, 604 ], [ 647, 653 ], [ 698, 705 ], [ 770, 782 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meanwhile, the House of Commons had forbidden all appeals to Rome and exacted the penalties of praemunire against all who introduced papal bulls into England. It was only then that Pope Clement at last took the step of announcing a provisional excommunication of Henry and Cranmer. He condemned the marriage to Anne, and in March 1534 declared the marriage to Catherine legal and again ordered Henry to return to her. Henry now required his subjects to swear an oath attached to the First Succession Act, which effectively rejected papal authority in legal matters and recognised Anne Boleyn as queen. Those who refused, such as Sir Thomas More, who had resigned as Lord Chancellor, and John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, were placed in the Tower of London. In late 1534 parliament declared Henry \"the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England\". The Church in England was now under Henry's control, not Rome's. On 14 May 1534, in one of the realm's first official acts protecting Protestant Reformers, Anne wrote a letter to Thomas Cromwell seeking his aid in ensuring that English merchant Richard Herman be reinstated a member of the merchant adventurers in Antwerp and no longer persecuted simply because he had helped in \"setting forth of the New testament in English.\" Before and after her coronation, Anne protected and promoted evangelicals and those wishing to study the scriptures of William Tyndale. She had a decisive role in influencing the Protestant reformer Matthew Parker to attend court as her chaplain, and before her death entrusted her daughter to Parker's care.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Queen of England: 1533–1536", "target_page_ids": [ 24913928, 175234, 10338, 2697989, 275246, 30479, 226197, 70441, 31165, 1929054, 48701, 7106056, 32149462, 25814008, 37669, 153638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 31 ], [ 95, 105 ], [ 244, 259 ], [ 462, 466 ], [ 483, 503 ], [ 629, 644 ], [ 666, 681 ], [ 687, 698 ], [ 740, 755 ], [ 989, 1009 ], [ 1034, 1049 ], [ 1145, 1165 ], [ 1169, 1176 ], [ 1344, 1356 ], [ 1402, 1417 ], [ 1482, 1496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After her coronation, Anne settled into a quiet routine at the king's favourite residence, Greenwich Palace, to prepare for the birth of her baby. The child was born slightly prematurely on 7 September 1533 between three and four in the afternoon. Anne gave birth to a girl, who was christened Elizabeth, probably in honour of either or both Anne's mother Elizabeth Howard and Henry's mother, Elizabeth of York. But the birth of a girl was a heavy blow to her parents, who had confidently expected a boy. All but one of the royal physicians and astrologers had predicted a son and the French king had been asked to stand as his godfather. Now the prepared letters announcing the birth of a prince had an s hastily added to them to read princes[s] and the traditional jousting tournament for the birth of an heir was cancelled.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Queen of England: 1533–1536", "target_page_ids": [ 340025, 10128, 585409, 47907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 107 ], [ 294, 303 ], [ 356, 372 ], [ 393, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The infant princess was given a splendid christening, but Anne feared that Catherine's daughter, Mary, now stripped of her title of princess and labelled a bastard, posed a threat to Elizabeth's position. Henry soothed his wife's fears by separating Mary from her many servants and sending her to Hatfield House, where Elizabeth would live with her own sizeable staff of servants and the country air was thought better for the baby's health. Anne frequently visited her daughter at Hatfield and other residences.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Queen of England: 1533–1536", "target_page_ids": [ 20713, 2095556, 73224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 101 ], [ 156, 163 ], [ 297, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The new queen had a larger staff of servants than Catherine. There were more than 250 servants to tend to her personal needs, from priests to stable-boys, and more than 60 maids-of-honour who served her and accompanied her to social events. She also employed several priests who acted as her confessors, chaplains and religious advisers. One of these was Matthew Parker, who became one of the chief architects of Anglican thought during the reign of Anne's daughter, Elizabeth I.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Queen of England: 1533–1536", "target_page_ids": [ 217474, 153638, 1214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 292, 302 ], [ 355, 369 ], [ 413, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The king and his new queen enjoyed a reasonably happy accord with periods of calm and affection. Anne's sharp intelligence, political acumen and forward manners, although desirable in a mistress, were, at the time, unacceptable in a wife. She was once reported to have spoken to her uncle in words that \"shouldn't be used to a dog\". After a stillbirth or miscarriage as early as Christmas 1534, Henry was discussing with Cranmer and Cromwell the possibility of divorcing her without having to return to Catherine. Nothing came of the matter as the royal couple reconciled and spent summer 1535 on progress. By October, she was again pregnant.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Queen of England: 1533–1536", "target_page_ids": [ 226748, 6237, 13462164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 341, 351 ], [ 379, 388 ], [ 597, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne presided over a court. She spent lavish amounts of money on gowns, jewels, head-dresses, ostrich-feather fans, riding equipment, furniture and upholstery, maintaining the ostentatious display required by her status. Numerous palaces were renovated to suit her and Henry's extravagant tastes. Her motto was \"The most happy\", and she chose a white falcon as her personal device.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Queen of England: 1533–1536", "target_page_ids": [ 1587447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 365, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne was blamed for Henry's tyranny and called by some of her subjects \"the king's whore\" or a \"naughty paike [prostitute]\". Public opinion turned further against her after her failure to produce a son. It sank even lower after the executions of her enemies More and Fisher.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Queen of England: 1533–1536", "target_page_ids": [ 30479, 70441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 258, 262 ], [ 267, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 8 January 1536, news of Catherine of Aragon's death reached the king and Anne, who were overjoyed. The following day, Henry and Anne wore yellow, a symbol of joy and celebration in England but of mourning in Spain, from head to toe, and celebrated Catherine's death with festivities. With Catherine dead, Anne attempted to make peace with Mary. Mary rebuffed Anne's overtures, perhaps because of rumours circulating that Catherine had been poisoned by Anne or Henry. These began after the discovery during her embalming that Catherine's heart was blackened. Modern medical experts are in agreement that this was not the result of poisoning, but of cancer of the heart, an extremely rare condition which was not understood at the time.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [ 213976, 7885695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 513, 522 ], [ 651, 670 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Queen Anne, pregnant again, was aware of the dangers if she failed to give birth to a son. With Catherine dead, Henry would be free to marry without any taint of illegality. At this time, Henry began paying court to one of Anne's maids-of-honour, Jane Seymour, and allegedly gave her a locket containing a portrait miniature of himself. While wearing this locket in the presence of Anne, Jane began opening and closing it. Anne responded by ripping the locket off Jane's neck with such force that her fingers bled.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [ 46383, 928317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 247, 259 ], [ 306, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later that month, the king was unhorsed in a tournament and knocked unconscious for two hours, a worrying incident that Anne believed led to her miscarriage five days later. Another possible cause of the miscarriage was an incident in which, upon entering a room, Anne saw Jane Seymour sitting on Henry's lap and flew into a rage. Whatever the cause, on the day that Catherine of Aragon was buried at Peterborough Abbey, Anne miscarried a baby which, according to the imperial ambassador Eustace Chapuys, she had borne for about three and a half months, and which \"seemed to be a male child\". Chapuys commented \"She has miscarried of her saviour.\" In Chapuys' opinion, this loss was the beginning of the end of the royal marriage.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [ 98640, 1802953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 401, 419 ], [ 488, 503 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Given Henry's desperate desire for a son, the sequence of Anne's pregnancies has attracted much interest. Mike Ashley speculated that Anne had two stillborn children after Elizabeth's birth and before the male child she miscarried in 1536. Most sources attest only to the birth of Elizabeth in September 1533, a possible miscarriage in the summer of 1534, and the miscarriage of a male child, of almost four months' gestation, in January 1536. As Anne recovered from her miscarriage, Henry declared that he had been seduced into the marriage by means of \"sortilege\" – a French term indicating either \"deception\" or \"spells\". His new mistress, Jane Seymour, was quickly moved into royal quarters. This was followed by Anne's brother George being refused a prestigious court honour, the Order of the Garter, given instead to Sir Nicholas Carew.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [ 247961, 73259, 11262687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 732, 738 ], [ 785, 804 ], [ 823, 841 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne's biographer Eric Ives believe that her fall and execution were primarily engineered by her former ally Thomas Cromwell. The conversations between Chapuys and Cromwell thereafter indicate Cromwell as the instigator of the plot to remove Anne; evidence of this is seen in the Spanish Chronicle and through letters written from Chapuys to Charles V. Anne argued with Cromwell over the redistribution of Church revenues and over foreign policy. She advocated that revenues be distributed to charitable and educational institutions; and she favoured a French alliance. Cromwell insisted on filling the king's depleted coffers, while taking a cut for himself, and preferred an imperial alliance. For these reasons, Ives suggests, \"Anne Boleyn had become a major threat to Thomas Cromwell.\" Cromwell's biographer John Schofield, on the other hand, contends that no power struggle existed between Anne and Cromwell and that \"not a trace can be found of a Cromwellian conspiracy against Anne... Cromwell became involved in the royal marital drama only when Henry ordered him onto the case.\" Cromwell did not manufacture the accusations of adultery, though he and other officials used them to bolster Henry's case against Anne. Warnicke questions whether Cromwell could have or wished to manipulate the king in such a matter. Such a bold attempt by Cromwell, given the limited evidence, could have risked his office, even his life. Henry himself issued the crucial instructions: his officials, including Cromwell, carried them out. The result was by modern standards a legal travesty; however, the rules of the time were not bent in order to assure a conviction; there was no need to tamper with rules that guaranteed the desired result since law at the time was an engine of state, not a mechanism for justice.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [ 32047852, 697588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 280, 297 ], [ 812, 826 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Towards the end of April a Flemish musician in Anne's service named Mark Smeaton was arrested. He initially denied being the queen's lover but later confessed, perhaps after being tortured or promised freedom. Another courtier, Sir Henry Norris, was arrested on May Day, but being an aristocrat, could not be tortured. Prior to his arrest, Norris was treated kindly by the king, who offered him his own horse to use on the May Day festivities. It seems likely that during the festivities, the king was notified of Smeaton's confession and it was shortly thereafter the alleged conspirators were arrested upon his orders. Norris denied his guilt and swore that Queen Anne was innocent; one of the most damaging pieces of evidence against Norris was an overheard conversation with Anne at the end of April, where she accused him of coming often to her chambers not to pay court to her lady-in-waiting Madge Shelton but to herself. Sir Francis Weston was arrested two days later on the same charge, as was Sir William Brereton, a groom of the king's Privy Chamber. Sir Thomas Wyatt, a poet and friend of the Boleyns who was allegedly infatuated with her before her marriage to the king, was also imprisoned for the same charge but later released, most likely due to his or his family's friendship with Cromwell. Sir Richard Page was also accused of having a sexual relationship with the queen, but he was acquitted of all charges after further investigation could not implicate him with Anne. The final accused was Queen Anne's own brother, George Boleyn, arrested on charges of incest and treason. He was accused of two incidents of incest: November 1535 at Whitehall and the following month at Eltham.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [ 29125601, 790074, 47702, 3588365, 19829, 14970735, 1399276, 3606231, 5397250, 72173, 31915541, 247961, 14912, 31292, 323722, 392187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 34 ], [ 68, 80 ], [ 180, 187 ], [ 228, 244 ], [ 262, 269 ], [ 899, 912 ], [ 929, 947 ], [ 1003, 1023 ], [ 1047, 1060 ], [ 1062, 1078 ], [ 1309, 1325 ], [ 1538, 1551 ], [ 1576, 1582 ], [ 1587, 1594 ], [ 1656, 1665 ], [ 1693, 1699 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 2 May 1536, Anne was arrested and taken to the Tower of London by barge. It is likely that Anne may have entered through the Court Gate in the Byward Tower rather than the Traitors' Gate, according to historian and author of The Life and Death of Anne Boleyn, Eric Ives. In the Tower, she collapsed, demanding to know the location of her father and \"swete broder\", as well as the charges against her.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [ 8120739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In what is reputed to be her last letter to Henry, dated 6 May, she wrote:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Four of the accused men were tried in Westminster on 12 May 1536. Weston, Brereton and Norris publicly maintained their innocence and only Smeaton supported the Crown by pleading guilty. Three days later, Anne and George Boleyn were tried separately in the Tower of London, before a jury of 27 peers. She was accused of adultery, incest, and high treason. By the Treason Act of Edward III, adultery on the part of a queen was a form of treason (because of the implications for the succession to the throne) for which the penalty was hanging, drawing and quartering for a man and burning alive for a woman, but the accusations, and especially that of incestuous adultery, were also designed to impugn her moral character. The other form of treason alleged against her was that of plotting the king's death, with her \"lovers\", so that she might later marry Henry Norris. Anne's one-time betrothed, Henry Percy, 6th Earl of Northumberland, sat on the jury that unanimously found Anne guilty. When the verdict was announced, he collapsed and had to be carried from the courtroom. He died childless eight months later and was succeeded by his nephew.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [ 37432, 357357, 636327, 58809, 31292, 46377, 21304243, 97645, 429144, 1339102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 49 ], [ 157, 166 ], [ 294, 299 ], [ 320, 328 ], [ 342, 354 ], [ 378, 388 ], [ 533, 564 ], [ 579, 592 ], [ 896, 935 ], [ 1138, 1144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 17 May, Cranmer declared Anne's marriage to Henry null and void.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The accused were found guilty and condemned to death. George Boleyn and the other accused men were executed on 17 May 1536. William Kingston, the Constable of the Tower, reported Anne seemed very happy and ready to be done with life. Henry commuted Anne's sentence from burning to beheading, and rather than have a queen beheaded with the common axe, he brought an expert swordsman from Saint-Omer in France, to perform the execution. On the morning of 19 May, Kingston wrote:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [ 17650699, 2728830, 173729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 140 ], [ 146, 168 ], [ 387, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Her impending death may have caused her great sorrow for some time during her imprisonment. The poem \"O Death Rock Me Asleep\" is generally believed to have been authored by Anne and reveals that she may have hoped death would end her suffering.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [ 33480099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shortly before dawn, she called Kingston to hear mass with her, and swore in his presence, on the eternal salvation of her soul, upon the Holy Sacraments, that she had never been unfaithful to the king. She ritually repeated this oath both immediately before and after receiving the sacrament of the Eucharist.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [ 56371, 30139998, 9767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 53 ], [ 143, 152 ], [ 300, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the morning of Friday, 19 May Anne was taken to a scaffold erected on the north side of the White Tower, in front of what is now the Waterloo Barracks. She wore a red petticoat under a loose, dark grey gown of damask trimmed in fur and a mantle of ermine. Accompanied by two female attendants, Anne made her final walk from the Queen's House to the scaffold and she showed a \"devilish spirit\" and looked \"as gay as if she was not going to die\". Anne climbed the scaffold and made a short speech to the crowd:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [ 33323575, 939704, 1252036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 106 ], [ 170, 179 ], [ 213, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This version of her speech is found in Foxe's Actes and Monuments and an almost identical version in Ives (2005).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [ 298309, 33491820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 43 ], [ 46, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lancelot de Carle, a secretary to the French Ambassador, Antoine de Castelnau, was in London in May 1536, and was an eyewitness to her trial and execution. Two weeks after Anne's death, de Carole composed the 1,318-line poem Épistre Contenant le Procès Criminel Faict à l'Encontre de la Royne Anne Boullant d'Angleterre (A Letter Containing the Criminal Charges Laid Against Queen Anne Boleyn of England), which provides a moving account of her last words and their effect on the crowd:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [ 41397869, 32071272, 42338920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 57, 77 ], [ 225, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is thought that Anne avoided criticising Henry to save Elizabeth and her family from further consequences, but even under such extreme pressure Anne did not confess guilt, and indeed subtly implied her innocence, in her appeal to those who might \"meddle of my cause\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ermine mantle was removed and Anne lifted off her headdress, tucking her hair under a coif. After a brief farewell to her weeping ladies and a request for prayers, she knelt down and one of her ladies tied a blindfold over her eyes. She knelt upright, in the French style of beheadings. Her final prayer consisted of her repeating continually, \"Jesu receive my soul; O Lord God have pity on my soul.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [ 2277594, 900674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 94 ], [ 349, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The execution consisted of a single stroke. It was witnessed by Thomas Cromwell; Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk; the king's illegitimate son, Henry FitzRoy; the Lord Mayor of London, as well as aldermen, sheriffs and representatives of the various craft guilds. Most of the king's council were also present. Cranmer, who was at Lambeth Palace, was reported to have broken down in tears after telling Alexander Ales: \"She who has been the Queen of England on earth will today become a Queen in heaven.\" When the charges were first brought against Anne, Cranmer had expressed his astonishment to Henry and his belief that \"she should not be culpable\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [ 317211, 588548, 322293, 334735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 117 ], [ 148, 161 ], [ 334, 348 ], [ 406, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cranmer felt vulnerable because of his closeness to the queen; on the night before the execution, he declared Henry's marriage to Anne to have been void, like Catherine's before her. He made no serious attempt to save Anne's life, although some sources record that he had prepared her for death by hearing her last private confession of sins, in which she had stated her innocence before God. On the day of her death, a Scottish friend found Cranmer weeping uncontrollably in his London gardens, saying that he was sure that Anne had now gone to Heaven.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "She was then buried in an unmarked grave in the Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula. Her skeleton was identified during renovations of the chapel in 1876, in the reign of Queen Victoria, and Anne's grave is now identified on the marble floor.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Downfall and execution: 1536", "target_page_ids": [ 1579212, 47923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 77 ], [ 165, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nicholas Sanders, a Catholic recusant born , was committed to deposing Elizabeth I and re-establishing Catholicism in England. In his De Origine ac Progressu schismatis Anglicani (The Rise and Growth of the Anglican Schism), published in 1585, he was the first to write that Anne had six fingers on her right hand. Since physical deformities were generally interpreted as a sign of evil, it is unlikely that Anne Boleyn would have gained Henry's romantic attention had she had any. Upon exhumation in 1876, no abnormalities were discovered. Her frame was described as delicate, approximately , \"the hand and feet bones indicated delicate and well-shaped hands and feet, with tapering fingers and a narrow foot\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recognition and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 2633585, 25853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 29, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne Boleyn was described by contemporaries as intelligent and gifted in musical arts and scholarly pursuits. She was also strong-willed and proud, and often quarrelled with Henry. Biographer Eric Ives evaluates the apparent contradictions in Anne's persona:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recognition and legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "No contemporary portraits of Anne Boleyn survive. A bust of her was cast on a commemorative medallion in 1534, believed to have been struck to celebrate her second pregnancy.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recognition and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 210093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the coronation of her daughter as queen, Anne was venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly through the works of John Foxe, who argued that Anne had saved England from the evils of Roman Catholicism and that God had provided proof of her innocence and virtue by making sure her daughter Elizabeth I ascended the throne. An example of Anne's direct influence in the reformed church is what Alexander Ales described to Queen Elizabeth as the \"evangelical bishops whom your holy mother appointed from among those scholars who favoured the purer doctrine\". Over the centuries, Anne has inspired or been mentioned in numerous artistic and cultural works. As a result, she has remained in the popular memory and has been called \"the most influential and important queen consort England has ever had.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recognition and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 16393863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 664, 691 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of Anne's early exposure to court life, she had powerful influences around her for most of her life. These early influences were mostly women who were engaged with art, history and religion. Eric Ives described the women around Anne as \"aristocratic women seeking spiritual fulfillment\". They included Queen Claude, of whose court Anne was a member, and Marguerite of Angoulême, who was a well-known figure during the Renaissance and held strong religious views that she portrayed through poetry. These women along with Anne's immediate family members, such as her father, may have had a large influence on Anne's personal faith.