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gabrielaltay

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[ { "plaintext": "Year 1385 (MCCCLXXXV) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168851, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 58 ], [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 23 Stephen, Count Palatine of Simmern-Zweibrücken (d. 1459)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15831, 3852349, 36190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 56 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 1 John FitzAlan, 13th Earl of Arundel, English noble (d. 1421)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1254, 431329, 34884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 46 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 15 Richard de Vere, 11th Earl of Oxford, English noble (d. 1417)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1442, 14336680, 39900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 48 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jean I, Duke of Alençon (d. 1415)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2207837, 36126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 29, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jan van Eyck, Flemish painter (approximate date; d. 1441)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 46381, 39925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret Holland, Duchess of Clarence, English noble (d. 1429)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 72725, 39913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mircea I of Wallachia (d. 1418)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 264587, 39901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 27, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 28 Andronikos IV Palaiologos, co-ruler of the Byzantine Empire", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15802, 253610, 4016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 35 ], [ 53, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 7 Joan of Kent, Dowager Princess of Wales, widow of Edward, the Black Prince (b. 1328)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1332, 78783, 58917, 39968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 23 ], [ 61, 85 ], [ 90, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 18 Balša II, ruler of Zeta", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28146, 4430521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 15 Dionysius I, Metropolitan of Moscow", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22555, 1239132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 19 Bernabò Visconti, Lord of Milan (b. 1319)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8848, 1734284, 36511, 39963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 40, 45 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aluycia Gradenigo, Venetian patrician and dogaressa", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40541642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Xu Da, Chinese military leader (b. 1332)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6302676, 39972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] } ]

[ "1385" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1386 (MCCCLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168880, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 21 ], [ 29, 59 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 12 Ashikaga Yoshimochi, Japanese shōgun (d. 1428)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20197, 234791, 39912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 30 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 24 Giovanni da Capistrano, Italian saint (d. 1456)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15812, 720407, 39507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 32 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 9 or September 16 King Henry V of England (d. 1422) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1027, 27650, 45597, 39905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 13, 25 ], [ 32, 50 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Niccolò Piccinino, Italian mercenary (d. 1444)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 998353, 39928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 32 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Donatello, Italian sculptor (d. 1466)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 69852, 39503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 9 Leopold III, Duke of Austria (in battle) (b. 1351)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15883, 1220156, 36365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 37 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 20 Bo Jonsson (Grip), royal marshal of Sweden ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18933271, 2078680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 23 Dan I of Wallachia (in battle)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27651, 1047557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 31 Johanna of Bavaria, Queen of Bohemia (b. c. 1362)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8204, 9670219, 39527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 50 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Wathiq II, caliph of Cairo", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6342973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Takatsukasa Fuyumichi, Japanese nobleman (b. 1330)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 12761845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable William Langland, English poet (b. 1332)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 305342, 39972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] } ]

[ "1386" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1387 (MCCCLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 311439, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 30, 61 ], [ 107, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elizabeta Kotromanic, mother of Mary, Queen of Hungary and the regent of Hungary, is murdered in prison by the Croatian rebels (her daughter is liberated on 4 June).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 5693937, 20677, 13275, 19279145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 33, 55 ], [ 74, 81 ], [ 158, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 1 Charles III ascends to the throne of Navarre, after the death of his father, Charles II.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15787, 343487, 693507, 77357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 23 ], [ 49, 56 ], [ 89, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 5 John I succeeds his father, Peter IV, as King of Aragon and Valencia, and forms an alliance with France and Castile.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19279054, 151347, 127830, 586776, 2265909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 18 ], [ 40, 48 ], [ 61, 67 ], [ 72, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 11 Battle of Castagnaro: Padua, led by John Hawkwood, is victorious over Giovanni Ordelaffi of Verona.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19530, 7532448, 50240, 418746, 4410596, 263991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 31 ], [ 33, 38 ], [ 47, 60 ], [ 81, 99 ], [ 103, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 2425 Battle of Margate off the coast of Margate: The Kingdom of England is victorious over a Franco-Castilian-Flemish fleet.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 20209, 19773, 60117535, 591540, 407950, 2687967, 4711133, 43008790, 797364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 9, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ], [ 48, 55 ], [ 61, 79 ], [ 101, 107 ], [ 108, 117 ], [ 118, 125 ], [ 126, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 2 John Holland, a maternal half-brother of Richard II of England, is created Earl of Huntingdon.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15855, 297448, 46531, 428934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 10, 22 ], [ 51, 72 ], [ 85, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 22 Olaf, King of Norway and Denmark and claimant to the throne of Sweden, dies. The vacant thrones come under the regency of his mother Margaret I of Denmark, who will soon become queen in her own right.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1012, 66273, 35348624, 58726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 16 ], [ 123, 130 ], [ 145, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 27 Petru of Moldavia pays homage to Władysław II Jagiełło, making Moldavia a Polish fief (which it will remain until 1497).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 27934, 40116752, 42586, 39485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 32 ], [ 48, 69 ], [ 129, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 19 Battle of Radcot Bridge: Forces loyal to Richard II of England are defeated by a group of rebellious barons known as the Lords Appellant. Richard II is imprisoned, until he agrees to replace all the councillors in his court.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 8848, 7661380, 46531, 1337218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 37 ], [ 55, 76 ], [ 135, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timur conquers the Muzaffarid Empire in central Persia, and appoints three puppet rulers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 25439083, 1755093, 14653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 20, 37 ], [ 49, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Khan Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde invades the Timurid Empire, but has to withdraw soon after, due to heavy snow.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 746565, 147911, 370256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 16 ], [ 24, 36 ], [ 49, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Maghan II succeeds his brother, Musa II, as Mansa of the Mali Empire", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 2258601, 2258587, 2176030, 182049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 33, 40 ], [ 45, 50 ], [ 58, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 6 Queen Blanche I of Navarre (d. 1441)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15862, 5611312, 39925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 15, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Henriette, Countess of Montbéliard, regent of Württemberg (d. 1444)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9853970, 39928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 49 ], [ 77, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January Elizabeth of Bosnia, regent of Hungary", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5693937, 13275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ], [ 41, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 1 King Charles II of Navarre (b. 1332)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15787, 77357, 39972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 17, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 6 Peter IV of Aragon (b. 1319)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15986, 127830, 39963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 30 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 20 Robert IV of Artois, Count of Eu (poisoned) (b. 1356)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15803, 2650018, 39523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 42 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 22 Frans Ackerman, Flemish statesman (b. 1330)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15996, 849823, 39971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 23 King Olaf IV of Norway/Olaf II of Denmark (b. 1370)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1628, 66273, 66273, 39535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 17, 34 ], [ 35, 53 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Richard Óg Burke, second Clanricarde of Ireland", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1467990, 1468056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 26, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sir David Hanmer, Welsh judge, father-in-law of Owain Glyndŵr", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 551445, 22473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 17 ], [ 49, 62 ] ] } ]

[ "1387" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1392 (MCCCXCII) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 314227, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 55 ], [ 97, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 10 Johanna van Polanen, Dutch noblewoman (d. 1445)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16076, 34708731, 39929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 9 Peter, Duke of Coimbra (d. 1449)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8589, 2433119, 39934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alain Chartier, French poet and political writer (approximate date; d. c. 1430)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1394571, 39914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 75, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flavio Biondo, Italian humanist and historian (d. 1463)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1225733, 39505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Barbara of Cilli, Holy Roman Empress, queen consort of Hungary and Bohemia (d. 1451)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 916272, 34885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 80, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John de Mowbray, 2nd Duke of Norfolk (d. 1432)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 985987, 39916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John II of Luxembourg, Count of Ligny, French nobleman (d. 1441)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3776654, 39925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Filippo Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan (d. 1447)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 998335, 39931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Idris Imad al-Din, supreme leader of Tayyibi Isma'ilism, scholar and historian (d. 1468)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28935839, 3142259, 39501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 38, 56 ], [ 84, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 25 Hosokawa Yoriyuki, Japanese samurai", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19773, 8925188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 26 Jeong Mong-ju, Korean civil minister, diplomat and scholar (b. 1338) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1261, 430403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 17 Zhu Biao, Crown Prince of Ming Dynasty, China (b. 1355)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19631, 1083339, 39522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 17 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 22 Robert de Vere, Duke of Ireland (b. 1362)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21526, 251315, 39527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 45 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 23 Isabella of Castile, Duchess of York (b. 1355)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 14750344, 4824146, 39522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 50 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abbot Methodius of Peshnosha, Eastern Orthodox saint", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1143, 1834723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 31, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lalleshwari, Kashmiri poet and mystic (b. 1320)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 296523, 36098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jeong Mong-ju, Goryeo diplomat and poet (b. 1337)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 430403, 188435, 39974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 16, 22 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] } ]

[ "1392" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1391 (MCCCXCI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168851, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 56 ], [ 98, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 31 Edward, King of Portugal (d. 1438)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22437, 253962, 39921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 6 Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March, English politician (d. 1425)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21758, 267631, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 47 ], [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gedun Drub, 1st Dalai Lama (d. 1474)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 100612, 39498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 32, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joan of France, Duchess of Brittany (d. 1433)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14807572, 39917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas West, 2nd Baron West (d. 1415)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2105505, 36126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ], [ 33, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 16 Emir Muhammed V of Granada (b. 1338)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16022, 5977981, 36366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 18, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 16 John V Palaiologos, Byzantine emperor (b. 1332)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11362, 74224, 4016, 39972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 34, 51 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 10 King Tvrtko I of Bosnia (b. 1338)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20196, 461806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 16, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 1 Amadeus VII, Count of Savoy (b. 1360)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21460, 69305, 36171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 40 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gaston III, Count of Foix, co-prince of Andorra", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1858002, 600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 41, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Petru, Prince of Moldavia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40116752, 46007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 18, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret, Countess of Mar (approximate date)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4237791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] } ]

[ "1391" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1390 (MCCCXC) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321295, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 25, 57 ], [ 99, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 3 Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (d. 1447)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22347, 213455, 39931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 40 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 27 Anne de Mortimer, claimant to the English throne (d. 1411)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8452, 211544, 39895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Moctezuma I, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan, son of Huitzilihuitl (d. 1469)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20746, 1460226, 34993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 50, 63 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Dunstaple, English composer (d. 1453)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 324795, 35148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, Swedish statesman and rebel leader (d. 1436)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 592396, 34778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Contessina de' Bardi, politically active Florentine woman (d. 1473)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19559897, 35077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jan van Eyck, Flemish painter (d. 1441)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 46381, 39925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 26 Adolph IX, Count of Holstein-Kiel (b.c 1327)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15791, 36237005, 39967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 46 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 16 Rupert I, Elector Palatine (b. 1309)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11362, 5710525, 39954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 40 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 20 Alexios III Megas Komnenos, Emperor of Trebizond (b. 1338)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 14563107, 3102454, 652643, 36366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 37 ], [ 39, 59 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 19 King Robert II of Scotland (b. 1316)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2196, 147958, 39960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 16, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 8 Albert of Saxony, Bishop of Halberstadt and German philosopher (b. circa 1320)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15874, 853697, 3391027, 23276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 25 ], [ 27, 48 ], [ 60, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 14 John FitzAlan, 2nd Baron Arundel, English soldier (b. 1364)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1417, 1335742, 36122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 44 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 23 John I, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1346)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27651, 655715, 36119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 9 King John I of Castile (fall from a horse) (b. 1358)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22549, 153265, 546254, 39525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 17, 34 ], [ 36, 53 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September Towtiwil, Prince of Black Ruthenia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1953680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sandaki Mari Djata, Mansa of the Mali Empire", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2258622, 2176030, 182049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 21, 26 ], [ 34, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Keratsa of Bulgaria, Byzantine empress consort (b. 1348)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6567508, 36120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sa'ad al-Din Masud ibn Umar ibn Abd Allah al-Taftazani, Ilkhanate polymath (b. 1322)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20696548, 542300, 25121, 36360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 55 ], [ 57, 66 ], [ 67, 75 ], [ 80, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Altichiero, Italian painter (b. 1330)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 718319, 39971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 21 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] } ]

[ "1390" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1395 (MCCCXCV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the Julian calendar, the 1395th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 395th year of the 2nd millennium, the 95th year of the 14th century, and the 6th year of the 1390s decade.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168855, 15651, 6088, 1400, 35938, 34625, 36371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 56 ], [ 98, 113 ], [ 138, 148 ], [ 158, 169 ], [ 211, 225 ], [ 248, 260 ], [ 286, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 11 Michele of Valois, French princess and Duchess Consort of Burgundy (d. 1422)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15847, 991201, 39905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ], [ 84, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 18 John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter, English military leader (d. 1447)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20273, 297470, 39931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 43 ], [ 73, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 7 Reginald West, 6th Baron De La Warr, English politician (d. 1427)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27949, 2103518, 39910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 49 ], [ 74, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fra Angelico, Italian painter (d. 1455)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11457, 39508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Niccolò Da Conti, Italian merchant and explorer (d. 1469)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1988090, 34993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George of Trebizond, Greek philosopher and scholar (d. 1484)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 156990, 39494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jacques Cœur, French merchant (d. 1456)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2556345, 39507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 13 John Barbour, Scottish poet", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22693343, 151736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 17", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prince Marko, Serbian leader", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 231555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mary, Queen of Hungary, co-ruler", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 3 Ivan Shishman of Bulgaria, tsar (b. c.1350)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15854, 2096887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 29 Duke Albert III of Austria (b. 1349)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1793, 1163286, 39511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 17, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 25 Elisabeth, Countess of Neuchâtel, Swiss ruler", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8270, 55876923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Acamapichtli, 1st tlatoani (monarch) of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City), 1375-1395 (b. c. 1355)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 453414, 1475346, 29988, 39522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 19, 27 ], [ 41, 53 ], [ 93, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret the Barefooted, Italian saint (b. 1325)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18745093, 39966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] } ]

[ "1395" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1396 (MCCCXCVI) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321364, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 31 Philip III, Duke of Burgundy (d. 1467)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18679439, 606972, 39502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 16 William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, English noble (d. 1450)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22556, 236109, 39510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 52 ], [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alfonso V of Aragon (d. 1458)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1686, 36131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 25, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bonne of Artois, countess regent of Nevers (d. 1425)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10780092, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ambroise de Loré, baron of Ivry in Normandy (d. 1446)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1806761, 39930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michelozzo, Italian architect and sculptor (d. 1472)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 871362, 39499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ponhea Yat, ruler of the Khmer Empire (d. 1460?)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 46836934, 39506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 11 Isidore Glabas, Metropolitan bishop of Thessalonica (b. 1341/2)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15847, 48866918, 40471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 27 ], [ 52, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 19 John I of Aragon (b. 1350)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19632, 151347, 39518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 25 ], [ 30, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 31 William Courtenay, Archbishop of Canterbury", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18679439, 157925, 2345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 27 ], [ 29, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 15 Queen Sindeok, politically active Korean queen (b. 1356)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28145, 52355511, 39523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 28 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 29 Robert Ferrers, 3rd Baron Ferrers of Wemme (b. 1373)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21578, 755936, 39537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 56 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Beaumont, 4th Baron Beaumont, Constable of Dover Castle (b. 1361)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 997405, 39526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frederick II, Marquess of Saluzzo", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 9009026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saint Stephen of Perm (b. 1340)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4403494, 39517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ], [ 27, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " She Xiang, Chinese tribute chieftain (b. 1361)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 53327439, 39526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] } ]

[ "1396" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1397 (MCCCXCVII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168880, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 58 ], [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 21 Infanta Isabel, Duchess of Burgundy (d. 1471)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11010, 453272, 35498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 49 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 15 Sejong the Great of Joseon, ruler of Korea (d. 1450)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19674, 159204, 39510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 35 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 10 Albert II of Germany, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1439)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2315, 38447, 50853, 39922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 32 ], [ 34, 52 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 15 Pope Nicholas V (d. 1455)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21763, 44993, 39508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 29 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chimalpopoca, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlán (d. 1427)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1460255, 39910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tlacaelel, Aztec nobleman (d. 1487)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1046519, 36137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 31, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli, Italian mathematician (d. 1482)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1295715, 385155, 39495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 29, 36 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John de Ros, 7th Baron Ros, English noble and soldier (d. 1421)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paolo Uccello, Florentine painter (d. 1475)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 24067, 39497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 11 Skirgaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15847, 1955509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 18 Enguerrand VII, Lord of Coucy (b. 1340)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11363, 1818070, 39517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 43 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 14 Henry VIII the Sparrow, Duke of Żagań–Głogów (b. c. 1357)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20199, 21676959, 39524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 33 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 25 Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent (b. 1350)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2733, 297492, 39518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 43 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 3 William Montacute, 2nd Earl of Salisbury, English military leader (b. 1328)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15854, 43215897, 39968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 49 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 16 Philip of Artois, Count of Eu, French soldier (b. 1358)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15935, 2650213, 39525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 39 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 15 Catherine of Henneberg, German ruler (b. c. 1334)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16088, 31921795, 36363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 32 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 2 Francesco Landini, Italian composer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27531, 468185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 8 Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester, son of King Edward III of England (b. 1355)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28488, 212504, 46377, 39522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 57 ], [ 71, 92 ], [ 97, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 15 Adam Easton, English cardinal", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28145, 3796416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 21 Richard FitzAlan, 11th Earl of Arundel, English military leader (executed) (b. 1346)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27532, 433432, 36119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 53 ], [ 94, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 6 Vuk Branković, Serbian lord (b. 1345)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22542, 159734, 14944095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 25 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] } ]

[ "1397" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1399 (MCCCXCIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 319725, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 60 ], [ 106, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January Timur the Lame captures and sacks Haridwar.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15642, 25439083, 287567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 15 ], [ 44, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 3 John of Gaunt, uncle of King Richard II of England and father of Henry Bolingbroke, dies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 11323, 53294, 46531, 46861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 26 ], [ 42, 63 ], [ 78, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 18 Richard II of England cancels the legal documents allowing the exiled Henry Bolingbroke to inherit his father's lands.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 20273, 46531, 46861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 32 ], [ 81, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 4 While Richard II of England is away on a military campaign in Ireland, Henry Bolingbroke, with exiled former archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Arundel as an advisor, returns to England and begins a military campaign to reclaim his confiscated lands.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15849, 46531, 147575, 46861, 2345, 206087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 15, 36 ], [ 71, 78 ], [ 80, 97 ], [ 118, 142 ], [ 143, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 6 Prince of Yan (Zhu Di) of China starts a rebellion in Beijing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1019, 30991419, 74268, 18603746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 24 ], [ 26, 32 ], [ 65, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 12 Battle of the Vorskla River: Mongol Golden Horde forces, led by Khan Temür Qutlugh and Emir Edigu, annihilate a crusading army led by former Golden Horde Khan Tokhtamysh, and Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1491, 1342169, 18984, 147911, 9288589, 2443592, 4412145, 746565, 599923, 17675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 39 ], [ 41, 47 ], [ 48, 60 ], [ 81, 94 ], [ 104, 109 ], [ 124, 133 ], [ 171, 181 ], [ 198, 206 ], [ 210, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 19 Richard II of England is taken prisoner upon his return from Ireland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1497, 46531, 147575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 33 ], [ 73, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 29 Having regained his father's lands, Henry Bolingbroke is urged to take the crown from the unpopular Richard II of England. Parliament charges Richard II with committing crimes against his subjects and eventually forces him to abdicate.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 28204, 46861, 46531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 51, 68 ], [ 115, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 30 Parliament accepts Henry Bolingbroke as the new king of England.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 27843, 46861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 34, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 13 Henry IV of England is crowned.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 22554, 46861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 19 Thomas Arundel is restored as Archbishop of Canterbury, replacing Roger Walden.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 22568, 2345, 153680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 43, 67 ], [ 79, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 1 John V, Duke of Brittany begins his reign.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 21460, 640418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Faraj succeeds his father, Barquq, as Mamluk Sultan of Egypt.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 2769003, 20738544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 34 ], [ 39, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sultan Bayezid I of the Ottoman Empire invades Mamluk-occupied Syria. A rift forms between Sultan Bayezid and Timur of the Timurid Empire, who also wanted to conquer Syria.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 4241, 22278, 7515849, 25439083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 17 ], [ 25, 39 ], [ 64, 69 ], [ 111, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ladislaus regains the throne of Naples, after overthrowing King Louis II.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 541959, 258779, 732584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 33, 39 ], [ 65, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " King Jogaila becomes sole ruler of Poland, after the death of his co-ruling wife, Queen Jadwiga.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 42586, 22936, 16419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 13 ], [ 36, 42 ], [ 89, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abu Said Uthman III succeeds Abdullah, as ruler of the Marinid Dynasty in present-day Morocco.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 39381476, 1661433, 19291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 56, 71 ], [ 87, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Principality of Achaea (now southern Greece) resists an invasion by the Ottoman Empire.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 310141, 12108, 22278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 27 ], [ 42, 48 ], [ 77, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Traditional foundation date of the Kingdom of Mysore in India, which survives until 1950.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 938699, 19283873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 53 ], [ 85, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iuga becomes prince of Moldavia", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 3259777, 46007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 24, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 16 Xuande Emperor of China (d. 1435)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19818, 390537, 39920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 25 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 26 John, Count of Angoulême (d. 1467)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15800, 8770387, 39502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 34 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " William II Canynges, English merchant (approximate date; d. 1474)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 224676, 39498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zara Yaqob, Emperor of Ethiopia (d. 1468)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1816597, 606626, 39501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rogier van der Weyden, Dutch painter (or 1400)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 192488, 36302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 4 Nicholas Eymerich, Catalan theologian and inquisitor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15982, 1708287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 3 John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster (b. 1340)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11323, 53294, 39517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 49 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 24 Margaret, Duchess of Norfolk (b. c. 1320)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20209, 1528152, 36098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 39 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 13 Peter Parler, German architect (b. 1330)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15878, 1944402, 39971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 22 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 17 Queen Jadwiga of Poland (b. 1374)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16089, 16419, 36367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 16, 33 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 12 Demetrius I Starshy, Prince of Trubczewsk (in battle) (b. 1327)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1491, 1733753, 39967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 31 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 15 Ide Pedersdatter Falk, Danish noblewoman (b. 1358)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1442, 41531220, 39525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 33 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 26 Mikhail II, Grand Prince of Tver (b. 1333)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6048708, 4794748, 36357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 22 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 22 Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk, English politician (b. 1366)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27889, 196680, 18803164, 39530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 53 ], [ 55, 62 ], [ 78, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 3 Eleanor de Bohun, English noble (b. c.1366)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22347, 8140242, 39530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 28 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 5 Raymond of Capua, Italian Dominic friar and venerated Christian (b. 1330)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22536, 9918090, 39971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 28 ], [ 80, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 1 John IV, Duke of Brittany (b. 1339)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21460, 640415, 39975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Spytek z Melsztyna, Polish nobleman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1869050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William le Scrope, 1st Earl of Wiltshire (b. 1350)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1722195, 39518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sultan Barquq of Egypt", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2769003, 8087628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 14 ], [ 18, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trần Ngung, former ruler of Trần dynasty Vietnam (forced to commit suicide)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2028369, 202354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 41 ], [ 42, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stephen I of Moldavia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40209235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] } ]

[ "1399" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1401 (MCDI) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321295, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 15 ], [ 23, 55 ], [ 101, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 27 Albert III, Duke of Bavaria-Munich (d. 1460)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20585, 3082647, 39506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 21 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 10 Thomas Tuddenham, Landowner (d. 1462)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19629, 39967630, 36221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 25 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 12 Emperor Shōkō of Japan (d. 1428)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19497, 47163, 39912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 22 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 23 Francesco I Sforza, Italian condottiero (d. 1466)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16181, 11623, 39503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 28 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 14 Maria of Castile, Queen of Aragon, Queen consort of Aragon and Naples (d. 1458)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27947, 5290701, 36131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 48 ], [ 89, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 27 Catherine of Valois, queen consort of England from 1420 until 1422 (d. 1437)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22434, 47072, 39904, 39905, 36129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 64, 68 ], [ 75, 79 ], [ 84, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 26 Henry Beaufort, 2nd Earl of Somerset (d. 1418)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21581, 538093, 39901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 50 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 21 Tommaso Masaccio, Italian painter (d. 1428)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8850, 31086, 39912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Charles I, Duke of Bourbon (d. 1456)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 703415, 39507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 32, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut (d. 1436)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 691000, 34778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Nicholas of Cusa, German philosopher, mathematician and astronomer (d. 1464)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 282522, 39504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ], [ 82, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 19 Robert Bealknap, British justice ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16011, 19573239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March William Sawtrey, English Lollard martyr (burned at the stake)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19344, 994604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 8 or August 8 Thomas de Beauchamp, 12th Earl of Warwick (b. 1338)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2224, 1333, 434065, 36366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 12, 20 ], [ 22, 63 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 25 Queen Maria of Sicily (b. 1363)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19354, 280983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 15, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 14 Dobrogost of Nowy Dwór, Polish bishop (b. 1355)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27947, 40019800, 39522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 37 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October Anabella Drummond, queen of Scotland", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22332, 5046297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 19 John Charleton, 4th Baron Cherleton (b. 1362)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22568, 21719283, 39527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 48 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 20 Klaus Störtebeker, German pirate", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22442, 2929190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 25 King Tarabya of Ava (b. 1368)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21580, 26454132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 19, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Andronikos Asen Zaccaria, Baron of Chalandritsa and Arcadia, Grand Constable of Achaea", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40934487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 39 ] ] } ]

[ "1401" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1404 (MCDIV) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 319727, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 16 ], [ 24, 53 ], [ 99, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 18 Sir Philip Courtenay, British noble (d. 1463)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16202, 28427532, 39505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 33 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 14 Leon Battista Alberti, Italian painter, poet, and philosopher (d. 1472)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10882, 18031, 39499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 35 ], [ 80, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 25 (bapt.) John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset, English military leader (d. 1444)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19773, 236118, 39928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 19, 54 ], [ 84, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June Murad II, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1451)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15785, 19988, 20427700, 34885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 7, 15 ], [ 17, 31 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 6 Yamana Sōzen, Japanese warlord and monk (d. 1473)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15862, 635467, 35077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 21 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 25 Philip I, Duke of Brabant (d. 1430)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15804, 2617103, 39914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 30 Anne of Burgundy (d. 1432)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27843, 414949, 39916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 31 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September Gilles de Rais, French aristocrat (d. 1440)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27529, 7713064, 39923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 26 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 14 Marie of Anjou, queen of Charles VII of France (d. 1463)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22525, 1157147, 76701, 39505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 27 ], [ 38, 59 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 27 Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1342)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2326, 69489, 39516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 14 Albert IV, Duke of Austria (b. 1377)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27947, 1163334, 39540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 27 William of Wykeham, English bishop and statesman (b. 1320)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27934, 172632, 36098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 33 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 1 Pope Boniface IX (b. 1356)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22340, 24061, 39523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 28 ], [ 33, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 15 Marie Valois, French princess (b. 1344)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22555, 5308236, 39514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 25 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 13 Albert I, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1336)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8852, 2598206, 36359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Eleanor of Arborea, ruler of Sardinia (b. 1350)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 486859, 39518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 33 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] } ]

[ "1404" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1406 (MCDVI) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168855, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 16 ], [ 24, 54 ], [ 100, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 28 Guy XIV de Laval, French noble (d. 1486)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15792, 14810947, 39492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 29 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 11 William, Margrave of Hachberg-Sausenberg, Margrave of Hachberg-Sausenberg (1428-1441) (d. 1482)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15873, 33592995, 39495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 50 ], [ 100, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 26 Thomas de Ros, 8th Baron de Ros, English soldier and politician (d. 1430)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28178, 1096074, 39914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 46 ], [ 83, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (d. 1464)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5800791, 39504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret, Countess of Vertus, French countess (d. 1466)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 26531615, 39503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Martin of Aragon, Aragon infante (d. 1407)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 32728224, 39559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ulrich II, Count of Celje (d. 1456)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9561092, 39507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 31, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable date", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Iancu de Hunedoara governor of Hungary (d. 1456)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 285013, 13275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 32, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 6 Roger Walden, English bishop", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15986, 153680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 17 Ibn Khaldun, African Arab historian (b. 1332)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20223, 199169, 39972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 22 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 4 King Robert III of Scotland (b. 1337)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18951826, 147959, 39974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 15, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 4 Coluccio Salutati, Chancellor of Florence (b. 1331)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19351, 50849, 36358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 25 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 15 William, Duke of Austria", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16088, 1168530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 28 John de Sutton V (b. 1380)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1781, 771675, 34956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 28 ], [ 33, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 16 Cyprian, Metropolitan of Moscow", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27650, 966410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 1 Joanna, Duchess of Brabant (b. 1322)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21460, 3432874, 36360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 6 Pope Innocent VII (b. 1339)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21758, 24642, 39975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 25 King Henry III of Castile (b. 1379)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8270, 153823, 39542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 19, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable date Tokhtamysh, khan of the Golden Horde", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 746565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 26 ] ] } ]

[ "1406" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1407 (MCDVII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321295, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 25, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 15 Jacob, Margrave of Baden-Baden (1431-1453) (d. 1453)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19635, 3490493, 35148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 41 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 27 Ashikaga Yoshikazu, Japanese shōgun (d. 1425)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1013, 234787, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 30 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 21 Leonello d'Este, Marquis of Ferrara, Italian noble (d. 1450)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27532, 5547077, 39510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 50 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 8 Alain de Coëtivy, Catholic cardinal (d. 1474)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21759, 16615111, 39498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 29 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thomas de Littleton, English judge (d. 1481)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 631219, 34886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marguerite, bâtarde de France, French noble, illegitimate daughter of the King of France (d. 1458)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 487255, 36131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ], [ 93, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Demetrios Palaiologos, Byzantine prince (d. 1470)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1532212, 39500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lorenzo Valla, Italian humanist, philosopher, literary critic (d. 1457)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 347106, 36130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 9 William I, Margrave of Meissen (b. 1343)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11361, 32222949, 39515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 43 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 16 Abdallah Fakhr al-Din, religious leader", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11362, 36193933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 7 Francesco I Gonzaga, ruler of Mantua", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18935042, 7440871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 23 Olivier de Clisson, French soldier (b. 1326)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1827, 2527538, 34879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 29 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July Empress Xu (Ming dynasty), Chinese Empress (b. 1362)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15786, 24455544, 39527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 7, 32 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 23 Louis I, Duke of Orléans, brother of Charles VI of France (murdered) (b. 1372)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21806, 703576, 77413, 39536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 38 ], [ 51, 71 ], [ 87, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pero López de Ayala, Spanish soldier (b. 1332)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3710206, 39972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kolgrim, Norse Greenlander and alleged sorcerer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 17289706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] } ]

[ "1407" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1408 (MCDVIII) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 311406, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 54 ], [ 100, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 25 Katharina of Hanau, German countess regent (d. 1460)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15845, 35097677, 39506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 31 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 14 John FitzAlan, 14th Earl of Arundel (d. 1435)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10882, 432547, 39920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 49 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 25 Agnes of Baden, Countess of Holstein-Rendsburg, German noble (d. 1473)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19773, 43269887, 35077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 57 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 8 Jadwiga of Lithuania, Polish princess (d. 1431)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2224, 4975883, 36127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 30 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 23 John de Vere, 12th Earl of Oxford, English noble (d. 1462)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1827, 8162766, 36221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 44 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 22 Annamacharya, Indian mystic saint composer (d. 1503)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19660, 222396, 34971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 21 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 1 or 1409 Karl Knutsson, King of Sweden (d. 1470)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22340, 39561, 187707, 39500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 14, 18 ], [ 20, 33 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 19 Thomas Bardolf, 5th Baron Bardolf, English rebel (in battle)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11006, 14299724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 20 Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland, English rebel (in battle) (b. 1342)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11025, 429136, 39516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 53 ], [ 85, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April Miran Shah, son of Timur the Lame (b. 1366)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1004, 1847993, 39530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 18 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 10 or April 11 Elizabeth le Despenser, English noblewoman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2564, 2395, 1335792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 13, 21 ], [ 23, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 24 Taejo of Joseon, ruler of Korea (b. 1335) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19459, 411354, 39973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 24 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 31 Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, Japanese shōgun (b. 1358)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19653, 47870703, 10736899, 39525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 28 ], [ 39, 45 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 15 Edmund Holland, 4th Earl of Kent (b. 1384)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28145, 4686591, 39545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 47 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 22 John VII Palaiologos, Byzantine Emperor (b. 1370)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27889, 74227, 4016, 39535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 35 ], [ 37, 54 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 4 Valentina Visconti, Duchess of Orléans by marriage to Louis of Valois, Duke of Orléans", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8354, 1626887, 703576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 31 ], [ 67, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Coptic Pope Matthew I of Alexandria", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 190494, 1806248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 26 ], [ 27, 50 ] ] } ]

[ "1408" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1409 (MCDIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 311439, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 16 ], [ 24, 55 ], [ 101, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 16 René of Anjou, king of Naples (d. 1480)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16022, 86924, 36298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 26 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 2 Jean II, Duke of Alençon, son of John I of Alençon and Marie of Brittany (d. 1476)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19516, 2208504, 34779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 34 ], [ 87, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 12 Isabella of Urgell, Duchess of Coimbra, Portuguese Duchess (d. 1459)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20197, 17988630, 36190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 49 ], [ 74, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 13 Joan of Valois, Duchess of Alençon, French duchess (d. 1432)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28030, 17528659, 39916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 49 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 7 Elizabeth of Luxembourg (d. 1442)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22446, 1934139, 39926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 21 Alessandro Sforza, Italian condottiero (d. 1473)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22570, 7675303, 35077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Bernardo Rossellino, Florentine sculptor and architect", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 357082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 13 Jan of Tarnów, Polish nobleman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19675, 1870656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 22 Blanche of England, sister of King Henry V (b. 1392)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19660, 7536842, 39549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 27 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 25 King Martin I of Sicily (b. 1374)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15804, 280987, 36367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 15, 33 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 13 Isabella of Valois, queen consort of England (b. 1387)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28030, 200535, 39548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 33 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Thomas Merke, English bishop", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 914899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Edmund Mortimer, English rebel (b. 1376)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 30170714, 39539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] } ]