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Faith and spirituality", "target_page_ids": [ 2258187, 1058883, 2764030, 25532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 208 ], [ 310, 322 ], [ 362, 385 ], [ 426, 437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another clue into Anne's personal faith could be found in Anne's book of hours, in which she wrote, \"le temps viendra\" [\"the time will come\"]. Alongside this inscription she drew an astrolabe, which at the time was a symbol of the Renaissance. The inscription implies that Anne was a Renaissance woman, exposed to new ideas and thoughts relating to her faith.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Faith and spirituality", "target_page_ids": [ 865104, 73664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 78 ], [ 182, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne Boleyn's last words before her beheading were a prayer for her salvation, her king, and her country. She said, \"Good Christian people! I am come hither to die, for according to the law, and by the law, I am judged to death; and therefore I will speak nothing against it. I come hither to accuse no man, nor to any thing of that whereof I am accused and condemned to die; but I pray God save the king, and send him long to reign over you, for a gentler, or a more merciful prince was there never; and to me he was ever a good, a gentle, and a sovereign lord.\" John Foxe, martyrologist, included Anne in his book, Foxe's Book of Martyrs, claiming she was a good woman who had sincere faith and trust in her God. Foxe also believed a sign of Anne's good faith was God's blessing on her daughter, Elizabeth I, and God allowing Elizabeth to prosper as queen.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Faith and spirituality", "target_page_ids": [ 298309, 33491820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 564, 573 ], [ 617, 639 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many legends and stories about Anne Boleyn have existed over the centuries. One is that she was secretly buried in Salle Church in Norfolk under a black slab near the tombs of her ancestors. Her body was said to have rested in an Essex church on its journey to Norfolk. Another is that her heart, at her request, was buried in Erwarton (Arwarton) Church, Suffolk by her uncle Sir Philip Parker.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legends", "target_page_ids": [ 3303245, 40100758, 2108813, 3149426, 27886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 127 ], [ 230, 235 ], [ 317, 323 ], [ 327, 335 ], [ 355, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 18th-century Sicily, the peasants of the village of Nicolosi believed that Anne Boleyn, for having made Henry VIII a heretic, was condemned to burn for eternity inside Mount Etna. This legend was often told for the benefit of foreign travellers.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legends", "target_page_ids": [ 27619, 6816709, 169351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 22 ], [ 55, 63 ], [ 171, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of people have claimed to have seen Anne's ghost at Hever Castle, Blickling Hall, Salle Church, the Tower of London and Marwell Hall. One account of her reputed sighting was given by paranormal researcher Hans Holzer. In 1864, Captain (later Major General) J. D. Dundas of the 60th Rifles regiment was billeted in the Tower of London. As he was looking out the window of his quarters, he noticed a guard below in the courtyard, in front of the lodgings where Anne had been imprisoned, behaving strangely. He appeared to challenge something, which to Dundas \"looked like a whitish, female figure sliding towards the soldier\". The guard charged through the form with his bayonet, then fainted. Only the captain's testimony and corroboration at the court-martial saved the guard from a lengthy prison sentence for having fainted while on duty. In 1960, Canon W. S. Pakenham-Walsh, vicar of Sulgrave, Northamptonshire, reported having conversations with Anne.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legends", "target_page_ids": [ 235157, 156861, 4195637, 17330, 1109129, 58625, 24658779, 1522645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 141 ], [ 192, 202 ], [ 214, 225 ], [ 286, 297 ], [ 311, 317 ], [ 755, 768 ], [ 865, 885 ], [ 896, 904 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bring Up the Bodies, a book by Hilary Mantel (2012)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 35719914, 5594103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 32, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anna Bolena, an opera by Gaetano Donizetti with lyrics by Felice Romani (1830)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 552269, 37934, 681652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 26, 43 ], [ 59, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anne of the Thousand Days, a 1969 drama distributed by Universal Pictures", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 45126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"With Her Head Tucked Underneath Her Arm\", a darkly humorous song about Anne's ghost", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8299128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Other Boleyn Girl, a book by Philippa Gregory later adapted into a 2008 film which has Mary's sister Anne as one of the main characters", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1062578, 202995, 6961461, 18835858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 34, 50 ], [ 72, 81 ], [ 92, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ashley, Mike British Kings & Queens (2002) ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Baumann, Uwe, ed. Henry VIII in history, historiography, and literature (Peter Lang, 1992).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bell, Doyne C. Notices of the Historic Persons Buried in the Chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula in the Tower of London (1877)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bernard, G. W. \"The fall of Anne Boleyn\", English Historical Review, 106 (1991), 584–610 in JSTOR", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Brigden, Susan New Worlds, Lost Worlds (2000)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Elton, G. R. Reform and Reformation. London: Edward Arnold, 1977. .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1128052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Davenby, C \"Objects of Patriarchy\" (2012) (Feminist Study)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dowling, Maria \"A Woman's Place? Learning and the Wives of King Henry VII.\" History Today, 38–42 (1991).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dowling, Maria Humanism in the Age of Henry the VIII (1986)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fraser, Antonia The Wives of Henry VIII New York: Knopf (1992) ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Graves, Michael Henry VIII. London, Pearson Longman, 2003 ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Haigh, Christopher English Reformations (1993)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hibbert, Christopher Tower of London: A History of England From the Norman Conquest (1971)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ives, Eric The Life and Death of Anne Boleyn (2004) ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ives, E. W. \"Anne (c.1500–1536)\", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, (2004) accessed 8 September 2011", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lacey, Robert The Life and Times of Henry VIII (1972)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lehmberg, Stanford E. The Reformation Parliament, 1529–1536 (1970)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lindsey, Karen Divorced Beheaded Survived: A Feminist Reinterpretation of the Wives of Henry VIII (1995) ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " MacCulloch, Diarmaid Thomas Cranmer New Haven: Yale University Press (1996) .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Morris, T. A. Europe and England in the Sixteenth Century (1998)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Norton, Elizabeth Anne Boleyn: Henry VIII's Obsession 2009 hardback paperback ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Parker, K. T. The Drawings of Hans Holbein at Windsor Castle Oxford: Phaidon (1945)OCLC 822974.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rowlands, John The Age of Dürer and Holbein London: British Museum (1988) ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Scarisbrick, J. J. Henry VIII (1972) ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Schama, Simon A History of Britain: At the Edge of the World?: 3000 BC–AD 1603 (2000) ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Schofield, John. The Rise & Fall of Thomas Cromwell. Stroud (UK): The History Press, 2008. .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Somerset, Anne Elizabeth I. London: Phoenix (1997) ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Starkey, David Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII (2003) ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Strong, Roy Tudor & Jacobean Portraits. London: HMSO (1969)OCLC 71370718.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 2396139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Walker, Greg. \"Rethinking the Fall of Anne Boleyn,\" Historical Journal, March 2002, Vol. 45 Issue 1, pp 1–29; blames what she said in incautious conversations with the men who were executed with her", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Warnicke, Retha M. \"The Fall of Anne Boleyn: A Reassessment,\" History, Feb 1985, Vol. 70 Issue 228, pp 1–15; stresses role of Sir Thomas Cromwell, the ultimate winner", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " in JSTOR", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Warnicke, Retha M. The Rise and Fall of Anne Boleyn: Family politics at the court of Henry VIII (1989) ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Warnicke, Retha M. \"Sexual heresy at the court of Henry VIII.\" Historical Journal 30.2 (1987): 247–268.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Weir, Allison \"The Lady in the Tower: The Fall of Anne Boleyn\" ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Williams, Neville Henry VIII and His Court (1971).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wilson, Derek Hans Holbein: Portrait of an Unknown Man London: Pimlico, Revised Edition (2006) ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wooding, Lucy Henry VIII London: Routledge, 2009 ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " To Die For: A Novel of Anne Boleyn, (2011) by Sandra Byrd, ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Politics of Marriage by David Loades (1994)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Hever Castle Guide Book", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Leanda de Lisle: Why Anne Boleyn was Beheaded with a Sword and not an Axe", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Anne Boleyn Files", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Henry VIII to Anne Boleyn : the love letters at the Internet Archive", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 176931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Queen Anne Boleyn Website", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anne Boleyn at Salle church Norfolk, UK", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Anne_Boleyn", "1500s_births", "1536_deaths", "16th-century_English_women", "Annulment", "Boleyn_family", "Burials_at_the_Church_of_St_Peter_ad_Vincula", "Converts_to_Anglicanism_from_Roman_Catholicism", "Hereditary_peeresses_created_by_Henry_VIII", "Daughters_of_British_earls", "English_Anglicans", "Executed_English_women", "Executed_royalty", "People_convicted_under_a_bill_of_attainder", "Executions_at_the_Tower_of_London", "Howard_family_(English_aristocracy)", "British_maids_of_honour", "Marquesses_in_the_Peerage_of_England", "People_executed_by_Tudor_England_by_decapitation", "People_executed_for_adultery", "People_executed_under_Henry_VIII", "People_executed_under_the_Tudors_for_treason_against_England", "People_from_Sevenoaks_District", "People_from_Blickling", "Wives_of_Henry_VIII", "Year_of_birth_uncertain", "16th-century_Anglicans", "Household_of_Catherine_of_Aragon", "Court_of_Francis_I_of_France" ]

[ "Anne Boleyn, Marquess of Pembroke", "Anne, Queen consort of England", "Queen Anne of England", "Lady Anne Boleyn", "Queen Anne Boleyn of England", "Anne Bullen", "Anne Boullan", "Anna de Boullan", "Anna Bolina" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Tequila (; ) is a distilled beverage made from the blue agave plant, primarily in the area surrounding the city of Tequila northwest of Guadalajara, and in the Jaliscan Highlands (Los Altos de Jalisco) of the central western Mexican state of Jalisco.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1318497, 745869, 1290844, 73209, 34856985, 16020434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ], [ 51, 61 ], [ 115, 122 ], [ 137, 148 ], [ 181, 201 ], [ 243, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The red volcanic soils in the region of Tequila are well suited for growing the blue agave, and more than 300 million of the plants are harvested there each year. Agave grows differently depending on the region. Blue agaves grown in the highlands Los Altos region are larger and sweeter in aroma and taste. Agaves harvested in the valley region have a more herbaceous fragrance and flavor. Due to its historical and cultural importance, the region near Tequila was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2006, the Agave Landscape and Ancient Industrial Facilities of Tequila.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 44940, 44989931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 476, 502 ], [ 516, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mexican laws state that tequila can only be produced in the state of Jalisco and limited municipalities in the states of Guanajuato, Michoacán, Nayarit, and Tamaulipas. Tequila is recognized as a Mexican designation of origin product in more than 40 countries. It was protected through NAFTA in Canada and the United States until July 2020, through bilateral agreements with individual countries such as Japan and Israel, and has been a protected designation of origin product in the European Union since 1997.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 412827, 195805, 222245, 222254, 22050, 67867254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 131 ], [ 133, 142 ], [ 144, 151 ], [ 157, 167 ], [ 286, 291 ], [ 437, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aside from its geographical distinction, tequila is differentiated from mezcal in that it is made only from blue agave and the beverages are prepared in different ways. Tequila is commonly served neat in Mexico and as a shot with salt and lime around the world. Tequila must have between 35 and 55 percent alcohol content (70 and 110 U.S. proof).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 81092, 3152306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 78 ], [ 196, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The distillation technology to produce mezcal from agave heart juice was first introduced from the coastal regions of what was then Nueva Galicia (present-day Aguascalientes, Colima, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Nayarit, and Zacatecas) into the highland valleys of Amatitán, Tequila, Magdalena, and El Arenal in the mid-1700s. The mezcal produced in these regions became distinctive enough as to become known as \"tequila\" (after the town).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 81092, 667779, 412275, 224013, 412827, 16020434, 222245, 18952846, 6490268, 1290844, 22439659, 22398582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 45 ], [ 132, 145 ], [ 159, 173 ], [ 175, 181 ], [ 183, 193 ], [ 195, 202 ], [ 204, 211 ], [ 217, 226 ], [ 257, 265 ], [ 267, 274 ], [ 276, 285 ], [ 291, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spain's King Carlos IV granted the Cuervo family the first license to commercially make tequila. Don Cenobio Sauza, founder of Sauza Tequila and Municipal President of the Village of Tequila from 1884–1885, was the first to export tequila to the United States, and shortened the name from \"Tequila Extract\" to just \"Tequila\" for the American markets. Don Cenobio's grandson Don Francisco Javier gained international attention for insisting that \"there cannot be tequila where there are no agaves!\" His efforts led to the practice that real tequila can come only from the State of Jalisco.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 149439, 3072373, 19577302, 21704856, 21663372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 22 ], [ 35, 41 ], [ 97, 114 ], [ 127, 140 ], [ 374, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first tequila distillery in the United States was opened in 1936 in Nogales, Arizona by Harry J. Karns, former Arizona state senator and Nogales Mayor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 106767, 70821262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 88 ], [ 92, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a move to take ownership of the term \"tequila\", the Mexican government declared the term its intellectual property in 1974.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although some tequilas have remained as family-owned brands, most well-known tequila brands are owned by large multinational corporations. However, over 100 distilleries make over 900 brands of tequila in Mexico and over 2,000 brand names have been registered (2009 statistics). Due to this, each bottle of tequila contains a serial number (NOM) denoting in which distillery the tequila was produced. Because only so many distilleries are used, multiple brands of tequila come from the same location.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2003, Mexico issued a proposal that would require all Mexican-made tequila be bottled in Mexico before being exported to other countries. The Mexican government said that bottling tequila in Mexico would guarantee its quality. Liquor companies in the United States said Mexico just wanted to create bottling jobs in their own country, and also claimed this rule would violate international trade agreements and was in discord with usual exporting practices worldwide. The proposal might have resulted in the loss of jobs at plants in California, Arkansas, Missouri, and Kentucky, because Mexican tequila exported in bulk to the United States is bottled in those plants. On January 17, 2006, the United States and Mexico signed an agreement allowing the continued bulk import of tequila into the United States. The agreement also created a \"tequila bottlers registry\" to identify approved bottlers of tequila and created an agency to monitor the registry.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 379, 398 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Tequila Regulatory Council of Mexico (TRCM) originally did not permit flavored tequila to carry the tequila name. In 2004, the Council decided to allow flavored tequila to be called tequila, with the exception of 100% agave tequila, which still cannot be flavored.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A new Norma Oficial Mexicana (NOM) for tequila (NOM-006-SCFI-2005) was issued in 2006, and among other changes, introduced a class of tequila called extra añejo or \"ultra-aged\" which must be aged a minimum of three years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18707315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A one-liter bottle of limited-edition premium tequila was sold for $225,000 in July 2006 in Tequila, Jalisco, by the company Tequila Ley .925. The bottle which contained the tequila was a two-kilo display of platinum and gold. The manufacturer received a certificate from The Guinness World Records for the most expensive bottle of tequila spirit ever sold.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 100796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 272, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2013, the ban on the importation of premium (100% blue agave) tequila into China was lifted following a state visit to Mexico by President Xi Jinping. The entry of premium tequila into the country is expected to increase tequila exports by 20 percent within a decade (exports totaled 170 million liters in 2013). Ramon Gonzalez, director of the Consejo Regulador del Tequila, estimates that each of the top 16 producers of tequila had invested up to $3 million to enter the Chinese market. On 30 August 2013, the first 70,380 bottles of premium tequila from ten brands arrived in Shanghai. The arrival happened during an event held at the House of Roosevelt, a well-known club located on The Bund– an area with a long tradition of importing alcoholic beverages in China.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2017814, 27643, 453167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 157 ], [ 588, 596 ], [ 696, 704 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The latest version of the tequila standard (NOM-006-SCFI-2012) also updated the standard to specify that the silver class of tequila cannot contain additives, to allow the aging time for the ultra-aged class to be displayed on the label, to prohibit the commercialization of bulk tequila through vending machines, and required registering the agave during the calendar year of its plantation and required annual updates.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, the Mexican government approved a proposal to celebrate the third Saturday of March as National Tequila Day.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Planting, tending, and harvesting the agave plant remains a manual effort, largely unchanged by modern farm machinery and relying on centuries-old know-how. The men who harvest it, the jimadores , have intimate knowledge of how the plants should be cultivated, passed down from generation to generation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By regularly trimming any quiotes (a several-meter high stalk that grows from the center of the plant), the jimadores prevent the agave from flowering and dying early, allowing it to fully ripen. The jimadores must be able to tell when each plant is ready to be harvested, and using a special knife called a coa (with a circular blade on a long pole), carefully cut away the leaves from the piña (the succulent core of the plant). If harvested too late or too early, the piñas, which can average around in the valley to in the highlands, will not have the right amount of carbohydrates for fermentation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 5932, 1088286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 575, 587 ], [ 593, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After harvesting, the piñas are transported to ovens where they are slowly baked to break down their complex fructans into simple fructoses. Then, the baked piñas are either shredded or mashed under a large stone wheel called a tahona . The pulp fiber, or bagazo , left behind is often reused as compost or animal feed, but can even be burnt as fuel or processed into paper. Some producers like to add a small amount of bagazo back into their fermentation tanks for a stronger agave flavor in the final product.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 3984464, 50337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 117 ], [ 131, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The extracted agave juice is then poured into either large wooden or stainless steel vats for several days to ferment, resulting in a wort, or mosto , with low alcohol content. This wort is then distilled once to produce what is called ordinario , and then a second time to produce clear \"silver\" tequila. Using at least two distillations is required by law. A few producers such as Casa Noble (for their \"Crystal\" expression) and Corzo (for their añejo expression) have experimented with distilling the product a third time, but this has not caught on as a trend, and some have said it removes too much of the agave flavor from the tequila. From there, the tequila is either bottled as silver tequila, or it is pumped into wooden barrels to age, where it develops a mellower flavor and amber color.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 8283154, 6019500, 21408890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 138 ], [ 383, 393 ], [ 431, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The differences in taste between tequila made from valley and highland agave plants can be noticeable. Plants grown in the highlands often yield sweeter and fruitier-tasting tequila, while valley agaves give the tequila an earthier flavor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike other tequila production steps, fermentation is one of the few steps out of the control of human beings. Fermentation is the conversion of sugars and carbohydrates to alcohol through yeast in anaerobic conditions, meaning that oxygen is not present during the process. Fermentation is also carried out in a non-aseptic environment which increases the bacterial activity of tequila. The participation of microorganisms from the environment (yeasts and bacteria) makes fermentation a spontaneous process which gives rise to many byproducts that contribute to the flavor and aroma of tequila.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Fermentation", "target_page_ids": [ 6073980, 34385, 20377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 51 ], [ 190, 195 ], [ 410, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the fermentation process, inoculum is added to the batch to speed the rate of fermentation. When inoculum is added, fermentation can take approximately 20 hours to 3 days. If inoculum is not added, fermentation could take up to 7 days. The rate of fermentation is a key factor in the quality and flavor of tequila produced. Worts fermented slowly are best because the amount of organoleptic compounds produced is greater. The alcohol content at the end of fermentation lies between 4-9%.