[ "1409" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Geochemistry is the science that uses the tools and principles of chemistry to explain the mechanisms behind major geological systems such as the Earth's crust and its oceans. The realm of geochemistry extends beyond the Earth, encompassing the entire Solar System, and has made important contributions to the understanding of a number of processes including mantle convection, the formation of planets and the origins of granite and basalt. It is an integrated field of chemistry and geology. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26700, 5180, 1705831, 18842359, 9228, 26903, 7604906, 22915, 13088, 43534, 12207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 27 ], [ 66, 75 ], [ 146, 159 ], [ 168, 173 ], [ 221, 226 ], [ 252, 264 ], [ 359, 376 ], [ 395, 401 ], [ 422, 429 ], [ 434, 440 ], [ 485, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term geochemistry was first used by the Swiss-German chemist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1838: \"a comparative geochemistry ought to be launched, before geochemistry can become geology, and before the mystery of the genesis of our planets and their inorganic matter may be revealed.\" However, for the rest of the century the more common term was \"chemical geology\", and there was little contact between geologists and chemists.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 335773, 21171418, 5636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 94 ], [ 411, 420 ], [ 426, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Geochemistry emerged as a separate discipline after major laboratories were established, starting with the United States Geological Survey (USGS) in 1884, which began systematic surveys of the chemistry of rocks and minerals. The chief USGS chemist, Frank Wigglesworth Clarke, noted that the elements generally decrease in abundance as their atomic weights increase, and summarized the work on elemental abundance in The Data of Geochemistry.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23814944, 4948379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 138 ], [ 250, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The composition of meteorites was investigated and compared to terrestrial rocks as early as 1850. In 1901, Oliver C. Farrington hypothesised that, although there were differences, the relative abundances should still be the same. This was the beginnings of the field of cosmochemistry and has contributed much of what we know about the formation of the Earth and the Solar System.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19937, 7760185, 298448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ], [ 108, 128 ], [ 272, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 20th century, Max von Laue and William L. Bragg showed that X-ray scattering could be used to determine the structures of crystals. In the 1920s and 1930s, Victor Goldschmidt and associates at the University of Oslo applied these methods to many common minerals and formulated a set of rules for how elements are grouped. Goldschmidt published this work in the series Geochemische Verteilungsgesetze der Elemente [Geochemical Laws of the Distribution of Elements].", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 396454, 303544, 1683570, 31800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 39 ], [ 44, 60 ], [ 169, 187 ], [ 210, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The research of Manfred Schidlowski from the 1960s to around the year 2002 was concerned with the biochemistry of the Early Earth with a focus on isotope-biogeochemistry and the evidence of the earliest life processes in Precambrian.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 69467164, 5725438, 23645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 35 ], [ 118, 129 ], [ 221, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some subfields of geochemistry are:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subfields", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aqueous geochemistry studies the role of various elements in watersheds, including copper, sulfur, mercury, and how elemental fluxes are exchanged through atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic interactions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subfields", "target_page_ids": [ 43790336, 125293, 27127, 18617142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 83, 89 ], [ 91, 97 ], [ 99, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Biogeochemistry is the field of study focusing on the effect of life on the chemistry of the Earth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subfields", "target_page_ids": [ 822575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cosmochemistry includes the analysis of the distribution of elements and their isotopes in the cosmos.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subfields", "target_page_ids": [ 298448, 31880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 95, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Isotope geochemistry involves the determination of the relative and absolute concentrations of the elements and their isotopes in the Earth and on Earth's surface.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subfields", "target_page_ids": [ 1440511, 5659, 19600416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 99, 106 ], [ 118, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Organic geochemistry, the study of the role of processes and compounds that are derived from living or once-living organisms.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subfields", "target_page_ids": [ 456204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Photogeochemistry is the study of light-induced chemical reactions that occur or may occur among natural components of the Earth's surface.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subfields", "target_page_ids": [ 47664587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Regional geochemistry includes applications to environmental, hydrological and mineral exploration studies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Subfields", "target_page_ids": [ 20228736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The building blocks of materials are the chemical elements. These can be identified by their atomic number Z, which is the number of protons in the nucleus. An element can have more than one value for N, the number of neutrons in the nucleus. The sum of these is the mass number, which is roughly equal to the atomic mass. Atoms with the same atomic number but different neutron numbers are called isotopes. A given isotope is identified by a letter for the element preceded by a superscript for the mass number. For example, two common isotopes of chlorine are 35Cl and 37Cl. There are about 1700 known combinations of Z and N, of which only about 260 are stable. However, most of the unstable isotopes do not occur in nature. In geochemistry, stable isotopes are used to trace chemical pathways and reactions, while radioactive isotopes are primarily used to date samples.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Chemical elements", "target_page_ids": [ 5659, 673, 23317, 19916559, 19503111, 659068, 19604151, 19600416, 5667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 57 ], [ 93, 106 ], [ 133, 139 ], [ 148, 155 ], [ 208, 226 ], [ 267, 278 ], [ 310, 321 ], [ 398, 405 ], [ 549, 557 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The chemical behavior of an atom – its affinity for other elements and the type of bonds it forms – is determined by the arrangement of electrons in orbitals, particularly the outermost (valence) electrons. These arrangements are reflected in the position of elements in the periodic table. Based on position, the elements fall into the broad groups of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, semi-metals (also known as metalloids), halogens, noble gases, lanthanides and actinides.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Chemical elements", "target_page_ids": [ 7225, 5993, 1206, 568674, 23053, 666, 37411, 30364, 85425, 13258, 21140, 18308, 2308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 66 ], [ 83, 88 ], [ 149, 157 ], [ 187, 194 ], [ 275, 289 ], [ 353, 365 ], [ 368, 388 ], [ 391, 407 ], [ 437, 446 ], [ 450, 457 ], [ 460, 469 ], [ 473, 483 ], [ 489, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another useful classification scheme for geochemistry is the Goldschmidt classification, which places the elements into four main groups. Lithophiles combine easily with oxygen. These elements, which include Na, K, Si, Al, Ti, Mg and Ca, dominate in the Earth's crust, forming silicates and other oxides. Siderophile elements (Fe, Co, Ni, Pt, Re, Os) have an affinity for iron and tend to concentrate in the core. Chalcophile elements (Cu, Ag, Zn, Pb, S) form sulfides; and atmophile elements (O, N, H and noble gases) dominate the atmosphere. Within each group, some elements are refractory, remaining stable at high temperatures, while others are volatile, evaporating more easily, so heating can separate them.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Chemical elements", "target_page_ids": [ 276294, 26826, 23055, 27114, 904, 30040, 18909, 5668, 1705831, 36891, 14734, 24580536, 21274, 23324, 25603, 22304, 14734, 1417149, 125293, 27119, 34420, 17747, 27127, 292444, 22303, 21175, 13255, 861928, 2528589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 87 ], [ 208, 210 ], [ 212, 213 ], [ 215, 217 ], [ 219, 221 ], [ 223, 225 ], [ 227, 229 ], [ 234, 236 ], [ 254, 267 ], [ 277, 285 ], [ 327, 329 ], [ 331, 333 ], [ 335, 337 ], [ 339, 341 ], [ 343, 345 ], [ 347, 349 ], [ 372, 376 ], [ 408, 412 ], [ 436, 438 ], [ 440, 442 ], [ 444, 446 ], [ 448, 450 ], [ 452, 453 ], [ 460, 467 ], [ 494, 495 ], [ 497, 498 ], [ 500, 501 ], [ 581, 591 ], [ 649, 657 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The chemical composition of the Earth and other bodies is determined by two opposing processes: differentiation and mixing. In the Earth's mantle, differentiation occurs at mid-ocean ridges through partial melting, with more refractory materials remaining at the base of the lithosphere while the remainder rises to form basalt. After an oceanic plate descends into the mantle, convection eventually mixes the two parts together. Erosion differentiates granite, separating it into clay on the ocean floor, sandstone on the edge of the continent, and dissolved minerals in ocean waters. Metamorphism and anatexis (partial melting of crustal rocks) can mix these elements together again. In the ocean, biological organisms can cause chemical differentiation, while dissolution of the organisms and their wastes can mix the materials again.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Differentiation and mixing", "target_page_ids": [ 1079866, 1821971, 19400075, 145716, 43534, 47526, 9696, 13088, 36980, 27772, 202831, 3176179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 145 ], [ 173, 188 ], [ 198, 213 ], [ 275, 286 ], [ 321, 327 ], [ 378, 388 ], [ 430, 437 ], [ 453, 460 ], [ 481, 485 ], [ 506, 515 ], [ 586, 598 ], [ 603, 611 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A major source of differentiation is fractionation, an unequal distribution of elements and isotopes. This can be the result of chemical reactions, phase changes, kinetic effects, or radioactivity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Differentiation and mixing", "target_page_ids": [ 908086, 54423, 197767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 50 ], [ 148, 161 ], [ 183, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the largest scale, planetary differentiation is a physical and chemical separation of a planet into chemically distinct regions. For example, the terrestrial planets formed iron-rich cores and silicate-rich mantles and crusts. In the Earth's mantle, the primary source of chemical differentiation is partial melting, particularly near mid-ocean ridges. This can occur when the solid is heterogeneous or a solid solution, and part of the melt is separated from the solid. The process is known as equilibrium or batch melting if the solid and melt remain in equilibrium until the moment that the melt is removed, and fractional or Rayleigh melting if it is removed continuously.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Differentiation and mixing", "target_page_ids": [ 254452, 19400075, 2221187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 47 ], [ 303, 318 ], [ 408, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Isotopic fractionation can have mass-dependent and mass-independent forms. Molecules with heavier isotopes have lower ground state energies and are therefore more stable. As a result, chemical reactions show a small isotope dependence, with heavier isotopes preferring species or compounds with a higher oxidation state; and in phase changes, heavier isotopes tend to concentrate in the heavier phases. Mass-dependent fractionation is largest in light elements because the difference in masses is a larger fraction of the total mass.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Differentiation and mixing", "target_page_ids": [ 6284612, 84400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 118, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ratios between isotopes are generally compared to a standard. For example, sulfur has four stable isotopes, of which the two most common are 32S and 34S. The ratio of their concentrations, , is reported as", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Differentiation and mixing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the same ratio for a standard. Because the differences are small, the ratio is multiplied by 1000 to make it parts per thousand (referred to as parts per mil). This is represented by the symbol .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Differentiation and mixing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Equilibrium fractionation occurs between chemicals or phases that are in equilibrium with each other. In equilibrium fractionation between phases, heavier phases prefer the heavier isotopes. For two phases A and B, the effect can be represented by the factor", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Differentiation and mixing", "target_page_ids": [ 12139198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the liquid-vapor phase transition for water, at 20 degrees Celsius is 1.0098 for 18O and 1.084 for 2H. In general, fractionation is greater at lower temperatures. At 0°C, the factors are 1.0117 and 1.111.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Differentiation and mixing", "target_page_ids": [ 19593040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When there is no equilibrium between phases or chemical compounds, kinetic fractionation can occur. For example, at interfaces between liquid water and air, the forward reaction is enhanced if the humidity of the air is less than 100% or the water vapor is moved by a wind. Kinetic fractionation generally is enhanced compared to equilibrium fractionation and depends on factors such as reaction rate, reaction pathway and bond energy. Since lighter isotopes generally have weaker bonds, they tend to react faster and enrich the reaction products.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Differentiation and mixing", "target_page_ids": [ 2497263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Biological fractionation is a form of kinetic fractionation since reactions tend to be in one direction. Biological organisms prefer lighter isotopes because there is a lower energy cost in breaking energy bonds. In addition to the previously mentioned factors, the environment and species of the organism can have a large effect on the fractionation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Differentiation and mixing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Through a variety of physical and chemical processes, chemical elements change in concentration and move around in what are called geochemical cycles. An understanding of these changes requires both detailed observation and theoretical models. Each chemical compound, element or isotope has a concentration that is a function of position and time, but it is impractical to model the full variability. Instead, in an approach borrowed from chemical engineering, geochemists average the concentration over regions of the Earth called geochemical reservoirs. The choice of reservoir depends on the problem; for example, the ocean may be a single reservoir or be split into multiple reservoirs. In a type of model called a box model, a reservoir is represented by a box with inputs and outputs.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cycles", "target_page_ids": [ 6038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 440, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Geochemical models generally involve feedback. In the simplest case of a linear cycle, either the input or the output from a reservoir is proportional to the concentration. For example, salt is removed from the ocean by formation of evaporites, and given a constant rate of evaporation in evaporite basins, the rate of removal of salt should be proportional to its concentration. For a given component , if the input to a reservoir is a constant and the output is for some constant , then the mass balance equation is", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cycles", "target_page_ids": [ 1605200, 186182, 2428476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 190 ], [ 233, 242 ], [ 495, 507 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This expresses the fact that any change in mass must be balanced by changes in the input or output. On a time scale of , the system approaches a steady state in which . The residence time is defined as", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cycles", "target_page_ids": [ 1326107, 50390340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 157 ], [ 173, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where and are the input and output rates. In the above example, the steady-state input and output rates are both equal to , so .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cycles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the input and output rates are nonlinear functions of , they may still be closely balanced over time scales much greater than the residence time; otherwise, there will be large fluctuations in . In that case, the system is always close to a steady-state and the lowest order expansion of the mass balance equation will lead to a linear equation like Equation (). In most systems, one or both of the input and output depend on , resulting in feedback that tends to maintain the steady-state. If an external forcing perturbs the system, it will return to the steady-state on a time scale of .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cycles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The composition of the solar system is similar to that of many other stars, and aside from small anomalies it can be assumed to have formed from a solar nebula that had a uniform composition, and the composition of the Sun's photosphere is similar to that of the rest of the Solar System. The composition of the photosphere is determined by fitting the absorption lines in its spectrum to models of the Sun's atmosphere. By far the largest two elements by fraction of total mass are hydrogen (74.9%) and helium (23.8%), with all the remaining elements contributing just 1.3%. There is a general trend of exponential decrease in abundance with increasing atomic number, although elements with even atomic number are more common than their odd-numbered neighbors (the Oddo–Harkins rule). Compared to the overall trend, lithium, boron and beryllium are depleted and iron is anomalously enriched.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abundance of elements", "target_page_ids": [ 6139438, 26751, 38979, 177320, 29329, 13256, 330320, 2324648, 17561, 3755, 3378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 159 ], [ 219, 222 ], [ 225, 236 ], [ 353, 369 ], [ 377, 385 ], [ 504, 510 ], [ 604, 624 ], [ 766, 783 ], [ 817, 824 ], [ 826, 831 ], [ 836, 845 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The pattern of elemental abundance is mainly due to two factors. The hydrogen, helium, and some of the lithium were formed in about 20 minutes after the Big Bang, while the rest were created in the interiors of stars.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abundance of elements", "target_page_ids": [ 44058, 152440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 161 ], [ 183, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meteorites come in a variety of compositions, but chemical analysis can determine whether they were once in planetesimals that melted or differentiated. Chondrites are undifferentiated and have round mineral inclusions called chondrules. With the ages of 4.56 billion years, they date to the early solar system. A particular kind, the CI chondrite, has a composition that closely matches that of the Sun's photosphere, except for depletion of some volatiles (H, He, C, N, O) and a group of elements (Li, B, Be) that are destroyed by nucleosynthesis in the Sun. Because of the latter group, CI chondrites are considered a better match for the composition of the early Solar System. Moreover, the chemical analysis of CI chondrites is more accurate than for the photosphere, so it is generally used as the source for chemical abundance, despite their rareness (only five have been recovered on Earth).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abundance of elements", "target_page_ids": [ 19937, 192500, 20648, 254452, 532261, 232106, 6139438, 27483741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 108, 120 ], [ 127, 133 ], [ 137, 151 ], [ 153, 162 ], [ 226, 235 ], [ 292, 310 ], [ 335, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The planets of the Solar System are divided into two groups: the four inner planets are the terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars), with relatively small sizes and rocky surfaces. The four outer planets are the giant planets, which are dominated by hydrogen and helium and have lower mean densities. These can be further subdivided into the gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn) and the ice giants (Uranus and Neptune) that have large icy cores.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abundance of elements", "target_page_ids": [ 48510, 19694, 32745, 9228, 14640471, 12733, 44687845, 38930, 44474, 2535858, 44475, 19003265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 110 ], [ 113, 120 ], [ 122, 127 ], [ 129, 134 ], [ 139, 143 ], [ 225, 238 ], [ 355, 364 ], [ 367, 374 ], [ 379, 385 ], [ 395, 404 ], [ 407, 413 ], [ 418, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of our direct information on the composition of the giant planets is from spectroscopy. Since the 1930s, Jupiter was known to contain hydrogen, methane and ammonium. In the 1960s, interferometry greatly increased the resolution and sensitivity of spectral analysis, allowing the identification of a much greater collection of molecules including ethane, acetylene, water and carbon monoxide. However, Earth-based spectroscopy becomes increasingly difficult with more remote planets, since the reflected light of the Sun is much dimmer; and spectroscopic analysis of light from the planets can only be used to detect vibrations of molecules, which are in the infrared frequency range. This constrains the abundances of the elements H, C and N. Two other elements are detected: phosphorus in the gas phosphine (PH3) and germanium in germane (GeH4).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abundance of elements", "target_page_ids": [ 27752, 18582230, 69079, 166689, 163106, 1778, 6136, 15022, 264583, 2981465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 91 ], [ 149, 156 ], [ 161, 169 ], [ 185, 199 ], [ 351, 357 ], [ 359, 368 ], [ 380, 395 ], [ 663, 671 ], [ 803, 812 ], [ 836, 843 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The helium atom has vibrations in the ultraviolet range, which is strongly absorbed by the atmospheres of the outer planets and Earth. Thus, despite its abundance, helium was only detected once spacecraft were sent to the outer planets, and then only indirectly through collision-induced absorption in hydrogen molecules. Further information on Jupiter was obtained from the Galileo probe when it was sent into the atmosphere in 1995; and the final mission of the Cassini probe in 2017 was to enter the atmosphere of Saturn. In the atmosphere of Jupiter, He was found to be depleted by a factor of 2 compared to solar composition and Ne by a factor of 10, a surprising result since the other noble gases and the elements C, N and S were enhanced by factors of 2 to 4 (oxygen was also depleted but this was attributed to the unusually dry region that Galileo sampled).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abundance of elements", "target_page_ids": [ 31990, 66515110, 41271237, 67941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 49 ], [ 375, 388 ], [ 443, 456 ], [ 464, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spectroscopic methods only penetrate the atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn to depths where the pressure is about equal to 1 bar, approximately Earth's atmospheric pressure at sea level. The Galileo probe penetrated to 22 bars. This is a small fraction of the planet, which is expected to reach pressures of over 40 Mbar. To constrain the composition in the interior, thermodynamic models are constructed using the information on temperature from infrared emission spectra and equations of state for the likely compositions. High-pressure experiments predict that hydrogen will be a metallic liquid in the interior of Jupiter and Saturn, while in Uranus and Neptune it remains in the molecular state. Estimates also depend on models for the formation of the planets. Condensation of the presolar nebula would result in a gaseous planet with the same composition as the Sun, but the planets could also have formed when a solid core captured nebular gas.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abundance of elements", "target_page_ids": [ 362631, 47484, 62529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 127 ], [ 151, 171 ], [ 175, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In current models, the four giant planets have cores of rock and ice that are roughly the same size, but the proportion of hydrogen and helium decreases from about 300 Earth masses in Jupiter to 75 in Saturn and just a few in Uranus and Neptune. Thus, while the gas giants are primarily composed of hydrogen and helium, the ice giants are primarily composed of heavier elements (O, C, N, S), primarily in the form of water, methane, and ammonia. The surfaces are cold enough for molecular hydrogen to be liquid, so much of each planet is likely a hydrogen ocean overlaying one of heavier compounds. Outside the core, Jupiter has a mantle of liquid metallic hydrogen and an atmosphere of molecular hydrogen and helium. Metallic hydrogen does not mix well with helium, and in Saturn, it may form a separate layer below the metallic hydrogen.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abundance of elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Terrestrial planets are believed to have come from the same nebular material as the giant planets, but they have lost most of the lighter elements and have different histories. Planets closer to the Sun might be expected to have a higher fraction of refractory elements, but if their later stages of formation involved collisions of large objects with orbits that sampled different parts of the Solar System, there could be little systematic dependence on position.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abundance of elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Direct information on Mars, Venus and Mercury largely comes from spacecraft missions. Using gamma-ray spectrometers, the composition of the crust of Mars has been measured by the Mars Odyssey orbiter, the crust of Venus by some of the Venera missions to Venus, and the crust of Mercury by the MESSENGER spacecraft. Additional information on Mars comes from meteorites that have landed on Earth (the Shergottites, Nakhlites, and Chassignites, collectively known as SNC meteorites). Abundances are also constrained by the masses of the planets, while the internal distribution of elements is constrained by their moments of inertia.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abundance of elements", "target_page_ids": [ 883560, 18959, 68281, 451839, 67216, 32732318, 67216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 114 ], [ 179, 191 ], [ 235, 241 ], [ 293, 302 ], [ 399, 410 ], [ 413, 421 ], [ 428, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The planets condensed from the solar nebula, and much of the details of their composition are determined by fractionation as they cooled. The phases that condense fall into five groups. First to condense are materials rich in refractory elements such as Ca and Al. These are followed by nickel and iron, then magnesium silicates. Below about 700 kelvins (700 K), FeS and volatile-rich metals and silicates form a fourth group, and in the fifth group FeO enter the magnesium silicates. The compositions of the planets and the Moon are chondritic, meaning that within each group the ratios between elements are the same as in carbonaceous chondrites.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abundance of elements", "target_page_ids": [ 31422, 19593121, 2091630, 470323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 309, 328 ], [ 346, 352 ], [ 363, 366 ], [ 450, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The estimates of planetary compositions depend on the model used. In the equilibrium condensation model, each planet was formed from a feeding zone in which the compositions of solids were determined by the temperature in that zone. Thus, Mercury formed at 1400 K, where iron remained in a pure metallic form and there was little magnesium or silicon in solid form; Venus at 900 K, so all the magnesium and silicon condensed; Earth at 600 K, so it contains FeS and silicates; and Mars at 450 K, so FeO was incorporated into magnesium silicates. The greatest problem with this theory is that volatiles would not condense, so the planets would have no atmospheres and Earth no atmosphere.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abundance of elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In chondritic mixing models, the compositions of chondrites are used to estimate planetary compositions. For example, one model mixes two components, one with the composition of C1 chondrites and one with just the refractory components of C1 chondrites. In another model, the abundances of the five fractionation groups are estimated using an index element for each group. For the most refractory group, uranium is used; iron for the second; the ratios of potassium and thallium to uranium for the next two; and the molar ratio FeO/(FeO+MgO) for the last. Using thermal and seismic models along with heat flow and density, Fe can be constrained to within 10 percent on Earth, Venus, and Mercury. U can be constrained within about 30% on Earth, but its abundance on other planets is based on \"educated guesses\". One difficulty with this model is that there may be significant errors in its prediction of volatile abundances because some volatiles are only partially condensed.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Abundance of elements", "target_page_ids": [ 31743, 30309, 162269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 404, 411 ], [ 470, 478 ], [ 537, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The more common rock constituents are nearly all oxides; chlorides, sulfides and fluorides are the only important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. By 1911, F. W. Clarke had calculated that a little more than 47% of the Earth's crust consists of oxygen. It occurs principally in combination as oxides, of which the chief are silica, alumina, iron oxides, and various carbonates (calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, sodium carbonate, and potassium carbonate). The silica functions principally as an acid, forming silicates, and all the commonest minerals of igneous rocks are of this nature. From a computation based on 1672 analyses of numerous kinds of rocks Clarke arrived at the following as the average percentage composition of the Earth's crust: SiO2=59.71, Al2O3=15.41, Fe2O3=2.63, FeO=3.52, MgO=4.36, CaO=4.90, Na2O=3.55, K2O=2.80, H2O=1.52, TiO2=0.60, P2O5=0.22, (total 99.22%). All the other constituents occur only in very small quantities, usually much less than 1%.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Earth's crust", "target_page_ids": [ 22305, 66269, 292444, 155650, 4948379, 22303, 43710, 141888, 277266, 5912, 44731, 383220, 155726, 238122, 24712184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 54 ], [ 57, 65 ], [ 68, 75 ], [ 81, 89 ], [ 207, 219 ], [ 296, 302 ], [ 375, 381 ], [ 383, 390 ], [ 392, 402 ], [ 417, 426 ], [ 429, 446 ], [ 448, 467 ], [ 470, 486 ], [ 492, 511 ], [ 612, 624 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These oxides combine in a haphazard way. For example, potash (potassium carbonate) and soda (sodium carbonate) combine to produce feldspars. In some cases, they may take other forms, such as nepheline, leucite, and muscovite, but in the great majority of instances they are found as feldspar. Phosphoric acid with lime (calcium carbonate) forms apatite. Titanium dioxide with ferrous oxide gives rise to ilmenite. Part of the lime forms lime feldspar. Magnesium carbonate and iron oxides with silica crystallize as olivine or enstatite, or with alumina and lime form the complex ferromagnesian silicates of which the pyroxenes, amphiboles, and biotites are the chief. Any excess of silica above what is required to neutralize the bases will separate out as quartz; excess of alumina crystallizes as corundum. These must be regarded only as general tendencies. It is possible, by rock analysis, to say approximately what minerals the rock contains, but there are numerous exceptions to any rule.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Earth's crust", "target_page_ids": [ 56509, 155726, 37955, 411113, 594004, 21062, 188378, 1867624, 140627, 219713, 470323, 154744, 45159, 1179836, 111194, 59243, 5047, 140459, 25233, 5974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 60 ], [ 93, 109 ], [ 130, 138 ], [ 191, 200 ], [ 202, 209 ], [ 215, 224 ], [ 293, 308 ], [ 314, 318 ], [ 345, 352 ], [ 354, 370 ], [ 376, 389 ], [ 404, 412 ], [ 515, 522 ], [ 526, 535 ], [ 617, 625 ], [ 628, 637 ], [ 644, 651 ], [ 730, 734 ], [ 757, 763 ], [ 799, 807 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Except in acid or siliceous igneous rocks containing greater than 66% of silica, known as felsic rocks, quartz is not abundant in igneous rocks. In basic rocks (containing 20% of silica or less) it is rare for them to contain as much silicon, these are referred to as mafic rocks. If magnesium and iron are above average while silica is low, olivine may be expected; where silica is present in greater quantity over ferromagnesian minerals, such as augite, hornblende, enstatite or biotite, occur rather than olivine. Unless potash is high and silica relatively low, leucite will not be present, for leucite does not occur with free quartz. Nepheline, likewise, is usually found in rocks with much soda and comparatively little silica. With high alkalis, soda-bearing pyroxenes and amphiboles may be present. The lower the percentage of silica and alkali's, the greater is the prevalence of plagioclase feldspar as contracted with soda or potash feldspar.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Earth's crust", "target_page_ids": [ 44161887, 43710, 11795, 21040, 18909, 14734, 45159, 363483, 43533, 1179836, 5047, 56509, 594004, 411113, 666, 111194, 59243, 45168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 14 ], [ 73, 79 ], [ 90, 96 ], [ 268, 273 ], [ 284, 293 ], [ 298, 302 ], [ 342, 349 ], [ 449, 455 ], [ 457, 467 ], [ 469, 478 ], [ 482, 489 ], [ 525, 531 ], [ 567, 574 ], [ 641, 650 ], [ 746, 753 ], [ 768, 777 ], [ 782, 792 ], [ 891, 911 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Earth's crust is composed of 90% silicate minerals and their abundance in the Earth is as follows: plagioclase feldspar (39%), alkali feldspar (12%), quartz (12%), pyroxene (11%), amphiboles (5%), micas (5%), clay minerals (5%); the remaining silicate minerals make up another 3% of Earth's crust. Only 8% of the Earth is composed of non-silicate minerals such as carbonates, oxides, and sulfides.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Earth's crust", "target_page_ids": [ 45168, 37955, 111194, 59243, 21061, 1161453, 2271221, 2576307, 2217890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 119 ], [ 127, 142 ], [ 164, 172 ], [ 180, 190 ], [ 197, 202 ], [ 209, 222 ], [ 364, 374 ], [ 376, 382 ], [ 388, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The other determining factor, namely the physical conditions attending consolidation, plays, on the whole, a smaller part, yet is by no means negligible. Certain minerals are practically confined to deep-seated intrusive rocks, e.g., microcline, muscovite, diallage. Leucite is very rare in plutonic masses; many minerals have special peculiarities in microscopic character according to whether they crystallized in-depth or near the surface, e.g., hypersthene, orthoclase, quartz. There are some curious instances of rocks having the same chemical composition, but consisting of entirely different minerals, e.g., the hornblendite of Gran, in Norway, which contains only hornblende, has the same composition as some of the camptonites of the same locality that contain feldspar and hornblende of a different variety. In this connection, we may repeat what has been said above about the corrosion of porphyritic minerals in igneous rocks. In rhyolites and trachytes, early crystals of hornblende and biotite may be found in great numbers partially converted into augite and magnetite. Hornblende and biotite were stable under the pressures and other conditions below the surface, but unstable at higher levels. In the ground-mass of these rocks, augite is almost universally present. But the plutonic representatives of the same magma, granite, and syenite contain biotite and hornblende far more commonly than augite.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Earth's crust", "target_page_ids": [ 1367322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 724, 734 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Those rocks that contain the most silica, and on crystallizing yield free quartz, form a group generally designated the \"felsic\" rocks. Those again that contain the least silica and most magnesia and iron, so that quartz is absent while olivine is usually abundant, form the \"mafic\" group. The \"intermediate\" rocks include those characterized by the general absence of both quartz and olivine. An important subdivision of these contains a very high percentage of alkalis, especially soda, and consequently has minerals such as nepheline and leucite not common in other rocks. It is often separated from the others as the \"alkali\" or \"soda\" rocks, and there is a corresponding series of mafic rocks. Lastly, a small sub-group rich in olivine and without feldspar has been called the \"ultramafic\" rocks. They have very low percentages of silica but much iron and magnesia.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Earth's crust", "target_page_ids": [ 45159, 411113, 594004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 237, 244 ], [ 527, 536 ], [ 541, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Except these last, practically all rocks contain felspars or feldspathoid minerals. In the acid rocks, the common feldspars are orthoclase, perthite, microcline, and oligoclase—all having much silica and alkalis. In the mafic rocks labradorite, anorthite, and bytownite prevail, being rich in lime and poor in silica, potash, and soda. Augite is the most common ferromagnesian in mafic rocks, but biotite and hornblende are on the whole more frequent in felsic rocks.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Earth's crust", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rocks that contain leucite or nepheline, either partly or wholly replacing felspar, are not included in this table. They are essentially of intermediate or of mafic character. We might in consequence regard them as varieties of syenite, diorite, gabbro, etc., in which feldspathoid minerals occur, and indeed there are many transitions between syenites of ordinary type and nepheline — or leucite — syenite, and between gabbro or dolerite and theralite or essexite. But, as many minerals develop in these \"alkali\" rocks that are uncommon elsewhere, it is convenient in a purely formal classification like that outlined here to treat the whole assemblage as a distinct series.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Earth's crust", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This classification is based essentially on the mineralogical constitution of the igneous rocks. Any chemical distinctions between the different groups, though implied, are relegated to a subordinate position. It is admittedly artificial but it has grown up with the growth of the science and is still adopted as the basis on which more minute subdivisions are erected. The subdivisions are by no means of equal value. The syenites, for example, and the peridotites, are far less important than the granites, diorites, and gabbros. Moreover, the effusive andesites do not always correspond to the plutonic diorites but partly also to the gabbros. As the different kinds of rock, regarded as aggregates of minerals, pass gradually into one another, transitional types are very common and are often so important as to receive special names. The quartz-syenites and nordmarkites may be interposed between granite and syenite, the tonalites and adamellites between granite and diorite, the monzonites between syenite and diorite, norites and hyperites between diorite and gabbro, and so on.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Earth's crust", "target_page_ids": [ 53575775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 691, 700 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trace metals readily form complexes with major ions in the ocean, including hydroxide, carbonate, and chloride and their chemical speciation changes depending on whether the environment is oxidized or reduced. Benjamin (2002) defines complexes of metals with more than one type of ligand, other than water, as mixed-ligand-complexes. In some cases, a ligand contains more than one donor atom, forming very strong complexes, also called chelates (the ligand is the chelator). One of the most common chelators is EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid), which can replace six molecules of water and form strong bonds with metals that have a plus two charge. With stronger complexation, lower activity of the free metal ion is observed. One consequence of the lower reactivity of complexed metals compared to the same concentration of free metal is that the chelation tends to stabilize metals in the aqueous solution instead of in solids.