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Fermentation", "target_page_ids": [ 11666975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Organoleptic compounds enhance flavor and aroma. These include fusel oil, methanol, aldehydes, organic acids and esters. Production of isoamyl and isobutyl alcohols begins after the sugar level is lowered substantially and continues for several hours after the alcoholic fermentation ends. In contrast, ethanol production begins in the first hours of the fermentation and ends with logarithmic yeast growth. The alcohol content in tequila is affected by three factors: the amount of isoamyl alcohol and isobutanol in the yeast strain, the nitrogen ratio (the higher the ratio, the more alcohol produced), and the temperature of fermentation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Fermentation", "target_page_ids": [ 23618260, 666105, 19712, 37329, 66286, 9675, 4164696, 2849399, 7204913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 63, 72 ], [ 74, 82 ], [ 84, 92 ], [ 95, 107 ], [ 113, 118 ], [ 135, 142 ], [ 147, 155 ], [ 539, 553 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The higher the temperature, the greater concentration of isobutyl and isoamyl alcohols produced. Although if temperatures are too high, this can cause the yeast to become less effective. Similarly, if the temperature is too low, the process occurs too slowly. This can become a large issue in Central Mexico, most precisely the city of Tequila, Jalisco, where most tequila is processed. The average annual temperature in the city of Tequila can reach 31°C. For this reason, tequila producers often use large stainless steel tanks for fermentation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Fermentation", "target_page_ids": [ 1290844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 433, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The specific yeasts and the environments in which they act determine the resultant organoleptic combinations. The role of yeast is, through many enzymatic processes, to turn sugars and carbohydrates into alcohol. There are two steps, first in aerobic conditions, yeast is doubled in colony size every four hours. This process goes on for 24–48 hours. Next, yeast turns acetaldehyde into ethyl alcohol which is known as one of the organoleptic compounds produced in fermentation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Fermentation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The two main categories of yeast used in tequila are commercial brewers yeast and yeast that comes from precultivated existing yeast that has been preserved. The use of either type of yeast can result in different end products of tequila.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Fermentation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tequila is a distilled beverage that is made from the fermentation of the sugars found from the blue agave plant once it has been cooked, the main sugar being fructose. Through the fermentation process, many factors influence the higher alcohol content of tequila, which are molecules such as isobutyl alcohol and isoamyl alcohol, and ethanol. These parameters include the type of yeast strain, the age of the agave plant itself, temperature, and the carbon:nitrogen ratio.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Chemistry", "target_page_ids": [ 2849399, 4164696, 10048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 293, 309 ], [ 314, 329 ], [ 335, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, the type of yeast strain used and the carbon:nitrogen factors have the biggest influence on the production of higher alcohols; this is not surprising as higher alcohol and ethanol production is an intrinsic property of the metabolism of each strain. The type of yeast most commonly found in tequila is Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which contains many strains. For example, CF1 agaves, a type of yeast, produces much more ethanol than a strain of CF2, as the two yeasts' metabolism mechanisms differ. This factor may be influenced from different agricultural practices that occur to cultivate the different yeasts strains. It was found that the higher the carbon:nitrogen ratio, the higher the production of higher alcohols such as isobutyl alcohol and isoamyl alcohol. A high ratio imparts that there is less nitrogen in the fermentation process, which results in deamination reactions of amino acids, leading to the synthesis of higher alcohols. The Ehrlich pathway is the name for this process, where alpha-keto acids are decarboxylated and transformed to aldehydes and to higher alcohols.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Chemistry", "target_page_ids": [ 237704, 1207, 32452647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 311, 335 ], [ 895, 905 ], [ 957, 972 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The temperature of the fermentation process also greatly affects the alcohol content of the resulting product. For example, a study conducted by Pinal et al. found that cultivating two strains at a temperature of 35 degrees as compared to a temperature of 30 degrees produced more isoamyl alcohol. The higher temperature suggests that this is a much more optimal condition for the yeast to ferment the distilled beverage.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Chemistry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lastly the age of the agave plant itself: the older the plant, the greater the alcohol production. It was shown in a study that the concentration of amyl alcohol increased as the plant aged by a factor 30%. However, a higher concentration of methanol is found when using younger plants. This may be due to differences in agricultural practices that occur when taking care of plants of different ages.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Chemistry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tequila comes in an abundant array of colors that ranges from a simple clear distilled beverage to a dark amber brown. The color of the tequila varies greatly depending on the aging process and the type of wood used for storage. The white version of tequila, known as silver tequila or blanco, is the product obtained without a (or with very short) aging process. As well, the spirit must contain 38–55% alcohol content, which is fermented from a wort that contains no less than 51% sugars from the agave plant. Silver/Blanco tequila provides the purest form as little aging has occurred. What is known as gold, joven or oro tequila is usually silver/blanco tequila with the addition of grain alcohols and caramel color; however, some higher-end gold tequilas may be a blend of silver/blanco and reposado. Rested (reposado) or aged tequila (añejo) is aged in wooden containers. The aging process can last between two months and three years and can create or enhance flavors and aromas. The aging process generally imparts a golden color.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Chemistry", "target_page_ids": [ 8283154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 447, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are more than 300 known compounds in tequila, many of which are produced during the fermentation process, the raw material used, and to a lesser degree during the maturation. The components that make up tequila do not act individually to give tequila its distinctive flavor and aroma, but rather, depend on the interaction and quantity of each volatile compound. The volatile compounds responsible for the flavor and aroma profiles of the tequila are put into a category called organoleptic compounds and are known to increase in concentration with a slower fermentation process. The organoleptic compounds produced during fermentation include higher order alcohols, methanol, esters, carbonyls, terpenes, and furans.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Chemistry", "target_page_ids": [ 23618260, 19712, 9675, 158788, 214242, 546505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 485, 497 ], [ 674, 682 ], [ 684, 689 ], [ 692, 700 ], [ 703, 710 ], [ 717, 722 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Higher-order alcohols have a strong aroma, and the quantity present in each tequila depends on the carbon:nitrogen ratio and temperature during the cooking and fermentation processes. Some of the most common alcohols present other than ethanol are: isoamyl alcohol, isobutanol, and 1-propanol. Methanol is thought to be mainly generated through hydrolysis of methylated pectin which is naturally present in the agave plant, but there has been speculation that it is also partly produced from the enzymatic reactions of yeast strains containing pectin methyl esterase enzyme, which break up the methoxyl group from the pectin. Nearly 50 different esters are identified in tequila, which together give rise to the fruit-like flavors and smell. One of the most abundant esters is ethyl acetate which is synthesized during fermentation by the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, using alcohol transferase enzyme which links acetic acid to ethanol.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Chemistry", "target_page_ids": [ 10048, 4164696, 2849399, 3205366, 159750, 1303134, 237704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 236, 243 ], [ 249, 264 ], [ 266, 276 ], [ 282, 292 ], [ 371, 377 ], [ 780, 793 ], [ 848, 872 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In general, the longer the controlled fermentation period, the higher yield of esters produced. During the fermentation process, ethanol is oxidized and one of the main compounds produced are acetaldehydes, which adds the flavor necessary for the final product of tequila. For example, isovalderaldehyde seems to produce a sweet, cocoa, and chocolate-like flavor. 2 and 3-methylbutanal produce a malty flavor. The agave plant contains many phenolics such as vanillin and syringaldehydes which presents a strong and fruity or herbal aroma. It also contains eugenol which can deliver a hint of spicy flavor to the tequila. Since the production of tequila involves heating, Maillard browning reactions occur, and furans are produced during the thermal degradation of sugar. The most prominent furanic compounds include 2-furaldehyde and 5-methylfuraldehyde, which can contribute to the smoky flavor of tequila. Guaiacol also seems to contribute to Tequila's smoky flavor. Beta-demascenone contributes to the woody, floral taste of tequila.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Chemistry", "target_page_ids": [ 89195, 228190, 10573521, 1362656, 274675, 546505, 490020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 204 ], [ 459, 467 ], [ 472, 486 ], [ 557, 564 ], [ 672, 689 ], [ 711, 716 ], [ 817, 830 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Volatile compounds that contribute to the overall taste and aroma of tequila can be quantitatively assessed and evaluated by gas chromatography. Discrimination tests such as duo-trio and triangle tests are also used to evaluate the quality of the tequila.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Chemistry", "target_page_ids": [ 596706, 6185334, 6185334, 6185334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 143 ], [ 145, 165 ], [ 174, 182 ], [ 187, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If silver or white (Blanco) tequila is the desired final product, distillation is the final process it undergoes. Rested (Reposado) or aged (Añejo) tequila must be matured in 200-liter (or larger) white oak barrels for at least two months for the former and 12 months for the latter. There are, however, more than 50 different companies producing tequila in the Mexican province of Jalisco, with different maturation times according to the variety of tequila and desired quality of the final product.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Aging", "target_page_ids": [ 16020434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 382, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All companies producing tequila have their aging processes regulated and fiscalized by the Mexican government.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Aging", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The maturation process causes four main chemical transformations to the tequila compounds: (1) decreasing of fusel oils by the char in barrels, which acts as an absorbing agent; (2) extraction of complex wood constituents by tequila, giving specific aroma and flavor to the final product; (3) reactions among the components of tequila, creating new chemical compounds; and (4) oxidation of the original contents of tequila and of those extracted from wood. The final results of these changes are increased concentrations of acids, esters and aldehydes, and a decrease in fusel oil concentration.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Aging", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Reposado may be rested in oak barrels or casks as large as 20,000 liters (5,280 gallons), allowing for richer and more complex flavors. The preferred oak comes from the US, France, or Canada, and is usually white oak. Some companies char the wood to impart a smoky flavor or use barrels previously used with different kinds of alcohol (e.g. whiskey or wine). Some reposados can also be aged in new wood barrels to achieve the same woody flavor and smoothness, but in less time.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Aging", "target_page_ids": [ 39696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Añejos are often rested in barrels previously used to rest reposados. The barrels cannot be more than 600 liters (158 gallons), and most are in the 200-liter (52-gallon) range. Many of the barrels used are from whiskey distilleries in the US or Canada, and Jack Daniels barrels are especially popular. This treatment creates many of the aspects of the dark color and more complex flavors of the añejo tequila. After aging of at least one year, the añejo can be removed from the wood barrels and placed in stainless steel tanks to reduce the amount of evaporation that can occur in the barrels.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Aging", "target_page_ids": [ 27059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 505, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "TMA (tristeza y muerte de agave — \"agave depression and death\") is a blight that has reduced the production of the agave grown to produce tequila. This has resulted in lower production and higher prices throughout the early 21st century, and due to the long maturation of the plant, will likely continue to affect prices for years to come.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Aging", "target_page_ids": [ 233043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Only certain mezcals, usually from the state of Oaxaca, are ever sold con gusano (with worm). They are added as a marketing gimmick and are not traditional. The tequila regulatory council does not allow gusanos or scorpions (which are sometimes also added to mezcals) to be included in tequila bottles. The worm in some mezcals is actually the larval form of the moth Hypopta agavis, which lives on the agave plant. Finding one in the plant during processing indicates an infestation and, correspondingly, a lower-quality product. However, the misconception that tequilas may contain worms continues, despite effort and marketing to represent tequila as a premium liquor.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Aging", "target_page_ids": [ 81092, 156896, 42891713, 18952853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 19 ], [ 48, 54 ], [ 368, 382 ], [ 403, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Norma Oficial Mexicana (NOM) applies to all processes and activities related to the supply of agave, production, bottling, marketing, information, and business practices linked to the distilled alcoholic beverage known as tequila. Tequila must be produced using agave of the species Tequilana Weber Blue variety, grown in the federal states and municipalities indicated in the Declaration.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Aging", "target_page_ids": [ 18707315, 1318497, 745869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 188, 216 ], [ 287, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Furthermore, the NOM establishes the technical specifications and legal requirements for the protection of the Appellation of Origin of \"Tequila\" in accordance with the current General Declaration of Protection of the Appellation of Origin of \"Tequila\", the Law, the Industrial Property Law, the Federal Consumer Protection Law and other related legal provisions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Aging", "target_page_ids": [ 1532029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All authentic, regulated tequilas will have a NOM identifier on the bottle. The important laws since 1990 were NOM-006-SCFI-1993, the later updates NOM-006-SCFI-1994 and NOM-006-SCFI-2005 and the most recent revision published on December 13, 2012, NOM-006-SCFI-2012.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Aging", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The number after NOM is the distillery number, assigned by the government. NOM does not indicate the location of the distillery, merely the parent company or, in the case where a company leases space in a plant, the physical plant where the tequila was manufactured.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Aging", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike wine, whose character may change in taste over time and storage conditions, tequila does not change much once bottled, even without ideal storage conditions, much like most other distilled spirits such as whiskey, rum, or vodka. The quality characteristics (flavor, aroma, color, etc.) of a tequila are primarily determined during its aging in wood barrels. To maintain the utmost quality though, some conditions should be met: a constant and moderate temperature (60 to 65°F), protection from direct sunlight, and maintenance of the integrity of the seal of the bottle. Improper storage conditions will have more effect on the taste of aged tequila rather than the un-aged version, due to tannins and other compounds introduced into the spirit from the aging barrel. For instance, if stored in improper conditions, the dark and more complex flavors of the añejo tequila are more likely to be tainted than the blanco or the silver tequila.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Storage condition", "target_page_ids": [ 32961, 33153, 14834691, 32787, 640764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 11 ], [ 212, 219 ], [ 221, 224 ], [ 229, 234 ], [ 761, 773 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once the bottle is opened, the tequila will be subject to oxidation which will continue to happen even if no more oxygen is introduced. In addition, if the bottle has more room for air, the process of oxidation occurs faster on the liquor remaining inside the bottle. Therefore, it may be the best to consume the tequila within one or two years after opening. For the most part, the change in quality of tequila is due to extreme conditions of improper storage, not due to oxidation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Storage condition", "target_page_ids": [ 66313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The two basic categories of tequila are mixtos and 100% agave. Mixtos use no less than 51% agave, with other sugars making up the remainder. Mixtos use both glucose and fructose sugars.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 50337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are also four categories for tequila, depending on the aging period:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Blanco (\"white\") or plata (\"silver\"): white spirit, unaged and bottled or stored immediately after distillation, or aged less than two months in stainless steel or neutral oak barrels", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Reposado (\"rested\"): aged a minimum of two months, but less than a year in oak barrels of any size", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Añejo (\"aged\" or \"vintage\"): aged a minimum of one year, but less than three years in small oak barrels", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Extra Añejo (\"extra aged\" or \"ultra aged\"): aged a minimum of three years in oak barrels; this category was established in March 2006.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With 100% agave tequila, blanco or plata is harsher with the bold flavors of the distilled agave up front, while reposado and añejo are smoother, subtler, and less complex. As with other spirits aged in casks, tequila takes on the flavors of the wood, while the harshness of the alcohol mellows. The major flavor distinction with 100% agave tequila is the base ingredient, which is more vegetal than grain spirits (and often more complex).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Consejo Regulador del Tequila (Tequila Regulatory Council) reported 1377 registered brands from 150 producers for the year 2013.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Brands", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Mexico, the most traditional way to drink tequila is neat, without lime and salt. It is popular in some regions to drink fine tequila with a side of sangrita—a sweet, sour, and spicy drink typically made from orange juice, grenadine (or tomato juice), and hot chilli. Equal-sized shots of tequila and sangrita are sipped alternately, without salt or lime. Another popular drink in Mexico is the bandera (flag, in Spanish), named after the Flag of Mexico, it consists of three shot glasses, filled with lime juice (for the green), white tequila, and sangrita (for the red).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Serving", "target_page_ids": [ 1629152, 72387, 18955303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 160 ], [ 226, 235 ], [ 442, 456 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Outside Mexico, a single shot of tequila is often served with salt and a slice of lime or lemon. This is called tequila cruda and is sometimes referred to as \"training wheels\", \"lick-sip-suck\", or \"lick-shoot-suck\" (referring to the way in which the combination of ingredients is imbibed). The drinkers moisten the back of their hands below the index finger (usually by licking) and pour on the salt. Then the salt is licked off the hand, the tequila is drunk, and the fruit slice is quickly bitten. Groups of drinkers often do this simultaneously. Drinking tequila in this way is often erroneously called a Tequila Slammer, which is in fact a mix of tequila and carbonated drink. Though the traditional Mexican shot is tequila by itself, lime is the fruit of choice when a chaser must be used. The salt is believed to lessen the \"burn\" of the tequila and the sour fruit balances and enhances the flavor. In Germany and some other countries, tequila oro (gold) is often consumed with cinnamon on a slice of orange after, while tequila blanco (white) is consumed with salt and lime.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Serving", "target_page_ids": [ 485338, 560999, 53469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 29 ], [ 608, 623 ], [ 984, 992 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the bottle of tequila does not state on the label that it is manufactured from 100% blue agave (no sugars added), then, by default, that tequila is a mixto (manufactured from at least 51% blue agave). Some tequila distilleries label their tequila as \"made with blue agave\" or \"made from blue agave\". However, the Tequila Regulatory Council has stated only tequilas distilled with 100% agave can be designated as \"100% agave\".", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Serving", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some distillers of lower-quality tequila have marketed their product to be served \"ice-cold chilled\" when used as a shot. Chilling any alcohol can be used to reduce the smell or flavors associated with a lower-quality product. Any alcoholic product, when served as a chilled shot, may be more palatable to the consumer.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Serving", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many of the higher-quality, 100% agave tequilas do not impart significant alcohol burn, and drinking them with salt and lime is likely to remove much of the flavor. These tequilas are usually sipped from a snifter glass rather than a shot glass, and savoured instead of quickly gulped. Doing so allows the taster to detect subtler fragrances and flavors that would otherwise be missed.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Serving", "target_page_ids": [ 1417521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When served neat (without any additional ingredients), tequila is most often served in a narrow shot glass called a caballito (little horse, in Spanish), but can often be found in anything from a snifter to a tumbler.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Serving", "target_page_ids": [ 3152306, 1417521, 1254375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 16 ], [ 196, 203 ], [ 209, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Consejo Regulador del Tequila approved an \"official tequila glass\" in 2002 called the Ouverture Tequila glass, made by Riedel.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Serving", "target_page_ids": [ 2605740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The margarita glass, frequently rimmed with salt or sugar, is a staple for the entire genre of tequila-based mixed drinks, including the margarita.