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Trace metals in the ocean", "target_page_ids": [ 277810, 7304, 18963787, 13711, 5912, 66269, 66313, 18589, 175641, 182451, 183324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 26, 35 ], [ 47, 50 ], [ 76, 85 ], [ 87, 96 ], [ 102, 110 ], [ 189, 208 ], [ 282, 288 ], [ 437, 444 ], [ 518, 549 ], [ 691, 699 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Concentrations of the trace metals cadmium, copper, molybdenum, manganese, rhenium, uranium and vanadium in sediments record the redox history of the oceans. Within aquatic environments, cadmium(II) can either be in the form CdCl+(aq) in oxic waters or CdS(s) in a reduced environment. Thus higher concentrations of Cd in marine sediments may indicate low redox potential conditions in the past. For copper(II), a prevalent form is CuCl+(aq) within oxic environments and CuS(s) and Cu2S within reduced environments. The reduced seawater environment leads to two possible oxidation states of copper, Cu(I) and Cu(II). Molybdenum is present as the Mo(VI) oxidation state as MoO42−(aq) in oxic environments. Mo(V) and Mo(IV) are present in reduced environments in the forms MoO2+(aq) and MoS2(s). Rhenium is present as the Re(VII) oxidation state as ReO4− within oxic conditions, but is reduced to Re(IV) which may form ReO2 or ReS2. Uranium is in oxidation state VI in UO2(CO3)34−(aq) and is found in the reduced form UO2(s). Vanadium is in several forms in oxidation state V(V); HVO42− and H2VO4−. Its reduced forms can include VO2+, VO(OH)3−, and V(OH)3. These relative dominance of these species depends on pH.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Trace metals in the ocean", "target_page_ids": [ 7512, 5672, 125293, 19052, 19051, 25603, 31743, 32431, 62061858, 24530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 35, 42 ], [ 44, 50 ], [ 52, 62 ], [ 64, 73 ], [ 75, 82 ], [ 84, 91 ], [ 96, 104 ], [ 238, 242 ], [ 1208, 1210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the water column of the ocean or deep lakes, vertical profiles of dissolved trace metals are characterized as following conservative–type, nutrient–type, or scavenged–type distributions. Across these three distributions, trace metals have different residence times and are used to varying extents by planktonic microorganisms. Trace metals with conservative-type distributions have high concentrations relative to their biological use. One example of a trace metal with a conservative-type distribution is molybdenum. It has a residence time within the oceans of around 8 x 105 years and is generally present as the molybdate anion (MoO42−). Molybdenum interacts weakly with particles and displays an almost uniform vertical profile in the ocean. Relative to the abundance of molybdenum in the ocean, the amount required as a metal cofactor for enzymes in marine phytoplankton is negligible.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Trace metals in the ocean", "target_page_ids": [ 25011, 30862758, 9257, 50557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 303, 311 ], [ 619, 628 ], [ 848, 854 ], [ 866, 879 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trace metals with nutrient-type distributions are strongly associated with the internal cycles of particulate organic matter, especially the assimilation by plankton. The lowest dissolved concentrations of these metals are at the surface of the ocean, where they are assimilated by plankton. As dissolution and decomposition occur at greater depths, concentrations of these trace metals increase. Residence times of these metals, such as zinc, are several thousand to one hundred thousand years. Finally, an example of a scavenged-type trace metal is aluminium, which has strong interactions with particles as well as a short residence time in the ocean. The residence times of scavenged-type trace metals are around 100 to 1000 years. The concentrations of these metals are highest around bottom sediments, hydrothermal vents, and rivers. For aluminium, atmospheric dust provides the greatest source of external inputs into the ocean.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Trace metals in the ocean", "target_page_ids": [ 904, 354588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 551, 560 ], [ 808, 825 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Iron and copper show hybrid distributions in the ocean. They are influenced by recycling and intense scavenging. Iron is a limiting nutrient in vast areas of the oceans and is found in high abundance along with manganese near hydrothermal vents. Here, many iron precipitates are found, mostly in the forms of iron sulfides and oxidized iron oxyhydroxide compounds. Concentrations of iron near hydrothermal vents can be up to one million times the concentrations found in the open ocean.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Trace metals in the ocean", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Using electrochemical techniques, it is possible to show that bioactive trace metals (zinc, cobalt, cadmium, iron, and copper) are bound by organic ligands in surface seawater. These ligand complexes serve to lower the bioavailability of trace metals within the ocean. For example, copper, which may be toxic to open ocean phytoplankton and bacteria, can form organic complexes. The formation of these complexes reduces the concentrations of bioavailable inorganic complexes of copper that could be toxic to sea life at high concentrations. Unlike copper, zinc toxicity in marine phytoplankton is low and there is no advantage to increasing the organic binding of Zn2+. In high-nutrient, low-chlorophyll regions, iron is the limiting nutrient, with the dominant species being strong organic complexes of Fe(III).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Trace metals in the ocean", "target_page_ids": [ 2032430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 673, 711 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Biogeochemical cycle", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 398638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Geochemical cycle", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40723560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Important publications in geochemistry", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 815092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Petrology", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 340982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tephrochronology", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3350024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Geochemistry of Igneous Rocks (Gunn Interactive Ltd.)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Geochemistry", "Earth_sciences" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "BASIC09 is a structured BASIC programming language dialect developed by Microware on behalf of Motorola for the then-new Motorola 6809 CPU and released in February 1980. It is primarily used with the OS-9 operating system, released in 1979. Microware also released a version for OS-9/68k on the 68000 as Microware BASIC.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4015, 39451, 20319, 20326, 5218, 39093, 22194, 20270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 50 ], [ 72, 81 ], [ 95, 103 ], [ 121, 134 ], [ 135, 138 ], [ 200, 204 ], [ 205, 221 ], [ 295, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In contrast to typical BASICs of the era, BASIC09 includes a multi-pass compiler that produces compact bytecode known as I-code. I-code replaces a number of data structures found in other BASICs with direct pointers to code and values, speeding performance. Users can further compile code using the command, at which point it can be called directly by OS-9 and operated as native code. In the case of PACKed code, a cut-down version of the BASIC09 runtime system is used, Runb, further improving memory footprint and load time.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5739, 89997, 2106840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 80 ], [ 103, 111 ], [ 449, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The language includes a number of structured programming additions, including local variables, the ability to ignore line numbers in favor of named routines, user-defined structures, and several distinct base data types including 16-bit and 8-bit (byte) integers, in addition to floating point and strings.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27695, 1718152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 56 ], [ 78, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A key difference between BASIC09 and conventional BASICs of the era, like the canonical Microsoft BASIC, is the addition of the structure which created separately executable blocks of code. Code in a had more in common with complete programs in other BASICs, including the variables being local to the code, and their ability to be executed in a stand-alone fashion. s were called by name using the command, and could include variables for function-call semantics; for instance, calls a procedure named that takes two parameters. Parameters were imported into the procedure using the keyword, in this example :", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [ 149766, 1718152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 103 ], [ 291, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PROCEDURE add", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PARAM a,b", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PRINT a+b", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A side-effect of the use of named procedures is that the resulting memory workspace is, in effect, its own namespace. In this respect, the BASIC09 system appears to the user to be a directory of callable programs. This contrasts with typical BASICs, where only one program is available at a given time and the construction of larger programs calling library-like code generally requires the source code to be copied and pasted between separate programs. In BASIC09, the user can procedures by name into the workspace and then call them from their own code to construct larger programs from the separately stored procedures.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [ 27661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 391, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to code in the workspace, if the program invokes with a procedure name that could not be found, it would then look for a disk file with the same name and load and run that file. This worked not only with BASIC09 code, but also any other executable program, including machine language files. This meant that BASIC09 could easily call system routines.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [ 20683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 280, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to , other common BASIC commands likewise used names. For instance, would print out the source code (\"list\") the procedure named \"bob\", while prints out all of the procedures currently in memory. The prettyprinted output from could be redirected to a file or a printer with a shell-like notation, e.g. . One could also and procedures from storage.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to the organizational properties of the , BASIC09 also included a number of extensions to the flow control statements found in BASIC to provide more structure. For instance, the statement could be used in the traditional ... format on a single line, or it could be used in a structured multi-line format:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [ 1619428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IF x>10 THEN", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PRINT \"x is larger than 10\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ELSE", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PRINT \"x is smaller than 10\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ENDIF", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " loops naturally have a structured format as the can be placed on any line, but BASIC09 also added and for additional clarity when working with non-indexed loops. It also included the center-exit which used the statement for testing anywhere in the loop's body.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "BASIC09 included several built-in data types. In addition to the traditional string (STRING) and 40-bit floating point (REAL) types found in most BASICs of the era, it also included the 16-bit signed INTEGER, the 8-bit unsigned BYTE, and the logical BOOLEAN type. The BOOLEAN types were not packed into bytes, a single BOOLEAN used an entire 8-bit byte to store a single value. The language provided separate bytewise boolean operators for bitwise operations on BYTEs and INTEGERs. In contrast to other BASICs that also operated different base types, BASIC09 did not \"decorate\" the variable name to indicate the type, and instead used the for definitions; for instance, to declare two BOOLEAN variables, or for an array of five INTEGERs.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [ 2247927, 753349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 291, 297 ], [ 418, 435 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Additionally, BASIC09 included the keyword, which allowed compound types to be defined, with each \"element\" listed on a single line separated by semicolons. For instance:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " TYPE employee_record=name:STRING;number(2):INTEGER;former:BOOLEAN", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "defines an employee record type named with three elements, , and . The employee_record type can now be used in a definition like any other type, for instance, , which defines an array of 100 employee_record's. The elements are accessed in code using dot notation, for instance, .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Syntax", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Line numbers were used in most BASIC dialects primarily as a way to support the editor. Users would edit particular lines of code by typing a number, with the text following either adding to or replacing the lines already in memory. As every line of code had a number, this also made them suitable for indicating the target of a or , compared to other languages like FORTRAN where a separate \"line label\" was used for this purpose.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Runtime", "target_page_ids": [ 11168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 368, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "BASIC09 did not normally use line numbers, so its editor had to be modified to allow the user to edit lines without referring to them by number. However, BASIC09 did not assume any sort of full-screen capability, so using cursor keys was not an option. Instead, the system had a separate editor prompt and allowed the user to move about using the and keys, moving forward or backward one line at a time. To insert a new line of code without a line number, the user left a blank at the start of the statement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Runtime", "target_page_ids": [ 1594727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 222, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Note that the language is case sensitive for user-provided values like procedure and variable names, but not for keywords. Keywords typed into the editor in lower case will be shown in upper case when the program is ed. BASIC09 allowed multiple statements on a single line of code, but used the as a separator instead of the used in most dialects. This is because it used the colon in the assignment operator, which was in addition to the normal . was identical in effect to , but made the difference between assignments and comparisons more obvious.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Runtime", "target_page_ids": [ 46063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The internal multipass compiler converts BASIC09 source code into a tokenized, optimized, bytecode, called I-code. I-code differs from the more traditional tokenizing approach found in most BASICs in that a number of items were placed directly in memory instead of using references that then had to be looked up.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Runtime", "target_page_ids": [ 27661, 81251, 89997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 60 ], [ 68, 73 ], [ 90, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For instance, in MS-based interpreters, a variable reference in code is left in string format; the variable would be represented in memory by the three ASCII characters \"VAR\". During execution, when this variable is encountered in the code the interpreter has to look up that string in a table of variables, find the associated storage address in memory, and then finally read the value stored in that location. The table is usually constructed so that the value follows the name, to save time during the final lookup.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Runtime", "target_page_ids": [ 586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In contrast, in I-code the address of the variable is determined in advance and the reference in code is replaced by that address. This avoids a runtime search through the variable table. Other optimizations include a separate routine used when the index variable is an INTEGER, and separate INTEGER and REAL math libraries.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Runtime", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For added performance, BASIC09 also included the command which took a procedure name and returned an optimized version. Some of these optimizations included removing non-coding instructions like code comments and the replacement of constant expressions to a single value. For instance, would recognize that contains only constants on the right, and replaces it with the code , which requires only a single operation at runtime, the addition, removing the division and square root. reduced the memory footprint of the procedure and improved performance by about 10 to 30%.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Runtime", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although it was common to run programs within the BASIC09 environment, as it was in other BASICs, BASIC09 also shipped with a separate run-only version of the code known as Runb. Runb removed the editing and debugging features of the system, and was about half the size of the full BASIC09 as a result.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Runtime", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The purpose of Runb was primarily to run PACKed modules when called from other programs. This meant that if the user typed in the name of a BASIC09 module in the OS/9 command line, and that module has been marked as PACKed, it is opened and run by Runb instead of the BASIC09. This reduces memory footprint and improves load time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Runtime", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " reasonably structured control flow provisions (e.g., line numbers were mainly needed for computed , as BASIC09 did not have a switch/case statement, or computed )", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Significant features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " structure declaration (rare in any BASIC variant then; more common in later BASIC implementations)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Significant features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " intrinsic integer and Boolean data types", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Significant features", "target_page_ids": [ 1162065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " more than two significant characters in variable names (some BASICs of the time allowed only one, many Microsoft BASIC variants allowed only two)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Significant features", "target_page_ids": [ 149766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " procedures with local variables (indeed, all variables in BASIC09 are local to procedures) and parameter passing by reference", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Significant features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " a reasonable debugger (its only significant drawback was that one could not examine the contents of fields in structures)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Significant features", "target_page_ids": [ 24998792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " a way to interface to machine language code, which could be passed parameters using the BASIC09 calling sequence", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Significant features", "target_page_ids": [ 20683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " automatic prettyprinting of source, which enforced a standard layout and avoided the ghastly mess that was the usual appearance of a program of any size in the interpreted BASICs of the time. Programmers normally would cram as many lines together as possible to avoid line number memory overhead—not a problem in BASIC09", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Significant features", "target_page_ids": [ 334552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " COMAL was another BASIC-like language with structured programming constructs", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 197700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Early OS-9 History, select content from 68 Micro Journal, September 1980, first review of OS-9 and Basic09, sent in by Tom Harmon of HHH Enterprises", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Official Basic09 Tour Guide, Dale L. Puckett, 1985, , Cat No.: 26-3189", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Package: Basic09 1.1.0 / Release Date: January 5, 2003, ''This release of Basic09 for the Tandy Color Computer 1/2/3 represents the first community-based release since the discontinuation of the CoCo in the 1980s.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "TRS-80_Color_Computer", "BASIC_interpreters" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A noble savage is a literary stock character who embodies the concept of the indigene, outsider, wild human, an \"other\" who has not been \"corrupted\" by civilization, and therefore symbolizes humanity's innate goodness. Besides appearing in many works of fiction and philosophy, the stereotype was also heavily employed in early anthropological works.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 98352, 45281, 972208, 6258, 569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 44 ], [ 77, 85 ], [ 113, 118 ], [ 152, 164 ], [ 328, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In English, the phrase first appeared in the 17th century in John Dryden's heroic play The Conquest of Granada (1672), wherein it was used in reference to newly created man. \"Savage\" at that time could mean \"wild beast\" as well as \"wild man\". The phrase later became identified with the idealized picture of \"nature's gentleman\", which was an aspect of 18th-century sentimentalism. The noble savage achieved prominence as an oxymoronic rhetorical device after 1851, when used sarcastically as the title for a satirical essay by English novelist Charles Dickens, who some believe may have wished to disassociate himself from what he viewed as the \"feminine\" sentimentality of 18th- and early 19th-century romantic primitivism.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 59378, 1023547, 11150793, 22677, 5884, 1639158, 2169442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 72 ], [ 87, 110 ], [ 366, 380 ], [ 425, 433 ], [ 545, 560 ], [ 657, 671 ], [ 713, 724 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his Inquiry Concerning Virtue (1699), the 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury had postulated that the moral sense in humans is natural and innate and based on feelings, rather than resulting from the indoctrination of a particular religion. Shaftesbury was reacting to Thomas Hobbes's justification of an absolutist central state in his Leviathan, \"Chapter XIII\", in which Hobbes famously holds that the state of nature is a \"war of all against all\" in which men's lives are \"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short\". Hobbes further calls the Native Americans an example of a contemporary people living in such a state. Although writers since antiquity had described people living in conditions outside contemporary definitions of \"civilization\", Hobbes is credited with inventing the term \"State of Nature\". Ross Harrison writes that \"Hobbes seems to have invented this useful term.\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 575910, 11150793, 25414, 29823, 1364004, 190192, 278263, 21217, 42655834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 68 ], [ 93, 104 ], [ 222, 230 ], [ 260, 273 ], [ 307, 320 ], [ 328, 337 ], [ 395, 410 ], [ 536, 552 ], [ 802, 815 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Contrary to what is sometimes believed, Jean-Jacques Rousseau never used the phrase noble savage (French bon sauvage). However, the archetypical character that would later be termed noble savage appeared in French literature at least as early as Jacques Cartier (explorer of Québec, speaking of the Iroquois) and Michel de Montaigne (philosopher, speaking of the Tupinamba) in the 16th century.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 15941, 70602, 7954867, 19195965, 44307, 993053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 61 ], [ 246, 261 ], [ 275, 281 ], [ 299, 307 ], [ 313, 332 ], [ 363, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tacitus' De origine et situ Germanorum (Germania), written 98 AD, has been described as a predecessor of the modern noble savage concept, which started in the 17th and 18th centuries in western European travel literature.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Pre-history of the noble savage", "target_page_ids": [ 19594563, 647512, 2406845, 1393859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 9, 38 ], [ 187, 203 ], [ 204, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ibn Tufail's 12th-century novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan provides an important antecedent to the concept of the noble savage. Written to explore the idea of natural theology, the novel sees the main character, a savage isolated from society, come to knowledge of God through the observation of nature. The book would come to inspire and influence many Enlightenment thinkers, among them Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Christiaan Huygens, Isaac Newton and Immanuel Kant.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Pre-history of the noble savage", "target_page_ids": [ 1104592, 9817005, 21665, 30758, 29823, 16143, 42127, 14627, 14631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 32, 48 ], [ 149, 165 ], [ 344, 357 ], [ 379, 392 ], [ 394, 404 ], [ 406, 424 ], [ 426, 438 ], [ 443, 456 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the discovery of America, the phrase \"savage\" for indigenous peoples was used disparagingly to justify the colonization of the Americas. The concept of the savage gave Europeans the supposed right to establish colonies without considering the possibility of preexisting, functional societies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Pre-history of the noble savage", "target_page_ids": [ 14098, 52447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 34 ], [ 117, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the late 16th and 17th centuries, the figure of the \"savage\"—and later, increasingly, the \"good savage\"—was held up as a reproach to European civilization, then in the throes of the French Wars of Religion and Thirty Years' War. In his famous essay \"Of Cannibals\" (1580), Michel de Montaigne—himself a Catholic—reported that the Tupinambá people of Brazil ceremoniously eat the bodies of their dead enemies as a matter of honour. However, he reminded his readers that Europeans behave even more barbarously when they burn each other alive for disagreeing about religion (he implies): \"One calls 'barbarism' whatever he is not accustomed to.\" Terence Cave comments:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Pre-history of the noble savage", "target_page_ids": [ 141480, 30583, 44157192, 44307, 993053, 54962188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 212 ], [ 217, 234 ], [ 257, 269 ], [ 279, 298 ], [ 336, 352 ], [ 649, 661 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In \"Of Cannibals\", Montaigne uses cultural (but not moral) relativism for the purpose of satire. His cannibals were neither noble nor exceptionally good, but neither were they suggested to be morally inferior to contemporary 16th-century Europeans. In this classical humanist portrayal, customs may differ but human beings in general are prone to cruelty in various forms, a quality detested by Montaigne. David El Kenz explains:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Pre-history of the noble savage", "target_page_ids": [ 54943, 48053, 48041, 6677, 5135982, 7830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 42 ], [ 52, 57 ], [ 59, 69 ], [ 257, 266 ], [ 267, 275 ], [ 287, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The treatment of indigenous peoples by Spanish Conquistadors also produced a great deal of bad conscience and recriminations. The Spanish priest Bartolomé de las Casas, who witnessed it, may have been the first to idealize the simple life of the indigenous Americans. He and other observers praised their simple manners and reported that they were incapable of lying, especially in the course of the Valladolid debate.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Pre-history of the noble savage", "target_page_ids": [ 303159, 69830, 2799269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 59 ], [ 145, 167 ], [ 400, 417 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "European angst over colonialism inspired fictional treatments such as Aphra Behn's novel Oroonoko, or the Royal Slave (1688), about a slave revolt in Surinam in the West Indies. Behn's story was not primarily a protest against slavery; rather, it was written for money, and it met readers' expectations by following the conventions of the European romance novella. The leader of the revolt, Oroonoko, is truly noble in that he is a hereditary African prince, and he laments his lost African homeland in the traditional terms of a classical Golden Age. He is not a savage but dresses and behaves like a European aristocrat. Behn's story was adapted for the stage by Irish playwright Thomas Southerne, who stressed its sentimental aspects, and as time went on, it came to be seen as addressing the issues of slavery and colonialism, remaining very popular throughout the 18th century.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Pre-history of the noble savage", "target_page_ids": [ 7299, 113143, 1003469, 54959, 26828, 5574915, 27992, 293632, 31497818, 20750674, 605745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 31 ], [ 70, 80 ], [ 89, 97 ], [ 134, 146 ], [ 150, 157 ], [ 165, 176 ], [ 227, 234 ], [ 348, 361 ], [ 540, 550 ], [ 611, 621 ], [ 682, 698 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In English, the phrase Noble Savage first appeared in poet John Dryden's heroic play, The Conquest of Granada (1672):", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origin of term", "target_page_ids": [ 59378, 1023547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 70 ], [ 86, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The hero who speaks these words in Dryden's play is here denying the right of a prince to put him to death, on the grounds that he is not that prince's subject. These lines were quoted by Scott as the heading to Chapter 22 of his \"A Legend of Montrose\" (1819). \"Savage\" is better taken here in the sense of \"wild beast\", so that the phrase \"noble savage\" is to be read as a witty conceit meaning simply the beast that is above the other beasts, or man.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origin of term", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ethnomusicologist Ter Ellingson believes that Dryden had picked up the expression \"noble savage\" from a 1609 travelogue about Canada by the French explorer Marc Lescarbot, in which there was a chapter with the ironic heading: \"The Savages are Truly Noble\", meaning simply that they enjoyed the right to hunt game, a privilege in France granted only to hereditary aristocrats. It is not known if Lescarbot was aware of Montaigne's stigmatization of the aristocratic pastime of hunting, though some authors believe he was familiar with Montaigne. Lescarbot's familiarity with Montaigne, is discussed by Ter Ellingson in The Myth of the Noble Savage.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origin of term", "target_page_ids": [ 80077, 1189733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 156, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Dryden's day the word \"savage\" did not necessarily have the connotations of cruelty now associated with it. Instead, as an adjective, it could as easily mean \"wild\", as in a wild flower, for example. Thus he wrote in 1697, \"the savage cherry grows\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origin of term", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One scholar, Audrey Smedley, claimed that \"English conceptions of 'the savage' were grounded in expansionist conflicts with Irish pastoralists and more broadly, in isolation from, and denigration of neighboring European peoples.\" and Ellingson agrees that \"The ethnographic literature lends considerable support for such arguments\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origin of term", "target_page_ids": [ 5050904, 775859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 27 ], [ 124, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In France the stock figure that in English is called the \"noble savage\" has always been simply \"le bon sauvage\", \"the good wild man\", a term without any of the paradoxical frisson of the English one. Montaigne is generally credited for being at the origin of this myth in his Essays (1580), especially \"Of Coaches\" and \"Of Cannibals\". This character, an idealized portrayal of \"Nature's Gentleman\", was an aspect of 18th-century sentimentalism, along with other stock characters such as, the Virtuous Milkmaid, the Servant-More-Clever-than-the-Master (such as Sancho Panza and Figaro, among countless others), and the general theme of virtue in the lowly born. The use of stock characters (especially in theater) to express moral truths derives from classical antiquity and goes back to Theophrastus's Characters, a work that enjoyed a great vogue in the 17th and 18th centuries and was translated by Jean de La Bruyère. The practice largely died out with advent of 19th-century realism but lasted much longer in genre literature, such as adventure stories, Westerns, and, arguably, science fiction. Nature's Gentleman, whether European-born or exotic, takes his place in this cast of characters, along with the Wise Egyptian, Persian, and Chinaman. \"But now, alongside the Good Savage, the Wise Egyptian claims his place.\" Some of these types are discussed by Paul Hazard in The European Mind.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origin of term", "target_page_ids": [ 98352, 44307, 1654138, 11150813, 579572, 639224, 98409, 164927, 7962398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 26 ], [ 200, 209 ], [ 276, 282 ], [ 429, 443 ], [ 560, 572 ], [ 577, 583 ], [ 787, 799 ], [ 901, 919 ], [ 979, 986 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He had always existed, from the time of the Epic of Gilgamesh, where he appears as Enkidu, the wild-but-good man who lives with animals. Another instance is the untutored-but-noble medieval knight, Parsifal. The Biblical shepherd boy David falls into this category. The association of virtue with withdrawal from society—and specifically from cities—was a familiar theme in religious literature.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origin of term", "target_page_ids": [ 80028, 1112309, 38235, 3390, 8551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 61 ], [ 83, 89 ], [ 198, 206 ], [ 212, 220 ], [ 234, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, an Islamic philosophical tale (or thought experiment) by Ibn Tufail from 12th-century Andalusia, straddles the divide between the religious and the secular. The tale is of interest because it was known to the New England Puritan divine, Cotton Mather. Translated into English (from Latin) in 1686 and 1708, it tells the story of Hayy, a wild child, raised by a gazelle, without human contact, on a deserted island in the Indian Ocean. Purely through the use of his reason, Hayy goes through all the gradations of knowledge before emerging into human society, where he revealed to be a believer of natural religion, which Cotton Mather, as a Christian Divine, identified with Primitive Christianity. The figure of Hayy is both a Natural man and a Wise Persian, but not a Noble Savage.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origin of term", "target_page_ids": [ 9817005, 49535, 1104592, 355643, 22468454, 7104, 19005888, 21665, 264070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 52, 70 ], [ 75, 85 ], [ 104, 113 ], [ 227, 246 ], [ 255, 268 ], [ 355, 365 ], [ 615, 631 ], [ 693, 715 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The locus classicus of the 18th-century portrayal of the American Indian are the famous lines from Alexander Pope's \"Essay on Man\" (1734):", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origin of term", "target_page_ids": [ 48344, 1505574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 113 ], [ 117, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To Pope, writing in 1734, the Indian was a purely abstract figure—\"poor\" either meant ironically, or applied because he was uneducated and a heathen, but also happy because he was living close to Nature. This view reflects the typical Age of Reason belief that men are everywhere and in all times the same as well as a Deistic conception of natural religion (although Pope, like Dryden, was Catholic). Pope's phrase, \"Lo the Poor Indian\", became almost as famous as Dryden's \"noble savage\" and, in the 19th century, when more people began to have first hand knowledge of and conflict with the Indians, would be used derisively for similar sarcastic effect.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origin of term", "target_page_ids": [ 30758, 8582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 235, 248 ], [ 319, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1st century AD, sterling qualities such as those enumerated above by Fénelon (excepting perhaps belief in the brotherhood of man) had been attributed by Tacitus in his Germania to the German barbarians, in pointed contrast to the softened, Romanized Gauls. By inference Tacitus was criticizing his own Roman culture for getting away from its roots—which was the perennial function of such comparisons. Tacitus's Germans did not inhabit a \"Golden Age\" of ease but were tough and inured to hardship, qualities which he saw as preferable to the decadent softness of civilized life. In antiquity this form of \"hard primitivism\", whether admired or deplored (both attitudes were common), co-existed in rhetorical opposition to the \"soft primitivism\" of visions of a lost Golden Age of ease and plenty.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Attributes of romantic primitivism", "target_page_ids": [ 19594563, 647512, 22235155, 31497818, 31497818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 167 ], [ 175, 183 ], [ 257, 262 ], [ 446, 456 ], [ 773, 783 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As art historian Erwin Panofsky explains:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Attributes of romantic primitivism", "target_page_ids": [ 387857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 18th century the debates about primitivism centered around the examples of the people of Scotland as often as the American Indians. The supposedly rude manners of the Highlanders were often scorned, but their toughness also called forth a degree of admiration among \"hard\" primitivists, just as that of the Spartans and the Germans had done in antiquity. One Scottish writer described his Highland countrymen this way:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Attributes of romantic primitivism", "target_page_ids": [ 36487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 314, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Debates about \"soft\" and \"hard\" primitivism intensified with the publication in 1651 of Hobbes's Leviathan (or Commonwealth), a justification of absolute monarchy. Hobbes, a \"hard Primitivist\", flatly asserted that life in a state of nature was \"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short\"—a \"war of all against all\":", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reaction to Hobbes", "target_page_ids": [ 29823, 190192, 67366, 278263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 94 ], [ 97, 106 ], [ 145, 162 ], [ 225, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reacting to the wars of religion of his own time and the previous century, he maintained that the absolute rule of a king was the only possible alternative to the otherwise inevitable violence and disorder of civil war. Hobbes' hard primitivism may have been as venerable as the tradition of soft primitivism, but his use of it was new. He used it to argue that the state was founded on a social contract in which men voluntarily gave up their liberty in return for the peace and security provided by total surrender to an absolute ruler, whose legitimacy stemmed from the Social Contract and not from God.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reaction to Hobbes", "target_page_ids": [ 14747617, 39704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 32 ], [ 389, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hobbes' vision of the natural depravity of man inspired fervent disagreement among those who opposed absolute government. His most influential and effective opponent in the last decade of the 17th century was Shaftesbury. Shaftesbury countered that, contrary to Hobbes, humans in a state of nature were neither good nor bad, but that they possessed a moral sense based on the emotion of sympathy, and that this emotion was the source and foundation of human goodness and benevolence. Like his contemporaries (all of whom who were educated by reading classical authors such as Livy, Cicero, and Horace), Shaftesbury admired the simplicity of life of classical antiquity. He urged a would-be author \"to search for that simplicity of manners, and innocence of behavior, which has been often known among mere savages; ere they were corrupted by our commerce\" (Advice to an Author, Part III.iii). Shaftesbury's denial of the innate depravity of man was taken up by contemporaries such as the popular Irish essayist Richard Steele (1672–1729), who attributed the corruption of contemporary manners to false education. Influenced by Shaftesbury and his followers, 18th-century readers, particularly in England, were swept up by the cult of sensibility that grew up around Shaftesbury's concepts of sympathy and benevolence.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reaction to Hobbes", "target_page_ids": [ 575910, 18049, 6046, 13693, 163676, 2694761, 806023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 220 ], [ 576, 580 ], [ 582, 588 ], [ 594, 600 ], [ 1010, 1024 ], [ 1233, 1244 ], [ 1291, 1299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meanwhile, in France, where those who criticized government or Church authority could be imprisoned without trial or hope of appeal, primitivism was used primarily as a way to protest the repressive rule of Louis XIV and XV, while avoiding censorship. Thus, in the beginning of the 18th century, a French travel writer, the Baron de Lahontan, who had actually lived among the Huron Indians, put potentially dangerously radical Deist and egalitarian arguments in the mouth of a Canadian Indian, Adario, who was perhaps the most striking and significant figure of the \"good\" (or \"noble\") savage, as we understand it now, to make his appearance on the historical stage:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reaction to Hobbes", "target_page_ids": [ 18553, 54247, 2528926, 140832, 8582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 216 ], [ 221, 223 ], [ 324, 341 ], [ 376, 389 ], [ 427, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Published in Holland, Lahontan's writings, with their controversial attacks on established religion and social customs, were immensely popular. Over twenty editions were issued between 1703 and 1741, including editions in French, English, Dutch and German.