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Serving", "target_page_ids": [ 169900, 169900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 137, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A variety of cocktails are made with tequila, including the margarita, a cocktail that helped make tequila popular in the United States. The traditional margarita uses tequila, Cointreau, and lime juice, though many variations exist. A popular cocktail in Mexico is the Paloma. Also, a number of martini variants involve tequila, and a large number of tequila drinks are made by adding fruit juice. These include the Tequila Sunrise and the Matador. Sodas and other carbonated drinks are a common mixer, as in the Tequila Slammer. Other popular cocktails are the Acapulco cocktail, Bloody Aztec Chimayó Cocktail, Mexican martini, Mojito Blanco and Vampiro.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Serving", "target_page_ids": [ 169900, 839653, 25406251, 327059, 2733460, 18762882, 560999, 9568949, 15978737, 31467838, 20883, 54881775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 69 ], [ 177, 186 ], [ 270, 276 ], [ 296, 303 ], [ 417, 432 ], [ 441, 448 ], [ 514, 529 ], [ 582, 594 ], [ 595, 611 ], [ 613, 628 ], [ 630, 643 ], [ 648, 655 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under Canadian regulations (C.R.C., c.870, section B.02.90), any product labelled, advertised, or sold as Tequila must be manufactured in Mexico, as it would be for consumption in Mexico. However, once imported to Canada for sale, it is legal for Tequila to be diluted with bottled or purified water to adjust it to the desired strength and then sold.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Regulation outside of Mexico", "target_page_ids": [ 1268562, 409309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 285, 299 ], [ 320, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similar to the law of Canada, the U.S. law (27 CFR 5.22 (g)) says that tequila must be \"manufactured in Mexico in compliance with the laws of Mexico regulating the manufacture of Tequila for consumption in that country.\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Regulation outside of Mexico", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Beer in Mexico", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1748877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Excellia – a tequila range made from agave Tequilana Weber Blue", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60220774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mexican cuisine", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mexican wine", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17944739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mezcal", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 81092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Museum of Tequila", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 68311472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bacanora", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2529708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Raicilla", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16100448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pulque", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18952265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kahlúa", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " National Chamber for the Tequila Industry", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Consejo Regulador del Tequila A.C.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Tequila", "Mexican_Designation_of_Origin", "Mexican_alcoholic_drinks", "Mexican_distilled_drinks" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In mathematics, open sets are a generalization of open intervals in the real line.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18831, 12746, 49172, 287188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 32, 46 ], [ 51, 64 ], [ 73, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a metric space (a set along with a distance defined between any two points), open sets are the sets that, with every point , contain all points that are sufficiently near to (that is, all points whose distance to is less than some value depending on ).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20018, 26691, 20018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 17 ], [ 21, 24 ], [ 38, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More generally, one defines open sets as the members of a given collection of subsets of a given set, a collection that has the property of containing every union of its members, every finite intersection of its members, the empty set, and the whole set itself. A set in which such a collection is given is called a topological space, and the collection is called a topology. These conditions are very loose, and allow enormous flexibility in the choice of open sets. For example, every subset can be open (the discrete topology), or no set can be open except the space itself and the empty set (the indiscrete topology).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 47949, 23476429, 9566, 30450, 30450, 56061, 382447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 162 ], [ 192, 204 ], [ 225, 234 ], [ 316, 333 ], [ 366, 374 ], [ 511, 528 ], [ 600, 619 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In practice, however, open sets are usually chosen to provide a notion of nearness that is similar to that of metric spaces, without having a notion of distance defined. In particular, a topology allows defining properties such as continuity, connectedness, and compactness, which were originally defined by means of a distance.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6122, 6233, 6042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 241 ], [ 243, 256 ], [ 262, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most common case of a topology without any distance is given by manifolds, which are topological spaces that, near each point, resemble an open set of a Euclidean space, but on which no distance is defined in general. Less intuitive topologies are used in other branches of mathematics; for example, the Zariski topology, which is fundamental in algebraic geometry and scheme theory.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2073470, 9697, 241744, 1997, 364754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 76 ], [ 157, 172 ], [ 308, 324 ], [ 350, 368 ], [ 373, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Intuitively, an open set provides a method to distinguish two points. For example, if about one of two points in a topological space, there exists an open set not containing the other (distinct) point, the two points are referred to as topologically distinguishable. In this manner, one may speak of whether two points, or more generally two subsets, of a topological space are \"near\" without concretely defining a distance. Therefore, topological spaces may be seen as a generalization of spaces equipped with a notion of distance, which are called metric spaces.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Motivation", "target_page_ids": [ 593693, 30450, 14671319, 27631, 20018, 20018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 68 ], [ 115, 132 ], [ 236, 265 ], [ 342, 348 ], [ 415, 423 ], [ 550, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the set of all real numbers, one has the natural Euclidean metric; that is, a function which measures the distance between two real numbers: . Therefore, given a real number x, one can speak of the set of all points close to that real number; that is, within ε of x. In essence, points within ε of x approximate x to an accuracy of degree ε. Note that ε > 0 always but as ε becomes smaller and smaller, one obtains points that approximate x to a higher and higher degree of accuracy. For example, if x = 0 and ε = 1, the points within ε of x are precisely the points of the interval (−1, 1); that is, the set of all real numbers between −1 and 1. However, with ε = 0.5, the points within ε of x are precisely the points of (−0.5, 0.5). Clearly, these points approximate x to a greater degree of accuracy than when ε = 1.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Motivation", "target_page_ids": [ 20646438, 49172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ], [ 577, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The previous discussion shows, for the case x = 0, that one may approximate x to higher and higher degrees of accuracy by defining ε to be smaller and smaller. In particular, sets of the form (−ε, ε) give us a lot of information about points close to x = 0. Thus, rather than speaking of a concrete Euclidean metric, one may use sets to describe points close to x. This innovative idea has far-reaching consequences; in particular, by defining different collections of sets containing 0 (distinct from the sets (−ε, ε)), one may find different results regarding the distance between 0 and other real numbers. For example, if we were to define R as the only such set for \"measuring distance\", all points are close to 0 since there is only one possible degree of accuracy one may achieve in approximating 0: being a member of R. Thus, we find that in some sense, every real number is distance 0 away from 0. It may help in this case to think of the measure as being a binary condition: all things in R are equally close to 0, while any item that is not in R is not close to 0.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Motivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In general, one refers to the family of sets containing 0, used to approximate 0, as a neighborhood basis; a member of this neighborhood basis is referred to as an open set. In fact, one may generalize these notions to an arbitrary set (X); rather than just the real numbers. In this case, given a point (x) of that set, one may define a collection of sets \"around\" (that is, containing) x, used to approximate x. Of course, this collection would have to satisfy certain properties (known as axioms) for otherwise we may not have a well-defined method to measure distance. For example, every point in X should approximate x to some degree of accuracy. Thus X should be in this family. Once we begin to define \"smaller\" sets containing x, we tend to approximate x to a greater degree of accuracy. Bearing this in mind, one may define the remaining axioms that the family of sets about x is required to satisfy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Motivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Several definitions are given here, in an increasing order of technicality. Each one is a special case of the next one.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A subset of the Euclidean -space is open if, for every point in , there exists a positive real number (depending on ) such that any point in whose Euclidean distance from is smaller than belongs to . Equivalently, a subset of is open if every point in is the center of an open ball contained in ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 9697, 91420, 53932, 160556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 33 ], [ 69, 81 ], [ 152, 170 ], [ 282, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An example of a subset of that is not open is the closed interval , since neither nor belongs to for any , no matter how small.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 49172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A subset U of a metric space is called open if, for any point x in U, there exists a real number ε > 0 such that any point satisfying belongs to U. Equivalently, U is open if every point in U has a neighborhood contained in U.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 20018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This generalizes the Euclidean space example, since Euclidean space with the Euclidean distance is a metric space.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A topology on a set is a set of subsets of with the properties below. Each member of is called an open set.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 30450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " and ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Any union of sets in belong to : if then ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Any finite intersection of sets in belong to : if then ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " together with is called a topological space.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 30450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Infinite intersections of open sets need not be open. For example, the intersection of all intervals of the form where is a positive integer, is the set which is not open in the real line.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A metric space is a topological space, whose topology consists of the collection of all subsets that are unions of open balls. There are, however, topological spaces that are not metric spaces.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A set might be open, closed, both, or neither. In particular, open and closed sets are not mutually exclusive, meaning that it is in general possible for a subset of a topological space to simultaneously be both an open subset a closed subset. Such subsets are known as . Explicitly, a subset of a topological space is called if both and its complement are open subsets of ; or equivalently, if and ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Special types of open sets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In topological space the empty set and the set itself are always clopen. These two sets are the most well-known examples of clopen subsets and they show that clopen subsets exist in topological space. To see why is clopen, begin by recalling that the sets and are, by definition, always open subsets (of ). Also by definition, a subset is called if (and only if) its complement in which is the set is an open subset. Because the complement (in ) of the entire set is the empty set (i.e. ), which is an open subset, this means that is a closed subset of (by definition of \"closed subset\"). Hence, no matter what topology is placed on the entire space is simultaneously both an open subset and also a closed subset of ; said differently, is a clopen subset of Because the empty set's complement is which is an open subset, the same reasoning can be used to conclude that is also a clopen subset of ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Special types of open sets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Consider the real line endowed with its usual Euclidean topology, whose open sets are defined as follows: every interval of real numbers belongs to the topology, every union of such intervals, e.g. belongs to the topology, and as always, both and belong to the topology.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Special types of open sets", "target_page_ids": [ 1482085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The interval is open in because it belongs to the Euclidean topology. If were to have an open complement, it would mean by definition that were closed. But does not have an open complement; its complement is which does belong to the Euclidean topology since it is not a union of open intervals of the form Hence, is an example of a set that is open but not closed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Special types of open sets", "target_page_ids": [ 49172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 287, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " By a similar argument, the interval is a closed subset but not an open subset.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Special types of open sets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Finally, since neither nor its complement belongs to the Euclidean topology (because it can not be written as a union of intervals of the form ), this means that is neither open nor closed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Special types of open sets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If a topological space is endowed with the discrete topology (so that by definition, every subset of is open) then every subset of is a clopen subset. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Special types of open sets", "target_page_ids": [ 56061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For a more advanced example reminiscent of the discrete topology, suppose that is an ultrafilter on a non-empty set Then the union is a topology on with the property that non-empty proper subset of is an open subset or else a closed subset, but never both; that is, if (where ) then of the following two statements is true: either (1) or else, (2) Said differently, subset is open or closed but the subsets that are both (i.e. that are clopen) are and ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Special types of open sets", "target_page_ids": [ 31911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A subset of a topological space is called a if or equivalently, if where (resp. ) denotes the topological boundary (resp. interior, closure) of in ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Special types of open sets", "target_page_ids": [ 72824, 55610, 42309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 121 ], [ 129, 137 ], [ 139, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A topological space for which there exists a base consisting of regular open sets is called a . ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Special types of open sets", "target_page_ids": [ 59220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A subset of is a regular open set if and only if its complement in is a regular closed set, where by definition a subset of is called a if or equivalently, if ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Special types of open sets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Every regular open set (resp. regular closed set) is an open subset (resp. is a closed subset) although in general, the converses are true.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Special types of open sets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The union of any number of open sets, or infinitely many open sets, is open. The intersection of a finite number of open sets is open.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 47949, 23476429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ], [ 81, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A complement of an open set (relative to the space that the topology is defined on) is called a closed set. A set may be both open and closed (a clopen set). The empty set and the full space are examples of sets that are both open and closed.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 54347, 47279, 233398, 9566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 12 ], [ 96, 106 ], [ 145, 155 ], [ 162, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Open sets have a fundamental importance in topology. The concept is required to define and make sense of topological space and other topological structures that deal with the notions of closeness and convergence for spaces such as metric spaces and uniform spaces.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 29954, 30450, 20018, 32339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 51 ], [ 105, 122 ], [ 231, 244 ], [ 249, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Every subset A of a topological space X contains a (possibly empty) open set; the maximum (ordered under inclusion) such open set is called the interior of A. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 27631, 55610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 12 ], [ 144, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It can be constructed by taking the union of all the open sets contained in A.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A function between two topological spaces and is if the preimage of every open set in is open in ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 185427, 579311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 10 ], [ 60, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The function is called if the image of every open set in is open in ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 579311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An open set on the real line has the characteristic property that it is a countable union of disjoint open intervals.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 287188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whether a set is open depends on the topology under consideration. Having opted for greater brevity over greater clarity, we refer to a set X endowed with a topology as \"the topological space X\" rather than \"the topological space \", despite the fact that all the topological data is contained in If there are two topologies on the same set, a set U that is open in the first topology might fail to be open in the second topology. For example, if X is any topological space and Y is any subset of X, the set Y can be given its own topology (called the 'subspace topology') defined by \"a set U is open in the subspace topology on Y if and only if U is the intersection of Y with an open set from the original topology on X.\" This potentially introduces new open sets: if V is open in the original topology on X, but isn't open in the original topology on X, then is open in the subspace topology on Y.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notes and cautions", "target_page_ids": [ 29954, 1698066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 45 ], [ 84, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a concrete example of this, if U is defined as the set of rational numbers in the interval then U is an open subset of the rational numbers, but not of the real numbers. This is because when the surrounding space is the rational numbers, for every point x in U, there exists a positive number a such that all points within distance a of x are also in U. On the other hand, when the surrounding space is the reals, then for every point x in U there is positive a such that all points within distance a of x are in U (because U contains no non-rational numbers).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notes and cautions", "target_page_ids": [ 19727024, 20646438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 142 ], [ 160, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout, will be a topological space. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Generalizations of open sets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A subset of a topological space is called:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Generalizations of open sets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Using the fact that ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Generalizations of open sets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " and ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Generalizations of open sets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "whenever two subsets satisfy the following may be deduced:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Generalizations of open sets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Every α-open subset is semi-open, semi-preopen, preopen, and b-open. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Generalizations of open sets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Every b-open set is semi-preopen (i.e. β-open). ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Generalizations of open sets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Every preopen set is b-open and semi-preopen. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Generalizations of open sets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Every semi-open set is b-open and semi-preopen.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Generalizations of open sets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Moreover, a subset is a regular open set if and only if it is preopen and semi-closed. The intersection of an α-open set and a semi-preopen (resp. semi-open, preopen, b-open) set is a semi-preopen (resp. semi-open, preopen, b-open) set. Preopen sets need not be semi-open and semi-open sets need not be preopen. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Generalizations of open sets", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arbitrary unions of preopen (resp. α-open, b-open, semi-preopen) sets are once again preopen (resp. α-open, b-open, semi-preopen). However, finite intersections of preopen sets need not be preopen. The set of all α-open subsets of a space forms a topology on that is finer than ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Generalizations of open sets", "target_page_ids": [ 393069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 269, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A topological space is Hausdorff if and only if every compact subspace of is θ-closed. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Generalizations of open sets", "target_page_ids": [ 13637, 6042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 33 ], [ 55, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A space is totally disconnected if and only if every regular closed subset is preopen or equivalently, if every semi-open subset is preopen. Moreover, the space is totally disconnected if and only if the of every preopen subset is open.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Generalizations of open sets", "target_page_ids": [ 303356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 32 ] ] } ]

[ "General_topology" ]