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reaction to Hobbes", "target_page_ids": [ 13288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of the most incendiary passages in Raynal's book, one of the bestsellers of the eighteenth century, especially in the Western Hemisphere, are now known to have been in fact written by Diderot. Reviewing Jonathan Israel's Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights, Jeremy Jennings, notes that The History of the Two Indies, in the opinion of Jonathan Israel, was the text that \"made a world revolution\" by delivering \"the most devastating single blow to the existing order\":", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reaction to Hobbes", "target_page_ids": [ 175425, 8199, 5407565, 8318279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 46 ], [ 189, 196 ], [ 208, 223 ], [ 294, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the later 18th century, the published voyages of Captain James Cook and Louis Antoine de Bougainville seemed to open a glimpse into an unspoiled Edenic culture that still existed in the un-Christianized South Seas. Their popularity inspired Diderot's Supplement to the Voyage of Bougainville (1772), a scathing critique of European sexual hypocrisy and colonial exploitation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reaction to Hobbes", "target_page_ids": [ 15630, 254389, 13078, 621178, 23070, 8199, 13565692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 70 ], [ 75, 104 ], [ 148, 162 ], [ 189, 205 ], [ 206, 216 ], [ 244, 251 ], [ 254, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benjamin Franklin, who had negotiated with the Native Americans during the French and Indian War, protested vehemently against the Paxton massacre, in which white vigilantes massacred Native American women and children at Conestoga, Pennsylvania, in December 1763. Franklin himself personally organized a Quaker militia to control the white population and \"strengthen the government\". In his pamphlet Remarks Concerning the Savages of North America (1784), Franklin deplored the use of the term \"savages\" for Native Americans:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Benjamin Franklin's Remarks Concerning the \"Savages\" of North America", "target_page_ids": [ 3986, 39062, 1789124, 6770834, 36811566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 75, 96 ], [ 131, 146 ], [ 222, 245 ], [ 401, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Franklin used the massacres to illustrate his point that no race had a monopoly on virtue, likening the Paxton vigilantes to \"Christian White Savages'\". Franklin would invoke God in the pamphlet, calling for divine punishment of those who carried the Bible in one hand and the hatchet in the other: 'O ye unhappy Perpetrators of this Horrid Wickedness!'\" Franklin praised the Indian way of life, their customs of hospitality, their councils, which reached agreement by discussion and consensus, and noted that many white men had voluntarily given up the purported advantages of civilization to live among them, but that the opposite was rare.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Benjamin Franklin's Remarks Concerning the \"Savages\" of North America", "target_page_ids": [ 5042765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jean-Jacques Rousseau, like Shaftesbury, also insisted that man was born with the potential for goodness; and he, too, argued that civilization, with its envy and self-consciousness, has made men bad. In his Discourse on the Origins of Inequality Among Men (1754), Rousseau maintained that man in a State of Nature had been a solitary, ape-like creature, who was not méchant (bad), as Hobbes had maintained, but (like some other animals) had an \"innate repugnance to see others of his kind suffer\" (and this natural sympathy constituted the Natural Man's one-and-only natural virtue). It was Rousseau's fellow philosophe, Voltaire, objecting to Rousseau's egalitarianism, who charged him with primitivism and accused him of wanting to make people go back and walk on all fours. Because Rousseau was the preferred philosopher of the radical Jacobins of the French Revolution, he, above all, became tarred with the accusation of promoting the notion of the \"noble savage\", especially during the polemics about imperialism and scientific racism in the last half of the 19th century. Yet the phrase \"noble savage\" does not occur in any of Rousseau's writings. In fact, Rousseau arguably shared Hobbes' pessimistic view of humankind, except that as Rousseau saw it, Hobbes had made the error of assigning it to too early a stage in human evolution. According to the historian of ideas, Arthur O. Lovejoy:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Erroneous identification of Rousseau with the noble savage", "target_page_ids": [ 15941, 429049, 16205, 11188, 15316, 487090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 610, 620 ], [ 840, 848 ], [ 856, 873 ], [ 1008, 1019 ], [ 1024, 1041 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his Discourse on the Origins of Inequality, Rousseau, anticipating the language of Darwin, states that as the animal-like human species increased there arose a \"formidable struggle for existence\" between it and other species for food. It was then, under the pressure of necessity, that le caractère spécifique de l'espèce humaine—the specific quality that distinguished man from the beasts—emerged—intelligence, a power, meager at first but yet capable of an \"almost unlimited development\". Rousseau calls this power the faculté de se perfectionner—perfectibility. Man invented tools, discovered fire, and in short, began to emerge from the state of nature. Yet at this stage, men also began to compare himself to others: \"It is easy to see. ... that all our labors are directed upon two objects only, namely, for oneself, the commodities of life, and consideration on the part of others.\" Amour propre—the desire for consideration (self regard), Rousseau calls a \"factitious feeling arising, only in society, which leads a man to think more highly of himself than of any other.\" This passion began to show itself with the first moment of human self-consciousness, which was also that of the first step of human progress: \"It is this desire for reputation, honors, and preferment which devours us all ... this rage to be distinguished, that we own what is best and worst in men—our virtues and our vices, our sciences and our errors, our conquerors and our philosophers—in short, a vast number of evil things and a small number of good.\" It is this \"which inspires men to all the evils which they inflict upon one another.\" To be sure, Rousseau praises the newly discovered \"savage\" tribes (whom Rousseau does not consider in a \"state of nature\"), as living a life that is simpler and more egalitarian than that of the Europeans; and he sometimes praises this \"third stage\" it in terms that could be confused with the romantic primitivism fashionable in his times. He also identifies ancient primitive communism under a patriarchy, such as he believes characterized the \"youth\" of mankind, as perhaps the happiest state and perhaps also illustrative of how man was intended by God to live. But these stages are not all good, but rather are mixtures of good and bad. According to Lovejoy, Rousseau's basic view of human nature after the emergence of social living is basically identical to that of Hobbes. Moreover, Rousseau does not believe that it is possible or desirable to go back to a primitive state. It is only by acting together in civil society and binding themselves to its laws that men become men; and only a properly constituted society and reformed system of education could make men good. According to Lovejoy:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Erroneous identification of Rousseau with the noble savage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For Rousseau the remedy was not in going back to the primitive but in reorganizing society on the basis of a properly drawn up social compact, so as to \"draw from the very evil from which we suffer [i.e., civilization and progress] the remedy which shall cure it.\" Lovejoy concludes that Rousseau's doctrine, as expressed in his Discourse on Inequality:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Erroneous identification of Rousseau with the noble savage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the 19th century the idea that men were everywhere and always the same that had characterized both classical antiquity and the Enlightenment was exchanged for a more organic and dynamic evolutionary concept of human history. Advances in technology now made the indigenous man and his simpler way of life appear, not only inferior, but also, even his defenders agreed, foredoomed by the inexorable advance of progress to inevitable extinction. The sentimentalized \"primitive\" ceased to figure as a moral reproach to the decadence of the effete European, as in previous centuries. Instead, the argument shifted to a discussion of whether his demise should be considered a desirable or regrettable eventuality. As the century progressed, native peoples and their traditions increasingly became a foil serving to highlight the accomplishments of Europe and the expansion of the European Imperial powers, who justified their policies on the basis of a presumed racial and cultural superiority.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "19th-century belief in progress and the fall of the natural man", "target_page_ids": [ 30758, 2118843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 147 ], [ 415, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1853 Charles Dickens wrote a scathingly sarcastic review in his weekly magazine Household Words of painter George Catlin's show of American Indians when it visited England. In his essay, entitled \"The Noble Savage\", Dickens expressed repugnance for Indians and their way of life in no uncertain terms, recommending that they ought to be \"civilised off the face of the earth\". (Dickens's essay refers back to Dryden's well-known use of the term, not to Rousseau.) Dickens's scorn for those unnamed individuals, who, like Catlin, he alleged, misguidedly exalted the so-called \"noble savage\", was limitless. In reality, Dickens maintained, Indians were dirty, cruel, and constantly fighting among themselves. Dickens's satire on Catlin and others like him who might find something to admire in the American Indians or African bushmen is a notable turning point in the history of the use of the phrase.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Charles Dickens 1853 article on \"The Noble Savage\" in Household Words", "target_page_ids": [ 5884, 254670, 274605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 23 ], [ 83, 98 ], [ 110, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like others who would henceforth write about the topic, Dickens begins by disclaiming a belief in the \"noble savage\":", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Charles Dickens 1853 article on \"The Noble Savage\" in Household Words", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dickens' essay was arguably a pose of manly, no-nonsense realism and a defense of Christianity. At the end of it his tone becomes more recognizably humanitarian, as he maintains that, although the virtues of the savage are mythical and his way of life inferior and doomed, he still deserves to be treated no differently than Europeans were:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Charles Dickens 1853 article on \"The Noble Savage\" in Household Words", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although Charles Dickens had ridiculed positive depictions of Native Americans as portrayals of so-called \"noble\" savages, he made an exception (at least initially) in the case of the Inuit, whom he called \"loving children of the north\", \"forever happy with their lot\", \"whether they are hungry or full\", and \"gentle loving savages\", who, despite a tendency to steal, have a \"quiet, amiable character\" (\"Our Phantom Ship on an Antediluvian Cruise\", Household Words, April 16, 1851). However he soon reversed this rosy assessment, when on October 23, 1854, The Times of London published a report by explorer-physician John Rae of the discovery by the Inuit of the remains of the lost Franklin expedition along with evidence of cannibalism among members of the party:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Scapegoating the Inuit: cannibalism and Sir John Franklin's lost expedition", "target_page_ids": [ 15704166, 254670, 144462, 15704166, 15746136, 5658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 189 ], [ 449, 464 ], [ 617, 625 ], [ 650, 655 ], [ 678, 702 ], [ 726, 737 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Franklin's widow, Lady Jane Franklin, and other surviving relatives of the expedition refused to believe Rae's reports that the loss of the expedition was due to an error on the part of the crew; attacking the veracity of Rae's report and more specifically the claims of human cannibalism as reported by the Inuit. An editorial in The Times called for further investigation:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Scapegoating the Inuit: cannibalism and Sir John Franklin's lost expedition", "target_page_ids": [ 5984258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This line was energetically taken up by Dickens, who wrote in his weekly magazine:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Scapegoating the Inuit: cannibalism and Sir John Franklin's lost expedition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rae rebutted Dickens in two articles in Household Words: \"The Lost Arctic Voyagers\", Household Words, No. 248 (December 23, 1854), and \"Dr. Rae's Report to the Secretary of the Admiralty\", Household Words, No. 249 (December 30, 1854). Though he did not call them noble, Dr. Rae, who had lived among the Inuit, defended them as \"dutiful\" and \"a bright example to the most civilized people\", comparing them favorably with the undisciplined crew of the Franklin expedition, whom he suggested were ill-treated and \"would have mutinied under privation\", and moreover with the working class in Europe more generally.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Scapegoating the Inuit: cannibalism and Sir John Franklin's lost expedition", "target_page_ids": [ 39903086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 571, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dickens and Wilkie Collins subsequently collaborated on a melodramatic play, The Frozen Deep, about the danger of cannibalism in the far north, in which the villainous role assigned to the Inuit in Household Words is assumed by a working class Scotswoman.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Scapegoating the Inuit: cannibalism and Sir John Franklin's lost expedition", "target_page_ids": [ 161275, 8689476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 26 ], [ 77, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Frozen Deep was performed as a benefit organized by Dickens and attended by Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, and Emperor Leopold II of Belgium, among others, to fund a memorial to the Franklin Expedition. (Rae himself was Scottish).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Scapegoating the Inuit: cannibalism and Sir John Franklin's lost expedition", "target_page_ids": [ 47923, 76811, 57731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 94 ], [ 96, 109 ], [ 123, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rae's respect for the Inuit and his refusal to scapegoat them in the Franklin affair arguably harmed his career. Lady Franklin's campaign to glorify the dead of her husband's expedition, aided and abetted by Dickens, resulted in Rae being shunned by the establishment. Although it was not Franklin but Rae who in 1848 discovered the last link in the much-sought-after Northwest Passage, Rae was never awarded a knighthood and died in obscurity in London. (In comparison, fellow Scotsman and contemporary explorer David Livingstone was knighted and buried with full honors in Westminster Abbey.). However, modern historians have confirmed Rae's discovery of the Northwest Passage and the accuracy of his report on cannibalism among Franklin's crew. Canadian author Ken McGoogan, a specialist on Arctic exploration, states that Rae's willingness to learn and adopt the ways of indigenous Arctic peoples made him stand out as the foremost specialist of his time in cold-climate survival and travel. Rae's respect for Inuit customs, traditions, and skills was contrary to the belief of many 19th-century Europeans that native peoples had no valuable technical knowledge or information to impart.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Scapegoating the Inuit: cannibalism and Sir John Franklin's lost expedition", "target_page_ids": [ 21215, 16897, 17867, 43245, 5267135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 368, 385 ], [ 411, 417 ], [ 447, 453 ], [ 575, 592 ], [ 764, 776 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2004, Orkney and Shetland MP Alistair Carmichael introduced into Parliament a motion proposing that the House \"regrets that Dr Rae was never awarded the public recognition that was his due\". In March 2009, Carmichael introduced a further motion urging Parliament to formally state it \"regrets that memorials to Sir John Franklin outside the Admiralty headquarters and inside Westminster Abbey still inaccurately describe Franklin as the first to discover the [Northwest] passage, and calls on the Ministry of Defence and the Abbey authorities to take the necessary steps to clarify the true position\".", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Scapegoating the Inuit: cannibalism and Sir John Franklin's lost expedition", "target_page_ids": [ 1593761, 434894, 13964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 33 ], [ 37, 56 ], [ 73, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dicken's views toward Indians started to become markedly hostile after the outbreak of the Indian Rebellion of 1857:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Scapegoating the Inuit: cannibalism and Sir John Franklin's lost expedition", "target_page_ids": [ 7564733, 590246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 29 ], [ 91, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was said that Dickens's racism \"grew progressively more illiberal over the course of his career\". Grace Moore, on the other hand, argues that Dickens, a staunch abolitionist and anti-imperialist, had views on racial matters that were a good deal more complex than previous critics have suggested. This event, and the virtually contemporaneous occurrence of the American Civil War (1861–1864), which threatened to, and then did, put an end to American slavery, coincided with a polarization of attitudes exemplified by the phenomenon of scientific racism.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Scapegoating the Inuit: cannibalism and Sir John Franklin's lost expedition", "target_page_ids": [ 38894, 44494572, 863, 487090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 176 ], [ 181, 197 ], [ 364, 382 ], [ 539, 556 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1860, John Crawfurd and James Hunt linked the \"noble savage\" concept with developing schools of thought regarding scientific racism. Crawfurd, in alliance with Hunt, was elected to the presidency of the Ethnological Society of London, which was an offshoot of the Aborigines' Protection Society, founded with the intent to prevent indigenous peoples from being enslaved or otherwise exploited. Invoking \"science\" and \"realism\", the two men derided their \"philanthropic\" predecessors for believing in human equality and for not recognizing that mankind was divided into superior and inferior races. Crawfurd, who opposed Darwinian evolution, \"denied any unity to mankind, insisting on immutable, hereditary, and timeless differences in racial character, principal amongst which was the 'very great' difference in 'intellectual capacity. For Crawfurd, the races had been created separately and were different species. Both Crawfurd and Hunt supported the theory of polygenism, believing in the plurality of the human species. Crawfurd and Hunt routinely accused those who disagreed with them of believing in \"Rousseau's Noble Savage\". Ultimately, however, their partnership fell apart due to Hunt giving a speech in 1865 entitled On the Negro's place in Nature, in which he defended the institution of slavery in the Confederacy during the end of the American Civil War; Crawfurd, being an ardent abolitionist, cut his ties with Hunt after the speeech. \"As Ter Ellingson demonstrates, Crawfurd was responsible for re-introducing the Pre-Rousseauian concept of 'the Noble Savage' to modern anthropology, attributing it wrongly and quite deliberately to Rousseau.\" In an otherwise rather lukewarm review of Ellingson's book in Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 4:1 (Spring 2003), Frederick E. Hoxie writes:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Racial theories", "target_page_ids": [ 2333588, 31983738, 487090, 351842, 18328923, 45281, 8411, 2076198, 253264, 7023, 863, 38894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ], [ 27, 37 ], [ 117, 134 ], [ 206, 236 ], [ 267, 297 ], [ 334, 352 ], [ 623, 642 ], [ 966, 976 ], [ 1303, 1310 ], [ 1318, 1329 ], [ 1352, 1370 ], [ 1398, 1410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"If Rousseau was not the inventor of the Noble Savage, who was?\" writes Ellingson,", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Racial theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ellingson finds that any remotely positive portrayal of an indigenous (or working class) person is apt to be characterized (out of context) as a supposedly \"unrealistic\" or \"romanticized\" \"Noble Savage\". He points out that Fairchild even includes as an example of a supposed \"Noble Savage\", a picture of an enslaved Black man on his knees, lamenting his lost freedom. According to Ellingson, Fairchild ends his book with a denunciation of the (always unnamed) believers in primitivism or \"The Noble Savage\"—who, he feels, are threatening to unleash the dark forces of irrationality on civilization.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Racial theories", "target_page_ids": [ 39903086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ellingson argues that the term \"noble savage\", an oxymoron, is a derogatory one, which those who oppose \"soft\" or romantic primitivism use to discredit (and intimidate) their supposed opponents, whose romantic beliefs they feel are somehow threatening to civilization. Ellingson maintains that virtually none of those accused of believing in the \"noble savage\" ever actually did so. He likens the practice of accusing anthropologists (and other writers and artists) of belief in the noble savage to a secularized version of the inquisition, and he maintains that modern anthropologists have internalized these accusations to the point where they feel they have to begin by ritualistically disavowing any belief in \"noble savage\" if they wish to attain credibility in their fields. He notes that text books with a painting of a handsome Native American (such as the one by Benjamin West on this page) are even given to school children with the cautionary caption, \"A painting of a Noble Savage\". West's depiction is characterized as a typical \"noble savage\" by art historian Vivien Green Fryd, but her interpretation has been contested.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Racial theories", "target_page_ids": [ 15191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 528, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most famous modern example of \"hard\" (or anti-) primitivism in books and movies was William Golding's Lord of the Flies, published in 1954. The title is said to be a reference to the Biblical devil, Beelzebub (Hebrew for \"Lord of the Flies\"). This book, in which a group of school boys stranded on a desert island revert to savage behavior, was a staple of high school and college required reading lists during the Cold War.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Opponents of primitivism", "target_page_ids": [ 34126, 31584, 8539, 19010124, 13450, 2780135, 325329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 103 ], [ 106, 123 ], [ 196, 201 ], [ 203, 212 ], [ 214, 220 ], [ 304, 317 ], [ 419, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1970s, film director Stanley Kubrick professed his opposition to primitivism. Like Dickens, he began with a disclaimer:", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Opponents of primitivism", "target_page_ids": [ 26683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The opening scene of Kubrick's movie A Space Odyssey (1968) depicts prehistoric ape-like men wielding weapons of war, as the tools that supposedly lifted them out of their animal state and made them human.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Opponents of primitivism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another opponent of primitivism is the Australian anthropologist Roger Sandall, who has accused other anthropologists of exalting the \"noble savage\". A third is archeologist Lawrence H. Keeley, who has criticised a \"widespread myth\" that \"civilized humans have fallen from grace from a simple primeval happiness, a peaceful golden age\" by uncovering archeological evidence that he claims demonstrates that violence prevailed in the earliest human societies. Keeley argues that the \"noble savage\" paradigm has warped anthropological literature to political ends.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Opponents of primitivism", "target_page_ids": [ 3558568, 70804279, 31497818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 78 ], [ 174, 192 ], [ 324, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The idea that man is naturally warlike has been challenged, for example in the book War, Peace, and Human Nature (2013), edited by Douglas P. Fry. The Seville Statement on Violence, released under UNESCO auspices in 1986, specifically rejects any genetic basis to violence or warfare. More modern research and criticism has focused on misinterpretations of fossil evidence, lack of research into other apes, and the political climate of the Cold War.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Supporters of primitivism", "target_page_ids": [ 22899413, 9850605, 21786641, 33158, 325329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 145 ], [ 151, 180 ], [ 197, 203 ], [ 276, 283 ], [ 441, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anarcho-primitivists such as John Zerzan relies heavily on a strong dualism between the \"primitive\"—viewed as non-alienated, wild, non-hierarchical, ludic, and socially egalitarian—and the \"civilised\"—viewed as alienated, domesticated, hierarchically organised and socially discriminatory. Hence, \"life before domestication/agriculture was in fact largely one of leisure, intimacy with nature, sensual wisdom, sexual equality, and health.\" Zerzan's claims about the status of primitive societies are based on a certain reading of the works of anthropologists such as Marshall Sahlins and Richard B. Lee. Crucially, the category of primitives is restricted to pure hunter-gatherer societies with no domesticated plants or animals. For instance, hierarchy among Northwest Coast Native Americans whose main activities were fishing and foraging is attributed to their having domesticated dogs and tobacco.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Supporters of primitivism", "target_page_ids": [ 98405, 102262, 43986834, 98405, 402119, 10113, 6258, 2943008, 310583, 3137375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 29, 40 ], [ 68, 75 ], [ 89, 98 ], [ 149, 154 ], [ 169, 180 ], [ 190, 199 ], [ 211, 220 ], [ 567, 583 ], [ 588, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"noble savage\" often maps to uncorrupted races in science fiction and fantasy genres, often deliberately as a contrast to \"fallen\" more advanced cultures, in films such as Avatar and literature including Ghân-buri-Ghân in The Lord of the Rings. Examples of famous noble savage characters in fantasy and science fiction that are well known are Tarzan created by Edgar Rice Burroughs, Conan the Barbarian created by Robert E. Howard, and John from Brave New World. Ka-Zar, Thongor and such are lesser known. Tarzan, Conan, and John are not only known through their literature, but by movie adaptations and other licensed material.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In fantasy and science fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 4273140, 421278, 29798, 21491685, 9657, 6713, 26078, 36681, 733315, 51628988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 182 ], [ 208, 222 ], [ 226, 247 ], [ 347, 353 ], [ 365, 385 ], [ 387, 406 ], [ 418, 434 ], [ 450, 465 ], [ 467, 473 ], [ 475, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other movies containing the \"noble savage\" include:", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In fantasy and science fiction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Little House on the Prairie (TV series) (1974–1982)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In fantasy and science fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 521317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Gods Must Be Crazy (1980)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In fantasy and science fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 261237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mosquito Coast (1986)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In fantasy and science fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 213071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dances With Wolves (1990)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In fantasy and science fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 129585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pocahontas (1995)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In fantasy and science fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 399433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Indian in the Cupboard (1995)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In fantasy and science fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 725810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rabbit-Proof Fence (2002)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In fantasy and science fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 249956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stallion of the Cimarron (2002)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In fantasy and science fiction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to critics like the Telegraphs Tim Robey, romantically idealized portrayals of non-industrialized or exotic people persist in popular films, as for example in The Lone Ranger or Dances with Wolves.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Noble savage idea today", "target_page_ids": [ 23797577, 32330027, 129585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 39 ], [ 169, 184 ], [ 188, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another contemporary example is the claim in some queer theory sources that the two-spirit phenomenon is universal among Indigenous American cultures when, in fact, the cultural views on gender and sexuality in Indigenous American communities vary widely from nation to nation.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Noble savage idea today", "target_page_ids": [ 148979, 23929145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 62 ], [ 80, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anarcho-primitivism", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 98405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Racism in the work of Charles Dickens", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 35060678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Essays (Montaigne)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1654138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Exoticism", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2327352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jean-Jacques Rousseau", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Native Americans in German popular culture", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 43644678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Native American hobbyism in Germany", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 43644678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Natural state", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 278263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Neotribalism", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3137762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Objectification", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 413043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Orientalism", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Othering", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 972208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pelagianism", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Positive stereotype", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52328746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " State of nature", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 278263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stereotypes about indigenous peoples of North America", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5966738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Racial fetishism", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 50227895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Romantic racism", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17194344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Virtuous pagan", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11361621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wild child", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19005888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wild man", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 466760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Human zoo", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 866522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Uncontacted peoples", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1858764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Isolationism", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Concepts:", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cultural relativism", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 54943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Golden Age", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31497818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Master-slave dialectic", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6305266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Social progress", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2118843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " State of nature", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 278263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Xenocentrism", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2259738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cultural examples:", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Blue Lagoon (novel)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1973552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brave New World", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A High Wind in Jamaica (novel)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 853869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Legend of the Rainbow Warriors", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4272726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lord of the Flies", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magical Negro", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 545753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Plastic Shaman", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4182978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Informational notes", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Citations", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Further reading", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Barnett, Louise. Touched by Fire: the Life, Death, and Mythic Afterlife of George Armstrong Custer. University of Nebraska Press [1986], 2006.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Barzun, Jacques (2000). From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life, 1500 to the Present. New York: HarperCollins. pp.282–294, and passim.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 263613, 27863407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 25, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bataille, Gretchen, M. and Silet Charles L., editors. Introduction by Vine Deloria, Jr. The Pretend Indian: Images of Native Americans in the Movies. Iowa State University Press, 1980*Berkhofer, Robert F. \"The White Man's Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present\"", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 65723300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Boas, George ([1933] 1966). The Happy Beast in French Thought in the Seventeenth Century. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. Reprinted by Octagon Press in 1966.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Boas, George ([1948] 1997). Primitivism and Related Ideas in the Middle Ages. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bordewich, Fergus M. \"Killing the White Man's Indian: Reinventing Native Americans at the End of the Twentieth Century\"", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bury, J.B. (1920). The Idea of Progress: an Inquiry into its Origins and Growth. (Reprint) New York: Cosimo Press, 2008.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 592202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Edgerton, Robert (1992). Sick Societies: Challenging the Myth of Primitive Harmony. New York: Free Press. ", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Edwards, Brendan Frederick R. (2008) \"'He Scarcely Resembles the Real Man': images of the Indian in popular culture\". Website: Our Legacy. Material relating to First Nations, Metis, and Inuit, found in Saskatchewan cultural and heritage collections.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ellingson, Ter. (2001). The Myth of the Noble Savage (Berkeley, CA.: University of California Press).", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fabian, Johannes. Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes its Object", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fairchild, Hoxie Neale (1928). The Noble Savage: A Study in Romantic Naturalism (New York)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fitzgerald, Margaret Mary ([1947] 1976). First Follow Nature: Primitivism in English Poetry 1725–1750. New York: Kings Crown Press. Reprinted New York: Octagon Press.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hazard, Paul ([1937] 1947). The European Mind (1690–1715). Cleveland, Ohio: Meridian Books.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 3818362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Keeley, Lawrence H. (1996) War Before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage. Oxford: University Press.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 17619103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Krech, Shepard (2000). The Ecological Indian: Myth and History. New York: Norton. ", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " LeBlanc, Steven (2003). Constant battles: the myth of the peaceful, noble savage. New York : St Martin's Press ", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lovejoy, Arthur O. (1923, 1943). \"The Supposed Primitivism of Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality, \" Modern Philology Vol. 21, No. 2 (Nov., 1923):165–186. Reprinted in Essays in the History of Ideas. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1948 and 1960.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 645698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lovejoy, A. O. and Boas, George ([1935] 1965). Primitivism and Related Ideas in Antiquity. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. Reprinted by Octagon Books, 1965. ", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lovejoy, Arthur O. and George Boas. (1935). A Documentary History of Primitivism and Related Ideas, vol. 1. Baltimore.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Moore, Grace (2004). Dickens And Empire: Discourses Of Class, Race And Colonialism In The Works Of Charles Dickens (Nineteenth Century Series). Ashgate.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Olupọna, Jacob Obafẹmi Kẹhinde, Editor. (2003) Beyond primitivism: indigenous religious traditions and modernity. New York and London: Routledge. , ", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 803136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pagden, Anthony (1982). The Fall of the Natural Man: The American Indian and the origins of comparative ethnology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 20792728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pinker, Steven (2002). The Modern Denial of Human Nature. Viking ", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 44340, 1421363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 24, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sandall, Roger (2001). The Culture Cult: Designer Tribalism and Other Essays ", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 3558568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reinhardt, Leslie Kaye. \"British and Indian Identities in a Picture by Benjamin West\". Eighteenth-Century Studies 31: 3 (Spring 1998): 283–305", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rollins, Peter C. and John E. O'Connor, editors (1998). Hollywood's Indian : the Portrayal of the Native American in Film. Lexington, Kentucky: University of Kentucky Press.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tinker, Chaunchy Brewster (1922). Nature's Simple Plan: a phase of radical thought in the mid-eighteenth century. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Torgovnick, Marianna (1991). Gone Primitive: Savage Intellects, Modern Lives (Chicago)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Whitney, Lois Payne (1934). Primitivism and the Idea of Progress in English Popular Literature of the Eighteenth Century. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wolf, Eric R.(1982). Europe and the People without History. Berkeley: University of California Press.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Massacres during the Wars of Religion: The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre: a foundational event", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Louis Menand. \"What Comes Naturally\". A review of Steven Pinker's The Blank Slate from The New Yorker", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Peter Gay. \"Breeding is Fundamental\". Book Forum. April / May 2009", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Stock_characters", "Multiculturalism", "Anthropology", "Cultural_concepts", "Anti-indigenous_racism", "Ethnic_and_racial_stereotypes", "Western_(genre)_staples_and_terminology" ]