[ "open subset" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In mathematics, two sets are said to be disjoint sets if they have no element in common. Equivalently, two disjoint sets are sets whose intersection is the empty set. For example, {1, 2, 3} and {4, 5, 6} are disjoint sets, while {1, 2, 3} and {3, 4, 5} are not disjoint. A collection of two or more sets is called disjoint if any two distinct sets of the collection are disjoint.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18831, 26691, 682629, 23476429, 9566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 20, 24 ], [ 70, 77 ], [ 136, 148 ], [ 156, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This definition of disjoint sets can be extended to a family of sets : the family is pairwise disjoint, or mutually disjoint if whenever . Alternatively, some authors use the term disjoint to refer to this notion as well. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 723043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For families the notion of pairwise disjoint or mutually disjoint is sometimes defined in a subtly different manner, in that repeated identical members are allowed: the family is pairwise disjoint if whenever (every two distinct sets in the family are disjoint). For example, the collection of sets is disjoint, as is the set of the two parity classes of integers; the family with 10 members is not disjoint (because the classes of even and odd numbers are each present five times), but it is pairwise disjoint according to this definition (since one only gets a non-empty intersection of two members when the two are the same class).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Two sets are said to be almost disjoint sets if their intersection is small in some sense. For instance, two infinite sets whose intersection is a finite set may be said to be almost disjoint.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 448267, 142679, 11742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 44 ], [ 109, 121 ], [ 147, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In topology, there are various notions of separated sets with more strict conditions than disjointness. For instance, two sets may be considered to be separated when they have disjoint closures or disjoint neighborhoods. Similarly, in a metric space, positively separated sets are sets separated by a nonzero distance.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 29954, 148911, 42309, 1529485, 20018, 11278902, 20018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 42, 56 ], [ 185, 192 ], [ 206, 219 ], [ 237, 249 ], [ 251, 276 ], [ 309, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Disjointness of two sets, or of a family of sets, may be expressed in terms of intersections of pairs of them.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Intersections", "target_page_ids": [ 23476429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two sets A and B are disjoint if and only if their intersection is the empty set.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Intersections", "target_page_ids": [ 9566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It follows from this definition that every set is disjoint from the empty set,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Intersections", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and that the empty set is the only set that is disjoint from itself.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Intersections", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If a collection contains at least two sets, the condition that the collection is disjoint implies that the intersection of the whole collection is empty. However, a collection of sets may have an empty intersection without being disjoint. Additionally, while a collection of less than two sets is trivially disjoint, as there are no pairs to compare, the intersection of a collection of one set is equal to that set, which may be non-empty. For instance, the three sets have an empty intersection but are not disjoint. In fact, there are no two disjoint sets in this collection. Also the empty family of sets is pairwise disjoint.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Intersections", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A Helly family is a system of sets within which the only subfamilies with empty intersections are the ones that are pairwise disjoint. For instance, the closed intervals of the real numbers form a Helly family: if a family of closed intervals has an empty intersection and is minimal (i.e. no subfamily of the family has an empty intersection), it must be pairwise disjoint.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Intersections", "target_page_ids": [ 670453, 49172, 20646438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 14 ], [ 153, 168 ], [ 177, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A partition of a set X is any collection of mutually disjoint non-empty sets whose union is X. Every partition can equivalently be described by an equivalence relation, a binary relation that describes whether two elements belong to the same set in the partition.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disjoint unions and partitions", "target_page_ids": [ 340240, 47949, 9259, 3931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 20 ], [ 83, 88 ], [ 147, 167 ], [ 171, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Disjoint-set data structures and partition refinement are two techniques in computer science for efficiently maintaining partitions of a set subject to, respectively, union operations that merge two sets or refinement operations that split one set into two.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disjoint unions and partitions", "target_page_ids": [ 1037551, 31595644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ], [ 33, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A disjoint union may mean one of two things. Most simply, it may mean the union of sets that are disjoint. But if two or more sets are not already disjoint, their disjoint union may be formed by modifying the sets to make them disjoint before forming the union of the modified sets. For instance two sets may be made disjoint by replacing each element by an ordered pair of the element and a binary value indicating whether it belongs to the first or second set.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disjoint unions and partitions", "target_page_ids": [ 188946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For families of more than two sets, one may similarly replace each element by an ordered pair of the element and the index of the set that contains it.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disjoint unions and partitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hyperplane separation theorem for disjoint convex sets", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4739827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mutually exclusive events", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 312648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Relatively prime, numbers with disjoint sets of prime divisors", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Separoid", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16854527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Set packing, the problem of finding the largest disjoint subfamily of a family of sets", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2017636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] } ]

[ "Basic_concepts_in_set_theory", "Families_of_sets" ]

[ "disjoint set", "mutually exclusive sets" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Good-Bye to All That is an autobiography by Robert Graves which first appeared in 1929, when the author was 34 years old. \"It was my bitter leave-taking of England,\" he wrote in a prologue to the revised second edition of 1957, \"where I had recently broken a good many conventions\". The title may also point to the passing of an old order following the cataclysm of the First World War; the supposed inadequacies of patriotism, the interest of some in atheism, feminism, socialism and pacifism, the changes to traditional married life, and not least the emergence of new styles of literary expression, are all treated in the work, bearing as they did directly on Graves's life. The unsentimental and frequently comic treatment of the banalities and intensities of the life of a British army officer in the First World War gave Graves fame, notoriety and financial security, but the book's subject is also his family history, childhood, schooling and, immediately following the war, early married life; all phases bearing witness to the \"particular mode of living and thinking\" that constitute a poetic sensibility.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39345, 4764461, 24552, 15247542, 11185, 26847, 24956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 57 ], [ 370, 385 ], [ 416, 426 ], [ 452, 459 ], [ 461, 469 ], [ 471, 480 ], [ 485, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Laura Riding, Graves's lover, is credited with being a \"spiritual and intellectual midwife\" to the work.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 163040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Graves undertook climbing, stating \"the sport made all others seem trivial.\" His first climb was Crib y Ddysgl, followed by climbs on Crib Goch and Y Lliwedd.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Pre-war life", "target_page_ids": [ 5857, 877141, 877138, 877137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 25 ], [ 98, 111 ], [ 135, 144 ], [ 149, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Graves goes on to claim, \"In English preparatory and public schools romance is necessarily homosexual. The opposite sex is despised and treated as something obscene. Many boys never recover from this perversion. For every one born homosexual, at least ten permanent pseudo-homosexuals are made by the public school system: nine of these ten as honourably chaste and sentimental as I was.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Pre-war life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A large part of the book is taken up by his experience of the First World War, in which Graves served as a lieutenant, then captain in the Royal Welch Fusiliers, with Siegfried Sassoon. Good-Bye to All That provides a detailed description of trench warfare, including the tragic incompetence of the Battle of Loos, including the use of gas, and the bitter fighting in the first phase of the Somme Offensive. At one point Graves agrees with his C.S.M., \"Of course, it's murder, you bloody fool, And there's nothing else for it, is there?\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wartime experiences", "target_page_ids": [ 59195, 46233, 182259, 545414, 50073, 60921, 968609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 160 ], [ 167, 184 ], [ 242, 256 ], [ 299, 313 ], [ 336, 339 ], [ 391, 406 ], [ 445, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Graves claimed, \"At least one in three of my generation at school died; because they all took commissions as soon as they could, most of them in the infantry and Royal Flying Corps. The average life expectancy of an infantry subaltern on the Western Front was, at some stages of the War, only about three months; by which time he had been either wounded or killed.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wartime experiences", "target_page_ids": [ 51499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 243, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Regarding trench conditions and Cuinchy-bred rats, Graves stated, \"They came up from the canal, fed on the plentiful corpses, and multiplied exceedingly.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wartime experiences", "target_page_ids": [ 12859114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Somme engagement, Graves was wounded while leading his men through the cemetery at Bazentin-le-petit church on 20 July 1916. The wound initially appeared so severe that military authorities erroneously reported to his family that he had died. While mourning his death, Graves's family received word from him that he was alive, and put an announcement to that effect in the newspapers. Graves later regretted omitting from the book the name of the soldier who had rescued him, Owen Roberts. The two met again fifty years later in a hospital ward to which both had been admitted for surgery, after which Graves signed Roberts's copy of the book, giving Roberts full credit for saving his life.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wartime experiences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The book contains a second-hand description of the killing of German prisoners of war by British troops. Although Graves had not witnessed any and knew of no large massacres, he had been told about a number of incidents in which prisoners had been killed individually or in small groups. Consequently, he was led to believe that a proportion of Germans who surrendered never made it to prisoner-of-war camps. \"Nearly every instructor in the mess\", he wrote, \"could quote specific instances of prisoners having been murdered on the way back. The commonest motives were, it seems, revenge for the death of friends or relatives, jealousy of the prisoner's trip to a comfortable prison camp in England, military enthusiasm, fear of being suddenly overpowered by the prisoners or, more simply, impatience with the escorting job.\" Similarly, \"If a German patrol found a wounded man, they were likely as not to cut his throat.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wartime experiences", "target_page_ids": [ 25008, 1029985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 85 ], [ 386, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Graves wrote, \"Executions were frequent in France. I had my first direct experience of official lying when I arrived at Le Havre in May 1915, and read the back-files of army Orders at the rest camp. They contained something like twenty reports of men shot for cowardice or desertion\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wartime experiences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Graves was severely traumatised by his war experience. After being wounded in the lung by a shell blast, he endured a squalid five-day train journey with unchanged bandages. During initial military training in England, he received an electric shock from a telephone that had been hit by lightning, which caused him for the next twelve years to stammer and sweat badly if he had to use one. Upon his return home, he describes being haunted by ghosts and nightmares.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wartime experiences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Graves, \"My particular disability was neurasthenia.\" He went on to say, \"Shells used to come bursting on my bed at midnight... strangers in daytime would assume the faces of friends who had been killed.\" Offered a chance to rejoin George Mallory in climbing, Graves declined, \"I could never again now deliberately take chances with my life.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wartime experiences", "target_page_ids": [ 1021088, 361977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 63 ], [ 246, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Siegfried Sassoon and his friend Edmund Blunden (whose First World War service had been in a different regiment) took umbrage at the contents of the book. Sassoon's complaints mostly related to Graves's depiction of him and his family, whereas Blunden had read the memoirs of J. C. Dunn and found them at odds with Graves in some places. The two men took Blunden's copy of Good-Bye to All That and made marginal notes contradicting some of the text. That copy survives and is held by the New York Public Library. Graves's father, Alfred Perceval Graves, also incensed at some aspects of Graves's book, wrote a riposte to it titled To Return to All That.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Critical responses", "target_page_ids": [ 46233, 49791, 29330604, 233467, 1031828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 33, 47 ], [ 276, 286 ], [ 488, 511 ], [ 530, 552 ] ] } ]

[ "1929_non-fiction_books", "Literary_autobiographies", "History_books_about_World_War_I", "Books_by_Robert_Graves", "Personal_accounts_of_World_War_I", "Royal_Welch_Fusiliers" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Frederick (Middle High German: Friderich, Standard German: Friedrich; 21 September 1371 20 September 1440) was the last Burgrave of Nuremberg from 1397 to 1427 (as Frederick VI), Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach from 1398, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach from 1420, and Elector of Brandenburg (as Frederick I) from 1415 until his death. He became the first member of the House of Hohenzollern to rule the Margraviate of Brandenburg.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 406293, 46696663, 3528668, 1587856, 1588160, 2290530, 13849, 8206970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 29 ], [ 42, 57 ], [ 121, 142 ], [ 192, 211 ], [ 235, 255 ], [ 271, 293 ], [ 372, 393 ], [ 406, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick was born in Nuremberg, the second-born son of Burgrave Frederick V (13331398) and the Wettin princess Elisabeth of Meissen. He entered early into the service of his brother-in-law, the Habsburg duke Albert III of Austria. After Albert's death in 1395, he fought on the side of the Luxembourg king Sigismund of Hungary against invading Ottoman forces. He and his elder brother John, husband of Sigismund's sister Margaret of Bohemia, fought in the 1396 Battle of Nicopolis where they suffered a disastrous defeat.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 21287, 3440652, 578487, 9598574, 13824, 1163286, 2646925, 38889, 865346, 3497966, 21314034, 1061749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 31 ], [ 65, 76 ], [ 96, 102 ], [ 112, 132 ], [ 195, 203 ], [ 209, 230 ], [ 291, 301 ], [ 307, 327 ], [ 345, 352 ], [ 386, 390 ], [ 422, 441 ], [ 462, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Frederick returned to Nuremberg, he divided the Franconian inheritance from his father with his brother John, who received the Principality of Bayreuth, while Frederick kept the Principality of Ansbach; the brothers ruled jointly in the Burgraviate of Nuremberg. At first Frederick tried to mediate in the imperial confusion between Sigismund's elder half-brother, the German king Wenceslaus, and the party of Elector Rupert III of the Palatinate, but from September 1399 he fought on the side of Rupert, husband of his sister Elizabeth, nonetheless. Wenceslaus was eventually deposed and Rupert elected King of the Romans on 21 August 1400.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 11401, 1588160, 1587856, 3528668, 1318150, 38830, 9594489, 302609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 63 ], [ 133, 157 ], [ 184, 207 ], [ 243, 267 ], [ 387, 397 ], [ 424, 452 ], [ 533, 542 ], [ 610, 628 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick resumed his rule of Ansbach in 1409 and after heavy feuding, entered into the service of King Sigismund. In 1410, the death of Rupert, King of the Germans, left the throne of the Holy Roman Empire vacant. Sigismund enlisted Frederick's help in obtaining the throne. At the time, Jobst of Moravia ruled Brandenburg and thus was one of the prince-electors who had the right to vote for the new king. However, Sigismund disputed Jobst's claim to Brandenburg and his right to vote in the imperial election. Sigismund claimed these rights for himself and designated Frederick to represent him as elector of Brandenburg in the imperial election of 20 September 1410. While Sigismund won this initial vote, Jobst of Moravia won the support of a majority of electors in an election in October 1410 and himself claimed the imperial throne. Jobst's death under suspicious circumstances in January 1411 cleared the way for Sigismund's recovery of Brandenburg and his undisputed election as king of the empire later that year. In gratitude for Frederick's services, King Sigismund made him Oberster Hauptmann and Verwalter der Marken (1411). With an iron hand Frederick fought against the rebellious nobility of the March of Brandenburg (in particular, the Quitzow family) and, in the end, restored security. Frederick also became a member of the Parakeet Society and of the League of Constance.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 38830, 13277, 38204, 14056, 55856050, 317549, 12528502, 6277591, 6277591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 164 ], [ 189, 206 ], [ 290, 306 ], [ 349, 364 ], [ 632, 670 ], [ 1215, 1220 ], [ 1256, 1263 ], [ 1346, 1362 ], [ 1374, 1393 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the Council of Constance (30 April 1415) Sigismund granted Frederick the titles of Margrave and Prince-elector of Brandenburg. On 21 October 1415 the Brandenburg states meeting in a Landtag asked him to rule in Berlin. The king awarded him the formal enfeoffment of the margravate on 18 April 1417. As Frederick did not agree with the forcible action of Sigismund against the Hussites, relations between them cooled.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 7661, 196475, 14056, 422928, 3354, 14291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 27 ], [ 86, 94 ], [ 99, 113 ], [ 185, 192 ], [ 214, 220 ], [ 379, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Constant feuding with the nobility of Brandenburg led Frederick to withdraw to his castle at Cadolzburg in 1425 and transfer the regency of the margravate to his son John in 1426 (Frederick, however, remained elector). After 1427 he organized the imperial war against the Hussites and subsequently provided substantial assistance in the mediation of the Compacta of Prague at the Council of Basel (30 November 1433).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 5799647, 5800791, 14291, 144596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 103 ], [ 166, 170 ], [ 354, 372 ], [ 380, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon his death in 1440, Frederick was succeeded as elector by his second-eldest son, Frederick II.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 39368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He married Elisabeth of Bavaria-Landshut (1383–13 November 1442, Ansbach), daughter of Duke Frederick of Bavaria-Landshut and Maddalena Visconti. Their children were:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 31915881, 3460552, 23487448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 40 ], [ 92, 121 ], [ 126, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elisabeth (140331 October 1449, Liegnitz), married:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 21417119, 18115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 33, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in Konstanz 1418 Duke Louis II of Brieg and Legnica (1380/5–1436);", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 98095, 21153988, 18115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 23, 40 ], [ 45, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in 1438 Duke Wenzel I of Teschen (1413/18–1474).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 15285767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John \"the Alchemist\" (1405–1465), Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 5800791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " married in 1416 Princess Barbara of Saxe-Wittenberg (1405–1465)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cecilia (c. 14054 January 1449), married:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 32823208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in Berlin 30 May 1423 Duke William III of Brunswick-Lüneburg (1392–1482).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 3354, 3098361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 28, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret (141027 July 1465, Landshut), married:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 32205591, 347747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 29, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in 1423 to Duke Albert V, Duke of Mecklenburg (1397–1423);", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 32175777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in Ingolstadt 20 July 1441 to Louis VIII, Duke of Bavaria (1403–1445);", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 208251, 5538223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 31, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in 1446 to Count Martin of Waldenfels (d. 1471).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magdalene (c. 1412 27 October 1454, Scharnebeck), married:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 32961976, 4544356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 37, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in Tangermünde 3 July 1429 to Duke Frederick of Brunswick-Lüneburg (1418–1478).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 23514972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frederick II (1413–1471), Elector of Brandenburg", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 39368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " married in 1441 Princess Catherine of Saxony (1421–1476)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 32218287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Albert Achilles, (1414–1486), Elector of Brandenburg, married:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 39235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in 1446 Princess Margarete of Baden (1431–1457)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 32207465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in 1458 Princess Anna of Saxony (1437–1512)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 31551051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sofie, born and died 1417.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dorothea (9 February 142019 January 1491, Rehna), married:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 31913118, 5961147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 43, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in 1432 Duke Henry IV, Duke of Mecklenburg (1417–1477)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 31855269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frederick \"the Fat\" (c. 14246 October 1463, Tangermünde), Lord of Altmark, married:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 33778356, 1473157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 45, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in 1449 Princess Agnes of Pomerania (1436–1512)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mast, Peter: Die Hohenzollern - Von Friedrich III. bis Wilhelm II., Graz, Wien, Köln 1994", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1371_births", "1440_deaths", "Prince-electors_of_Brandenburg", "House_of_Hohenzollern", "Margraves_of_Brandenburg-Ansbach", "Margraves_of_Bayreuth", "Burgraves_of_Nuremberg", "People_of_the_Hussite_Wars", "15th-century_German_people", "Military_personnel_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire", "Christians_of_the_Battle_of_Nicopolis", "Burials_at_Heilsbronn_Abbey" ]