[ "stupid savage [Graber & Wengrow]" ]

[ { "plaintext": "English Renaissance theatre, also known as Renaissance English theatre and Elizabethan theatre, refers to the theatre of England between 1558 and 1642.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This is the style of the plays of William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26744396, 32897, 5771, 48261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 30 ], [ 34, 53 ], [ 55, 74 ], [ 79, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term English Renaissance theatre encompasses the period between 1562—following a performance of Gorboduc, the first English play using blank verse, at the Inner Temple during the Christmas season of 1561—and the ban on theatrical plays enacted by the English Parliament in 1642.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 914635, 265893, 207885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 108 ], [ 139, 150 ], [ 159, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The phrase Elizabethan theatre is sometimes improperly used to mean English Renaissance theatre, although in a strict sense \"Elizabethan\" only refers to the period of Queen Elizabeth's reign (1558–1603). English Renaissance theatre may be said to encompass Elizabethan theatre from 1562 to 1603, Jacobean theatre from 1603 to 1625, and Caroline theatre from 1625 to 1642.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 10128, 269055, 7426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 184 ], [ 296, 304 ], [ 336, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Along with the economics of the profession, the character of the drama changed towards the end of the period. Under Elizabeth, the drama was a unified expression as far as social class was concerned: the Court watched the same plays the commoners saw in the public playhouses. With the development of the private theatres, drama became more oriented towards the tastes and values of an upper-class audience. By the later part of the reign of Charles I, few new plays were being written for the public theatres, which sustained themselves on the accumulated works of the previous decades.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 7426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 442, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The English grammar schools, like those on the continent, placed special emphasis on the trivium: grammar, logic, and rhetoric. Though rhetorical instruction was intended as preparation for careers in civil service such as law, the rhetorical canons of memory (memoria) and delivery (pronuntiatio), gesture and voice, as well as exercises from the progymnasmata, such as the prosopopoeia, taught theatrical skills. Students would typically analyse Latin and Greek texts, write their own compositions, memorise them, and then perform them in front of their instructor and their peers. Records show that in addition to this weekly performance, students would perform plays on holidays, and in both Latin and English.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sites of dramatic performance", "target_page_ids": [ 156975, 30666, 25447, 1545316, 1547090, 1943137, 2916422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 26 ], [ 89, 96 ], [ 118, 126 ], [ 261, 268 ], [ 284, 296 ], [ 348, 361 ], [ 375, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Choir schools connected with the Elizabethan court included St. George’s Chapel, the Chapel Royal, and St. Paul’s. These schools performed plays and other court entertainments for the Queen. Between the 1560s and 1570s these schools had begun to perform for general audiences as well. Playing companies of boy actors were derived from choir schools. John Lyly is an earlier example of a playwright contracted to write for the children's companies; Lyly wrote Gallathea, Endymion, and Midas for Paul’s Boys. Another example is Ben Jonson, who wrote Cynthia’s Revels.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sites of dramatic performance", "target_page_ids": [ 23910568, 9166271, 298348, 9282047, 12922840, 13028139, 48261, 8929642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 79 ], [ 103, 113 ], [ 351, 360 ], [ 460, 469 ], [ 471, 479 ], [ 485, 490 ], [ 527, 537 ], [ 549, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Academic drama stems from late medieval and early modern practices of miracles and morality plays as well as the Feast of Fools and the election of a Lord of Misrule. The Feast of Fools includes mummer plays. The universities, particularly Oxford and Cambridge, were attended by students studying for bachelor's degrees and master's degrees, followed by doctorates in Law, Medicine, and Theology. In the 1400s, dramas were often restricted to mummer plays with someone who read out all the parts in Latin. With the rediscovery and redistribution of classical materials during the English Renaissance, Latin and Greek plays began to be restaged. These plays were often accompanied by feasts. Queen Elizabeth I viewed dramas during her visits to Oxford and Cambridge. A well-known play cycle which was written and performed in the universities was the Parnassus Plays.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sites of dramatic performance", "target_page_ids": [ 14018743, 2287895, 1291656, 1099742, 75998, 62639114, 31797, 25978572, 952792, 339394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 26, 39 ], [ 44, 56 ], [ 113, 127 ], [ 150, 165 ], [ 195, 207 ], [ 240, 246 ], [ 251, 260 ], [ 580, 599 ], [ 850, 865 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon graduation, many university students, especially those going into law, would reside and participate in the Inns of Court. The Inns of Court were communities of working lawyers and university alumni. Notable literary figures and playwrights who resided in the Inns of Court include John Donne, Francis Beaumont, John Marston, Thomas Lodge, Thomas Campion, Abraham Fraunce, Sir Philip Sidney, Sir Thomas More, Sir Francis Bacon, and George Gascoigne. Like the university, the Inns of Court elected their own Lord of Misrule. Other activities included participation in moot court, disputation, and masques. Plays written and performed in the Inns of Court include Gorboduc, Gismund of Salerne, and The Misfortunes of Arthur. An example of a famous masque put on by the Inns was James Shirley's The Triumph of Peace. Shakespeare's The Comedy of Errors and Twelfth Night were also performed here, although written for commercial theater.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Sites of dramatic performance", "target_page_ids": [ 249111, 15838, 691700, 559225, 302930, 182407, 302947, 156674, 30479, 11319, 229208, 75998, 1108883, 410766, 74909, 671216, 34141411, 7320106, 74909, 217451, 9067160, 32897, 324904, 652812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 125 ], [ 286, 296 ], [ 298, 314 ], [ 316, 328 ], [ 330, 342 ], [ 344, 358 ], [ 360, 375 ], [ 377, 394 ], [ 396, 411 ], [ 413, 430 ], [ 436, 452 ], [ 511, 526 ], [ 571, 581 ], [ 583, 594 ], [ 600, 607 ], [ 666, 674 ], [ 676, 694 ], [ 700, 725 ], [ 750, 756 ], [ 780, 793 ], [ 796, 816 ], [ 818, 829 ], [ 832, 852 ], [ 857, 870 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first permanent English theatre, the Red Lion, opened in 1567 but it was a short-lived failure. The first successful theatres, such as The Theatre, opened in 1576.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Establishment of playhouses", "target_page_ids": [ 8340677, 401353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 49 ], [ 139, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The establishment of large and profitable public theatres was an essential enabling factor in the success of English Renaissance drama. Once they were in operation, drama could become a fixed and permanent, rather than transitory, phenomenon. Their construction was prompted when the Mayor and Corporation of London first banned plays in 1572 as a measure against the plague, and then formally expelled all players from the city in 1575. This prompted the construction of permanent playhouses outside the jurisdiction of London, in the liberties of Halliwell/Holywell in Shoreditch and later the Clink, and at Newington Butts near the established entertainment district of St. George's Fields in rural Surrey. The Theatre was constructed in Shoreditch in 1576 by James Burbage with his brother-in-law John Brayne (the owner of the unsuccessful Red Lion playhouse of 1567) and the Newington Butts playhouse was set up, probably by Jerome Savage, some time between 1575 and 1577. The Theatre was rapidly followed by the nearby Curtain Theatre (1577), the Rose (1587), the Swan (1595), the Globe (1599), the Fortune (1600), and the Red Bull (1604).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Establishment of playhouses", "target_page_ids": [ 40339, 367477, 3260257, 5491909, 4071266, 94278, 468923, 41270718, 606261, 286040, 376691, 199185, 10067974, 810271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 284, 289 ], [ 294, 315 ], [ 536, 545 ], [ 592, 601 ], [ 610, 625 ], [ 741, 751 ], [ 763, 776 ], [ 801, 812 ], [ 1025, 1040 ], [ 1053, 1057 ], [ 1070, 1074 ], [ 1087, 1092 ], [ 1105, 1112 ], [ 1129, 1137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Archaeological excavations on the foundations of the Rose and the Globe in the late 20th century showed that all the London theatres had individual differences, but their common function necessitated a similar general plan. The public theatres were three stories high and built around an open space at the centre. Usually polygonal in plan to give an overall rounded effect, although the Red Bull and the first Fortune were square. The three levels of inward-facing galleries overlooked the open centre, into which jutted the stage: essentially a platform surrounded on three sides by the audience. The rear side was restricted for the entrances and exits of the actors and seating for the musicians. The upper level behind the stage could be used as a balcony, as in Romeo and Juliet and Antony and Cleopatra, or as a position from which an actor could harangue a crowd, as in Julius Caesar. The pit was the place where the poor people had their place. And around the 1600's a new area was introduced into the theaters,'a gullet'. A gullet was an invisible corridor that the actors used to go to the wings of the stage where people usually changed clothes quickly.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Playhouse architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 172080, 25821, 65169, 57328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 753, 760 ], [ 768, 784 ], [ 789, 809 ], [ 878, 891 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The playhouses were generally built with timber and plaster. Individual theatre descriptions give additional information about their construction, such as flint stones being used to build the Swan. Theatres were also constructed to be able to hold a large number of people.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Playhouse architecture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A different model was developed with the Blackfriars Theatre, which came into regular use on a long-term basis in 1599. The Blackfriars was small in comparison to the earlier theatres and roofed rather than open to the sky. It resembled a modern theatre in ways that its predecessors did not. Other small enclosed theatres followed, notably the Whitefriars (1608) and the Cockpit (1617). With the building of the Salisbury Court Theatre in 1629 near the site of the defunct Whitefriars, the London audience had six theatres to choose from: three surviving large open-air public theatres—the Globe, the Fortune, and the Red Bull—and three smaller enclosed private theatres: the Blackfriars, the Cockpit, and the Salisbury Court. Audiences of the 1630s benefited from a half-century of vigorous dramaturgical development; the plays of Marlowe and Shakespeare and their contemporaries were still being performed on a regular basis, mostly at the public theatres, while the newest works of the newest playwrights were abundant as well, mainly at the private theatres.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Playhouse architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 697126, 7451294, 6385368, 7429966, 155890, 5771, 32897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 60 ], [ 345, 356 ], [ 372, 379 ], [ 413, 436 ], [ 793, 806 ], [ 833, 840 ], [ 845, 856 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Around 1580, when both the Theater and the Curtain were full on summer days, the total theater capacity of London was about 5000 spectators. With the building of new theater facilities and the formation of new companies, London's total theater capacity exceeded 10,000 after 1610.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Audiences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ticket prices in general varied during this time period. The cost of admission was based on where in the theatre a person wished to be situated, or based on what a person could afford. If people wanted a better view of the stage or to be more separate from the crowd, they would pay more for their entrance. Due to inflation that occurred during this time period, admission increased in some theaters from a penny to a sixpence or even higher.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Audiences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Commercial theaters were largely located just outside the boundaries of the City of London, since City authorities tended to be wary of the adult playing companies, but plays were performed by touring companies all over England. English companies even toured and performed English plays abroad, especially in Germany and in Denmark.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Audiences", "target_page_ids": [ 6883, 11867, 76972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 90 ], [ 309, 316 ], [ 324, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upper class spectators would pay for seats in the galleries, using cushions for comfort. In the Globe Theatre, nobles could sit directly by the side on the stage.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Audiences", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The acting companies functioned on a repertory system: unlike modern productions that can run for months or years on end, the troupes of this era rarely acted the same play two days in a row. Thomas Middleton's A Game at Chess ran for nine straight performances in August 1624 before it was closed by the authorities; but this was due to the political content of the play and was a unique, unprecedented, and unrepeatable phenomenon. The 1592 season of Lord Strange's Men at the Rose Theatre was far more representative: between 19 February and 23 June the company played six days a week, minus Good Friday and two other days. They performed 23 different plays, some only once, and their most popular play of the season, The First Part of Hieronimo, based on Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy, 15 times. They never played the same play two days in a row, and rarely the same play twice in a week. The workload on the actors, especially the leading performers like Richard Burbage or Edward Alleyn, must have been tremendous.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performances", "target_page_ids": [ 54273, 63428, 1136819, 4370107, 286040, 2053979, 195683, 412075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 46 ], [ 192, 208 ], [ 211, 226 ], [ 453, 471 ], [ 479, 491 ], [ 765, 784 ], [ 956, 971 ], [ 975, 988 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One distinctive feature of the companies was that they included only males. Female parts were played by adolescent boy players in women's costume. Some companies were composed entirely of boy players. Performances in the public theatres (like the Globe) took place in the afternoon with no artificial lighting, but when, in the course of a play, the light began to fade, candles were lit. In the enclosed private theatres (like the Blackfriars) artificial lighting was used throughout. Plays contained little to no scenery as the scenery was described by the actors or indicated by costume through the course of the play.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performances", "target_page_ids": [ 6244789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Elizabethan era, research has been conclusive about how many actors and troupes there were in the 16th century, but little research delves into the roles of the actors on the English renaissance stage. The first point is that during the Elizabethan era, women were not allowed to act on stage. The actors were all male; in fact, most were boys. For plays written that had male and female parts, the female parts were played by the youngest boy players. Stronger female roles in tragedies were acted by older boy players because they had more experience. As a boy player, many skills had to be implemented such as voice and athleticism (fencing was one).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Elizabethan entertainment, troupes were created and they were considered the actor companies. They traveled around England as drama was the most entertaining art at the time. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Elizabethan actors never played the same show on successive days and added a new play to their repertoire every other week. These actors were getting paid within these troupes so for their job, they would constantly learn new plays as they toured different cities in England. In these plays, there were bookkeepers that acted as the narrators of these plays and they would introduce the actors and the different roles they played. At some points, the bookkeeper wouldn't state the narrative of the scene, so the audience could find out for themselves. In Elizabethan and Jacobean plays, the plays often exceeded the number of characters/roles and didn't have enough actors to fulfill them, thus the idea of doubling roles came to be. Doubling roles is used to reinforce a plays theme by having the actor act out the different roles simultaneously. The reason for this was for the acting companies to control salary costs, or to be able to perform under conditions where resources such as other actor companies lending actors were not present.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are two acting styles implemented. Formal and natural. Formal acting is objective and traditional, natural acting attempts to create an illusion for the audience by remaining in character and imitating the fictional circumstances. The formal actor symbolizes while the natural actor interprets. The natural actor impersonates while the formal actor represents the role. Natural and formal are opposites of each other, where natural acting is subjective. Overall, the use of these acting styles and the doubled roles dramatic device made Elizabethan plays very popular.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One of the main uses of costume during the Elizabethan era was to make up for the lack of scenery, set, and props on stage. It created a visual effect for the audience, and it was an integral part of the overall performance. Since the main visual appeal on stage were the costumes, they were often bright in colour and visually entrancing. Colours symbolized social hierarchy, and costumes were made to reflect that. For example, if a character was royalty, their costume would include purple. The colours, as well as the different fabrics of the costumes, allowed the audience to know the status of each character when they first appeared on stage.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Costumes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Costumes were collected in inventory. More often than not, costumes wouldn't be made individually to fit the actor. Instead, they would be selected out of the stock that theatre companies would keep. A theatre company reused costumes when possible and would rarely get new costumes made. Costumes themselves were expensive, so usually players wore contemporary clothing regardless of the time period of the play. The most expensive pieces were given to higher class characters because costuming was used to identify social status on stage. The fabrics within a playhouse would indicate the wealth of the company itself. The fabrics used the most were: velvet, satin, silk, cloth-of-gold, lace, and ermine. For less significant characters, actors would use their own clothes.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Costumes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Actors also left clothes in their will for following actors to use. Masters would also leave clothes for servants in their will, but servants weren't allowed to wear fancy clothing, instead, they sold the clothes back to theatre companies. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Costumes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the Tudor and Elizabethan eras, there were laws stating that certain classes could only wear clothing fitting of their status in society. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Costumes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There was a discrimination of status within the classes. Higher classes flaunted their wealth and power through the appearance of clothing, however, courtesans and actors were the only exceptions – as clothing represented their 'working capital', as it were, but they were only permitted to dress so while working. If actors belonged to a licensed acting company, they were allowed to dress above their standing in society for specific roles in a production.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Costumes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The growing population of London, the growing wealth of its people, and their fondness for spectacle produced a dramatic literature of remarkable variety, quality, and extent. Although most of the plays written for the Elizabethan stage have been lost, over 600 remain.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Playwrights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The people who wrote these plays were primarily self-made men from modest backgrounds. Some of them were educated at either Oxford or Cambridge, but many were not. Although William Shakespeare and Ben Jonson were actors, the majority do not seem to have been performers, and no major author who came on to the scene after 1600 is known to have supplemented his income by acting. Their lives were subject to the same levels of danger and earlier mortality as all who lived during the early modern period: Christopher Marlowe was killed in an apparent tavern brawl, while Ben Jonson killed an actor in a duel. Several were probably soldiers.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Playwrights", "target_page_ids": [ 31797, 25978572, 32897, 48261, 5771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 130 ], [ 134, 143 ], [ 174, 193 ], [ 198, 208 ], [ 505, 524 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Playwrights were normally paid in increments during the writing process, and if their play was accepted, they would also receive the proceeds from one day's performance. However, they had no ownership of the plays they wrote. Once a play was sold to a company, the company owned it, and the playwright had no control over casting, performance, revision, or publication.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Playwrights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The profession of dramatist was challenging and far from lucrative. Entries in Philip Henslowe's Diary show that in the years around 1600 Henslowe paid as little as £6 or £7 per play. This was probably at the low end of the range, though even the best writers could not demand too much more. A playwright, working alone, could generally produce two plays a year at most. In the 1630s Richard Brome signed a contract with the Salisbury Court Theatre to supply three plays a year, but found himself unable to meet the workload. Shakespeare produced fewer than 40 solo plays in a career that spanned more than two decades: he was financially successful because he was an actor and, most importantly, a shareholder in the company for which he acted and in the theatres they used. Ben Jonson achieved success as a purveyor of Court masques, and was talented at playing the patronage game that was an important part of the social and economic life of the era. Those who were purely playwrights fared far less well: the biographies of early figures like George Peele and Robert Greene, and later ones like Brome and Philip Massinger, are marked by financial uncertainty, struggle, and poverty.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Playwrights", "target_page_ids": [ 286031, 495481, 7429966, 74909, 504974, 353968, 12784578, 221425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 94 ], [ 384, 397 ], [ 425, 448 ], [ 827, 833 ], [ 868, 877 ], [ 1047, 1059 ], [ 1064, 1077 ], [ 1109, 1125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Playwrights dealt with the natural limitation on their productivity by combining into teams of two, three, four, and even five to generate play texts. The majority of plays written in this era were collaborations, and the solo artists who generally eschewed collaborative efforts, like Jonson and Shakespeare, were the exceptions to the rule. Dividing the work, of course, meant dividing the income; but the arrangement seems to have functioned well enough to have made it worthwhile. Of the 70-plus known works in the canon of Thomas Dekker, roughly 50 are collaborations. In a single year (1598) Dekker worked on 16 collaborations for impresario Philip Henslowe, and earned £30, or a little under 12 shillings per week—roughly twice as much as the average artisan's income of 1s. per day. At the end of his career, Thomas Heywood would famously claim to have had \"an entire hand, or at least a main finger\" in the authorship of some 220 plays. A solo artist usually needed months to write a play (though Jonson is said to have done Volpone in five weeks); Henslowe's Diary indicates that a team of four or five writers could produce a play in as little as two weeks. Admittedly, though, the Diary also shows that teams of Henslowe's house dramatists—Anthony Munday, Robert Wilson, Richard Hathwaye, Henry Chettle, and the others, even including a young John Webster—could start a project, and accept advances on it, yet fail to produce anything stageworthy.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Playwrights", "target_page_ids": [ 277321, 298323, 976105, 298327, 598128, 2689673, 298318, 277316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 528, 541 ], [ 817, 831 ], [ 1034, 1041 ], [ 1252, 1266 ], [ 1268, 1281 ], [ 1283, 1299 ], [ 1301, 1314 ], [ 1355, 1367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Genres of the period included the history play, which depicted English or European history. Shakespeare's plays about the lives of kings, such as Richard III and Henry V, belong to this category, as do Christopher Marlowe's Edward II and George Peele's Famous Chronicle of King Edward the First. History plays also dealt with more recent events, like A Larum for London which dramatizes the sack of Antwerp in 1576. A better known play, Peele's The Battle of Alcazar (c. 1591), depicts the battle of Alcácer Quibir in 1578.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Genres", "target_page_ids": [ 44706, 29731116, 32897, 176961, 45084, 5771, 1208874, 353968, 6247451, 12130026, 32149462, 6140163, 643218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 34, 46 ], [ 92, 103 ], [ 146, 157 ], [ 162, 169 ], [ 202, 221 ], [ 224, 233 ], [ 238, 250 ], [ 253, 294 ], [ 351, 369 ], [ 399, 406 ], [ 445, 466 ], [ 490, 514 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tragedy was a very popular genre. Marlowe's tragedies were exceptionally successful, such as Dr. Faustus and The Jew of Malta. The audiences particularly liked revenge dramas, such as Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy. The four tragedies considered to be Shakespeare's greatest (Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth) were composed during this period.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Genres", "target_page_ids": [ 57993, 423573, 1858211, 993214, 44710, 2053979, 13554, 22460, 55721, 18866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 93, 104 ], [ 109, 125 ], [ 160, 174 ], [ 184, 194 ], [ 197, 216 ], [ 278, 284 ], [ 286, 293 ], [ 295, 304 ], [ 310, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Comedies were common, too. A subgenre developed in this period was the city comedy, which deals satirically with life in London after the fashion of Roman New Comedy. Examples are Thomas Dekker's The Shoemaker's Holiday and Thomas Middleton's A Chaste Maid in Cheapside.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Genres", "target_page_ids": [ 16663203, 612904, 7691134, 1420518, 277321, 6142983, 63428, 6267981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 71, 82 ], [ 149, 154 ], [ 155, 165 ], [ 180, 193 ], [ 196, 219 ], [ 224, 240 ], [ 243, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though marginalised, the older genres like pastoral (The Faithful Shepherdess, 1608), and even the morality play (Four Plays in One, ca. 1608–13) could exert influences. After about 1610, the new hybrid subgenre of the tragicomedy enjoyed an efflorescence, as did the masque throughout the reigns of the first two Stuart kings, James I and Charles I.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Genres", "target_page_ids": [ 204406, 10317965, 44715, 11048441, 104952, 74909, 253174, 269055, 7426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 51 ], [ 53, 77 ], [ 99, 112 ], [ 114, 131 ], [ 219, 230 ], [ 268, 274 ], [ 314, 320 ], [ 328, 335 ], [ 340, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Plays on biblical themes were common, but Peele's David and Bethsabe is one of the few surviving examples.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Genres", "target_page_ids": [ 58965521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Only a minority of the plays of English Renaissance theatre were ever printed. Of Heywood's 220 plays, only about 20 were published in book form. A little over 600 plays were published in the period as a whole, most commonly in individual quarto editions. (Larger collected editions, like those of Shakespeare's, Ben Jonson's, and Beaumont and Fletcher's plays, were a late and limited development.) Through much of the modern era, it was thought that play texts were popular items among Renaissance readers that provided healthy profits for the stationers who printed and sold them. By the turn of the 21st century, the climate of scholarly opinion shifted somewhat on this belief: some contemporary researchers argue that publishing plays was a risky and marginal business—though this conclusion has been disputed by others. Some of the most successful publishers of the English Renaissance, like William Ponsonby or Edward Blount, rarely published plays.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Printed texts", "target_page_ids": [ 2913030, 44711, 9395552, 10415261, 369251, 13287462, 1342234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 239, 245 ], [ 298, 311 ], [ 313, 325 ], [ 331, 354 ], [ 546, 556 ], [ 899, 915 ], [ 919, 932 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A small number of plays from the era survived not in printed texts but in manuscript form.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Printed texts", "target_page_ids": [ 19167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rising Puritan movement was hostile toward theatre, as they felt that \"entertainment\" was sinful. Politically, playwrights and actors were clients of the monarchy and aristocracy, and most supported the Royalist cause. The Puritan faction, long powerful in London, gained control of the city early in the First English Civil War, and on 2 September 1642, the Long Parliament, pushed by the Parliamentarian party, under Puritan influence, banned the staging of plays in the London theatres though it did not, contrary to what is commonly stated, order the closure, let alone the destruction, of the theatres themselves:", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "The end of English Renaissance theatre", "target_page_ids": [ 24091, 1063738, 18065, 69093, 24091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 309, 332 ], [ 363, 378 ], [ 394, 415 ], [ 423, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Act purports the ban to be temporary (\"...while these sad causes and set Times of Humiliation do continue, Public Stage Plays shall cease and be forborn\") but does not assign a time limit to it.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "The end of English Renaissance theatre", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Even after 1642, during the English Civil War and the ensuing Interregnum (English Commonwealth), some English Renaissance theatre continued. For example, short comical plays called Drolls were allowed by the authorities, while full-length plays were banned. The theatre buildings were not closed but rather were used for purposes other than staging plays.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "The end of English Renaissance theatre", "target_page_ids": [ 9709, 1870664, 7129, 4253477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 45 ], [ 62, 73 ], [ 75, 95 ], [ 182, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The performance of plays remained banned for most of the next eighteen years, becoming allowed again after the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660. The theatres began performing many of the plays of the previous era, though often in adapted forms. New genres of Restoration comedy and spectacle soon evolved, giving English theatre of the later seventeenth century its distinctive character.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "The end of English Renaissance theatre", "target_page_ids": [ 70804, 143284, 2236836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 122 ], [ 262, 280 ], [ 285, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Alabaster", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "List of playwrights", "target_page_ids": [ 1010547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Alexander, Earl of Stirling", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "List of playwrights", "target_page_ids": [ 788569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Robert Armin", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "List of playwrights", "target_page_ids": [ 263437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Barnabe Barnes", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "List of playwrights", "target_page_ids": [ 158010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lording 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"section_idx": 17, "section_name": "Significant others", "target_page_ids": [ 3979589, 149700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 15, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Accession Day tilt", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14486948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of theatre", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23477542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All references to Shakespeare's plays, unless otherwise specified, are taken from the Folger Shakespeare Library's Folger Digital Editions texts edited by Barbara Mowat, Paul Werstine, Michael Poston, and Rebecca Niles. Under their referencing system, 3.1.55 means act 3, scene 1, line 55. Prologues, epilogues, scene directions, and other parts of the play that are not a part of character speech in a scene, are referenced using Folger Through Line Number: a separate line numbering scheme that includes every line of text in the play.", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "Notes and references", "target_page_ids": [ 255521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Early Modern Drama database", "section_idx": 21, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shakespeare and the Globe from Encyclopædia Britannica; a more comprehensive resource on the theatre of this period than its name suggests.", "section_idx": 21, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Lecture on Elizabethan Theatre by Thomas Larque", "section_idx": 21, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A site discussing the influence of Ancient Rome on English Renaissance Theatre", "section_idx": 21, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Richard Southern archive at the University of Bristol Theatre Collection, University of Bristol", "section_idx": 21, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 60991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roy, Pinaki. \"All the World's a Stage: Remembering the Prominent Renaissance London Playhouses\". Yearly Shakespeare (ISSN 0976-9536), 11 (April 2013): 24–32.", "section_idx": 21, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Roy, Pinaki. \" If we ever meet again: The Three Groups of English Renaissance Playwrights\". Yearly Shakespeare (ISSN 0976-9536), 17 (April 2019): 31–38.", "section_idx": 21, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 25532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Francis Longe Collection at the Library of Congress contains some early editions of theatrical works published in English between 1607 and 1812.", "section_idx": 21, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 18944081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 55 ] ] } ]