[ "Frederick I", "Friedrich I", "Friedrich I. von Brandenburg" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Frederick II of Brandenburg () (19 November 1413 – 10 February 1471), nicknamed \"the Iron\" (der Eiserne) and sometimes \"Irontooth\" (Eisenzahn), was a Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg from 1440 until his abdication in 1470, and was a member of the House of Hohenzollern.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14056, 8206970, 13849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 164 ], [ 172, 198 ], [ 263, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick II was born at Tangermünde Castle (German: Burg Tangermünde), when Tangermünde was within the Margraviate of Brandenburg, to Frederick I, Brandenburg's first Hohenzollern ruler, and his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Frederick, Duke of Bavaria-Landshut, and Maddalena Visconti. The latter was a daughter of Bernabò Visconti and Beatrice della Scala. As the second son, his brothers included John the Alchemist and Albert Achilles, both of whom also ruled Brandenburg as margraves.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1473157, 8206970, 39363, 3460552, 23487448, 1734284, 23238221, 5800791, 39235, 196475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 88 ], [ 104, 130 ], [ 135, 146 ], [ 224, 259 ], [ 265, 283 ], [ 314, 330 ], [ 335, 355 ], [ 398, 416 ], [ 421, 436 ], [ 477, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1421, at age 8, Frederick was betrothed to Hedwig Jagiellon, but she died on 8 December 1431, before the marriage could take place.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 4975883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Frederick I retired in 1437, he compensated his incapable eldest son John with the Principality of Bayreuth while Frederick II assumed the government of Brandenburg. Unlike his father, he turned away from imperial politics and concentrated on his efforts to pacify the nobility and towns of the electorate. Quarrels with the city of Berlin began in 1440 with his plans to build a new residence on the Cölln island of the Spree river. In 1448 the Berliner Unwille (indignation) against the cession of the city's territory for an electoral stronghold culminated in open revolt, when the citizens flooded the excavation of the future Stadtschloss. Nevertheless, Frederick II prevailed, had the palace built and the city's rights decisively curtailed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1588160, 5030127, 3354, 1002801, 159094, 433175, 1057304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 112 ], [ 287, 292 ], [ 338, 344 ], [ 406, 411 ], [ 426, 431 ], [ 636, 648 ], [ 717, 730 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1453, Frederick II, in his position as the Margrave of Brandenburg, was sent a letter from Rhodes, penned by the Grand Master of the Knights of St John, notifying him of the Fall of Constantinople and requesting he send them support so as to allow them to continue to combat the Turkish threat. His response is unknown.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1454 and 1455, he concluded the Treaties of Cölln and Mewe and thereby re-gained the Neumark (New March) from the Teutonic Order state. Weary of the long struggle with the Duchy of Pomerania, he abdicated in 1470 in favour of his younger brother Albert Achilles, he retired to the Bayreuth Principality and died one year later in Neustadt an der Aisch.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 27996377, 511494, 1038535, 24379147, 1198892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 61 ], [ 88, 95 ], [ 117, 137 ], [ 175, 193 ], [ 333, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 11 June 1441, Frederick II married Catherine of Saxony (1421 – August 23, 1476), a daughter of Elector Frederick I of Saxony and Katharina of Brunswick-Lüneburg. They had three children (and Frederick had one bastard):", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 32218287, 6488945, 3101072, 31559574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 47 ], [ 51, 57 ], [ 98, 127 ], [ 132, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dorothea of Brandenburg (c. 1446 – March, 1519), married Duke John V of Saxe-Lauenburg on 12 February 1464.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 32062899, 25294658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ], [ 62, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Margaret of Brandenburg (c. 1450 – 1489), married Bogislaw X, Duke of Pomerania.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [ 32977667, 18289384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ], [ 50, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johan of Brandenburg (December 23, 14{06-16} - 1454)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Erasmus von Brandenburg (c. 1452 - 1465).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Family and children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1413_births", "1471_deaths", "People_from_Stendal_(district)", "15th-century_German_people", "Prince-electors_of_Brandenburg", "Margraves_of_Bayreuth", "House_of_Hohenzollern", "Burials_at_Heilsbronn_Abbey" ]

[ "Frederick II of Brandenburg", "the Iron", "Irontooth", "Friedrich II" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In the mathematical theory of tessellations, a prototile is one of the shapes of a tile in a tessellation.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 321671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A tessellation of the plane or of any other space is a cover of the space by closed shapes, called tiles, that have disjoint interiors. Some of the tiles may be congruent to one or more others. If is the set of tiles in a tessellation, a set of shapes is called a set of prototiles if no two shapes in are congruent to each other, and every tile in is congruent to one of the shapes in .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 47279, 39359, 55610, 39330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 83 ], [ 116, 124 ], [ 125, 134 ], [ 161, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is possible to choose many different sets of prototiles for a tiling: translating or rotating any one of the prototiles produces another valid set of prototiles. However, every set of prototiles has the same cardinality, so the number of prototiles is well defined. A tessellation is said to be monohedral if it has exactly one prototile.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 6174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A set of prototiles is said to be aperiodic if every tiling with those prototiles is an aperiodic tiling. It is unknown whether there exists a single two-dimensional shape (called an einstein) that forms the prototile of an aperiodic tiling, but not of any periodic tiling. That is, the existence of a single-tile (monohedral) aperiodic prototile set is an open problem. The Socolar–Taylor tile forms two-dimensional aperiodic tilings, but is defined by combinatorial matching conditions rather than purely by its shape. In higher dimensions, the problem is solved: the Schmitt-Conway-Danzer tile is the prototile of a monohedral aperiodic tiling of three-dimensional Euclidean space, and cannot tile space periodically.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aperiodicity", "target_page_ids": [ 868145, 43542926, 1333335, 39570044, 1177963, 9697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 104 ], [ 184, 192 ], [ 358, 370 ], [ 376, 395 ], [ 571, 597 ], [ 669, 684 ] ] } ]

[ "Tessellation" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC), or Nubecula Major is a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way. At a distance of around 50kiloparsecs (≈160,000light-years), the LMC is the second- or third-closest galaxy to the Milky Way, after the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal (16kpc) and the possible dwarf irregular galaxy known as the Canis Major Overdensity. Based on the D25 isophote at the B-band (445 nm wavelength of light), the Large Magellanic Cloud is approximately across. It is roughly a hundredth as massive as the Milky Way and is the fourth-largest galaxy in the Local Group, after the Andromeda Galaxy (M31), the Milky Way and the Triangulum Galaxy (M33).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2973295, 2589714, 23335, 23473595, 12558, 428052, 207621, 1141382, 18093, 74331, 198476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 73 ], [ 81, 90 ], [ 118, 129 ], [ 139, 149 ], [ 193, 199 ], [ 228, 256 ], [ 282, 304 ], [ 318, 341 ], [ 560, 571 ], [ 583, 599 ], [ 629, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The LMC is classified as a Magellanic spiral. It contains a stellar bar that is geometrically off center, suggesting that it was a barred dwarf spiral galaxy before its spiral arms were disrupted, likely by tidal interactions from the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) and the Milky Way's gravity.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21771815, 4373145, 207620, 173493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 44 ], [ 138, 157 ], [ 169, 179 ], [ 235, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With a declination of about −70°, the LMC is visible as a faint \"cloud\" from the southern hemisphere of the Earth and from as far north as 20°N. It straddles the constellations Dorado and Mensa and has an apparent length of about 10° to the naked eye, 20 times the Moon's diameter, from dark sites away from light pollution.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8612, 261273, 5267, 8466, 23785293, 19331, 18279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ], [ 81, 100 ], [ 162, 175 ], [ 177, 183 ], [ 188, 193 ], [ 265, 269 ], [ 308, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Milky Way and the LMC are predicted to merge in approximately 2.4billion years.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Both clouds have been easily visible for southern nighttime observers well back into prehistory. It has been claimed that the first-known written mention of the Large Magellanic Cloud was by the Persian astronomer 'Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi Shirazi (later known in Europe as \"Azophi\"), in his Book of Fixed Stars around 964 AD. However, this seems to be a misunderstanding of a reference to some stars south of Canopus which he admits he has not seen.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of observation", "target_page_ids": [ 3304608, 262757, 9239, 317238, 1283638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 213 ], [ 215, 236 ], [ 261, 267 ], [ 289, 308 ], [ 407, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first confirmed recorded observation was in 1503–1504 by Amerigo Vespucci in a letter about his third voyage. He mentioned \"three Canopes, two bright and one obscure\"; \"bright\" refers to the two Magellanic Clouds, and \"obscure\" refers to the Coalsack.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of observation", "target_page_ids": [ 2062, 173484, 209546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 77 ], [ 199, 216 ], [ 246, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ferdinand Magellan sighted the LMC on his voyage in 1519 and his writings brought it into common Western knowledge. The galaxy now bears his name.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of observation", "target_page_ids": [ 19914843, 21208200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 97, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The galaxy and southern end of Dorado are in the current epoch at opposition on about 5December when thus visible from sunset to sunrise from equatorial points such as Ecuador, the Congos, Uganda, Kenya and Indonesia and for part of the night in nearby months. Below about 28° south the galaxy is always sufficiently above the horizon to be considered properly circumpolar, thus spring and autumn also are seasons of much-of-night visibility, and the height of winter in June nearly coincides with closest proximity to the Sun's apparent position.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of observation", "target_page_ids": [ 18269812, 142352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 282 ], [ 361, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Measurements with the Hubble Space Telescope, announced in 2006, suggest the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds may be moving too quickly to be orbiting the Milky Way.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of observation", "target_page_ids": [ 40203, 2589714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 44 ], [ 156, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Astronomers discovered a new black hole inside the Large Magellanic Cloud in November 2021 using the European Southern Observatory's Very Large Telescope in Chile. Astronomers claim its gravity is influenced by a nearby star, which is about five times the mass of our Sun.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of observation", "target_page_ids": [ 151648, 5489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 153 ], [ 157, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Large Magellanic Cloud has a prominent central bar and spiral arm. The central bar seems to be warped so that the east and west ends are nearer the Milky Way than the middle. In 2014, measurements from the Hubble Space Telescope made it possible to determine a rotation period of 250 million years.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 207620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The LMC was long considered to be a planar galaxy that could be assumed to lie at a single distance from the Solar System. However, in 1986, Caldwell and Coulson found that field Cepheid variables in the northeast lie closer to the Milky Way than those in the southwest. From 2001 to 2002 this inclined geometry was confirmed by the same means, by core helium-burning red clump stars, and by the tip of the red giant branch. All three papers find an inclination of 35°, where a face-on galaxy has an inclination of 0°. Further work on the structure of the LMC using the kinematics of carbon stars showed that the LMC's disk is both thick and flared, likely due to interactions with the SMC. Regarding the distribution of star clusters in the LMC, Schommer et al. measured velocities for 80 clusters and found that the LMC's cluster system has kinematics consistent with the clusters moving in a disk-like distribution. These results were confirmed by Grocholski et al., who calculated distances to a sample of clusters and showed that the cluster system is distributed in the same plane as the field stars.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 158530, 28603, 21534550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 195 ], [ 721, 734 ], [ 747, 755 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Distance to the LMC has been calculated using standard candles; Cepheid variables are one of the most popular. These have been shown to have a relationship between their absolute luminosity and the period over which their brightness varies. However the variable of metallicity may also need to be taken as a component of this as consensus is this likely affects their period-luminosity relations. Unfortunately, those in the Milky Way typically used to calibrate the relation are more metal-rich than those found in the LMC.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [ 471487, 158530, 61805833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 61 ], [ 64, 80 ], [ 368, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern 8-meter-class optical telescopes have discovered eclipsing binaries throughout the Local Group. Parameters of these systems can be measured without mass or compositional assumptions. The light echoes of supernova 1987A are also geometric measurements, without any stellar models or assumptions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [ 214121, 52713, 18093, 10730840, 28930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 39 ], [ 56, 74 ], [ 90, 101 ], [ 194, 204 ], [ 210, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2006, the Cepheid absolute luminosity was re-calibrated using Cepheid variables in the galaxy Messier 106 that cover a range of metallicities. Using this improved calibration, they find an absolute distance modulus of , or . This distance has been confirmed by other authors.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [ 975020, 1395554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 108 ], [ 201, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By cross-correlating different measurement methods, one can bound the distance; the residual errors are now less than the estimated size parameters of the LMC.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The results of a study using late-type eclipsing binaries to determine the distance more accurately was published in the scientific journal Nature in March 2013. A distance of with an accuracy of 2.2% was obtained.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [ 43427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like many irregular galaxies, the LMC is rich in gas and dust, and is currently undergoing vigorous star formation activity. It holds the Tarantula Nebula, the most active star-forming region in the Local Group.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 207621, 43948, 312335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ], [ 100, 114 ], [ 138, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The LMC has a wide range of galactic objects and phenomena that make it known as an \"astronomical treasure-house, a great celestial laboratory for the study of the growth and evolution of the stars\", per Robert Burnham Jr. Surveys of the galaxy have found roughly 60 globular clusters, 400 planetary nebulae and 700 open clusters, along with hundreds of thousands of giant and supergiant stars. Supernova 1987A—the nearest supernova in recent years—was in the Large Magellanic Cloud. The Lionel-Murphy SNR (N86) nitrogen-abundant supernova remnant was named by astronomers at the Australian National University's Mount Stromlo Observatory, acknowledging Australian High Court Justice Lionel Murphy's interest in science and its perceived resemblance to his large nose.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 624758, 12866, 39674, 22669, 568726, 170853, 28930, 27680, 21175, 39666, 580, 285106, 1035967, 314201, 1051535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 222 ], [ 267, 283 ], [ 290, 306 ], [ 316, 328 ], [ 367, 372 ], [ 377, 387 ], [ 395, 410 ], [ 423, 432 ], [ 512, 520 ], [ 530, 547 ], [ 561, 571 ], [ 580, 610 ], [ 613, 638 ], [ 654, 675 ], [ 684, 697 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A bridge of gas connects the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) with the LMC, which evinces tidal interaction between the galaxies. The Magellanic Clouds have a common envelope of neutral hydrogen, indicating that they have been gravitationally bound for a long time. This bridge of gas is a star-forming site.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 3641069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "No X-rays above background were detected from either cloud during the September 20, 1966, Nike-Tomahawk rocket flight nor that of two days later. The second took off from Johnston Atoll at 17:13 UTC and reached an apogee of , with spin-stabilization at 5.6 rps. The LMC was not detected in the X-ray range 8–80 keV.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "X-ray sources", "target_page_ids": [ 39196619, 15704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 103 ], [ 171, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another was launched from same atoll at 11:32 UTC on October 29, 1968, to scan the LMC for X-rays. The first discrete X-ray source in Dorado was at RA Dec , and it was the Large Magellanic Cloud. This X-ray source extended over about 12° and is consistent with the Cloud. Its emission rate between 1.5–10.5 keV for a distance of 50 kpc is /s. An X-ray astronomy instrument was carried aboard a Thor missile launched from the same atoll on September 24, 1970, at 12:54 UTC and altitudes above , to search for the Small Magellanic Cloud and to extend observation of the LMC. The source in the LMC appeared extended and contained star ε Dor. The X-ray luminosity (Lx) over the range 1.5–12 keV was ().", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "X-ray sources", "target_page_ids": [ 8466, 26073, 8612, 44062, 10401113, 173493, 32454008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 140 ], [ 148, 150 ], [ 152, 155 ], [ 347, 362 ], [ 395, 407 ], [ 513, 535 ], [ 633, 638 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) appears in the constellations Mensa and Dorado. LMC X-1 (the first X-ray source in the LMC) is at RA Dec , and is a high-mass X-ray binary (star system) source (HMXB). Of the first five luminous LMC X-ray binaries: LMC X-1, X-2, X-3, X-4 and A 0538–66 (detected by Ariel 5 at A 0538–66), LMC X-2 is the one that is a bright low-mass X-ray binary system (LMXB) in the LMC.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "X-ray sources", "target_page_ids": [ 23785293, 8466, 26073, 8612, 191717, 16080899, 191717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 68 ], [ 73, 79 ], [ 131, 133 ], [ 135, 138 ], [ 195, 199 ], [ 299, 306 ], [ 388, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DEM L316 in the Cloud consists of two supernova remnants. Chandra X-ray spectra show that the hot gas shell on the upper left has an abundance of iron. This implies that the upper-left SNR is the product of a Type Ia supernova; much lower such abundance in the lower remnant belies a Type II supernova.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "X-ray sources", "target_page_ids": [ 217873, 39666, 3728323, 11009033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 65 ], [ 185, 188 ], [ 209, 226 ], [ 284, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A 16 ms X-ray pulsar is associated with SNR 0538-69.1. SNR 0540-697 was resolved using ROSAT.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "X-ray sources", "target_page_ids": [ 1157828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SP77 46-44", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 64169810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NASA Extragalactic Database", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Encyclopedia of Astronomy entry", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " SEDS LMC page", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Large Magellanic Cloud at Constellation Guide", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Large_Magellanic_Cloud", "Dwarf_barred_irregular_galaxies", "Principal_Galaxies_Catalogue_objects", "Astronomical_objects_known_since_antiquity", "ESO_objects", "Magellanic_Clouds", "Dorado_(constellation)", "Mensa_(constellation)", "Local_Group" ]

[ "LMC" ]