[ "English_drama", "English_early_modern_theatre_companies", "History_of_theatre", "History_of_literature_in_England", "William_Shakespeare" ]

[ "English Renaissance drama", "Elizabethan theatre", "Early Modern English theatre" ]

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After independence, Angola entered a long period of civil war that lasted until 2002.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 701, 3287204, 317886, 34055635, 3208995, 1243211, 230578, 18402, 12494271, 423755, 1053409, 277776, 18091, 12063874, 2057171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 80, 88 ], [ 132, 135 ], [ 213, 218 ], [ 234, 239 ], [ 244, 250 ], [ 273, 293 ], [ 345, 351 ], [ 431, 448 ], [ 494, 523 ], [ 543, 570 ], [ 597, 628 ], [ 632, 638 ], [ 689, 704 ], [ 758, 767 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The area of current day Angola was inhabited during the paleolithic and neolithic eras, as attested by remains found in Luanda, Congo, and the Namibe desert. At the beginning of recorded history other cultures and people also arrived.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "From prehistory to the sovereign country", "target_page_ids": [ 701, 22860, 21189, 183082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 30 ], [ 56, 67 ], [ 72, 81 ], [ 143, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first ones to settle were the San people. This changed at the beginning of the sixth century AD, when the Bantu, already in possession of metal-working technology, ceramics and agriculture began migrating from the north. When they reached what is now Angola they encountered the San and other groups. The establishment of the Bantu took many centuries and gave rise to various groupings that took on different ethnic characteristics.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "From prehistory to the sovereign country", "target_page_ids": [ 317886, 34055635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 44 ], [ 110, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first large political entity in the area, known to history as the Kingdom of Kongo, appeared in the thirteenth century and stretched from Gabon in the north to the river Kwanza in the south, and from the Atlantic in the west to the river Cuango in the east.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "From prehistory to the sovereign country", "target_page_ids": [ 3208995, 12027, 515779, 30605943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 86 ], [ 142, 147 ], [ 168, 180 ], [ 236, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The wealth of the Kongo came mainly from agriculture. Power was in the hands of the Mani, aristocrats who occupied key positions in the kingdom and who answered only to the all-powerful King of the Kongo. Mbanza was the name given to a territorial unit administered and ruled by a Mani; Mbanza Congo, the capital, had a population of over fifty thousand in the sixteenth century.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "From prehistory to the sovereign country", "target_page_ids": [ 30861531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 287, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Kingdom of Kongo was divided into six provinces and included some dependent kingdoms, such as Ndongo to the south. Trade was the main activity, based on highly productive agriculture and increasing exploitation of mineral wealth. In 1482, Portuguese caravels commanded by Diogo Cão arrived in the Congo and he explored the extreme north-western coast of what today is Angola in 1484. Other expeditions followed, and close relations were soon established between the two states. The Portuguese brought firearms and many other technological advances, as well as a new religion (Christianity); in return, the King of the Congo offered plenty of slaves, ivory, and minerals.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "From prehistory to the sovereign country", "target_page_ids": [ 1243211, 315598, 8148, 18950616, 11966, 29816, 5211, 27992, 15165, 19053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 104 ], [ 243, 261 ], [ 276, 285 ], [ 349, 354 ], [ 505, 512 ], [ 529, 542 ], [ 580, 592 ], [ 646, 651 ], [ 654, 659 ], [ 665, 672 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Portuguese colony of Angola was founded in 1575 with the arrival of Paulo Dias de Novais with a hundred Portuguese families and four hundred soldiers. Its center at Luanda was granted the status of city in 1605.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "From prehistory to the sovereign country", "target_page_ids": [ 26257875, 2037878, 18402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ], [ 72, 92 ], [ 169, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The King of the Kongo soon converted to Christianity and adopted a similar political structure to the Europeans. He became a well-known figure in Europe, to the point of receiving missives from the Pope.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "From prehistory to the sovereign country", "target_page_ids": [ 23056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To the south of the Kingdom of the Kongo, around the river Kwanza, there were various important states. The most important of these was the Kingdom of Ndongo or Dongo, ruled by the ngolas. At the time of the arrival of the Portuguese, Ngola Kiluange was in power. By maintaining a policy of alliances with neighbouring states, he managed to hold out against the foreigners for several decades but was eventually beheaded in Luanda. Years later, the Ndongo rose to prominence again when Jinga Mbandi (Queen Jinga) took power. A wily politician, she kept the Portuguese in check with carefully prepared agreements. After undertaking various journeys she succeeded in 1635 in forming a grand coalition with the states of Matamba and Ndongo, Kongo, Kassanje, Dembos and Kissamas. At the head of this formidable alliance, she forced the Portuguese to retreat.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "From prehistory to the sovereign country", "target_page_ids": [ 1243211, 57451044, 18402, 419490, 4014325, 22342507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 157 ], [ 241, 249 ], [ 424, 430 ], [ 500, 511 ], [ 718, 725 ], [ 755, 761 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meanwhile, Portugal had lost its King and the Spanish took control of the Portuguese monarchy. By this time, Portugal's overseas territories had taken second place. The Dutch took advantage of this situation and occupied Luanda in 1641. Jinga entered into an alliance with the Dutch, thereby strengthening her coalition and confining the Portuguese to Massangano, which they fortified strongly, sallying forth on occasion to capture slaves in the Kuata! Kuata! Wars. Slaves from Angola were essential to the development of the Portuguese colony of Brazil, but the traffic had been interrupted by these events. Portugal having regained its independence, a large force from Brazil under the command of Salvador Correia de Sá retook Luanda in 1648, leading to the return of the Portuguese in large numbers. Jinga's coalition then fell apart; the absence of their Dutch allies with their firearms and the strong position of Correia de Sá delivered a deadly blow to the morale of the native forces. Jinga died in 1663; two years later, the King of the Congo committed all his forces to an attempt to capture the island of Luanda, occupied by Correia de Sá, but they were defeated and lost their independence. The Kingdom of Ndongo submitted to the Portuguese Crown in 1671.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "From prehistory to the sovereign country", "target_page_ids": [ 1283751, 57450994, 3383, 24436052, 1243211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 174 ], [ 352, 362 ], [ 548, 554 ], [ 700, 722 ], [ 1208, 1225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trade was mostly with the Portuguese colony of Brazil; Brazilian ships were the most numerous in the ports of Luanda and Benguela. By this time, Angola, a Portuguese colony, was in fact like a colony of Brazil, paradoxically another Portuguese colony. A strong Brazilian influence was also exercised by the Jesuits in religion and education. War gradually gave way to the philosophy of trade. Slave-trading routes and the conquests that made them possible were the driving force for activities between the different areas; independent states slave markets were now focused on the demands of American slavery. In the high plains (the Planalto), the most important states were those of Bié and Bailundo, the latter being noted for its production of foodstuffs and rubber. The interior remained largely free of Portuguese control as late as the 19th century.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "From prehistory to the sovereign country", "target_page_ids": [ 269408, 16083, 448662, 13699261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 53 ], [ 307, 314 ], [ 684, 687 ], [ 692, 700 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "being", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "From prehistory to the sovereign country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The slave trade was not abolished until 1836, and in 1844 Angola's ports were opened to foreign shipping with the Portuguese unable to enforce the laws, especially dependent on English naval security. This facilitated the continuation of slave smuggling to the United States and Brazil. By 1850, Luanda was one of the largest Portuguese cities in the Portuguese Empire outside Mainland Portugal exporting (together with Benguela) palm and peanut oil, wax, copal, timber, ivory, cotton, coffee, and cocoa, among many other products – almost all the produce of a continued forced labour system.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "From prehistory to the sovereign country", "target_page_ids": [ 230578, 2855709, 1126618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 351, 368 ], [ 377, 394 ], [ 420, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Berlin Conference compelled Portugal to move towards the immediate occupation of all the territories it laid claim to but had been unable to effectively conquer. The territory of Cabinda (province), to the north of the river Zaire, was also ceded to Portugal on the legal basis of the Treaty of Simulambuko Protectorate, concluded between the Portuguese Crown and the princes of Cabinda in 1885. In the 19th century they slowly and hesitantly began to establish themselves in the interior. Angola as a Portuguese colony encompassing the present territory was not established before the end of the 19th century, and \"effective occupation\", as required by the Berlin Conference (1884) was achieved only by the 1920s.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "From prehistory to the sovereign country", "target_page_ids": [ 290515, 65213, 5120263, 88446, 26257875, 290515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 183, 201 ], [ 289, 310 ], [ 347, 363 ], [ 506, 523 ], [ 662, 686 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Colonial economic strategy was based on agriculture and the export of raw materials. Trade in rubber and ivory, together with the taxes imposed on the population of the Empire (including the mainland), brought vast income to Lisbon.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "From prehistory to the sovereign country", "target_page_ids": [ 627, 216167, 38393, 15165, 18091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 51 ], [ 70, 82 ], [ 94, 100 ], [ 105, 110 ], [ 225, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Portuguese policy in Angola was modified by certain reforms introduced at the beginning of the twentieth century. The fall of the Portuguese monarchy and a favourable international climate led to reforms in administration, agriculture, and education. In 1951, with the advent of the New State regime (Estado Novo) extended to the colony, Angola became a province of Portugal (Ultramarine Province), called the Província Ultramarina de Angola (Overseas Province of Angola).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "From prehistory to the sovereign country", "target_page_ids": [ 577704, 26257875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 283, 292 ], [ 443, 470 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, Portuguese rule remained characterized by deep-seated racism, mass forced labour, and an almost complete failure to modernize the country. By 1960, after 400 years of colonial rule, there was not a single university in the entire territory. To counter this lack of education facilities, overtly political organizations first appeared in the 1950s, and began to make organized demands for human and civil rights, initiating diplomatic campaigns throughout the world in their fight for independence. The Portuguese regime, meanwhile, refused to accede to the nationalist's demands for independence, thereby provoking the armed conflict that started in 1961 when guerrillas attacked colonial assets in cross-border operations in northeastern Angola. The war came to be known as the Colonial War.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "From prehistory to the sovereign country", "target_page_ids": [ 2314240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 788, 800 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In this struggle, the principal protagonists were the MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola), founded in 1956, the FNLA (National Front for the Liberation of Angola), which appeared in 1961, and UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola), founded in 1966. After many years of conflict, the nation gained its independence on 11 November 1975, after the 1974 coup d'état in Lisbon, Portugal. Portugal's new leaders began a process of democratic change at home and acceptance of the independence of its former colonies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "From prehistory to the sovereign country", "target_page_ids": [ 347166, 900249, 245423, 277776, 18091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 58 ], [ 135, 178 ], [ 216, 267 ], [ 383, 399 ], [ 403, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A 1974 coup d'état in Portugal established a military government led by President António de Spínola. The Spínola government agreed to give all of Portugal's colonies independence, and handed power in Angola over to a coalition of the three largest nationalist movements, the MPLA, UNITA, and the FNLA, through the Alvor Agreement. The coalition quickly broke down, however, and the country descended into civil war. The MPLA gained control of the capital Luanda and much of the rest of the country. With the support of the United States, Zaïre and South Africa intervened militarily in favour of the FNLA and UNITA with the intention of taking Luanda before the declaration of independence. In response, Cuba intervened in favor of the MPLA. In the meantime the South Africans and UNITA had come as close as 200km to the south of the capital, the FNLA and Zairian forces as far as Kifangondo, 30km to the east.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Civil war", "target_page_ids": [ 277776, 1396069, 12063874, 34421, 14924212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 18 ], [ 82, 100 ], [ 315, 330 ], [ 539, 544 ], [ 705, 720 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With Cuban support, the MPLA held Luanda and declared independence as the Angolan People's Republic on 11 November 1975, the day the Portuguese left the country. Agostinho Neto became the first president. FNLA and UNITA proclaimed their own short-lived republics (the Angolan Democratic Republic and the Angolan Social Democratic Republic) on 24 November 1975, for the zones they controlled with Holden Roberto and Jonas Savimbi as co-presidents of the Angolan People's Democratic Republic in Huambo. This joint FNLA-UNITA government was dissolved on 11 February 1976 after a MPLA offensive. By the end of January 1976 the MPLA army (FAPLA) and the Cubans had all but crushed FNLA, Zairians and UNITA, and the South African forces withdrew.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Civil war", "target_page_ids": [ 15054340, 445152, 1736003, 264097, 900139, 57583664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 99 ], [ 162, 176 ], [ 396, 410 ], [ 415, 428 ], [ 432, 445 ], [ 453, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 27 May 1977, a coup attempt, including some former members of the MPLA government such as Nito Alves, led to retaliation by the government and Cuban forces, resulting in the execution of thousands, if not tens of thousands. Alves was tortured and killed. The movement is known as Fraccionismo.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Civil war", "target_page_ids": [ 3309521, 26344651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 103 ], [ 283, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The proxy war continued. The MPLA government, recognized internationally (although not by the United States), requested that Cuban forces remain in the country. Led by Jonas Savimbi, UNITA received clandestine support from the U.S. and other nations and took up military resistance in the southeast of the country while the MPLA government was supported by the USSR and Eastern Bloc countries. South Africa continued to pursue South-West Africa People's Organisation (SWAPO) forces in Southern Angola, soon established bases and increased support of UNITA, which gained control of more and more territory. In an effort to deliver a final blow to UNITA and to drive South Africa out of the country, in 1987 the People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA), with Soviet support, launched a campaign fraught with failures and defeats. Again, the Cubans intervened, stopping UNITA and South African advances, leading to the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale from 13 January to 23 March, the largest battle in African history since World War II.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Civil war", "target_page_ids": [ 26779, 97477, 284376, 14980147, 3205662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 361, 365 ], [ 370, 382 ], [ 427, 466 ], [ 710, 760 ], [ 934, 959 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The MPLA and the U.S. had been in negotiations for a peaceful solution since June 1987. The U.S. agreed to include Cuba in direct talks. Cuba joined the negotiations 28 January 1988; South Africa joined 9 March. Angola, Cuba and South Africa signed the Tripartite Accord on 22 December 1988, in which the withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola was linked to the retreat of South African soldiers from Angola and Namibia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Civil war", "target_page_ids": [ 12605813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 253, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bicesse Accord in 1991 spelled out an electoral process for a democratic Angola under the supervision of the United Nations. MPLA won the first round with 49% of the votes, against 40% for UNITA. UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi rejected the results and returned to war. From 30 October to 1 November 1992 the Halloween Massacre occurred in which thousands of UNITA and FNLA supporters in Luanda were killed by MPLA troops. Estimates for the death toll nationwide reach 25,000 to 30,000. A second peace accord, the Lusaka Protocol, was brokered in Lusaka, Zambia and signed on 20 November 1994.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Civil war", "target_page_ids": [ 3956311, 31769, 20823967, 12271472, 23149963, 34415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 113, 127 ], [ 308, 326 ], [ 513, 528 ], [ 546, 552 ], [ 554, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The peace accord between the government and UNITA provided for the integration of former UNITA insurgents into the government and armed forces. However, in 1995, localized fighting resumed. A national unity government was installed in April 1997, but serious fighting resumed in late 1998 when Savimbi renewed the war for a second time, claiming that the MPLA was not fulfilling its obligations. The UN Security Council voted on 28 August 1997, to impose sanctions on UNITA. The Angolan military launched a massive offensive in 1999 that destroyed UNITA's conventional capacity and recaptured all major cities previously held by Savimbi's forces. Savimbi then declared that UNITA would return to guerrilla tactics, and much of the country remained in turmoil.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Civil war", "target_page_ids": [ 31956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 400, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The extended civil war rendered hundreds of thousands of people homeless. Up to 1 million lives may have been lost in fighting over the past quarter century. It only ended when Savimbi was killed in 2002.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Civil war", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A Russian freighter delivered 500 tons of Ukrainian 7.62mm ammunition to Simportex, a division of the Angolan government, with the help of a shipping agent in London on 21 September 2000. The ship's captain declared his cargo \"fragile\" to minimize inspection. The next day, the MPLA began attacking UNITA, winning victories in several battles from 22 to 25 September. The government gained control over military bases and diamond mines in Lunda Norte and Lunda Sul, hurting Savimbi's ability to pay his troops.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "2000s and 2010s", "target_page_ids": [ 448717, 448719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 439, 450 ], [ 455, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Angola agreed to trade oil to Slovakia in return for arms, buying six Sukhoi Su-17 attack aircraft on 3 April 2000. The Spanish government in the Canary Islands prevented a Ukrainian freighter from delivering 636 tons of military equipment to Angola on 24 February 2001. The captain of the ship had inaccurately reported his cargo, falsely claiming the ship carried automobile parts. The Angolan government admitted Simportex had purchased arms from Rosvooruzhenie, the Russian state-owned arms company, and acknowledged the captain might have violated Spanish law by misreporting his cargo, a common practice in arms smuggling to Angola.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "2000s and 2010s", "target_page_ids": [ 986647, 181146, 5717, 3094695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 82 ], [ 83, 98 ], [ 146, 160 ], [ 450, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Government troops captured and destroyed UNITA's Epongoloko base in Benguela province and Mufumbo base in Cuanza Sul in October 2001. The Slovak government sold fighter jets to the Angolan government in 2001 in violation of the European Union Code of Conduct on Arms Exports.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "2000s and 2010s", "target_page_ids": [ 9317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Government troops killed Savimbi on 22 February 2002, in Moxico province. UNITA Vice President António Dembo took over, but died from diabetes twelve days later on 3 March, and Secretary-General Paulo Lukamba became UNITA's leader. After Savimbi's death, the government came to a crossroads over how to proceed. After initially indicating the counter-insurgency might continue, the government announced it would halt all military operations on 13 March. Military commanders for UNITA and the MPLA met in Cassamba and agreed to a cease-fire. However, Carlos Morgado, UNITA's spokesman in Portugal, said that the UNITA's Portugal wing had been under the impression General Kamorteiro, the UNITA general who agreed to the ceasefire, had been captured more than a week earlier. Morgado did say that he had not heard from Angola since Savimbi's death. The military commanders signed a Memorandum of Understanding as an addendum to the Lusaka Protocol in Luena on 4 April, Dos Santos and Lukamba observing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "2000s and 2010s", "target_page_ids": [ 6584521, 6591029, 666301, 57561744, 12271472, 2429099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 108 ], [ 195, 208 ], [ 421, 439 ], [ 504, 512 ], [ 930, 945 ], [ 949, 954 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1404 on 18 April, extending the monitoring mechanism of sanctions by six months. Resolutions 1412 and 1432, passed on 17 May and 15 August respectively, suspended the UN travel ban on UNITA officials for 90 days each, finally abolishing the ban through Resolution 1439 on 18 October. UNAVEM III, extended an additional two months by Resolution 1439, ended on 19 December.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "2000s and 2010s", "target_page_ids": [ 31956, 27958538, 27980724, 28078538, 28108272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 35 ], [ 43, 58 ], [ 135, 151 ], [ 156, 160 ], [ 307, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 2002, UNITA declared itself a political party and officially demobilised its armed forces. That same month, the United Nations Security Council replaced the United Nations Office in Angola with the United Nations Mission in Angola, a larger, non-military, political presence.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "2000s and 2010s", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The civil war produced four million internally displaced persons (IDPs), one third of Angola's population. The government spent $187 million settling IDPs between 4 April 2002 and 2004, after which the World Bank gave $33 million to continue the settling process. Militant forces laid approximately 15 million landmines by 2002. The HALO Trust charity began demining in 1994, destroying 30,000 by July 2007. There are 1,100 Angolans and seven foreign workers who are working for HALO Trust in Angola, with operations expected to finish sometime between 2011 and 2014.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "2000s and 2010s", "target_page_ids": [ 45358446, 18172, 385441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 212 ], [ 310, 318 ], [ 333, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Human Rights Watch estimates UNITA and the government employed more than 86,000 and 3,000 child soldiers respectively, some forcibly impressed, during the war. Human rights analysts found 5,000 to 8,000 underage girls married to UNITA militants. Some girls were ordered to go and forage for food to provide for the troops. If the girls did not bring back enough food as judged by their commander, then the girls would not eat. After victories, UNITA commanders would be rewarded with women who were often then sexually abused. The government and UN agencies identified 190 child soldiers in the Angolan army and relocated seventy of them by November 2002, but the government continued to knowingly employ other underage soldiers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "2000s and 2010s", "target_page_ids": [ 46530, 72214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 90, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fernando Vendrell produced and Zézé Gamboa directed The Hero, a film about the life of average Angolans after the civil war, in 2004. The film follows the lives of three individuals; Vitório, a war veteran crippled by a landmine who returns to Luanda, Manu, a young boy searching for his soldier father, and Joana, a teacher who mentors the boy and begins a love affair with Vitório. The Hero won the 2005 Sundance World Dramatic Cinema Jury Grand Prize. A joint Angolan, Portuguese, and French production, Gamboa filmed The Hero entirely in Angola.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "2000s and 2010s", "target_page_ids": [ 34182207, 62198929, 7288050, 327806, 23943448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 31, 42 ], [ 52, 60 ], [ 194, 205 ], [ 406, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "José Eduardo dos Santos stepped down as President of Angola after 38 years in 2017, being peacefully succeeded by João Lourenço, Santos' chosen successor. However, President João Lourenço started a campaign against corruption of the dos Santos era. In November 2017, Isabel dos Santos, the billionaire daughter of former President José Eduardo dos Santos, was fired from her position as head of the country's state oil company Sonangol. In August 2020, José Filomeno dos Santos, son of Angola's former president, was sentenced for five years in jail for fraud and corruption.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "2000s and 2010s", "target_page_ids": [ 392284, 54579350, 12662959, 1973875, 41153135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ], [ 114, 127 ], [ 267, 284 ], [ 427, 435 ], [ 454, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of Africa", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of Southern Africa", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of President Bush s of Angola", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Politics of Angola", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Portuguese West Africa", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26257875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Slavery in Angola", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15096697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cities:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Benguela history and timeline", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1126618, 55640759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ], [ 22, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Luanda history and timeline", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18402, 39444948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 15 ], [ 20, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arquivo Histórico Nacional (Angola) (national archives)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32957728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Attribution:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some of the material in this article comes from the CIA World Factbook 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 5163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gerald Bender, Angola Under the Portuguese, London: Heinemann, 1978", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " David Birmingham, The Portuguese Conquest of Angola, London: Oxford University Press, 1965.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " David Birmingham, Trade and Conquest in Angola, London: Oxford University Press, 1966.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Armando Castro, O sistema colonial português em África (Meados do século XX), Lisbon: Caminho, 1978", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Patrick Chabal and others, A History of Postcolonial Lusophone Africa, London: Hurst, 2002 (article on Angola by David Birmingham)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 41721607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Basil Davidson, Portuguese-speaking Africa. In: Michael Crowder (Hg.): The Cambridge History of Africa. Vol. 8. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984 S. 755–806.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 48983570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jonuel Gonçalves, A economia ao longo da história de Angola, Luanda: Mayamba Editora, 2011 ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fernando Andresen Guimarães, The Origins of the Angolan Civil War, London + New York: Macmillan Press + St. Martin's Press, 1998", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cecile Fromont, The Art of Conversion: Christian Visual Culture in the Kingdom of Kongo. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Beatrix Heintze, Studien zur Geschichte Angolas im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert, Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, 1996", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lawrence W. Henderson, Angola: Five Centuries of Conflict, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "W. Martin James & Susan Herlin Broadhead, Historical dictionary of Angola, Lanham/MD: Scarecrow Press, 2004, ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Marcum, The Angolan Revolution, vol.I, The anatomy of an explosion (1950–1962), Cambridge, Massachusetts & London, MIT Press, 1969; vol. II, Exile Politics and Guerrilla Warfare (1962–1976), Cambridge, Massachusetts & London, MIT Press, 1978", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Christine Messiant, L’Angola colonial, histoire et société: Les prémisses du mouvement nationaliste, Basle: Schlettwein, 2006.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " René Pélissier, Les Guerres Grises: Résistance et revoltes en Angola (1845–1941), Orgeval: published by the author, 1977", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " René Pélissier, La colonie du Minotaure: Nationalismes et revoltes en Angola (1926–1961), Orgeval: published by the author,1978", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " René Pélissier, Les campagnes coloniales du Portugal, Paris: Pygmalion, 2004", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Graziano Saccardo, Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei Cappuccini, 3 vols., Venice, 1982-3", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rulers.org — Angola list of rulers for Angola", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "WorldStatesmen", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The African Activist Archive Project website has material on colonialism and the struggle for independence in Angola and support in the U.S. for that struggle produced by many U.S. organizations including documents, photographs, buttons, posters, T-shirts, audio and video.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "History_of_Angola", "History_of_Central_Africa", "History_of_Africa_by_country" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The history of Anguilla runs from the Pre-Columbian Anguilla, probably via settlement from South America, through its Colonial Anguilla by the English in the early modern period, to the Modern Anguilla. Following a series of rebellions and a short-lived period as an independent republic during the 1960s, Anguilla has been a separate British overseas territory since 1980.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1217, 90001, 18803164, 967013, 30214653, 207114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 23 ], [ 91, 104 ], [ 143, 150 ], [ 158, 177 ], [ 267, 287 ], [ 335, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest inhabitants of Anguilla were Amerindian people from South America, commonly (if imprecisely) referred to as Arawaks. These people travelled to the island on rafts and in dugout canoes, settling in fishing, hunting and farming groups. Forty Arawak villages have been excavated, the largest being those at Island Harbour, Sandy Ground, Sandy Hill, Rendezvous Bay, and Shoal Bay East. The Amerindian name for the island was Malliouhana. The earliest Amerindian artefacts found on Anguilla have been dated to around 1300BC, and remains of settlements dating from AD600 have been uncovered. Religious artifacts and remnants of ceremonies found at locations, such as Big Springs and Fountain Cavern, suggest that the pre-European inhabitants were extremely religious in nature. The Arawaks are popularly said to have been later displaced by fiercer Carib, but this version of events and characterisation is disputed by some.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Pre-Columbian Anguilla", "target_page_ids": [ 2402376, 65313, 65384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 52 ], [ 121, 128 ], [ 856, 861 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The European discovery and renaming of the island is uncertain. Some claim it had been sighted by Columbus; others credit it to the French explorer René Goulaine de Laudonnière during his voyages in 1564 and 1565. The Dutch West India Company established a fort on the island in 1631. The Dutch withdrew after the destruction of the fort by Spanish forces in 1633.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial Anguilla", "target_page_ids": [ 5635, 2687967, 621981, 8769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 106 ], [ 132, 138 ], [ 148, 176 ], [ 218, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anguilla was conquered and colonised by English settlers from St. Christopher beginning in 1650. A local council was formed, overseen by Antigua. Six years later, natives from another island attacked, killing most of the men and enslaving the women and children. In 1666, 300 Frenchmen attacked the island, driving the settlers into the forests. It was subsequently returned to the English by the terms of the 1667 Treaty of Breda. The French and Irish together attacked in 1688, driving the English off the island to Antigua, and periods of drought during the 1680s left conditions so poor that many Anguillians left for St Croix and the British Virgin Islands in 1694. In 1724, the population had rebuilt to 360 Europeans and 900 Africans.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial Anguilla", "target_page_ids": [ 9316, 27737, 1967554, 535578, 1967554, 229431, 3469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 47 ], [ 62, 77 ], [ 137, 144 ], [ 410, 430 ], [ 518, 525 ], [ 622, 630 ], [ 639, 661 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1744, during the War of the Austrian Succession, 300 Anguillians and 2 privateers from St. Christopher invaded the French half of neighboring Saint Martin, holding it until the 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Two French frigates landed 700 or 1000 men at Crocus Bay on Anguilla in 1745 but were repulsed by 150 militiamen under Governor Hodge.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial Anguilla", "target_page_ids": [ 52266, 50767, 140409, 1525391, 47912958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 50 ], [ 74, 84 ], [ 145, 157 ], [ 185, 210 ], [ 289, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 27 November 1796, amid the Napoleonic Wars, the French warships Décius and Vaillante landed 400 Frenchmen at Rendezvous Bay under Victor Hugues. These were able to destroy the villages at South Hill and The Valley, but the local British regrouped on the Long Path before Sandy Hill Fort. The frigate HMS Lapwing, sailing from St. Christopher under Captain Barton, was able to defeat the French ships and the assault again ended in failure.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial Anguilla", "target_page_ids": [ 45420, 63546870, 63540054, 2108154, 33346473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 45 ], [ 67, 73 ], [ 78, 87 ], [ 133, 146 ], [ 303, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Attempts were made to develop Anguilla into a plantation-based economy employing enslaved Africans, but the island's soil and climate were unfavourable and the plantations were largely unsuccessful. Anguilla's population is estimated to have fallen from a peak of around 10,000 to just 2000. In 1819, there were 360 Europeans, 320 free Africans, and 2451 slaves. The British abolished slavery in their colonies during the 1830s. While the plantation owners returned to Europe, the freedmen continued to eke out livings on Anguilla as subsistence farmers and fishermen. There were droughts and famines in the 1830s and 1840s. The British government attempted to send the entire population of the island to Demerara in British Guiana (modern Guyana) but most remained. In the 19th century, the large lake in the center of the island was exploited for salt exported to the United States; around 3,000,000 bushels were produced each year. This formed the island's principal trade, although sugar, cotton, and tobacco were also produced.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial Anguilla", "target_page_ids": [ 142473, 792248, 199278, 17238691, 3434750, 424987, 27712, 36806, 30942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 56 ], [ 705, 713 ], [ 717, 731 ], [ 740, 746 ], [ 870, 883 ], [ 902, 908 ], [ 986, 991 ], [ 993, 999 ], [ 1005, 1012 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1871, Anguilla was forced into a federation with St Kitts; the next year, the islands petitioned the British colonial office to permit separate and direct rule. Around this time, the population had risen to 3000. In 1882, Nevis was added. The population had risen to 3890 by the time of the First World War. By that time, charcoal production had essentially deforested the entire island, but the expanded pastureland permitted export of cattle to Saint Thomas. Phosphate of lime was also produced.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial Anguilla", "target_page_ids": [ 27737, 21503, 4764461, 21193982, 8103, 26051975, 441496, 2699300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 60 ], [ 225, 230 ], [ 294, 309 ], [ 325, 333 ], [ 361, 371 ], [ 440, 446 ], [ 450, 462 ], [ 464, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was not until 1951 that Anguilla had a greater say in its administration, the British colony of Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla, itself part of the Federal Colony of the Leeward Islands. Between 1958 and 1962, the tri-state was part of the West Indies Federation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial Anguilla", "target_page_ids": [ 1008734, 13017045, 218339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 131 ], [ 152, 189 ], [ 244, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On , Britain granted the territory of Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla the status of \"associated state\", with its own constitution and a considerable degree of self-government. Many Anguillans strenuously objected to the continuing political subservience to Saint Kitts, and on 30 May 1967 (known as \"Anguilla Day\"), the Kittian police were evicted from the island. The provisional government requested United States administration, which was declined. On 11 July 1967 a referendum on Anguilla's secession from the fledgling state was held. The results were 1,813 votes for secession and 5 against. A separate legislative council was immediately declared. Peter Adams served as the first Chairman of the Anguilla Island Council. After eight days of negotiation on Barbados, on July 31, Adams agreed to return Anguilla to the Anguilla–StKitts–Nevis federation, in exchange for granting Anguilla limited self-rule similar to that enjoyed by Nevis. Adams agreed to support this pact in principle, but the Council rejected it, replacing Adams as Chairman with Ronald Webster. In December, two members of Britain's Parliament worked out an interim agreement by which for one year a British official would exercise basic administrative authority along with the Anguilla Council. Tony Lee took the position in January 1968, but by the end of the term no agreement have been reached on the long-term future of the island's government.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern Anguilla", "target_page_ids": [ 1008734, 346414, 4170087, 13964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 70 ], [ 86, 102 ], [ 1058, 1072 ], [ 1112, 1122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 7 February 1969 Anguilla held a second referendum resulting in a vote of 1,739 to 4 against returning to association with Saint Kitts. At this point Anguilla declared itself an independent republic, with Webster again serving as Chairman. A new British envoy, William Whitlock, arrived on 11 March 1969 with a proposal for a new interim British administration. He was quickly expelled. On 19 March 1969, a contingent of 2nd Battalion, the Parachute Regiment, and 40 Metropolitan Police officers peacefully landed on the island, ostensibly to \"restore order\". That autumn the troops left and Army engineers were brought in to improve the public works. Tony Lee returned as Commissioner and in 1971 worked out another \"interim agreement\" with the islanders. Effectively Anguilla was allowed to secede from Saint Kitts and Nevis, receiving its first constitution on 12 February 1976. It was not until 19 December 1980 that Anguilla was formally disassociated from Saint Kitts to become a separate British dependency. While Saint Kitts and Nevis went on to gain full independence from Britain in 1983, Anguilla still remains a British overseas territory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern Anguilla", "target_page_ids": [ 5892349, 18717624, 364721, 192450, 68000760, 27198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 280 ], [ 424, 437 ], [ 443, 461 ], [ 470, 489 ], [ 499, 516 ], [ 809, 830 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In recent years Anguilla has become an up-market tourist destination, and tourism is one of the mainstays of the economy. Fishing is another important economic activity, and a financial services sector is also being developed. The modern population of Anguilla is largely of African descent, with a minority having European (mainly English) ancestry.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern Anguilla", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Republic of Anguilla", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30214653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the Caribbean", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 51363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the Americas", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] } ]