[ { "plaintext": "A space suit or spacesuit is a garment worn to keep a human alive in the harsh environment of outer space, vacuum and temperature extremes. Space suits are often worn inside spacecraft as a safety precaution in case of loss of cabin pressure, and are necessary for extravehicular activity (EVA), work done outside spacecraft. Space suits have been worn for such work in Earth orbit, on the surface of the Moon, and en route back to Earth from the Moon. Modern space suits augment the basic pressure garment with a complex system of equipment and environmental systems designed to keep the wearer comfortable, and to minimize the effort required to bend the limbs, resisting a soft pressure garment's natural tendency to stiffen against the vacuum. A self-contained oxygen supply and environmental control system is frequently employed to allow complete freedom of movement, independent of the spacecraft.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 177602, 32502, 37910, 23619, 9792, 19331, 22303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 105 ], [ 107, 113 ], [ 174, 184 ], [ 233, 241 ], [ 265, 288 ], [ 405, 409 ], [ 765, 771 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three types of space suits exist for different purposes: IVA (intravehicular activity), EVA (extravehicular activity), and IEVA (intra/extravehicular activity). IVA suits are meant to be worn inside a pressurized spacecraft, and are therefore lighter and more comfortable. IEVA suits are meant for use inside and outside the spacecraft, such as the Gemini G4C suit. They include more protection from the harsh conditions of space, such as protection from micrometeoroids and extreme temperature change. EVA suits, such as the EMU, are used outside spacecraft, for either planetary exploration or spacewalks. They must protect the wearer against all conditions of space, as well as provide mobility and functionality.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3929095, 186821, 739856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 349, 359 ], [ 455, 469 ], [ 526, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some of these requirements also apply to pressure suits worn for other specialized tasks, such as high-altitude reconnaissance flight. At altitudes above the Armstrong limit, around , water boils at body temperature and pressurized suits are needed.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1810164, 4670584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 54 ], [ 158, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first full-pressure suits for use at extreme altitudes were designed by individual inventors as early as the 1930s. The first space suit worn by a human in space was the Soviet SK-1 suit worn by Yuri Gagarin in 1961.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26779, 18163557, 34226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 180 ], [ 181, 185 ], [ 199, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A space suit must perform several functions to allow its occupant to work safely and comfortably, inside or outside a spacecraft. It must provide:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A stable internal pressure. This can be less than Earth's atmosphere, as there is usually no need for the space suit to carry nitrogen (which comprises about 78% of Earth's atmosphere and is not used by the body). Lower pressure allows for greater mobility, but requires the suit occupant to breathe pure oxygen for a time before going into this lower pressure, to avoid decompression sickness.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 21175, 61048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 135 ], [ 372, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mobility. Movement is typically opposed by the pressure of the suit; mobility is achieved by careful joint design. See the Theories of space suit design section.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 39375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Supply of breathable oxygen and elimination of carbon dioxide; these gases are exchanged with the spacecraft or a Portable Life Support System (PLSS)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 5906, 7768768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 62 ], [ 115, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Temperature regulation. Unlike on Earth, where heat can be transferred by convection to the atmosphere, in space, heat can be lost only by thermal radiation or by conduction to objects in physical contact with the exterior of the suit. Since the temperature on the outside of the suit varies greatly between sunlight and shadow, the suit is heavily insulated, and air temperature is maintained at a comfortable level.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 47526, 185239, 72536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 85 ], [ 140, 157 ], [ 164, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A communication system, with external electrical connection to the spacecraft or PLSS", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Means of collecting and containing solid and liquid bodily waste (such as a Maximum Absorbency Garment)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 13361101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Advanced suits better regulate the astronaut's temperature with a Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment (LCVG) in contact with the astronaut's skin, from which the heat is dumped into space through an external radiator in the PLSS.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 664, 6890573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 44 ], [ 66, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Additional requirements for EVA include:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shielding against ultraviolet radiation", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 31990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Limited shielding against particle radiation", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 23891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Means to maneuver, dock, release, and tether onto a spacecraft", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Protection against small micrometeoroids, some traveling at up to 27,000 kilometers per hour, provided by a puncture-resistant Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment, which is the outermost layer of the suit. Experience has shown the greatest chance of exposure occurs near the gravitational field of a moon or planet, so these were first employed on the Apollo lunar EVA suits (see United States suit models below).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 186821, 8807737, 174782, 1461, 39375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 40 ], [ 128, 158 ], [ 271, 290 ], [ 348, 354 ], [ 376, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As part of astronautical hygiene control (i.e., protecting astronauts from extremes of temperature, radiation, etc.), a space suit is essential for extravehicular activity. The Apollo/Skylab A7L suit included eleven layers in all: an inner liner, a LCVG, a pressure bladder, a restraint layer, another liner, and a Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment consisting of five aluminized insulation layers and an external layer of white Ortho-Fabric. This space suit is capable of protecting the astronaut from temperatures ranging from to .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 12987773, 2439384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 32 ], [ 177, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During exploration of the Moon or Mars, there will be the potential for lunar or Martian dust to be retained on the space suit. When the space suit is removed on return to the spacecraft, there will be the potential for the dust to contaminate surfaces and increase the risks of inhalation and skin exposure. Astronautical hygienists are testing materials with reduced dust retention times and the potential to control the dust exposure risks during planetary exploration. Novel ingress and egress approaches, such as suitports, are being explored as well.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 17959575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 518, 526 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In NASA space suits, communications are provided via a cap worn over the head, which includes earphones and a microphone. Due to the coloration of the version used for Apollo and Skylab, which resembled the coloration of the comic strip character Snoopy, these caps became known as \"Snoopy caps\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 18426568, 29441, 18956204, 53490871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 7 ], [ 179, 185 ], [ 247, 253 ], [ 283, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Generally, to supply enough oxygen for respiration, a space suit using pure oxygen must have a pressure of about , equal to the partial pressure of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere at sea level, plus and water vapor pressure, both of which must be subtracted from the alveolar pressure to get alveolar oxygen partial pressure in 100% oxygen atmospheres, by the alveolar gas equation. The latter two figures add to , which is why many modern space suits do not use , but (this is a slight overcorrection, as alveolar partial pressures at sea level are slightly less than the former). In space suits that use 20.7kPa, the astronaut gets only 20.7kPa − 11.6kPa = of oxygen, which is about the alveolar oxygen partial pressure attained at an altitude of above sea level. This is about 42% of normal partial pressure of oxygen at sea level, about the same as pressure in a commercial passenger jet aircraft, and is the realistic lower limit for safe ordinary space suit pressurization which allows reasonable capacity for work.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 66723, 43972, 202898, 89547, 9092221, 9185674, 1488888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 50 ], [ 129, 145 ], [ 163, 181 ], [ 208, 219 ], [ 272, 289 ], [ 365, 386 ], [ 861, 908 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When space suits below a specific operating pressure are used from craft that are pressurized to normal atmospheric pressure (such as the Space Shuttle), this requires astronauts to \"pre-breathe\" (meaning pre-breathe pure oxygen for a period) before donning their suits and depressurizing in the air lock. This procedure purges the body of dissolved nitrogen, so as to avoid decompression sickness due to rapid depressurization from a nitrogen-containing atmosphere.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 28189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The human body can briefly survive the hard vacuum of space unprotected, despite contrary depictions in some popular science fiction. Human flesh expands to about twice its size in such conditions, giving the visual effect of a body builder rather than an overfilled balloon. Consciousness is retained for up to 15 seconds as the effects of oxygen starvation set in. No snap freeze effect occurs because all heat must be lost through thermal radiation or the evaporation of liquids, and the blood does not boil because it remains pressurized within the body.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 26787, 13292, 185239, 10303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 132 ], [ 341, 358 ], [ 434, 451 ], [ 459, 470 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In space, there are many different highly energized subatomic protons that will expose the body to extreme radiation. Although these compounds are minimal in amount, their high energy is liable to disrupt essential physical and chemical processes in the body, such as altering DNA or causing cancers. Exposure to radiation can create problems via two methods: the particles can react with water in the human body to produce free radicals that break DNA molecules apart, or by directly breaking the DNA molecules.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 212490, 19916613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 69 ], [ 424, 437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Temperature in space can vary extremely depending on where the Sun is. Temperatures from solar radiation can reach up to and lower down to . Because of this, space suits must provide proper insulation and cooling.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The vacuum in space creates zero pressure, causing the gases and processes in the body to expand. In order to prevent chemical processes in the body from overreacting, it is necessary to develop a suit that counteracts against the pressure in space. The greatest danger is in attempting to hold one's breath before exposure, as the subsequent explosive decompression can damage the lungs. These effects have been confirmed through various accidents (including in very-high-altitude conditions, outer space and training vacuum chambers). Human skin does not need to be protected from vacuum and is gas-tight by itself. Instead, it only needs to be mechanically compressed to retain its normal shape. This can be accomplished with a tight-fitting elastic body suit and a helmet for containing breathing gases, known as a space activity suit (SAS).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 1193903, 634858, 132151, 459471, 704596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 343, 366 ], [ 519, 533 ], [ 769, 775 ], [ 791, 804 ], [ 819, 838 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A space suit should allow its user natural unencumbered movement. Nearly all designs try to maintain a constant volume no matter what movements the wearer makes. This is because mechanical work is needed to change the volume of a constant pressure system. If flexing a joint reduces the volume of the space suit, then the astronaut must do extra work every time they bend that joint, and they have to maintain a force to keep the joint bent. Even if this force is very small, it can be seriously fatiguing to constantly fight against one's suit. It also makes delicate movements very difficult. The work required to bend a joint is dictated by the formula", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design concepts", "target_page_ids": [ 149861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where Vi and Vf are respectively the initial and final volume of the joint, P is the pressure in the suit, and W is the resultant work. It is generally true that all suits are more mobile at lower pressures. However, because a minimum internal pressure is dictated by life support requirements, the only means of further reducing work is to minimize the change in volume.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design concepts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All space suit designs try to minimize or eliminate this problem. The most common solution is to form the suit out of multiple layers. The bladder layer is a rubbery, airtight layer much like a balloon. The restraint layer goes outside the bladder, and provides a specific shape for the suit. Since the bladder layer is larger than the restraint layer, the restraint takes all of the stresses caused by the pressure inside the suit. Since the bladder is not under pressure, it will not \"pop\" like a balloon, even if punctured. The restraint layer is shaped in such a way that bending a joint causes pockets of fabric, called \"gores\", to open up on the outside of the joint, while folds called \"convolutes\" fold up on the inside of the joint. The gores make up for the volume lost on the inside of the joint, and keep the suit at a nearly constant volume. However, once the gores are opened all the way, the joint cannot be bent any further without a considerable amount of work.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design concepts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In some Russian space suits, strips of cloth were wrapped tightly around the cosmonaut's arms and legs outside the space suit to stop the space suit from ballooning when in space.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design concepts", "target_page_ids": [ 664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The outermost layer of a space suit, the Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment, provides thermal insulation, protection from micrometeoroids, and shielding from harmful solar radiation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design concepts", "target_page_ids": [ 27979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are four main conceptual approaches to suit design:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design concepts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Soft suits typically are made mostly of fabrics. All soft suits have some hard parts; some even have hard joint bearings. Intra-vehicular activity and early EVA suits were soft suits.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design concepts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hard-shell suits are usually made of metal or composite materials and do not use fabric for joints. Hard suits joints use ball bearings and wedge-ring segments similar to an adjustable elbow of a stove pipe to allow a wide range of movement with the arms and legs. The joints maintain a constant volume of air internally and do not have any counter-force. Therefore, the astronaut does not need to exert to hold the suit in any position. Hard suits can also operate at higher pressures which would eliminate the need for an astronaut to pre-breathe oxygen to use a space suit before an EVA from a spacecraft cabin. The joints may get into a restricted or locked position requiring the astronaut to manipulate or program the joint. The NASA Ames Research Center experimental AX-5 hard-shell space suit had a flexibility rating of 95%. The wearer could move into 95% of the positions they could without the suit on.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design concepts", "target_page_ids": [ 47477, 30876930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 742, 762 ], [ 776, 780 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hybrid suits have hard-shell parts and fabric parts. NASA's Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) uses a fiberglass Hard Upper Torso (HUT) and fabric limbs. ILC Dover's I-Suit replaces the HUT with a fabric soft upper torso to save weight, restricting the use of hard components to the joint bearings, helmet, waist seal, and rear entry hatch. Virtually all workable space suit designs incorporate hard components, particularly at interfaces such as the waist seal, bearings, and in the case of rear-entry suits, the back hatch, where all-soft alternatives are not viable.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design concepts", "target_page_ids": [ 739856, 9296647, 2235098, 7535216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 88 ], [ 113, 129 ], [ 154, 163 ], [ 166, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Skintight suits, also known as mechanical counterpressure suits or space activity suits, are a proposed design which would use a heavy elastic body stocking to compress the body. The head is in a pressurized helmet, but the rest of the body is pressurized only by the elastic effect of the suit. This mitigates the constant volume problem, reduces the possibility of a space suit depressurization and gives a very lightweight suit. When not worn, the elastic garments may appear to be that of clothing for a small child. These suits may be very difficult to put on and face problems with providing a uniform pressure. Most proposals use the body's natural perspiration to keep cool. Sweat evaporates readily in vacuum and may desublime or deposit on objects nearby: optics, sensors, the astronaut's visor, and other surfaces. The icy film and sweat residue may contaminate sensitive surfaces and affect optical performance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Design concepts", "target_page_ids": [ 77538, 4303674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 656, 668 ], [ 726, 735 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Related preceding technologies include the gas mask used in World War II, the oxygen mask used by pilots of high-flying bombers in World War II, the high-altitude or vacuum suit required by pilots of the Lockheed U-2 and SR-71 Blackbird, the diving suit, rebreather, scuba diving gear, and many others.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributing technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 12772, 32927, 1297796, 32310, 55245, 326538, 294126, 1266475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 51 ], [ 60, 72 ], [ 78, 89 ], [ 204, 216 ], [ 221, 236 ], [ 242, 253 ], [ 255, 265 ], [ 267, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many space suit designs are taken from the U.S. Air Force suits, which are designed to work in \"high-altitude aircraft pressure[s]\", such as the Mercury IVA suit or the Gemini G4C, or the Advanced Crew Escape Suits.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributing technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 3928694, 2579291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 156 ], [ 188, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mercury IVA, the first U.S. space suit design, included lights at the tips of the gloves in order to provide visual aid. As the need for extravehicular activity grew, suits such as the Apollo A7L included gloves made of a metal fabric called Chromel-r in order to prevent punctures. In order to retain a better sense of touch for the astronauts, the fingertips of the gloves were made of silicone. With the shuttle program, it became necessary to be able to operate spacecraft modules, so the ACES suits featured gripping on the gloves. EMU gloves, which are used for spacewalks, are heated to keep the astronaut's hands warm. The Phase VI gloves, meant for use with the Mark III suit, are the first gloves to be designed with \"laser scanning technology, 3D computer modeling, stereo lithography, laser cutting technology and CNC machining\". This allows for cheaper, more accurate production, as well as increased detail in joint mobility and flexibility.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributing technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 3928694, 2439384, 9400430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 189, 199 ], [ 675, 688 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to the Apollo missions, life support in space suits was connected to the space capsule via an umbilical cord-like device. However, with the Apollo missions, life support was configured into a removable capsule called the Portable Life Support System that allowed the astronaut to explore the Moon without having to be attached to the space craft. The EMU space suit, used for spacewalks, allows the astronaut to manually control the internal environment of the suit. The Mark III suit has a backpack filled with about 12 pounds of liquid air, as well as pressurization and heat exchange.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributing technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 1461, 7768768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ], [ 227, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The development of the spheroidal dome helmet was key in balancing the need for field of view, pressure compensation, and low weight. One inconvenience with some space suits is the head being fixed facing forwards and being unable to turn to look sideways. Astronauts call this effect \"alligator head\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributing technologies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Evgeniy Chertovsky created his full-pressure suit or high-altitude \"skafandr\" (скафандр) in 1931. (скафандр also means \"diving apparatus\").", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributing technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 2812486, 3543130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 121, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Emilio Herrera designed and built a full-pressure \"stratonautical space suit\" in 1935, which was to have been used during an open-basket balloon stratospheric flight scheduled for early 1936.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributing technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 3030925, 64096845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 52, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wiley Post experimented with a number of pressure suits for record-breaking flights.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributing technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 562989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Russell Colley created the space suits worn by the Project Mercury astronauts, including fitting Alan Shepard for his ride as America's first man in space on May 5, 1961.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributing technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 11224235, 63727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 98, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SK series (CK)the spacesuit used for the Vostok program (1961–1963). Worn by Yuri Gagarin on the first crewed space flight.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 18163557, 393892, 34226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 42, 56 ], [ 78, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " No pressure suits were worn aboard Voskhod 1.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 195218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Berkut (Беркут meaning \"golden eagle\")the spacesuit was a modified SK-1 used by the crew of Voskhod 2 which included Alexei Leonov on the first spacewalk during (1965).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 26511477, 88295, 195223, 195645, 9792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 25, 37 ], [ 93, 102 ], [ 118, 131 ], [ 145, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " From Soyuz 1 to Soyuz 11 (1967–1971) no pressure suits were worn during launch and reentry.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 98350, 198961, 26301, 45294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 13 ], [ 17, 25 ], [ 73, 79 ], [ 84, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yastreb (Ястреб meaning \"hawk\")extravehicular activity spacesuit used during a crew exchange between Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 (1969).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 2812599, 56890, 197096, 187682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 26, 30 ], [ 102, 109 ], [ 114, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Krechet-94 (Кречет meaning \"gyrfalcon\")designed for the canceled Soviet crewed Moon landing.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 10395634, 27394479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 29, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Strizh (Стриж meaning \"swift (bird)\")developed for pilots of Buran-class orbiters.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 2940447, 219023, 36716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 24, 36 ], [ 62, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sokol (Сокол meaning \"falcon\")suits worn by Soyuz crew members during launch and reentry. They were first worn on Soyuz 12. They have been used from 1973 to present.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 2568333, 54444, 178182, 199458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 23, 29 ], [ 45, 50 ], [ 115, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Orlan (Орлан meaning \"sea-eagle\" or \"bald eagle\")suits for extravehicular activity, originally developed for the Soviet lunar program as a lunar orbit EVA suit. It is Russia's current EVA suit. Used from 1977 to present.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 2686782, 1799818, 4401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 23, 32 ], [ 38, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 1950s, Siegfried Hansen and colleagues at Litton Industries designed and built a working hard-shell suit, which was used inside vacuum chambers and was the predecessor of space suits used in NASA missions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 34896879, 599655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 36 ], [ 55, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Navy Mark IV high-altitude/vacuum suitused for Project Mercury (1961–1963).