[ "History_of_Anguilla", "1650_establishments_in_the_British_Empire" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The University of Glasgow (abbreviated as Glas. in post-nominals; ) is a public research university in Glasgow, Scotland. Founded by papal bull in , it is the fourth-oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotland's four ancient universities. Along with the universities of Edinburgh, Aberdeen, and St Andrews, the university was part of the Scottish Enlightenment during the 18th century.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 465387, 1640986, 1148604, 68736, 26994, 210043, 363897, 622156, 86332, 23592200, 213135, 181348, 19725260, 97377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 64 ], [ 73, 79 ], [ 80, 99 ], [ 103, 110 ], [ 112, 120 ], [ 133, 143 ], [ 159, 183 ], [ 191, 213 ], [ 241, 261 ], [ 294, 303 ], [ 305, 313 ], [ 319, 329 ], [ 335, 345 ], [ 362, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In common with universities of the pre-modern era, Glasgow originally educated students primarily from wealthy backgrounds; however, it became a pioneer in British higher education in the 19th century by also providing for the needs of students from the growing urban and commercial middle class. Glasgow University served all of these students by preparing them for professions: law, medicine, civil service, teaching, and the church. It also trained smaller but growing numbers for careers in science and engineering. The annual income of the institution for 2020–21 was £809.4million of which £173.3million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £693.1million. It is a member of Universitas 21, the Russell Group and the Guild of European Research-Intensive Universities.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 251534, 7954775, 540104, 59273968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 283, 295 ], [ 706, 720 ], [ 726, 739 ], [ 748, 797 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The university was originally located in the city's High Street; since 1870, its main campus has been at Gilmorehill in the City's West End. Additionally, a number of university buildings are located elsewhere, such as the Veterinary School in Bearsden, and the Crichton Campus in Dumfries.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6294113, 951827, 68736, 20852596, 437757, 12856661, 130702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 63 ], [ 105, 116 ], [ 124, 139 ], [ 223, 240 ], [ 244, 252 ], [ 262, 277 ], [ 281, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "High educational standards, strict entrance requirements (4th highest in the UK) and a strong international research reputation have made the university a competitive destination for students worldwide. Glasgow is a World Top 100 university so that the institution is positioned at the top 1% of world universities. More specifically, the University of Glasgow ranked 53rd and 67th globally in the 2020 CWTS Leiden and 2020 QS World University Ranking respectively, as well as placing nationally among the top 10 UK universities. According to the Research Excellence Framework (REF) 2014, 81% of the research achievements were rated as \"internationally excellent\" and achieved the 10th position on research volume in the United Kingdom. The university was awarded the \"2020 THE University of the Year\" in recognition of its contribution to reparative justice.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 43058880, 25057928, 15255475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 403, 414 ], [ 424, 451 ], [ 774, 777 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The alumni of the University of Glasgow include some of the major figures of modern history, including James Wilson, a signatory of the United States Declaration of Independence, 3 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom (William Lamb, Henry Campbell-Bannerman and Bonar Law), 2 Scottish First Ministers (Nicola Sturgeon and Donald Dewar), economist Adam Smith, philosopher Francis Hutcheson, engineer James Watt, physicist Lord Kelvin, surgeon Joseph Lister along with 8 Nobel Prize laureates and numerous Olympic gold medallists, including the current chancellor, Dame Katherine Granger.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1346307, 21835290, 31874, 44065161, 43474, 199116, 218283, 579570, 8833, 1814, 188405, 16142, 33302, 16535, 2561323, 917398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ], [ 103, 115 ], [ 136, 177 ], [ 179, 218 ], [ 220, 232 ], [ 234, 258 ], [ 263, 272 ], [ 303, 318 ], [ 323, 335 ], [ 348, 358 ], [ 372, 389 ], [ 400, 410 ], [ 422, 433 ], [ 443, 456 ], [ 468, 491 ], [ 564, 586 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The University of Glasgow was founded in 1451 by a charter or papal bull from Pope Nicholas V, at the suggestion of King James II, giving Bishop William Turnbull, a graduate of the University of St Andrews, permission to add a university to the city's Cathedral. It is the second-oldest university in Scotland after St Andrews and the fourth-oldest in the English-speaking world. The universities of St Andrews, Glasgow, and Aberdeen were ecclesiastical foundations, while Edinburgh was a civic foundation. As one of the ancient universities of the United Kingdom, Glasgow is one of only eight institutions to award undergraduate master's degrees in certain disciplines.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 210043, 44993, 148026, 1172444, 181348, 213135, 23592200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 72 ], [ 78, 93 ], [ 116, 129 ], [ 145, 161 ], [ 181, 205 ], [ 425, 433 ], [ 473, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The university has been without its original Bull since the mid-sixteenth century. In 1560, during the political unrest accompanying the Scottish Reformation, the then chancellor, Archbishop James Beaton, a supporter of the Marian cause, fled to France. He took with him, for safe-keeping, many of the archives and valuables of the cathedral and the university, including the Mace and the Bull. Although the Mace was sent back in 1590, the archives were not. Principal Dr. James Fall told the Parliamentary Commissioners of Visitation on 28 August 1690, that he had seen the Bull at the Scots College in Paris, together with the many charters granted to the university by the monarchs of Scotland from James II to Mary, Queen of Scots. The university enquired of these documents in 1738 but was informed by Thomas Innes and the superiors of the Scots College that the original records of the foundation of the university were not to be found. If they had not been lost by this time, they certainly went astray during the French Revolution when the Scots College was under threat. Its records and valuables were moved for safe-keeping out of the city of Paris. The Bull remains the authority by which the university awards degrees.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6987580, 6125870, 20603, 148026, 20603, 1095617, 10928337, 11188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 157 ], [ 191, 203 ], [ 224, 236 ], [ 702, 710 ], [ 714, 734 ], [ 807, 819 ], [ 845, 858 ], [ 1021, 1038 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Teaching at the university began in the Chapter House of Glasgow Cathedral, subsequently moving to nearby Rottenrow, in a building known as the \"Auld Pedagogy\". The university was given of land belonging to the Black Friars (Dominicans) on High Street by Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1563. By the late 17th century its building centred on two courtyards surrounded by walled gardens, with a clock tower, which was one of the notable features of Glasgow's skyline—reaching in height—and a chapel adapted from the church of the former Dominican (Blackfriars) friary. Remnants of this Scottish Renaissance building, mainly parts of the main façade, were transferred to the Gilmorehill campus and renamed as the \"Pearce Lodge\", after Sir William Pearce, the shipbuilding magnate who funded its preservation. The Lion and Unicorn Staircase was also transferred from the old college site and is now attached to the Main Building.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 797822, 654858, 6294113, 8973, 22188384, 24761306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 74 ], [ 106, 115 ], [ 241, 252 ], [ 531, 540 ], [ 728, 746 ], [ 806, 832 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Anderson, while professor of natural philosophy at the university, and with some opposition from his colleagues, pioneered vocational education for working men and women during the Industrial Revolution. To continue this work in his will, he founded Anderson's College, which was associated with the university before merging with other institutions to become the University of Strathclyde in 1964.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 604310, 56551, 14914, 1734858, 224318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 128, 148 ], [ 186, 207 ], [ 255, 273 ], [ 369, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1973, Delphine Parrott became its first female professor, as Gardiner Professor of Immunology.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40070736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2014, the university court voted for the university to become the first academic institution in Europe to divest from the fossil fuel industry.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 46255716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The university is currently spread over a few campuses. The main one is the Gilmorehill campus, in Hillhead. As well as this there is the Garscube Estate in Bearsden, housing the Veterinary School, Observatory, ship model basin and much of the university's sports facilities, the Dental School in the city center, the section of Mental Health and Well Being at Gartnavel Royal Hospital on Great Western Road, the Teaching and Learning Centre at the Queen Elizabeth University Hospital and the Crichton Campus in Dumfries (operated jointly by the University of Glasgow, the University of the West of Scotland and the Open University).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 951827, 437757, 20852596, 58968, 614515, 10888554, 7209265, 47109054, 431698, 158464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 107 ], [ 157, 165 ], [ 179, 196 ], [ 198, 209 ], [ 211, 227 ], [ 280, 293 ], [ 361, 385 ], [ 449, 484 ], [ 573, 607 ], [ 616, 631 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Imaging Centre of Excellence (ICE) was opened at the Queen Elizabeth University Hospital on 29 March 2017, including a Clinical Innovation Zone spanning of collaboration space for researchers and industry.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 47109054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The university's initial accommodation including Glasgow University Library was part of the complex of religious buildings in the precincts of Glasgow Cathedral. In 1460, the university received a grant of land from James, Lord Hamilton, on the east side of the High Street, immediately north of the Blackfriars Church, on which it had its home for the next four hundred years. In the mid-seventeenth century, the Hamilton Building was replaced with a very grand two-court building with a decorated west front facing the High Street, called the 'Nova Erectio', or New Building. This foundation is widely considered to have been one of the finest 17th-century buildings in Scotland. Decorated fragments from it, including a complete exterior stairway, were rescued and built into its 19th-century replacement. In Sir Walter Scott's best-selling 1817 novel Rob Roy, set at the time of the Jacobite rising of 1715, the lead character fights a duel in the New Building grounds before the contest is broken up by Rob Roy MacGregor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 2044421, 797822, 1995829, 6294113, 27884, 750558, 30549538, 651768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 75 ], [ 143, 160 ], [ 216, 236 ], [ 262, 273 ], [ 816, 828 ], [ 855, 862 ], [ 887, 910 ], [ 1008, 1025 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over the following centuries, the university's size and scope continued to expand. In 1757 it built the Macfarlane Observatory and later Scotland's first public museum, the Hunterian. It was a center of the Scottish Enlightenment and subsequently of the Industrial Revolution, and its expansion in the High Street was constrained. The area around the university declined as well-off residents moved westwards with the expansion of the city and overcrowding of the immediate area by less well-off residents. It was this rapid slumming of the area that was a chief catalyst of the university's migration westward.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 27480710, 472015, 97377, 14914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 126 ], [ 173, 182 ], [ 207, 229 ], [ 254, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1870, the university moved to a (then greenfield) site on Gilmorehill in the West End of the city, around west of its previous location, enclosed by a large meander of the River Kelvin. The original site on the High Street was sold to the City of Glasgow Union Railway and replaced by the college goods yard. The new-build campus was designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott in the Gothic revival style. The largest of these buildings echoed, on a far grander scale, the original High Street campus's twin-quadrangle layout, and may have been inspired by Ypres' late-medieval cloth hall; Gilmorehill, in turn, inspired the design of the Clocktower complex of buildings for the new University of Otago in New Zealand. In 1879, Gilbert Scott's son, Oldrid, completed this original vision by building an open undercroft forming two quadrangles, above which is his grand Bute Hall (used for examinations and graduation ceremonies), named after its donor, John Crichton-Stuart, 3rd Marquess of Bute. Oldrid also later added a spire to the building's signature gothic bell tower in 1887, bringing it to a total height of some . The local Bishopbriggs blond sandstone cladding and Gothic design of the building's exterior belie the modernity of its Victorian construction; Scott's building is structured upon what was then a cutting-edge riveted iron frame construction, supporting a lightweight wooden-beam roof. The building also forms the second-largest example of Gothic revival architecture in Britain, after the Palace of Westminster. An illustration of the Main Building previously featured on the reverse side of £100 notes issued by Clydesdale Bank.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 757991, 3335767, 2206012, 4544545, 20691950, 99199, 311821, 10921599, 154435, 27708486, 98089, 818369, 1011231, 457924, 54044, 611249, 226414, 32798, 2276409, 24170, 270680, 378305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 51 ], [ 161, 168 ], [ 176, 188 ], [ 243, 272 ], [ 301, 311 ], [ 354, 374 ], [ 382, 396 ], [ 506, 516 ], [ 555, 560 ], [ 576, 586 ], [ 681, 700 ], [ 747, 753 ], [ 806, 816 ], [ 951, 993 ], [ 1055, 1061 ], [ 1062, 1072 ], [ 1132, 1144 ], [ 1242, 1251 ], [ 1339, 1349 ], [ 1511, 1532 ], [ 1614, 1624 ], [ 1635, 1650 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The university's Hunterian Museum resides in the Main Building, and the related Hunterian Gallery is housed in buildings adjacent to the University Library. The latter includes \"The Mackintosh House\", a rebuilt terraced house designed by, and furnished after, architect Charles Rennie Mackintosh.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 472015, 54595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 33 ], [ 270, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even these enlarged premises could not contain the expanding university, which quickly spread across much of Gilmorehill. The 1930s saw the construction of the award-winning round Reading Room (it is now a category-A listed building) and an aggressive program of house purchases, in which the university (fearing the surrounding district of Hillhead was running out of suitable building land) acquired several terraces of Victorian houses and joined them together internally. The departments of Psychology, Computing Science, and most of the Arts Faculty continue to be housed in these terraces.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 202009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 217, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More buildings were built to the west of the Main Building, developing the land between University Avenue and the River Kelvin with natural science buildings and the faculty of medicine. The medical school spread into neighboring Partick and joined with the Western Infirmary. At the eastern flank of the Main Building, the James Watt Engineering Building was completed in 1959. The growth and prosperity of the city, which had originally forced the university's relocation to Hillhead, again proved problematic when more real estate was required. The school of veterinary medicine, which was founded in 1862, moved to a new campus in the leafy surrounds of Garscube Estate, around west of the main campus, in 1954. The university later moved its sports ground and associated facilities to Garscube and also built student halls of residence in both Garscube and Maryhill.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 238933, 4196406, 951827, 226430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 230, 237 ], [ 258, 275 ], [ 477, 485 ], [ 863, 871 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The growth of tertiary education, as a result of the Robbins Report in the 1960s, led the university to build numerous modern buildings across Hillhead, including several brutalist concrete blocks: the Mathematics building; the Boyd Orr Building and the Adam Smith building (housing the Faculty of Law, Business and Social Sciences, named after university graduate Adam Smith). Other additions around this time, including the new glass-lined Glasgow University Library, Rankine Building for Civil Engineering (named for Macquorn Rankine), and the amber-brick Gregory Building (housing the Geology department), were more in keeping with Gilmorehill's leafy suburban architecture. The erection of these buildings in the late 1960s, however, involved the demolition of a large number of houses in Ashton Road and rerouting the west end of University Avenue to its current position. To cater to the expanding student population, a new refectory, known as the Hub, was opened adjacent to the library in 1966. The Glasgow University Union also had an extension completed in 1965 and the new Queen Margaret Union building opened in 1969.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 1778308, 424948, 322276, 1814, 2044421, 262149, 9345461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 67 ], [ 171, 180 ], [ 228, 236 ], [ 365, 375 ], [ 442, 468 ], [ 520, 536 ], [ 931, 940 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2001 the century-old Bower Building (previously home to the university's botany department) was gutted by fire. The interior and roof of the building were largely destroyed, though the main façade remained intact. After a £10.8 million refit, the building re-opened in November 2004.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Wolfson Medical School Building, with its award-winning glass-fronted atrium, opened in 2002, and in 2003, the St Andrews Building was opened, housing the what is now the School of Education. It is sited a short walk from Gilmorehill, in the Woodlands area of the city on the site of the former Queens College, which had in turn been bought by Glasgow Caledonian University, from whom the university acquired the site. It replaced the St Andrews Campus in Bearsden. The university also procured the former Hillhead Congregational Church, converting it into a lecture theatre in 2005. The Sir Alwyn Williams building, designed by Reiach and Hall, was completed at Lilybank Terrace in 2007, housing the School of Computing Science.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 5108751, 1055788, 712587, 437757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 35 ], [ 246, 255 ], [ 348, 377 ], [ 460, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2016 in partnership with Glasgow City Council, Glasgow Life and the National Library of Scotland the transformed Kelvin Hall has been brought into new public use including in Phase I the Hunterian Collections and Study Centre.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 143542, 784514, 2978454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 58 ], [ 81, 109 ], [ 126, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The university is investing £1 billion to expand its campus now that it has acquired what was formerly known as the Western Infirmary.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 4196406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The University Chapel was constructed as a memorial to the 755 sons of the university who had died in the First World War. Designed by Sir John Burnet, it was completed in 1929 and dedicated on 4 October. Tablets on the wall behind the Communion Table list the names of those who died, while other tablets besides the stalls record the 405 members of the university community who gave their lives in the Second World War. Most of the windows are the work of Douglas Strachan, although some have been added over the years, including those on the South Wall, created by Alan Younger.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 5908395, 7318966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 150 ], [ 458, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Daily services are held in the chapel during term-time, as well as seasonal events. Before Christmas, there is a Service of Nine Lessons and Carols on the last Sunday of term, and a Watchnight service on Christmas Eve. Graduates, students, members of staff, and the children of members of staff are entitled to be married in the chapel, which is also used for baptisms and funerals. Civil marriages and civil partnerships may be blessed in the chapel, although under UK law may not be performed there.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 274562, 16496300, 4298, 201974, 630822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 147 ], [ 182, 200 ], [ 360, 367 ], [ 383, 397 ], [ 403, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The current chaplain of the university is the Reverend Stuart MacQuarrie, and the university appoints honorary chaplains of other denominations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 183232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The University Library, situated on Hillhead Street opposite the Main Building, is one of the oldest and largest libraries in Europe. Situated over 12 floors, it hosts more than three million books and journals, as well as providing access to an extensive range of electronic resources including over 51,900 electronic journals. It also houses sections for periodicals, microfilms, special collections and rare materials. Open between 7a.m. and 2a.m., 361 days of the year, the library provides a resource not only for the academic community.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 2044421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to the main library, subject libraries also exist for Medicine, Chemistry, Dental Medicine, Veterinary Medicine, Education, Law, History of Art, and the faculty of Social Sciences, which are held in branch libraries around the campus. In 2007, a state-of-the-art section to house the library's collection of historic photographs was opened, funded by the Wolfson Foundation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Archives of the University of Glasgow is the central place of deposit for the records of the university, created and accumulated since its foundation in 1451.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 17194718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The university opened the Crichton campus in Dumfries, Dumfries and Galloway during the 1980s. It was designed to meet the needs for tertiary education in an area far from major cities and is operated jointly by the University of Glasgow, the University of the West of Scotland and the Open University. It offers a modular undergraduate curriculum, leading to one of a small number of liberal arts degrees, as well as providing the region's only access to postgraduate study.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 12856661, 130702, 141265, 431698, 158464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 41 ], [ 45, 53 ], [ 55, 76 ], [ 243, 277 ], [ 286, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As well as these teaching campuses the university has halls of residence in and around the North-West of the city, accommodating a total of approximately 3,500 students. These include the Murano Street halls in Maryhill; Wolfson halls on the Garscube Estate; Queen Margaret halls, in Kelvinside; Cairncross House and Kelvinhaugh Gate, in Yorkhill. In recent years, Dalrymple House and Horslethill halls in Dowanhill, Reith halls in North Kelvinside and the Maclay halls in Park Circus (near Kelvingrove Park), have closed and been sold, as the development value of such property increased.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 2661295, 2661345, 2659567, 1082733, 1082576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 284, 294 ], [ 338, 346 ], [ 406, 415 ], [ 432, 448 ], [ 491, 507 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Stevenson Building on Gilmorehill opened in 1961 and provides students with the use of a fitness suite, squash courts, sauna, and six-lane, 25-metre swimming pool. The university also has a large sports complex on the Garscube Estate, besides their Wolfson Halls and Vet School. This is a new facility, replacing the previous Westerlands sports ground in the Anniesland area of the city. The university also has use of half of the East Boathouse situated at Glasgow Green on the River Clyde where Glasgow University Boat Club train.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Campus", "target_page_ids": [ 20806088, 2661206, 1193308, 26417, 3028509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ], [ 363, 373 ], [ 462, 475 ], [ 483, 494 ], [ 501, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In common with the other ancient universities of Scotland the university's constitution is laid out in the Universities (Scotland) Acts. These Acts create a tripartite structure of bodies: the University Court (governing body), the Academic Senate (academic affairs), and the General Council (advisory). There is also a clear separation between governance and executive administration.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governance and administration", "target_page_ids": [ 488960, 2811173, 2811196, 2811592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 57 ], [ 193, 209 ], [ 232, 247 ], [ 276, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The university's constitution, academic regulations, and appointments are described in the university calendar, while other aspects of its story and constitution are detailed in a separate \"history\" document.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governance and administration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are several officers of the university. The role of each involves the management of the operations of Glasgow.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governance and administration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Chancellor is the titular head of the university and President of the General Council. They award all degrees, although this duty is generally carried out by the Vice-Chancellor, appointed by them.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governance and administration", "target_page_ids": [ 2811592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The current Chancellor is Dame Katherine Grainger, a former rower who is Britain's most decorated female Olympian, the current chair of UK Sport, and former Chancellor of Oxford Brookes University. She is an alumna of the university, with a Master of Philosophy (MPhil) in Medical Law and Medical Ethics. She is the first woman to hold the office in the university.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governance and administration", "target_page_ids": [ 917398, 1298994, 441025, 2297173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 49 ], [ 136, 144 ], [ 171, 196 ], [ 241, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All students at the university are eligible to vote in the election of the Rector (officially styled \"Lord Rector\"), who holds office for a three-year term and chairs the University Court. In the past, this position has been a largely honorary and ceremonial one, and has been held by political figures including William Gladstone, Benjamin Disraeli, Bonar Law, Robert Peel, Raymond Poincaré, Arthur Balfour, Charles Kennedy and 1970s union activist Jimmy Reid, and latterly by celebrities such as TV presenters Arthur Montford and Johnny Ball, musician Pat Kane, and actors Richard Wilson, Ross Kemp and Greg Hemphill. In 2004, for the first time in its history, the university was left without a Rector as no nominations were received. When the elections were run in December, Mordechai Vanunu was chosen for the post, even though he was unable to attend due to restrictions placed upon him by the Israeli government. In 2014, Edward Snowden, an American computer specialist, a former Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) employee, and former National Security Agency (NSA) contractor—who came to international attention when he disclosed a large number of classified NSA documents to several media outlets—was elected. In 2017, Aamer Anwar a Scottish lawyer and former student of the university was elected rector until 2020 when rector elections had to be postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On April 21, 2021, Rita Rae, Lady Rae a Scottish lawyer, judge and former Senator of the College of Justice was appointed Rector after a decisive victory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governance and administration", "target_page_ids": [ 66772, 33954, 3875, 218283, 45233, 303726, 145930, 26598741, 291106, 1862695, 362753, 1928444, 151408, 311923, 881878, 5410023, 39626432, 14106662, 62750956, 43199231, 1883713, 66772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 81 ], [ 313, 330 ], [ 332, 349 ], [ 351, 360 ], [ 362, 373 ], [ 375, 391 ], [ 393, 407 ], [ 409, 424 ], [ 450, 460 ], [ 512, 527 ], [ 532, 543 ], [ 554, 562 ], [ 575, 589 ], [ 591, 600 ], [ 605, 618 ], [ 779, 795 ], [ 929, 943 ], [ 1228, 1239 ], [ 1379, 1396 ], [ 1417, 1435 ], [ 1472, 1505 ], [ 1520, 1526 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Day-to-day management of the university is undertaken by the University Principal (who is also Vice-Chancellor). The current principal is Sir Anton Muscatelli who replaced Sir Muir Russell in October 2009.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governance and administration", "target_page_ids": [ 26298067, 2681197, 18717772, 2432502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 81 ], [ 95, 110 ], [ 142, 158 ], [ 176, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are also several Vice-Principals, each with a specific remit. They, along with the Clerk of Senate, play a major role in the day-to-day management of the university.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governance and administration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The governing body of the university is the University Court, which is responsible for contractual matters, employing staff, and all other matters relating to finance and administration. The Court takes decisions about the deployment of resources as well as formulating strategic plans for the university. The Court is chaired by the Rector, who is elected by all the matriculated students at the university. The University Secretary is the Head of University Services and assists the Principal in day-to-day management. The current University Secretary is David Duncan.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governance and administration", "target_page_ids": [ 2811173, 66772, 369917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 60 ], [ 334, 340 ], [ 368, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Academic Senate (or University Senate) is the body which is responsible for the management of academic affairs, and which recommends the conferment of degrees by the Chancellor. Membership of the Senate comprises all Professors of the university, as well as elected academic members, representatives of the Student's Representative Council, the Secretary of Court and directors of university services (e.g. Library). The President of the Senate is the principal.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governance and administration", "target_page_ids": [ 2811196, 4862657, 1428212, 2044421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 221, 249 ], [ 311, 343 ], [ 411, 418 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Clerk of Senate, who has a status equivalent to that of a Vice-Principal and is a member of the Senior Management Group, has responsibility for regulation of the university's academic policy, such as dealing with plagiarism and the conduct of examinations. Notable Clerks of Senate have included the chemist, Joseph Black; John Anderson, father of the University of Strathclyde; and the economist, John Millar.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governance and administration", "target_page_ids": [ 457616, 604310, 224318, 2531673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 313, 325 ], [ 327, 340 ], [ 356, 381 ], [ 402, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are also a number of committees of both the Court and Senate that make important decisions and investigate matters referred to them. As well as these bodies there is a General Council made up of the university graduates that is involved in the running of the university. The graduates also elect the Chancellor of the university.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governance and administration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are currently four Colleges, each containing a number of Schools. They are:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [ 4961657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "College of Arts", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ArtsLab Glasgow", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Graduate School of the College of Arts", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " School of Critical Studies", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " School of Culture and Creative Arts", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " School of Humanities", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " School of Modern Languages and Cultures", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " School of Life Sciences", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " School of Psychology and Neuroscience", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " School of Medicine (including Dentistry)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [ 5108751, 10888554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 31, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " School of Veterinary Medicine", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [ 20852596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "College of Science and Engineering", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " School of Chemistry", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " School of Computing Science", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " James Watt School of Engineering", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " School of Geographical and Earth Sciences", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " School of Mathematics and Statistics", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " School of Physics and Astronomy", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "College of Social Sciences", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Adam Smith Business School", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [ 28234626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " School of Education", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " School of Interdisciplinary Studies (at Crichton Campus, Dumfries)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [ 12856661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " School of Law", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [ 20846991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " School of Social and Political Sciences", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the university's foundation in 1451, there were four original faculties: Arts, Divinity, Law, and Medicine. The Faculty of Divinity became a constituent school of the Faculty of Arts in 2002, while the Faculty of Law was changed in 1984 into the Faculty of Law and Financial Studies, and in 2005 became the Faculty of Law, Business and Social Sciences. Although one of the original faculties established, teaching in the Faculty of Medicine did not begin formally until 1714, with the revival of the Chair in the Practice of Medicine. The Faculty of Science was formed in 1893 from Chairs removed from the Faculties of Arts and Medicine, and subsequently divided in 2000 to form the three Faculties of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Computing Science, Mathematics and Statistics (now Information and Mathematical Sciences) and Physical Sciences. The Faculty of Social Sciences was formed from Chairs in the Faculty of Arts in 1977, and merged to form the Faculty of Law, Business and Social Sciences in 2005, the two having operated as a single 'resource unit' since 2002. The Faculty of Engineering was formally established in 1923, although engineering had been taught at the university since 1840 when Queen Victoria founded the UK's first Chair of Engineering. Through a concordat ratified in 1913, Royal Technical College (later Royal College of Science and Technology and now University of Strathclyde) students received Glasgow degrees in applied sciences, particularly engineering. It was in 1769 when James Watt's engineering at Glasgow led to a stable steam engine and, subsequently, the Industrial Revolution. The Faculty of Veterinary Medicine was established in 1862 as the independent Glasgow Veterinary College, being subsumed into the university in 1949 and gaining independent Faculty status in 1969. The Faculty of Education was formed when the university merged with St Andrew's College of Education in 1999.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [ 2616927, 4860812, 47923, 1734858, 1734858, 224318, 14914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 74 ], [ 503, 536 ], [ 1207, 1221 ], [ 1305, 1328 ], [ 1336, 1375 ], [ 1384, 1409 ], [ 1600, 1621 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 1 August 2010, the former faculties of the university were removed and replaced by a system of four larger Colleges, intended to encourage interdisciplinary research and make the university more competitive. This structure was similar to that at other universities, including the University of Edinburgh.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [ 23592200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 283, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The university generates a total income of over £450 million per year, amongst the top 10 in the UK. The university is a member of the Russell Group of research-led British universities and was a founding member of the organisation, Universitas 21, an international grouping of universities dedicated to setting worldwide standards for higher education. The university currently has fifteen Regius Professorships, more than in any other UK university.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Academic profile", "target_page_ids": [ 540104, 81513, 7954775, 531186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 148 ], [ 165, 185 ], [ 233, 247 ], [ 391, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the QS World University Rankings Glasgow climbed from 59th overall in 2011 to 54th in 2012, then to 51st in 2013.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Academic profile", "target_page_ids": [ 25057928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Glasgow places within the top 20 in the UK and 3rd in Scotland for the employability of its graduates as ranked by recruiters from the UK's major companies.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Academic profile", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2008 Research Assessment Exercise (RAE), almost 70% of research carried out at the university was in the top two categories (88% in the top three categories). Eighteen subject areas were rated top ten in the UK, whilst fourteen subject areas were rated the best in Scotland. The 2008 Times RAE table ranks according to an 'average' score across all departments, of which Glasgow posted an average of 2.6/4. The overall average placed Glasgow as the thirty-third-highest of all UK universities, perhaps reflecting the broadness of the university's activities. In terms of research 'power', however, Glasgow placed fourteenth in the UK and second in Scotland.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Academic profile", "target_page_ids": [ 1246035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of , the university had undergraduate and postgraduate students. Glasgow has a large (for the UK) proportion of \"home\" students, with almost 40 per cent of the student body coming from the West of Scotland. In the 2016–17 academic year, the university had a domicile breakdown of 71:11:18 of UK:EU:non-EU students, respectively, with a female-to-male ratio of 59:41.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Academic profile", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For undergraduate entry, course requirements range from A*A*A* (for second year entry) to BBB (for minimum requirements for Primary Teaching) in A-levels. Glasgow had the 23rd highest average entry qualification for undergraduates of any UK university in 2015, with new students averaging 420 UCAS points, equivalent to ABBbb in A-level grades.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Academic profile", "target_page_ids": [ 20568362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scottish and EU students, with the exception of students from the Channel Islands, England, Northern Ireland and Wales, do not pay tuition fees. As the number of places available for Scottish and EU students are capped by the Scottish Government, students applying from the rest of the UK and outside of the European Union have a higher likelihood of an offer. For most courses, with the exceptions of Medicine, Dentistry, Veterinary Medicine and Law, the university guarantees unconditional offers to applicants who have achieved AAAA or AAABB in one sitting at Scottish Highers. The other components of the applicant's UCAS form (such as predicted grades and the personal statement) are only taken into account if the applicant has not achieved these grades.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Academic profile", "target_page_ids": [ 497117, 422715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 563, 579 ], [ 621, 625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The University of Glasgow was the first university in Europe to divest from fossil fuel companies in October 2014. The 12-month campaign was led by the Glasgow University Climate Action Society and involved over 1,300 students.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Academic profile", "target_page_ids": [ 46255716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike other universities in Scotland, Glasgow does not have a single students' association; instead, there exist a number of bodies concerned with the representation, welfare, and entertainment of its students. Due to the university's retention of its separate male and female students' unions, which since 1980 have admitted both sexes as full members, there are two independent students' unions, as well as a sports association and the students' representative council. None of these are affiliated to the National Union of Students: membership has been rejected on a number of occasions, most recently in November 2006, on both economic and political grounds. A student-run \"No to NUS\" campaign won a campuswide referendum with more than 90% of the vote.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [ 205852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 509, 535 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In common with the other ancient universities of Scotland, students at Glasgow also elect a Rector.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [ 488960, 39569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 57 ], [ 92, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The university has an eclectic body of clubs and societies, including sports teams, political and religious groups, and gaming societies.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [ 25475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Glasgow University Students' Representative Council is the legal representative body for students, as recognized by the Universities (Scotland) Act 1889. The SRC is responsible for representing students' interests to the management of the university, to local and national government, and for health and welfare issues. Under the Universities (Scotland) Acts, all students of the university automatically become members of the SRC; however, they are entitled to opt-out of this. Members of the SRC sit on various committees throughout the university, from the departmental level to the Senate and Court.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [ 1428212, 12544367, 284884, 25318118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 51 ], [ 120, 152 ], [ 254, 259 ], [ 264, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The SRC organizes Media Week, RAG (Raising And Giving) Week, and Welfare Week, as well as funding some 130 clubs and societies.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [ 322977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to the Students' Representative Council, students are commonly members of one of the university's two students' unions, the Glasgow University Union (GUU) and the Queen Margaret Union (QMU). Unlike many other student unions in the UK, membership to either GUU or QMU is not automatic and students must apply, for free, to become a member of either. Students are also permitted to be a member of both. These are largely social and cultural institutions, providing their members with facilities for debating, dining, recreation, socializing, and drinking, and both have a number of meeting rooms available for rental to members. Postgraduate students, mature students and staff were previously able to join the Hetherington Research Club; however, large debts led to the club being closed in February 2010. However, in February 2011, students gained access to the old HRC building, situated at 13 University Gardens (Hetherington House) and \"reopened\" it as the Free Hetherington, a social centre for learning and lectures, as well as protesting the shutting down of the club. Attempts to evict this occupation resulted in complaints of heavy-handed policing and much controversy on campus.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [ 519901, 31353692, 31353692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 129 ], [ 721, 747 ], [ 972, 989 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The separate unions exist due to the university's previous male-only status; the GUU was founded before the admission of women, while the QMU was originally the union of Queen Margaret College, a women-only college which merged with the university in 1892. Their continued separate existence is due largely to their individual atmospheres. The GUU's focus is mainly towards people involved in sports and debates (as among its founders were the Athletic Association and Dialectic Society), the QMU is one of Glasgow's music venues, and has played host to Nirvana, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Biffy Clyro and Franz Ferdinand.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [ 15415396, 20805782, 1915736, 21231, 26589, 974122, 482235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 192 ], [ 444, 464 ], [ 469, 486 ], [ 554, 561 ], [ 563, 584 ], [ 586, 597 ], [ 602, 617 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1955, the GUU won the Observer Mace, now the John Smith Memorial Mace, named after the deceased GUU debater and former leader of the British Labour Party. The GUU has since won the mace debating championship fourteen more times, more than any other university. The GUU has also won the World Universities Debating Championships five times, more than any other university or club in the series' history.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [ 2263550, 159915, 980824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 38 ], [ 48, 58 ], [ 289, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sporting affairs are regulated by the Glasgow University Sports Association (GUSA) (previously the Glasgow University Athletics Club) which works closely with the Sport and Recreation Service. There are a large number of varied clubs, including Squash, Gaelic Football, Basketball, Cycling, Football, Hockey, Netball, Martial Arts and Rowing, who regularly compete in BUCS competitions. Students who join one of the sports clubs affiliated with the university must also join GUSA. However, there are also regular classes and drop-in sessions for various sports which are non-competitive and available to all university gym members.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [ 20805782, 3028509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 75 ], [ 335, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The community of mature students—that is those students aged 21 or over—are served by the Mature Students' Association located at 62 Oakfield Avenue. The MSA aims are to provide all mature students with facilities for recreation and study. Throughout the year, the MSA also organizes social events and peer support for the wide range of subjects studied by the university's mature students.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [ 30873725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is an active student media scene at the university, part of, but editorially independent from, the SRC. There is a newspaper, the Glasgow University Guardian; Glasgow University Magazine; Glasgow University Student Television; and Subcity Radio. In recent years, independent of the SRC, the Queen Margaret Union has published a fortnightly magazine, qmunicate, and Glasgow University Union has produced the G-you magazine, formerly known as GUUi.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [ 2361372, 5977922, 2824605, 1840352, 664335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 163 ], [ 165, 192 ], [ 194, 231 ], [ 237, 250 ], [ 356, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Glasgow University Mountaineering Club is an outdoor association whose membership is composed of students and staff. Its origins are known from the late 1930s when students were already meeting on the Arrochar Alps; however, the club was officially constituted at the university in March 1941.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Student life", "target_page_ids": [ 1093505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many distinguished figures have taught, worked and studied at the University of Glasgow, including seven Nobel laureates and three Prime Ministers, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman and Bonar Law. Famous names include the physicist Lord Kelvin, his pupil, and later partner of the Carnegie Steel Corporation, George Lauder, 'father of economics' Adam Smith, engineer James Watt, inventors Henry Faulds and John Logie Baird, chemists William Ramsay, Frederick Soddy and Joseph Black, biologist Sir John Boyd Orr, philosophers Francis Hutcheson, Thomas Reid and Dugald Stewart, mathematician Colin Maclaurin, ethnologist James George Frazer, missionary David Livingstone, writers James Boswell, John Buchan, A. J. Cronin, Amy Hoff, Tobias Smollett and Edwin Morgan, and surgeon Joseph Lister. Famous orientalist and president of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Henry Beveridge, University of Aberdeen founder Bishop William Elphinstone also graduated from Glasgow. In June 1933 Albert Einstein gave the first Gibson Lecture, on his general theory of relativity; he subsequently received an honorary degree from the university. Also John Macintyre, pioneer of radiology and Jocelyn Bell Burnell who discovered radio pulsars. In 1974, professors Graham Teasdale and Bryan Jennett developed the Glasgow Coma Scale.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [ 24150, 43474, 199116, 218283, 33302, 2516079, 37934065, 1814, 16142, 704206, 39570, 48187, 11778, 457616, 322276, 188405, 29780, 174717, 7824, 317349, 53528, 62363, 84935, 201658, 56157227, 224720, 437563, 16535, 19039998, 213135, 335178, 736, 12024, 4242637, 152623, 543432, 46231410, 16726289, 226431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 146 ], [ 148, 184 ], [ 190, 214 ], [ 219, 228 ], [ 265, 276 ], [ 314, 340 ], [ 342, 355 ], [ 379, 389 ], [ 400, 410 ], [ 422, 434 ], [ 439, 455 ], [ 466, 480 ], [ 482, 497 ], [ 502, 514 ], [ 530, 543 ], [ 558, 575 ], [ 577, 588 ], [ 593, 607 ], [ 623, 638 ], [ 652, 671 ], [ 684, 701 ], [ 711, 724 ], [ 726, 737 ], [ 739, 751 ], [ 753, 761 ], [ 763, 778 ], [ 783, 795 ], [ 809, 822 ], [ 890, 905 ], [ 907, 929 ], [ 945, 964 ], [ 1007, 1022 ], [ 1061, 1089 ], [ 1161, 1175 ], [ 1188, 1197 ], [ 1202, 1222 ], [ 1273, 1288 ], [ 1293, 1306 ], [ 1321, 1339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In more recent times, the university was the focus of the \"Glasgow Group\" of poets and literary critics, including Philip Hobsbaum, Tom Leonard and Alasdair Gray. The university boasts one of Europe's largest collections of life scientists, as well as having been the training ground of numerous politicians including former Prime Ministers Bonar Law and Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, former First Minister Donald Dewar, former leader of the Liberal Democrats and former Rector Charles Kennedy, Defence Secretaries Liam Fox and Des Browne, the founder of the UK Independence Party Alan Sked, former Labour Party leader John Smith, Business Secretary Vince Cable, former leader of the Liberal Democrats Sir Menzies Campbell, and current First Minister Nicola Sturgeon. Other notable alumni include banker Fred Goodwin, actor Gerard Butler, Rangers and Scottish footballer Neil Murray, actor, writer, television and radio broadcaster Colin Lamont (aka Scottie McClue), novelist Robin Jenkins, founder of the world's largest non-governmental development organisation BRAC Fazle Hasan Abed, television writers Armando Iannucci and Steven Moffat, comedian Greg Hemphill, television presenter Neil Oliver, journalists Andrew Neil and Raman Bhardwaj, and musicians Emeli Sandé and Simon Neil.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [ 1494485, 1520643, 21083854, 68140, 218283, 199116, 269604, 8833, 26598741, 302332, 357375, 414755, 217536, 1475313, 159915, 51142104, 414916, 18933007, 354520, 269604, 579570, 1572499, 757257, 9750908, 9858912, 3282420, 1419558, 5382684, 327853, 294791, 881878, 7755618, 640478, 47155925, 26461338, 8734369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 130 ], [ 132, 143 ], [ 148, 161 ], [ 224, 238 ], [ 341, 350 ], [ 359, 383 ], [ 392, 406 ], [ 407, 419 ], [ 478, 493 ], [ 495, 514 ], [ 515, 523 ], [ 528, 538 ], [ 559, 580 ], [ 581, 590 ], [ 619, 629 ], [ 631, 649 ], [ 650, 661 ], [ 684, 701 ], [ 706, 722 ], [ 736, 750 ], [ 751, 766 ], [ 804, 816 ], [ 824, 837 ], [ 871, 882 ], [ 932, 944 ], [ 976, 989 ], [ 1064, 1068 ], [ 1069, 1085 ], [ 1106, 1122 ], [ 1127, 1140 ], [ 1151, 1164 ], [ 1187, 1198 ], [ 1212, 1223 ], [ 1228, 1242 ], [ 1258, 1269 ], [ 1274, 1284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the World-Changing Alumni Award, formerly the Young Alumnus of the Year Award, the university is recognizing and celebrating the achievements of alumni who have graduated within the last 15 years and made a major contribution to the community, arts, sciences, or business.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The award was established in 2001 as part of the university's 550th-anniversary celebrations and is given out once per year. The trophy was donated by the Old Boys of Allan Glen's School, is presented to the winning candidate at one of the year's graduation ceremonies or flagship events.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [ 6243013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Winners:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2021: Fiona McPhail (LLB 2007)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2020: Selina Hales (MA 2005) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2019: Eunice Ntobedzi (MSc 2016) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2018: Amal Azzudin (BA 2011, MSc 2014)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [ 56786971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2017: Susanne Mitschke (MSc 2015); Patrick Renner (MSc 2015)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2016: Matt Fountain (MA Hons 2011)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2015: Mhairi Black MP (MA 2015) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [ 46641161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2014: Martin Patience (MA 2002)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2013: Karina Atkinson (BSc 2007) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2012: Katherine Grainger MBE CBE (MPhil 2001)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [ 917398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2011: Emeli Sandé (BSc 2009)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [ 26461338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2010: Patrick Gunning (BSc 2001, PhD 2005)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2009: Euan Murray (BVMS 2003)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2008: Mark Beaumont (MA 2006); John Tiffany (MA 1994)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2007: Vanessa Munro (LLB 1997, PhD 2001)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2006: Richard Dixon (BVMS 1993, PhD 2000)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2005: Christopher Brookmyre (MA 1989)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2004: Colin McInnes (BSc 1988, PhD 1991)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2003: Emma Richards (BSc 1996)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2001: Mark Johnston (BVMS 1983); Lorraine Clinton (MA 1986)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni and staff", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Academic dress of the University of Glasgow", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 29825592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Armorial of UK universities", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 61156121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Banknotes of Scotland (Gilmorehill featured on design)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15580969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of medieval universities", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1132313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of universities in the United Kingdom", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 86266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elliot, Walter. \"Glasgow University 1451 - 1951.\" History Today (Aug 1951) 1#8 pp58–64.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Moss, Michael, et al. University, City & State: The University of Glasgow since 1870 (2000)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Robertson, Paul L. \"The Development of an Urban University: Glasgow, 1860–1914\", History of Education Quarterly, Winter 1990, Vol. 30#1 pp 47–78", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Building Knowledge – An Architectural History of the University of Glasgow\" published by Historic Scotland in association with the university (2013)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The University of Glasgow Library: Friendly Shelves\" published by The Friends of Glasgow University Library in association with the Library (2016)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "University_of_Glasgow", "Russell_Group", "1451_establishments_in_Scotland", "Category_A_listed_buildings_in_Glasgow", "Culture_in_Glasgow", "Educational_institutions_established_in_the_15th_century", "Hillhead", "Universities_UK" ]