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 3928694, 19812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 47, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gemini space suits (1965–1966)there were three main variants developed: G3C designed for intra-vehicle use; G4C specially designed for EVA and intra-vehicle use; and a special G5C suit worn by the Gemini 7 crew for 14 days inside the spacecraft.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 3929095, 362944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 197, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Manned Orbiting Laboratory MH-7 space suits for the canceled MOL program.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 615373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo Block I A1C suit (1966–1967)a derivative of the Gemini suit, worn by primary and backup crews in training for two early Apollo missions. The nylon pressure garment melted and burned through in the Apollo 1 cabin fire. This suit became obsolete when crewed Block I Apollo flights were discontinued after the fire.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 3929095, 1965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 204, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo/Skylab A7L EVA and Moon suitsThe Block II Apollo suit was the primary pressure suit worn for eleven Apollo flights, three Skylab flights, and the US astronauts on the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project between 1968 and 1975. The pressure garment's nylon outer layer was replaced with fireproof Beta cloth after the Apollo 1 fire. This suit was the first to employ a liquid-cooled inner garment and outer micrometeroid garment. Beginning with the Apollo 13 mission, it also introduced \"commander's stripes\" so that a pair of space walkers will not appear identical on camera.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 2439384, 331959, 6939459, 1770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 174, 199 ], [ 292, 302 ], [ 444, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shuttle Ejection Escape Suitused from STS-1 (1981) to STS-4 (1982) by a two-man crew used in conjunction with the then-installed ejection seats. Derived from a USAF model. These were removed once the Shuttle became certified.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 27405359, 177543, 181038, 388794, 32090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ], [ 38, 43 ], [ 54, 59 ], [ 129, 142 ], [ 160, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " From STS-5 (1982) to STS-51-L (1986) no pressure suits were worn during launch and reentry. The crew would wear only a blue-flight suit with an oxygen helmet.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 181049, 3407579, 1661785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 11 ], [ 22, 30 ], [ 125, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Launch Entry Suit first used on STS-26 (1988), the first flight after the Challenger disaster. It was a partial pressure suit derived from a USAF model. It was used from 1988 to 1998.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 26700735, 497721, 403717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 32, 38 ], [ 74, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Advanced Crew Escape Suit used on the Space Shuttle starting in 1994. The Advanced Crew Escape Suit or ACES suit, is a full-pressure suit worn by all Space Shuttle crews for the ascent and entry portions of flight. The suit is a direct descendant of the United States Air Force high-altitude pressure suits worn by SR-71 Blackbird and U-2 spy plane pilots, North American X-15 and Gemini pilot-astronauts, and the Launch Entry Suits worn by NASA astronauts starting on the STS-26 flight. It is derived from a USAF model.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 2579291, 32090, 221315, 882736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 254, 277 ], [ 357, 376 ], [ 381, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU)used on both the Space Shuttle and International Space Station (ISS). The EMU is an independent anthropomorphic system that provides environmental protection, mobility, life support, and communications for a Space Shuttle or ISS crew member to perform an EVA in Earth orbit. Used from 1982 to present, but only available in limited sizing as of 2019.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 739856, 15043, 878461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ], [ 69, 96 ], [ 296, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aerospace company SpaceX developed an IVA suit which is worn by astronauts involved in Commercial Crew Program missions operated by SpaceX since the Demo-2 mission (see SpaceX suit (\"Starman suit\")).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 832774, 64072812, 45617147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 87, 110 ], [ 149, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Orion Crew Survival System (OCSS)will be used during launch and re-entry on the Orion MPCV. It is derived from the Advanced Crew Escape Suit but is able to operate at a higher pressure and has improved mobility in the shoulders.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 33190128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2015, SpaceX began developing a space suit for astronauts to wear within the Dragon 2 space capsule. Its appearance was jointly designed by Jose Fernandez—a Hollywood costume designer known for his works for superhero and science fiction films—and SpaceX founder and CEO Elon Musk. The first images of the suit were revealed in September 2017. A mannequin, called \"Starman\" (after David Bowie's song of the same name), wore the SpaceX space suit during the maiden launch of the Falcon Heavy in February 2018. For this exhibition launch, the suit was not pressurized and carried no sensors.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 832774, 42903983, 8122589, 1275470, 179757, 909036, 8786, 1661122, 56515839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 89, 97 ], [ 179, 195 ], [ 220, 229 ], [ 234, 254 ], [ 283, 292 ], [ 393, 404 ], [ 407, 428 ], [ 469, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The suit, which is suitable for vacuum, offers protection against cabin depressurization through a single tether at the astronaut's thigh that feeds air and electronic connections. The helmets, which are 3D-printed, contain microphones and speakers. As the suits need the tether connection and do not offer protection against radiation, they are not used for extra-vehicular activities.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, NASA commercial crew astronauts Bob Behnken, and Doug Hurley tested the spacesuit inside the Dragon 2 spacecraft in order to familiarize themselves with the suit. They wore it in the Crew Dragon Demo-2 flight launched on 30 May 2020. The suit is worn by astronauts involved in Commercial Crew Program missions involving SpaceX.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 6926737, 6927212, 45617147, 64072812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 52 ], [ 58, 69 ], [ 192, 210 ], [ 286, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 1 June 2022, NASA announced it had selected competing Axiom Space and Collins Aerospace to develop and provide astronauts with next generation spacesuit and spacewalk systems to first test and later use outside the International Space Station, as well as on the lunar surface for the crewed Artemis missions, and prepare for human missions to Mars.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 56401950, 2386173, 60758751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 68 ], [ 73, 90 ], [ 294, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shuguang space suit: First generation EVA space suit developed by China for the 1967 canceled Project 714 crewed space program. It has a mass of about , has an orange colour, and is made of high-resistance multi-layer polyester fabric. The astronaut could use it inside the cabin and conduct an EVA as well.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 12230438, 12230438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 95, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 'Project 863 space suit: Cancelled project of second generation Chinese EVA space suit.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 4640160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shenzhou IVA (神舟) space suit: The suit was first worn by Yang Liwei on Shenzhou 5, the first crewed Chinese space flight, it closely resembles a Sokol-KV2 suit, but it is believed to be a Chinese-made version rather than an actual Russian suit. Pictures show that the suits on Shenzhou 6 differ in detail from the earlier suit; they are also reported to be lighter.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 340917, 340927, 2568333, 357847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 68 ], [ 72, 82 ], [ 146, 155 ], [ 278, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Haiying (海鹰号航天服) EVA space suit: The imported Russian Orlan-M EVA suit is called Haiying. Used on Shenzhou 7.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 2686782, 2686782, 1305528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 55, 62 ], [ 99, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Feitian (飞天号航天服) EVA space suit: New generation indigenously developed Chinese-made EVA space suit also used for the Shenzhou 7 mission. The suit was designed for a spacewalk mission of up to seven hours. Chinese astronauts have been training in the out-of-capsule space suits since July 2007, and movements are seriously restricted in the suits, with a mass of more than each.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "List of space suit models", "target_page_ids": [ 19549534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several companies and universities are developing technologies and prototypes which represent improvements over current space suits.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "3D printing (additive manufacturing) can be used to reduce the mass of hard-shell space suits while retaining the high mobility they provide. This fabrication method also allows for the potential for in-situ fabrication and repair of suits, a capability which is not currently available, but will likely be necessary for Martian exploration. The University of Maryland began development of a prototype 3D printed hard suit in 2016, based on the kinematics of the AX-5. The prototype arm segment is designed to be evaluated in the Space Systems Laboratory glovebox to compare mobility to traditional soft suits. Initial research has focused on the feasibility of printing rigid suit elements, bearing races, ball bearings, seals, and sealing surfaces.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 1305947, 19817390, 30876930, 6249986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 346, 368 ], [ 463, 467 ], [ 530, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are certain difficulties in designing a dexterous space suit glove and there are limitations to the current designs. For this reason, the Centennial Astronaut Glove Challenge was created to build a better glove. Competitions have been held in 2007 and 2009, and another is planned. The 2009 contest required the glove to be covered with a micro-meteorite layer.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 476120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 2009, the Austrian Space Forum has been developing \"Aouda.X\", an experimental Mars analogue space suit focusing on an advanced human–machine interface and on-board computing network to increase situational awareness. The suit is designed to study contamination vectors in planetary exploration analogue environments and create limitations depending on the pressure regime chosen for a simulation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 38030885, 32681199, 45249, 3026543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 36 ], [ 89, 97 ], [ 133, 156 ], [ 200, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 2012, for the Mars2013 analogue mission by the Austrian Space Forum to Erfoud, Morocco, the Aouda.X analogue space suit has a sister in the form of Aouda.S. This is a slightly less sophisticated suit meant primarily to assist Aouda.X operations and be able to study the interactions between two (analogue) astronauts in similar suits.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 38030885, 3883742, 19291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 45 ], [ 77, 83 ], [ 85, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Aouda.X and Aouda.S space suits have been named after the fictional princess from the Jules Verne's 1873 novel Around the World in Eighty Days. A public display mock-up of Aouda.X (called Aouda.D) is currently on display at the Dachstein Ice Cave in Obertraun, Austria, after the experiments done there in 2012.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 624571, 15770, 42609, 13161865, 26964606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 80 ], [ 90, 101 ], [ 115, 146 ], [ 254, 263 ], [ 265, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bio-Suit is a space activity suit under development at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, which consisted of several lower leg prototypes. Bio-suit is custom fit to each wearer, using laser body scanning.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 704596, 704596, 18879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 14, 33 ], [ 59, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On August 2, 2006, NASA indicated plans to issue a Request for Proposal (RFP) for the design, development, certification, production, and sustaining engineering of the Constellation Space Suit to meet the needs of the Constellation Program. NASA foresaw a single suit capable of supporting: survivability during launch, entry and abort; zero-gravity EVA; lunar surface EVA; and Mars surface EVA.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 17980918, 454300, 18603506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 192 ], [ 218, 239 ], [ 337, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On June 11, 2008, NASA awarded a US$745 million contract to Oceaneering International to create the new space suit.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 16933230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Final Frontier Design (FFD) is developing a commercial full IVA space suit, with their first suit completed in 2010. FFD's suits are intended as a light-weight, highly mobile, and inexpensive commercial space suits. Since 2011, FFD has upgraded IVA suit's designs, hardware, processes, and capabilities. FFD has built a total of 7 IVA space suit (2016) assemblies for various institutions and customers since founding, and has conducted high fidelity human testing in simulators, aircraft, microgravity, and hypobaric chambers. FFD has a Space Act Agreement with NASA's Commercial Space Capabilities Office to develop and execute a Human Rating Plan for FFD IVA suit. FFD categorizes their IVA suits according to their mission: Terra for Earth-based testing, Stratos for high altitude flights, and Exos for orbital space flights. Each suit category has different requirements for manufacturing controls, validations, and materials, but are of a similar architecture.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 32825191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The I-Suit is a space suit prototype also constructed by ILC Dover, which incorporates several design improvements over the EMU, including a weight-saving soft upper torso. Both the Mark III and the I-Suit have taken part in NASA's annual Desert Research and Technology Studies (D-RATS) field trials, during which suit occupants interact with one another, and with rovers and other equipment.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 7535216, 10503693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 239, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mark III is a NASA prototype, constructed by ILC Dover, which incorporates a hard lower torso section and a mix of soft and hard components. The Mark III is markedly more mobile than previous suits, despite its high operating pressure (), which makes it a \"zero-prebreathe\" suit, meaning that astronauts would be able to transition directly from a one-atmosphere, mixed-gas space station environment, such as that on the International Space Station, to the suit, without risking decompression sickness, which can occur with rapid depressurization from an atmosphere containing nitrogen or another inert gas.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 9400430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The MX-2 is a space suit analogue constructed at the University of Maryland's Space Systems Laboratory. The MX-2 is used for crewed neutral buoyancy testing at the Space Systems Lab's Neutral Buoyancy Research Facility. By approximating the work envelope of a real EVA suit, without meeting the requirements of a flight-rated suit, the MX-2 provides an inexpensive platform for EVA research, compared to using EMU suits at facilities like NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 19817390, 6249986, 6233014, 6266230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 75 ], [ 78, 102 ], [ 132, 148 ], [ 446, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The MX-2 has an operating pressure of 2.5–4 psi. It is a rear-entry suit, featuring a fiberglass HUT. Air, LCVG cooling water, and power are open loop systems, provided through an umbilical. The suit contains a Mac Mini computer to capture sensor data, such as suit pressure, inlet and outlet air temperatures, and heart rate. Resizable suit elements and adjustable ballast allow the suit to accommodate subjects ranging in height from , and with a weight range of .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 9296647, 3097169, 19769681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 100 ], [ 180, 189 ], [ 211, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beginning in May 2006, five North Dakota colleges collaborated on a new space suit prototype, funded by a US$100,000 grant from NASA, to demonstrate technologies which could be incorporated into a planetary suit. The suit was tested in the Theodore Roosevelt National Park badlands of western North Dakota. The suit has a mass of without a life support backpack, and costs only a fraction of the standard US$12,000,000 cost for a flight-rated NASA space suit. The suit was developed in just over a year by students from the University of North Dakota, North Dakota State, Dickinson State, the state College of Science and Turtle Mountain Community College. The mobility of the North Dakota suit can be attributed to its low operating pressure; while the North Dakota suit was field tested at a pressure of differential, NASA's EMU suit operates at a pressure of , a pressure designed to supply approximately sea-level oxygen partial pressure for respiration (see discussion above).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 21651, 758673, 239021, 428318, 339837, 1207990, 1272221, 2376501, 66723, 39375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 40 ], [ 240, 272 ], [ 273, 281 ], [ 526, 552 ], [ 554, 572 ], [ 574, 589 ], [ 601, 619 ], [ 624, 657 ], [ 949, 960 ], [ 977, 982 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NASA's Prototype eXploration Suit (PXS), like the Z-series, is a rear-entry suit compatible with suitports. The suit has components which could be 3D printed during missions to a range of specifications, to fit different individuals or changing mobility requirements.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A suitport is a theoretical alternative to an airlock, designed for use in hazardous environments and in human spaceflight, especially planetary surface exploration. In a suitport system, a rear-entry space suit is attached and sealed against the outside of a spacecraft, such that an astronaut can enter and seal up the suit, then go on EVA, without the need for an airlock or depressurizing the spacecraft cabin. Suitports require less mass and volume than airlocks, provide dust mitigation, and prevent cross-contamination of the inside and outside environments. Patents for suitport designs were filed in 1996 by Philip Culbertson Jr. of NASA's Ames Research Center and in 2003 by Joerg Boettcher, Stephen Ransom, and Frank Steinsiek.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 17959575, 294387, 18896, 22915, 162714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 10 ], [ 46, 53 ], [ 105, 122 ], [ 135, 141 ], [ 477, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2012, NASA introduced the Z-1 space suit, the first in the Z-series of space suit prototypes designed by NASA specifically for planetary extravehicular activity. The Z-1 space suit includes an emphasis on mobility and protection for space missions. It features a soft torso versus the hard torsos seen in previous NASA EVA space suits, which provides reduced mass. It has been labeled the \"Buzz Lightyear suit\" due to its green streaks for a design.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, NASA released the design for the Z-2 prototype, the next model in the Z-series. NASA conducted a poll asking the public to decide on a design for the Z-2 space suit. The designs, created by fashion students from Philadelphia University, were \"Technology\", \"Trends in Society\", and \"Biomimicry\". The design \"Technology\" won, and the prototype is built with technologies like 3D printing. The Z-2 suit will also differ from the Z-1 suit in that the torso reverts to the hard shell, as seen in NASA's EMU suit.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Emerging technologies", "target_page_ids": [ 1305947, 739856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 383, 394 ], [ 507, 510 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest space fiction ignored the problems of traveling through a vacuum, and launched its heroes through space without any special protection. In the later 19th century, however, a more realistic brand of space fiction emerged, in which authors have tried to describe or depict the space suits worn by their characters. These fictional suits vary in appearance and technology, and range from the highly authentic to the utterly improbable.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "In fiction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A very early fictional account of space suits can be seen in Garrett P. Serviss' novel Edison's Conquest of Mars (1898). Later comic book series such as Buck Rogers (1930s) and Dan Dare (1950s) also featured their own takes on space suit design. Science fiction authors such as Robert A. Heinlein contributed to the development of fictional space suit concepts.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "In fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 9569063, 5877683, 39213292, 169375, 25389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 79 ], [ 87, 112 ], [ 154, 165 ], [ 178, 186 ], [ 279, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmospheric diving suit", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1273138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By era:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By station:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Space suits\" at A Field Guide to American Spacecraft. A list compiled by Lee Sledge and James H. Gerard of American space suits and the museum locations where they are displayed.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Space Suits\" at Encyclopedia Astronautica. A complete listing of space suits.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Russian space suits at NPP Zvezda", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 694473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Space suit\" English by G. Ilyin, Vladimir Ivanov, and Ivan Pavlov. Originally published by Nauka i Zhizn, No. 6, 1978.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 5474437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"U.S. Human Spaceflight History\" at the Johnson Space Center See link near page end to Walking to Olympus: An EVA Chronology (PDF).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 177571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NASDA Online Space Notes at the National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) (2001)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 655458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Analysis of the Space Shuttle Extravehicular Mobility Unit – 1986\" (PDF)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"NASA Space Shuttle EVA tools and equipment reference book – 1993\" (PDF)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Space Suit Evolution From Custom Tailored to Off-the-Rack (PDF)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Engineering Aspects of Apollo\" at the Apollo Lunar Surface Journal. Section on the Apollo space suit and the Portable Life Support System.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Space Suit Photos\" at Historic Spacecraft", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Space suit and Spacewalk History Image Gallery\" at NASA", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Zvezda history English", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Spacesuits\" at ILC Dover", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 2235098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In April 2011, the VOA Special English service of the Voice of America broadcast a 15-minute program on the evolution of space suits. A transcript and MP3 of the program, intended for English learners, can be found at \"The Evolution of Spacesuits\".", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 252090, 103191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 39 ], [ 55, 71 ] ] } ]

[ "Spacesuits", "Rebreathers", "Environmental_suits", "Human_spaceflight", "Spacecraft_components", "Space_technology", "Soviet_inventions" ]

[ "spacesuit", "space suits" ]