[ "Glasgow University", "Glasgow Uni" ]

[ { "plaintext": "John Logie Baird (; 13 August 188814 June 1946) was a Scottish inventor, electrical engineer, and innovator who demonstrated the world's first live working television system on 26 January 1926. He went on to invent the first publicly demonstrated colour television system and the first viable purely electronic colour television picture tube.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1361581, 162843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 167 ], [ 312, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1928 the Baird Television Development Company achieved the first transatlantic television transmission. Baird's early technological successes and his role in the practical introduction of broadcast television for home entertainment have earned him a prominent place in television's history.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2006, Baird was named as one of the 10 greatest Scottish scientists in history, having been listed in the National Library of Scotland's 'Scottish Science Hall of Fame'. In 2015 he was inducted into the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame. On 26 January 2017 – IEEE unveiled a bronze street plaque at 22 Frith Street (Bar Italia), London, dedicated to Baird and the invention of television. In 2021 'The Royal Mint' of Great Britain has celebrated the life and work of one of the United Kingdom’s most innovative inventors, with the unveiling of a commemorative John Logie Baird, 50p brilliant uncirculated coin. Year-dated 2021 commemorating the 75th anniversary of Baird’s death.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 784514, 40714347, 56938, 6751010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 137 ], [ 206, 239 ], [ 262, 266 ], [ 319, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baird was born on 13 August 1888 in Helensburgh, Dunbartonshire, and was the youngest of four children of the Reverend John Baird, the Church of Scotland's minister for the local St Bride's Church, and Jessie Morrison Inglis, the orphaned niece of a wealthy family of shipbuilders from Glasgow.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 358247, 183316, 68736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 47 ], [ 135, 153 ], [ 286, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was educated at Larchfield Academy (now part of Lomond School) in Helensburgh; the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College; and the University of Glasgow. While at college, Baird undertook a series of engineering apprentice jobs as part of his course. The conditions in industrial Glasgow at the time helped form his socialist convictions but also contributed to his ill health. He became an agnostic, though this did not strain his relationship with his father. His degree course was interrupted by the First World War and he never returned to graduate.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 15278285, 15278285, 224318, 39569, 4764461, 6255834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 37 ], [ 51, 64 ], [ 86, 132 ], [ 142, 163 ], [ 514, 529 ], [ 555, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the beginning of 1915 he volunteered for service in the British Army but was classified as unfit for active duty. Unable to go to the front, he took a job with the Clyde Valley Electrical Power Company, which was engaged in munitions work.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In early 1923, and in poor health, Baird moved to 21 Linton Crescent, Hastings, on the south coast of England. He later rented a workshop in the Queen's Arcade in the town. Baird built what was to become the world's first working television set using items that included an old hatbox and a pair of scissors, some darning needles, a few bicycle light lenses, a used tea chest, and sealing wax and glue that he purchased. In February 1924, he demonstrated to the Radio Times that a semi-mechanical analogue television system was possible by transmitting moving silhouette images. In July of the same year, he received a 1000-volt electric shock but survived with only a burnt hand but, as a result, his landlord, Mr Tree, asked him to vacate the premises. Soon after arriving in London, looking for publicity, Baird visited the Daily Express newspaper to promote his invention. The news editor was terrified and he was quoted by one of his staff as saying: \"For God's sake, go down to reception and get rid of a lunatic who's down there. He says he's got a machine for seeing by wireless! Watch him—he may have a razor on him.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Television experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 13830, 2393, 362859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 78 ], [ 497, 516 ], [ 828, 841 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In these attempts to develop a working television system, Baird experimented using the Nipkow disk. Paul Gottlieb Nipkow had invented this scanning system in 1884. Television historian Albert Abramson calls Nipkow's patent \"the master television patent\". Nipkow's work is important because Baird, followed by many others, chose to develop it into a broadcast medium.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Television experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 374631, 576068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 98 ], [ 100, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his laboratory on 2 October 1925, Baird successfully transmitted the first television picture with a greyscale image: the head of a ventriloquist's dummy nicknamed \"Stooky Bill\" in a 32-line vertically scanned image, at five pictures per second. Baird went downstairs and fetched an office worker, 20-year-old William Edward Taynton, to see what a human face would look like, and Taynton became the first person to be televised in a full tonal range.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Television experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 10389561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 1924, Baird had bought from Cyril Frank Elwell a thallium sulphide (Thalofide) cell, developed by Theodore Case in the USA. The Thalofide cell was part of the important new technology of 'talking pictures'. Baird's pioneering implementation of this cell allowed Baird to become the first person to produce a live, moving, greyscale television image from reflected light. Baird achieved this, where other inventors had failed, by applying two unique methods to the Case cell. He accomplished this by improving the signal conditioning from the cell, through temperature optimisation (cooling) and his own custom-designed video amplifier.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Television experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 54217396, 8931454, 463061, 521267, 5060723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 54 ], [ 106, 119 ], [ 330, 339 ], [ 362, 377 ], [ 521, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baird gave the first public demonstration of moving silhouette images by television at Selfridges department store in London in a three-week series of demonstrations beginning on 25 March 1925.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Television experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 380886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 26 January 1926, Baird gave the first public demonstration of true television images for members of the Royal Institution and a reporter from The Times in his laboratory at 22 Frith Street in the Soho district of London, where Bar Italia is now located. Baird initially used a scan rate of 5 pictures per second, improving this to 12.5 pictures per second c.1927. It was the first demonstration of a television system that could scan and display live moving images with tonal graduation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Television experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 332823, 39127, 5144563, 39616, 6751010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 124 ], [ 145, 154 ], [ 179, 191 ], [ 199, 203 ], [ 230, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He demonstrated the world's first colour transmission on 3 July 1928, using scanning discs at the transmitting and receiving ends with three spirals of apertures, each spiral with a filter of a different primary colour; and three light sources at the receiving end, with a commutator to alternate their illumination. The demonstration was of a young girl, 8-year-old Noele Gordon, wearing different coloured hats. Miss Gordon went on to become a successful TV actress, famous for the soap opera Crossroads. That same year he also demonstrated stereoscopic television.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Television experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 216794, 780174, 709035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 283 ], [ 367, 379 ], [ 495, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1927, Baird transmitted a long-distance television signal over of telephone line between London and Glasgow; Baird transmitted the world's first long-distance television pictures to the Central Hotel at Glasgow Central Station.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Television experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 68736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This transmission was Baird's response to a 225-mile, long-distance telecast between stations of AT&T Bell Labs. The Bell stations were in New York and Washington, DC. The earlier telecast took place in April 1927, a month before Baird's demonstration.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Television experiments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Baird set up the Baird Television Development Company Ltd, which in 1928 made the first transatlantic television transmission, from London to Hartsdale, New York, and in 1929 the first television programmes officially transmitted by the BBC. In November 1929, Baird and Bernard Natan established France's first television company, Télévision-Baird-Natan. Broadcast on the BBC on 14 July 1930, The Man with the Flower in His Mouth was the first drama shown on UK television. The BBC transmitted Baird's first live outside broadcast with the televising of The Derby in 1931. He demonstrated a theatre television system, with a screen two feet by five feet (60cm by 150cm), in 1930 at the London Coliseum, Berlin, Paris, and Stockholm. By 1939 he had improved his theatre projection to televise a boxing match on a screen by .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Television experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 34120296, 127562, 19344654, 4861812, 949207, 67718, 625674, 26741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 57 ], [ 142, 151 ], [ 237, 240 ], [ 271, 284 ], [ 394, 430 ], [ 555, 564 ], [ 687, 702 ], [ 723, 732 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1929 to 1935, the BBC transmitters were used to broadcast television programmes using the 30-line Baird system, and from 1932 to 1935 the BBC also produced the programmes in their own studio, first at Broadcasting House and then later at 16 Portland Place. In addition, from 1933 Baird and the Baird Company were producing and broadcasting a small number of television programmes independent of the BBC from Baird's studios and transmitter at the Crystal Palace in south London.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Television experiments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 2 November 1936, from Alexandra Palace located on the high ground of the north London ridge, the BBC began alternating Baird 240-line transmissions with EMI's electronic scanning system, which had recently been improved to 405-lines after a merger with Marconi. The Baird system at the time involved an intermediate film process, where footage was shot on cinefilm, which was rapidly developed and scanned. The trial was due to last for 6 months but the BBC ceased broadcasts with the Baird system in February 1937, due in part to a disastrous fire in the Baird facilities at Crystal Palace. It was becoming apparent to the BBC that the Baird system would ultimately fail due in large part to the lack of mobility of the Baird system's cameras, with their developer tanks, hoses, and cables. Commercially Baird’s contemporaries, such as George William Walton and William Stephenson, were ultimately more successful as their patents underpinned the early television system used by Scophony Limited who operated in Britain up to WWII and then in the US. \"Of all the electro-mechanical television techniques invented and developed by the mid 1930s, the technology known as Scophony had no rival in terms of technical performance.\" In 1948 Scophony acquired John Logie Baird Ltd.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Television experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 318620, 64203075, 3247598, 589278, 5393388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 41 ], [ 96, 109 ], [ 226, 235 ], [ 866, 884 ], [ 983, 991 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baird's television systems were replaced by the first fully electronic television system developed by the newly formed company EMI-Marconi under Sir Isaac Shoenberg, who headed a research group that developed an advanced camera tube (the Emitron) and a relatively efficient hard-vacuum cathode-ray tube for the television receiver. Philo T. Farnsworth's electronic \"Image Dissector\" camera was available to Baird's company via a patent-sharing agreement. However, the Image Dissector camera was found to be lacking in light sensitivity, requiring excessive levels of illumination. The Baird company used the Farnsworth tubes instead to scan cinefilm, in which capacity they proved serviceable though prone to drop-outs and other problems. Farnsworth himself came to London to the Baird Crystal Palace laboratories in 1936 but was unable to fully solve the problem; the fire that burned Crystal Palace to the ground later that year further hampered the Baird company's ability to compete.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Television experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 1160936, 3615259, 42890, 36737017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 138 ], [ 149, 164 ], [ 332, 351 ], [ 786, 800 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baird made many contributions to the field of electronic television after mechanical systems became obsolete. In 1939, he showed a system known today as hybrid colour using a cathode ray tube in front of which revolved a disc fitted with colour filters, a method taken up by CBS and RCA in the United States.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Television experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 6014, 37653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 191 ], [ 275, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As early as 1940, Baird had started work on a fully electronic system he called the \"Telechrome\". Early Telechrome devices used two electron guns aimed at either side of a phosphor plate. The phosphor was patterned so the electrons from the guns only fell on one side of the patterning or the other. Using cyan and magenta phosphors, a reasonable limited-colour image could be obtained. He also demonstrated the same system using monochrome signals to produce a 3D image (called \"stereoscopic\" at the time). In 1941, he patented and demonstrated this system of three-dimensional television at a definition of 500 lines. On 16 August 1944, he gave the world's first demonstration of a practical fully electronic colour television display. His 600-line colour system used triple interlacing, using six scans to build each picture. Similar concepts were common through the 1940s and 50s, differing primarily in the way they re-combined the colours generated by the three guns. One of them, the Geer tube, was similar to Baird's concept, but used small pyramids with the phosphors deposited on their outside faces, instead of Baird's 3D patterning on a flat surface.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Television experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 49792797, 6102, 46408, 162843, 56189, 21747724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 95 ], [ 306, 310 ], [ 315, 322 ], [ 712, 729 ], [ 778, 789 ], [ 992, 1001 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1943, the Hankey Committee was appointed to oversee the resumption of television broadcasts after the war. Baird persuaded them to make plans to adopt his proposed 1000-line Telechrome electronic colour system as the new post-war broadcast standard. The picture resolution on this system would have been comparable to today's HDTV (High Definition Television). The Hankey Committee's plan lost all momentum partly due to the challenges of postwar reconstruction. The monochrome 405-line standard remained in place until 1985 in some areas, and the 625-line system was introduced in 1964 and (PAL) colour in 1967. A demonstration of large screen three-dimensional television by the BBC was reported in March 2008, over 60 years after Baird's demonstration.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Television experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 16315657, 24438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 335, 350 ], [ 595, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some of Baird's early inventions were not fully successful. In his twenties he tried to create diamonds by heating graphite. Later Baird invented a glass razor, which was rust-resistant, but shattered. Inspired by pneumatic tyres he attempted to make pneumatic shoes, but his prototype contained semi-inflated balloons, which burst (years later this same idea was successfully adopted for Dr. Martens boots). He also invented a thermal undersock (the Baird undersock), which was moderately successful. Baird suffered from cold feet, and after a number of trials, he found that an extra layer of cotton inside the sock provided warmth.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other inventions", "target_page_ids": [ 8082, 12366, 254935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 103 ], [ 115, 123 ], [ 389, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1926 and 1928, he attempted to develop an early video recording device, which he dubbed Phonovision. The system consisted of a large Nipkow scanning disk attached by a mechanical linkage to a record-cutting lathe. The result was a disc that could record a 30-line video signal. Technical difficulties with the system prevented its further development, but some of the original Phonovision discs have been preserved.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other inventions", "target_page_ids": [ 5311525, 56066942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 107 ], [ 200, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baird's other developments were in fibre-optics, radio direction finding, infrared night viewing and radar. There is discussion about his exact contribution to the development of radar, for his wartime defence projects have never been officially acknowledged by the UK government. According to Malcolm Baird, his son, what is known is that in 1926 Baird filed a patent for a device that formed images from reflected radio waves, a device remarkably similar to radar, and that he was in correspondence with the British government at the time. The radar contribution is in dispute. According to some experts, Baird's \"Noctovision\" is not radar. Unlike radar (except Doppler radar), Noctovision is incapable of determining the distance to the scanned subject. Noctovision also cannot determine the coordinates of the subject in three-dimensional space.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other inventions", "target_page_ids": [ 3372377, 15022, 181887, 25676, 25318118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 47 ], [ 74, 82 ], [ 83, 96 ], [ 101, 106 ], [ 266, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From December 1944, Logie Baird lived at 1 Station Road, Bexhill-on-Sea, East Sussex, immediately north of the station, and subsequently died there on 14 June 1946 after suffering a stroke in February. The house was demolished in 2007 and the site is now occupied by apartments named Baird Court. Logie Baird is buried beside his parents in Helensburgh Cemetery, Argyll, Scotland.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 143987, 30268017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 71 ], [ 341, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australian television's Logie Awards were named in honour of John Logie Baird's contribution to the invention of the television.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Honours and portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 609095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baird became the only deceased subject of This Is Your Life when he was honoured by Eamonn Andrews at the BBC Television Theatre in 1957.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Honours and portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 11468408, 163381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 59 ], [ 84, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was played by Michael Gwynn (and also by Andrew Irvine, who played him as a boy) in the 1957 TV film A Voice in Vision and by Robert McIntosh in the 1986 TV drama The Fools on the Hill.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Honours and portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 2439986, 1092824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 30 ], [ 44, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE) inducted Logie Baird into The Honor Roll, which \"posthumously recognizes individuals who were not awarded Honorary Membership during their lifetimes but whose contributions would have been sufficient to warrant such an honor\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Honours and portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 164346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 26 January 2016, the search engine Google released a Google Doodle to mark the 90th anniversary of Logie Baird's first public demonstration of live television.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Honours and portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 1464549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of television", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3636075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Books", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Baird, John Logie, Television and Me: The Memoirs of John Logie Baird. Edinburgh: Mercat Press, 2004. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 13416003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Burns, Russell, John Logie Baird, television pioneer. London: The Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2000. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 142288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kamm, Antony, and Malcolm Baird, John Logie Baird: A Life. Edinburgh: NMS Publishing, 2002. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "McArthur, Tom, and Peter Waddell, The Secret Life of John Logie Baird. London: Hutchinson, 1986. .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "McLean, Donald F., Restoring Baird's Image. The Institute of Electrical Engineers, 2000. .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rowland, John, The Television Man: The Story of John Logie Baird. New York: Roy Publishers, 1967.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tiltman, Ronald Frank, Baird of Television. New York: Arno Press, 1974. (Reprint of 1933 ed.) .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Patents", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Television Apparatus, US patent, filed 1926.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Method of and Means for Transmitting Signals, US patent for Baird's \"Noctovision\" infrared television system, filed 1927.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Television Apparatus and the Like , US patent for Baird's colour television system, filed 1929 (in UK, 1928).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Logie Baird official website (the Baird family)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Logie Baird biography at BFI Screenonline", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Logie Baird's entry on Helensburgh Heroes web site", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Logie Baird's colour television at National Museum of Scotland", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 11217508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Television for Millions\" Popular Mechanics, September 1935", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Electron Camera Shoots Television Images\" Popular Mechanics, June 1935", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"London Station To Serve Ten Million People\" Popular Mechanics, June 1935", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1888_births", "1946_deaths", "20th-century_Scottish_businesspeople", "People_from_Helensburgh", "Alumni_of_the_University_of_Strathclyde", "Alumni_of_the_University_of_Glasgow", "Honorary_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh", "Scottish_agnostics", "Scottish_electrical_engineers", "20th-century_Scottish_inventors", "Scottish_physicists", "History_of_television", "Television_pioneers", "Television_technology", "People_educated_at_Larchfield_Academy", "Box_Hill,_Surrey", "Scottish_Engineering_Hall_of_Fame_inductees", "20th-century_Scottish_engineers" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Tone is the use of pitch in language to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning – that is, to distinguish or to inflect words. All verbal languages use pitch to express emotional and other paralinguistic information and to convey emphasis, contrast and other such features in what is called intonation, but not all languages use tones to distinguish words or their inflections, analogously to consonants and vowels. Languages that have this feature are called tonal languages; the distinctive tone patterns of such a language are sometimes called tonemes, by analogy with phoneme. Tonal languages are common in East and Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas and the Pacific.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 77933, 17524, 20000187, 3707734, 22980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 24 ], [ 28, 36 ], [ 115, 122 ], [ 294, 304 ], [ 575, 582 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tonal languages are different from pitch-accent languages in that tonal languages can have each syllable with an independent tone whilst pitch-accent languages may have one syllable in a word or morpheme that is more prominent than the others.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 434243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most languages use pitch as intonation to convey prosody and pragmatics, but this does not make them tonal languages. In tonal languages, each syllable has an inherent pitch contour, and thus minimal pairs (or larger minimal sets) exist between syllables with the same segmental features (consonants and vowels) but different tones. Vietnamese by far has the most heavily studied tone system as well as amongst its various dialects. Below is a table of the six Vietnamese tones and their corresponding tone accent or diacritics:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 434243, 3707734, 1411106, 44816, 44911, 20239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 24 ], [ 28, 38 ], [ 49, 56 ], [ 61, 71 ], [ 143, 151 ], [ 192, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "{| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"text-align: center;\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! Tone name", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 478439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "! Tone ID", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! Vni/telex/Viqr", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! Description", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! Chao Tone Contour", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! Diacritic", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! Example", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ngang \"flat\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| A1", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| [default]", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| mid level", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| (33)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| style=\"text-align: center;\" |◌", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| a", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| huyền \"deep\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| A2", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| 2 / f / `", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| low falling (breathy)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| (21) or (31)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| style=\"text-align: center;\" |◌̀", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| à", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| sắc \"sharp\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| B1", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| 1 / s / '", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| mid rising, tense", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| (35)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| style=\"text-align: center;\" |◌́", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| á", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| nặng \"heavy\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| B2", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| 5 / j / .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| mid falling, glottalized, heavy", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| (3ˀ2ʔ) (3ˀ1ʔ)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| style=\"text-align: center;\" |़", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ạ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| hỏi \"asking\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| C1", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| 3 / r / ?", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| mid falling(-rising), emphasis", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| (313) or (323) or (31)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| style=\"text-align: center;\" | ◌̉", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ả", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ngã \"tumbling\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| C2", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| 4 / x / ~", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| mid rising, glottalized", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| (3ˀ5) or (4ˀ5)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| style=\"text-align: center;\" |◌̃", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 212390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| ã", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mandarin Chinese, which has five tones, transcribed by letters with diacritics over vowels:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 19359, 21727674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 28, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A high level tone: /á/ (pinyin )", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 23588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A tone starting with mid pitch and rising to a high pitch: /ǎ/ (pinyin )", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A low tone with a slight fall (if there is no following syllable, it may start with a dip then rise to a high pitch): /à/ (pinyin )", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A short, sharply falling tone, starting high and falling to the bottom of the speaker's vocal range: /â/ (pinyin )", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A neutral tone, with no specific contour, used on weak syllables; its pitch depends chiefly on the tone of the preceding syllable.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 21727674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These tones combine with a syllable such as ma to produce different words. A minimal set based on ma are, in pinyin transcription:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 23588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " mā (/) 'mother'", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " má (/) 'hemp'", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " mǎ (/) 'horse'", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " mà (/) 'scold'", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ma (/) (an interrogative particle)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 520756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These may be combined into the rather contrived sentence:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Simplified: ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 261949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Traditional: ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 266210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pinyin: Māma mà mǎde má ma?", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "IPA ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Translation: 'Is mom scolding the horse's hemp?'", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A well-known tongue-twister in Standard Thai is:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 31551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IPA: ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Translation: 'Does new silk burn?'", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A Vietnamese tongue twister:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "IPA: ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Translation: 'All along you've set up the seven traps incorrectly!'", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A Cantonese tongue twister:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jyutping: jat1 jan4 jan1 jat1 jat6 jan5 jat1 jan6 jat1 jan3 ji4 jan2", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 306853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IPA: ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Translation: A person why stay endured due to a day have introduced a knife and a print.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tone is most frequently manifested on vowels, but in most tonal languages where voiced syllabic consonants occur they will bear tone as well. This is especially common with syllabic nasals, for example in many Bantu and Kru languages, but also occurs in Serbo-Croatian. It is also possible for lexically contrastive pitch (or tone) to span entire words or morphemes instead of manifesting on the syllable nucleus (vowels), which is the case in Punjabi.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 598329, 2486084, 4124, 54707, 27730, 25044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 86 ], [ 87, 105 ], [ 210, 215 ], [ 220, 233 ], [ 254, 268 ], [ 444, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tones can interact in complex ways through a process known as tone sandhi.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 200107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a number of East Asian languages, tonal differences are closely intertwined with phonation differences. In Vietnamese, for example, the and tones are both high-rising but the former is distinguished by having glottalization in the middle. Similarly, the and tones are both low-falling, but the tone is shorter and pronounced with creaky voice at the end, while the tone is longer and often has breathy voice. In some languages, such as Burmese, pitch and phonation are so closely intertwined that the two are combined in a single phonological system, where neither can be considered without the other. The distinctions of such systems are termed registers. The tone register here should not be confused with register tone described in the next section.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 25037, 32511, 1793933, 7676, 4946, 338207, 3374485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 93 ], [ 110, 120 ], [ 214, 228 ], [ 338, 350 ], [ 403, 416 ], [ 445, 452 ], [ 655, 664 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gordon and Ladefoged established a continuum of phonation, where several types can be identified.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Kuang identified two types of phonation: pitch-dependent and pitch-independent. Contrast of tones has long been thought of as differences in pitch height. However, several studies pointed out that tone is actually multidimensional. Contour, duration, and phonation may all contribute to the differentiation of tones. Recent investigations using perceptual experiments seem to suggest phonation counts as a perceptual cue.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many languages use tone in a more limited way. In Japanese, fewer than half of the words have a drop in pitch; words contrast according to which syllable this drop follows. Such minimal systems are sometimes called pitch accent since they are reminiscent of stress accent languages, which typically allow one principal stressed syllable per word. However, there is debate over the definition of pitch accent and whether a coherent definition is even possible.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 1213860, 3199912, 434243, 171782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 58 ], [ 96, 109 ], [ 215, 227 ], [ 258, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both lexical or grammatical tone and prosodic intonation are cued by changes in pitch, as well as sometimes by changes in phonation. Lexical tone coexists with intonation, with the lexical changes of pitch like waves superimposed on larger swells. For example, Luksaneeyanawin (1993) describes three intonational patterns in Thai: falling (with semantics of \"finality, closedness, and definiteness\"), rising (\"non-finality, openness and non-definiteness\") and \"convoluted\" (contrariness, conflict and emphasis). The phonetic realization of these intonational patterns superimposed on the five lexical tones of Thai (in citation form) are as follows:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 3707734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With convoluted intonation, it appears that high and falling tone conflate, while the low tone with convoluted intonation has the same contour as rising tone with rising intonation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Languages with simple tone systems or pitch accent may have one or two syllables specified for tone, with the rest of the word taking a default tone. Such languages differ in which tone is marked and which is the default. In Navajo, for example, syllables have a low tone by default, whereas marked syllables have high tone. In the related language Sekani, however, the default is high tone, and marked syllables have low tone. There are parallels with stress: English stressed syllables have a higher pitch than unstressed syllables, whereas in Russian, stressed syllables have a lower pitch.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mechanics", "target_page_ids": [ 434243, 176526, 1653381, 25431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 50 ], [ 225, 231 ], [ 349, 355 ], [ 546, 553 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many Bantu languages, tones are distinguished by their pitch level relative to each other. In multisyllable words, a single tone may be carried by the entire word rather than a different tone on each syllable. Often, grammatical information, such as past versus present, \"I\" versus \"you\", or positive versus negative, is conveyed solely by tone.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 4124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the most widely spoken tonal language, Mandarin Chinese, tones are distinguished by their distinctive shape, known as contour, with each tone having a different internal pattern of rising and falling pitch. Many words, especially monosyllabic ones, are differentiated solely by tone. In a multisyllabic word, each syllable often carries its own tone. Unlike in Bantu systems, tone plays little role in the grammar of modern standard Chinese, though the tones descend from features in Old Chinese that had morphological significance (such as changing a verb to a noun or vice versa).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 19359, 475046, 20646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 58 ], [ 487, 498 ], [ 508, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most tonal languages have a combination of register and contour tones. Tone is typical of languages including Kra–Dai, Vietic, Sino-Tibetan, Afroasiatic, Khoisan, Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan languages. Most tonal languages combine both register and contour tones, such as Cantonese, which produces three varieties of contour tone at three different pitch levels, and the Omotic (Afroasiatic) language Bench, which employs five level tones and one or two rising tones across levels.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 29811, 1710954, 26756, 599, 17333, 21601, 21953, 1092292, 898981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 117 ], [ 119, 125 ], [ 127, 139 ], [ 141, 152 ], [ 154, 161 ], [ 163, 174 ], [ 179, 191 ], [ 273, 282 ], [ 402, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most varieties of Chinese use contour tones, where the distinguishing feature of the tones are their shifts in pitch (that is, the pitch is a contour), such as rising, falling, dipping, or level. Most Bantu languages (except northwestern Bantu) on the other hand, have simpler tone systems usually with high, low and one or two contour tone (usually in long vowels). In such systems there is a default tone, usually low in a two-tone system or mid in a three-tone system, that is more common and less salient than other tones. There are also languages that combine relative-pitch and contour tones, such as many Kru languages and other Niger-Congo languages of West Africa.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 253645, 11443884, 54707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 25 ], [ 142, 149 ], [ 612, 625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Falling tones tend to fall further than rising tones rise; high–low tones are common, whereas low–high tones are quite rare. A language with contour tones will also generally have as many or more falling tones than rising tones. However, exceptions are not unheard of; Mpi, for example, has three level and three rising tones, but no falling tones.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 33067062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 269, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another difference between tonal languages is whether the tones apply independently to each syllable or to the word as a whole. In Cantonese, Thai, and Kru languages, each syllable may have a tone, whereas in Shanghainese, Swedish, Norwegian and many Bantu languages, the contour of each tone operates at the word level. That is, a trisyllabic word in a three-tone syllable-tone language has many more tonal possibilities (3 × 3 × 3 = 27) than a monosyllabic word (3), but there is no such difference in a word-tone language. For example, Shanghainese has two contrastive (phonemic) tones no matter how many syllables are in a word. Many languages described as having pitch accent are word-tone languages.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 1092292, 48647, 54707, 511608, 26689, 21704, 4124, 434243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 140 ], [ 142, 146 ], [ 152, 165 ], [ 209, 221 ], [ 223, 230 ], [ 232, 241 ], [ 251, 266 ], [ 668, 680 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tone sandhi is an intermediate situation, as tones are carried by individual syllables, but affect each other so that they are not independent of each other. For example, a number of Mandarin Chinese suffixes and grammatical particles have what is called (when describing Mandarin Chinese) a \"neutral\" tone, which has no independent existence. If a syllable with a neutral tone is added to a syllable with a full tone, the pitch contour of the resulting word is entirely determined by that other syllable:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After high level and high rising tones, the neutral syllable has an independent pitch that looks like a mid-register tonethe default tone in most register-tone languages. However, after a falling tone it takes on a low pitch; the contour tone remains on the first syllable, but the pitch of the second syllable matches where the contour leaves off. And after a low-dipping tone, the contour spreads to the second syllable: the contour remains the same () whether the word has one syllable or two. In other words, the tone is now the property of the word, not the syllable. Shanghainese has taken this pattern to its extreme, as the pitches of all syllables are determined by the tone before them, so that only the tone of the initial syllable of a word is distinctive.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lexical tones are used to distinguish lexical meanings. Grammatical tones, on the other hand, change the grammatical categories. To some authors, the term includes both inflectional and derivational morphology. Tian described a grammatical tone, the induced creaky tone, in Burmese.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 1625712, 338207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 127 ], [ 274, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Languages may distinguish up to five levels of pitch, though the Chori language of Nigeria is described as distinguishing six surface tone registers. Since tone contours may involve up to two shifts in pitch, there are theoretically 5 × 5 × 5 = 125 distinct tones for a language with five registers. However, the most that are actually used in a language is a tenth of that number.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 20468594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several Kam–Sui languages of southern China have nine contrastive tones, including contour tones. For example, the Kam language has 9 tones: 3 more-or-less fixed tones (high, mid and low); 4 unidirectional tones (high and low rising, high and low falling); and 2 bidirectional tones (dipping and peaking). This assumes that checked syllables are not counted as having additional tones, as they traditionally are in China. For example, in the traditional reckoning, the Kam language has 15 tones, but 6 occur only in syllables closed with the voiceless stop consonants , or and the other 9 occur only in syllables not ending in one of these sounds.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 17060144, 3152848, 44911, 3152848, 29480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 25 ], [ 115, 127 ], [ 324, 340 ], [ 469, 481 ], [ 552, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preliminary work on the Wobe language (part of the Wee continuum) of Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire, the Ticuna language of the Amazon and the Chatino languages of southern Mexico suggests that some dialects may distinguish as many as fourteen tones or more. The Guere language, Dan language and Mano language of Liberia and Ivory Coast have around 10 tones, give or take. The Oto-Manguean languages of Mexico have a huge number of tones as well. The most complex tonal systems are actually found in Africa and the Americas, not east Asia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 33517856, 979049, 7363417, 4794417, 5570870, 29043236, 1427451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 37 ], [ 100, 115 ], [ 138, 154 ], [ 258, 272 ], [ 274, 286 ], [ 291, 304 ], [ 372, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tones are realized as pitch only in a relative sense. \"High tone\" and \"low tone\" are only meaningful relative to the speaker's vocal range and in comparing one syllable to the next, rather than as a contrast of absolute pitch such as one finds in music. As a result, when one combines tone with sentence prosody, the absolute pitch of a high tone at the end of a prosodic unit may be lower than that of a low tone at the beginning of the unit, because of the universal tendency (in both tonal and non-tonal languages) for pitch to decrease with time in a process called downdrift.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tonal change", "target_page_ids": [ 1411106, 14754558, 907140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 304, 311 ], [ 363, 376 ], [ 570, 579 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tones may affect each other just as consonants and vowels do. In many register-tone languages, low tones may cause a downstep in following high or mid tones; the effect is such that even while the low tones remain at the lower end of the speaker's vocal range (which is itself descending due to downdrift), the high tones drop incrementally like steps in a stairway or terraced rice fields, until finally the tones merge and the system has to be reset. This effect is called tone terracing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tonal change", "target_page_ids": [ 3199912, 504290, 3203300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 125 ], [ 369, 377 ], [ 475, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sometimes a tone may remain as the sole realization of a grammatical particle after the original consonant and vowel disappear, so it can only be heard by its effect on other tones. It may cause downstep, or it may combine with other tones to form contours. These are called floating tones.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tonal change", "target_page_ids": [ 3203412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 275, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many contour-tone languages, one tone may affect the shape of an adjacent tone. The affected tone may become something new, a tone that only occurs in such situations, or it may be changed into a different existing tone. This is called tone sandhi. In Mandarin Chinese, for example, a dipping tone between two other tones is reduced to a simple low tone, which otherwise does not occur in Mandarin Chinese, whereas if two dipping tones occur in a row, the first becomes a rising tone, indistinguishable from other rising tones in the language. For example, the words 很 ('very') and 好 ('good') produce the phrase 很好 ('very good'). The two transcriptions may be conflated with reversed tone letters as .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tonal change", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tone sandhi in Sinitic languages can be classified with a left-dominant or right-dominant system. In a language of the right-dominant system, the right-most syllable of a word retains its citation tone (i.e., the tone in its isolation form). All the other syllables of the word must take their sandhi form. Taiwanese Southern Min is known for its complex sandhi system. Example: 鹹kiam5 'salty'; 酸sng1 'sour'; 甜tinn1 'sweet'; 鹹酸甜kiam7 sng7 tinn1 'candied fruit'. In this example, only the last syllable remains unchanged. Subscripted numbers represent the changed tone.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tonal change", "target_page_ids": [ 253645, 58791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 32 ], [ 307, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tone change must be distinguished from tone sandhi. Tone sandhi is a compulsory change that occurs when certain tones are juxtaposed. Tone change, however, is a morphologically conditioned alternation and is used as an inflectional or a derivational strategy. Lien indicated that causative verbs in modern Southern Min are expressed with tonal alternation, and that tonal alternation may come from earlier affixes. Examples: 長 tng5 'long' vs. tng2 'grow'; 斷 tng7 'break' vs. tng2 'cause to break'. Also, 毒 in Taiwanese Southern Min has two pronunciations: to̍k (entering tone) means 'poison' or 'poisonous', while thāu (departing tone) means 'to kill with poison'. The same usage can be found in Min, Yue, and Hakka.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tonal change", "target_page_ids": [ 200107, 74421, 198045, 58791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 63 ], [ 189, 200 ], [ 306, 318 ], [ 509, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In East Asia, tone is typically lexical. That is, tone is used to distinguish words which would otherwise be homonyms. This is characteristic of heavily tonal languages such as Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai, and Hmong.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Uses of tone", "target_page_ids": [ 1247285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, in many African languages, especially in the Niger–Congo family, tone can be both lexical and grammatical. In the Kru languages, a combination of these patterns is found: nouns tend to have complex tone systems but are not much affected by grammatical inflections, whereas verbs tend to have simple tone systems, which are inflected to indicate tense and mood, person, and polarity, so that tone may be the only distinguishing feature between \"you went\" and \"I won't go\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Uses of tone", "target_page_ids": [ 21601, 54707, 12947, 42076, 38235255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 65 ], [ 123, 136 ], [ 354, 368 ], [ 370, 376 ], [ 382, 390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In colloquial Yoruba, especially when spoken quickly, vowels may assimilate to each other, and consonants elide so much that much of the lexical and grammatical information is carried by tone. In languages of West Africa such as Yoruba, people may even communicate with so-called \"talking drums\", which are modulated to imitate the tones of the language, or by whistling the tones of speech.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Uses of tone", "target_page_ids": [ 356375, 504133, 73648, 3384925, 222172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 20 ], [ 65, 75 ], [ 106, 111 ], [ 281, 293 ], [ 361, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Note that tonal languages are not distributed evenly across the same range as non-tonal languages. Instead, the majority of tone languages belong to the Niger-Congo, Sino-Tibetan and Vietic groups, which are then composed by a large majority of tone languages and dominate a single region. Only in limited locations (South Africa, New Guinea, Mexico, Brazil and a few others) do tone languages occur as individual members or small clusters within a non-tone dominated area. In some locations, like Central America, it may represent no more than an incidental effect of which languages were included when one examines the distribution; for groups like Khoi-San in Southern Africa and Papuan languages, whole families of languages possess tonality but simply have relatively few members, and for some North American tone languages, multiple independent origins are suspected.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Uses of tone", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If generally considering only complex-tone vs. no-tone, it might be concluded that tone is almost always an ancient feature within a language family that is highly conserved among members. However, when considered in addition to \"simple\" tone systems that include only two tones, tone, as a whole, appears to be more labile, appearing several times within Indo-European languages, several times in American languages, and several times in Papuan families. That may indicate that rather than a trait unique to some language families, tone is a latent feature of most language families that may more easily arise and disappear as languages change over time.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Uses of tone", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A 2015 study by Caleb Everett argued that tonal languages are more common in hot and humid climates, which make them easier to pronounce, even when considering familial relationships. If the conclusions of Everett's work are sound, this is perhaps the first known case of influence of the environment on the structure of the languages spoken in it. The proposed relationship between climate and tone is controversial, and logical and statistical issues have been raised by various scholars.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Uses of tone", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tone has long been viewed as merely a phonological system. It was not until recent years that tone was found to play a role in inflectional morphology. Palancar and Léonard (2016) provided an example with Tlatepuzco Chinantec (an Oto-Manguean language spoken in Southern Mexico), where tones are able to distinguish mood, person, and number:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Tone and inflection", "target_page_ids": [ 20000187, 357178, 1427451, 3966054, 23534467, 42076, 42296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 150 ], [ 216, 225 ], [ 230, 251 ], [ 271, 277 ], [ 316, 320 ], [ 322, 328 ], [ 334, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Iau language (the most tonally complex Lakes Plain language, predominantly monosyllabic), nouns have an inherent tone (e.g. be˧ 'fire' but be˦˧ 'flower'), but verbs don't have any inherent tone. For verbs, a tone is used to mark aspect. The first work that mentioned this was published in 1986. Example paradigms:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Tone and inflection", "target_page_ids": [ 10300249, 3824304, 12948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 15 ], [ 42, 62 ], [ 232, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tones are used to differentiate cases as well, as in Maasai language (a Nilo-Saharan language spoken in Kenya and Tanzania):", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Tone and inflection", "target_page_ids": [ 12898, 1896871, 21953, 188171, 30118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 37 ], [ 53, 68 ], [ 72, 93 ], [ 104, 109 ], [ 114, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Certain varieties of Chinese are known to express meaning by means of tone change although further investigations are required. Examples from two Yue dialects spoken in Guangdong Province are shown below. In Taishan, tone change indicates the grammatical number of personal pronouns. In Zhongshan, perfective verbs are marked with tone change.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Tone and inflection", "target_page_ids": [ 253645, 147533, 65109, 357787, 854027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 28 ], [ 146, 158 ], [ 169, 187 ], [ 208, 215 ], [ 298, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Taishan", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Tone and inflection", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Zhongshan", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Tone and inflection", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following table compares the personal pronouns of Sixian dialect (a dialect of Taiwanese Hakka) with Zaiwa and Jingpho (both Tibeto-Burman languages spoken in Yunnan and Burma). From this table, we find the distinction between nominative, genitive, and accusative is marked by tone change and sound alternation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Tone and inflection", "target_page_ids": [ 49408935, 24335531, 166410, 19457, 74421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 98 ], [ 129, 152 ], [ 163, 169 ], [ 174, 179 ], [ 297, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are several approaches to notating tones in the description of a language. A fundamental difference is between phonemic and phonetic transcription.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A phonemic notation will typically lack any consideration of the actual phonetic values of the tones. Such notations are especially common when comparing dialects with wildly different phonetic realizations of what are historically the same set of tones. In Chinese, for example, the \"four tones\" may be assigned numbers, such as ① to ④ or – after the historical tone split that affected all Chinese languages to at least some extent – ① to ⑧ (with odd numbers for the yin tones and even numbers for the yang). In traditional Chinese notation, the equivalent diacritics are attached to the Chinese character, marking the same distinctions, plus underlined for the yang tones where a split has occurred. If further splits occurred in some language or dialect, the results may be numbered '4a' and '4b' or something similar. Among the Kradai languages, tones are typically assigned the letters A through D or, after a historical tone split similar to what occurred in Chinese, A1 to D1 and A2 to D2. (See Proto-Tai language.) With such a system, it can be seen which words in two languages have the same historical tone (say tone ③) even though they no longer sound anything alike.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 25530603, 91231, 29811, 29782279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 285, 295 ], [ 591, 608 ], [ 835, 851 ], [ 1005, 1023 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also phonemic are upstep and downstep, which are indicated by the IPA diacritics and , respectively, or by the typographic substitutes and , respectively. Upstep and downstep affect the tones within a language as it is being spoken, typically due to grammatical inflection or when certain tones are brought together. (For example, a high tone may be stepped down when it occurs after a low tone, compared to the pitch it would have after a mid tone or another high tone.)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 3200035, 3199912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 29, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Phonetic notation records the actual relative pitch of the tones. Since tones tend to vary over time periods as short as centuries, this means that the historical connections among the tones of two language varieties will generally be lost by such notation, even if they are dialects of the same language.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The easiest notation from a typographical perspective – but one that is internationally ambiguous – is a numbering system, with the pitch levels assigned digits and each tone transcribed as a digit (or as a sequence of digits if a contour tone). Such systems tend to be idiosyncratic (high tone may be assigned the digit 1, 3, or 5, for example) and have therefore not been adopted for the International Phonetic Alphabet. For instance, high tone is conventionally written with a 1 and low tone with a 4 or 5 when transcribing the Kru languages of Liberia, but with 1 for low and 5 for high for the Omotic languages of Ethiopia. The tone in a Kru language is thus the same pitch contour as one written in an Omotic language. Pitch value 1 may be distinguished from tone number 1 by doubling it or making it superscript or both. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 14761, 54707, 92740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 391, 422 ], [ 532, 545 ], [ 600, 616 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For simple tone systems, a series of diacritics such as for high tone and for low tone may be practical. This has been adopted by the IPA, but is not easy to adapt to complex contour tone systems (see under Chinese below for one workaround). The five IPA diacritics for level tones are , with doubled high and low diacritics for extra high and extra low (or 'top' and 'bottom'). The diacritics combine to form contour tones, of which have Unicode font support (support for additional combinations is sparse). Sometimes, a non-IPA vertical diacritic is seen for a second, higher mid tone, , so a language with four or six level tones may be transcribed or . For the Chinantecan languages of Mexico, the diacritics have been used, but they are a local convention not accepted by the IPA. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 357178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 670, 691 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A retired IPA system, sometimes still encountered, traces the shape of the tone (the pitch trace) before the syllable, where a stress mark would go (e.g., ). For a more concrete example, take the Hanyu Pinyin syllable [sa] used in Standard Chinese, after applying the diacritics it becomes easier to identify more specific rising and falling tones: (high peaking tone), (low level tone), etc. It was used in combination with stress marks to indicate intonation as well, as in English (now transcribed ).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 23588, 24657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 209 ], [ 232, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The most flexible system, based on the previous spacing diacritics but with the addition of a stem (like the staff of musical notation), is that of the IPA-adopted Chao tone letters, which are iconic schematics of the pitch trace of the tone in question. Because musical staff notation is international, there is no international ambiguity with the Chao/IPA tone letters: a line at the top of the staff is high tone, a line at the bottom is low tone, and the shape of the line is a schematic of the contour of the tone (as visible in a pitch trace). They are most commonly used for complex contour systems, such as those of the languages of Liberia and southern China.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 17042888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Chao tone letters have two variants. The left-stem letters, , are used for tone sandhi. These are especially important for the Min Chinese languages. For example, a word may be pronounced in isolation, but in a compound the tone will shift to . This can be notated morphophonemically as , where the back-to-front tone letters simultaneously show the underlying tone and the value in this word. Using the local (and internationally ambiguous) non-IPA numbering system, the compound may be written . Left-stem letters may also be combined to form contour tones. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 200107, 179762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 90 ], [ 131, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The second Chao letter variant are the dotted tone letters , which are used to indicate the pitch of neutral tones. These are phonemically null, and may be indicated with the digit '0' in a numbering system, but take specific pitches depending on the preceding phonemic tone. When combined with tone sandhi, the left-stem dotted tone letters are seen.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 21727674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An IPA/Chao tone letter will rarely be composed of more than three elements (which are sufficient for peaking and dipping tones). Occasionally, however, peaking–dipping and dipping–peaking tones, which require four elements – or even double-peaking and double-dipping tones, which require five – are encountered. This is usually only the case when prosody is superposed on lexical or grammatical tone, but a good computer font will allow an indefinite number of tone letters to be concatenated. The IPA diacritics placed over vowels and other letters have not been extended to this level of complexity.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 1411106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 348, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In African linguistics (as well as in many African orthographies), a set of diacritics is usual to mark tone. The most common are a subset of the International Phonetic Alphabet:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 14761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Minor variations are common. In many three-tone languages, it is usual to mark high and low tone as indicated above but to omit marking of the mid tone: má (high), ma (mid), mà (low). Similarly, in two-tone languages, only one tone may be marked explicitly, usually the less common or more 'marked' tone (see markedness).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 2477204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 309, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When digits are used, typically 1 is high and 5 is low, except in Omotic languages, where 1 is low and 5 or 6 is high. In languages with just two tones, 1 may be high and 2 low, etc.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 92740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Chinese tradition, digits are assigned to various tones (see tone number). For instance, Standard Mandarin Chinese, the official language of China, has four lexically contrastive tones, and the digits 1, 2, 3, and 4 are assigned to four tones. Syllables can sometimes be toneless and are described as having a neutral tone, typically indicated by omitting tone markings. Chinese varieties are traditionally described in terms of four tonal categories ping ('level'), shang ('rising'), qu ('exiting'), ru ('entering'), based on the traditional analysis of Middle Chinese (see Four tones); note that these are not at all the same as the four tones of modern standard Mandarin Chinese. Depending on the dialect, each of these categories may then be divided into two tones, typically called yin and yang. Typically, syllables carrying the ru tones are closed by voiceless stops in Chinese varieties that have such coda(s) so in such dialects, ru is not a tonal category in the sense used by Western linguistics but rather a category of syllable structures. Chinese phonologists perceived these checked syllables as having concomitant short tones, justifying them as a tonal category. In Middle Chinese, when the tonal categories were established, the shang and qu tones also had characteristic final obstruents with concomitant tonic differences whereas syllables bearing the ping tone ended in a simple sonorant. An alternative to using the Chinese category names is assigning to each category a digit ranging from 1 to 8, sometimes higher for some Southern Chinese dialects with additional tone splits. Syllables belonging to the same tone category differ drastically in actual phonetic tone across the varieties of Chinese even among dialects of the same group. For example, the yin ping tone is a high level tone in Beijing Mandarin Chinese but a low level tone in Tianjin Mandarin Chinese.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 4009976, 24657, 238084, 21727674, 44911, 238084, 253645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 79 ], [ 96, 121 ], [ 562, 576 ], [ 582, 592 ], [ 1097, 1113 ], [ 1190, 1204 ], [ 1708, 1728 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More iconic systems use tone numbers or an equivalent set of graphic pictograms known as \"Chao tone letters.\" These divide the pitch into five levels, with the lowest being assigned the value 1 and the highest the value 5. (This is the opposite of equivalent systems in Africa and the Americas.) The variation in pitch of a tone contour is notated as a string of two or three numbers. For instance, the four Mandarin Chinese tones are transcribed as follows (the tone letters will not display properly without a compatible font installed):", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 303324, 17042888, 478453, 14761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 94 ], [ 95, 106 ], [ 324, 336 ], [ 512, 527 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A mid-level tone would be indicated by /33/, a low level tone /11/, etc. The doubling of the number is commonly used with level tones to distinguish them from tone numbers; tone 3 in Mandarin Chinese, for example, is not mid /3/. However, it is not necessary with tone letters, so /33/ = or simply . If a distinction is made, it may be that is mid tone in a register system and is mid level tone in a contour system, or may be mid tone on a short syllable or a mid checked tone, while is mid tone on a long syllable or a mid unchecked tone.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 3537035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 469, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IPA diacritic notation is also sometimes seen for Chinese. One reason it is not more widespread is that only two contour tones, rising and falling , are widely supported by IPA fonts while several Chinese varieties have more than one rising or falling tone. One common workaround is to retain standard IPA and for high-rising (e.g. ) and high-falling (e.g. ) tones and to use the subscript diacritics and for low-rising (e.g. ) and low-falling (e.g. ) tones.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Several North American languages have tone, one of which is Cherokee, an Iroquoian language. Oklahoma Cherokee has six tones (1 low, 2 medium, 3 high, 4 very high, 5 rising and 6 falling). The Tanoan languages have tone as well. For instance, Kiowa has three tones (high, low, falling), while Jemez has four (high, mid, low, and falling). ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 356371, 676485, 770568, 1691451, 16937301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 68 ], [ 73, 91 ], [ 193, 209 ], [ 243, 248 ], [ 293, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Mesoamericanist linguistics, /1/ stands for high tone and /5/ stands for low tone, except in Oto-Manguean languages for which /1/ may be low tone and /3/ high tone. It is also common to see acute accents for high tone and grave accents for low tone and combinations of these for contour tones. Several popular orthographies use or after a vowel to indicate low tone. The Southern Athabascan languages that include the Navajo and Apache languages are tonal, and are analyzed as having two tones: high and low. One variety of Hopi has developed tone, as has the Cheyenne language.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 1427451, 33661351, 176526, 33661351, 447742, 205643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 108 ], [ 376, 405 ], [ 423, 429 ], [ 434, 450 ], [ 529, 533 ], [ 565, 582 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Roman script orthographies, a number of approaches are used. Diacritics are common, as in pinyin, but they tend to be omitted. Thai uses a combination of redundant consonants and diacritics. Tone letters may also be used, for example in Hmong RPA and several minority languages in China. Tone may simply be ignored, as is possible even for highly tonal languages: for example, the Chinese navy has successfully used toneless pinyin in government telegraph communications for decades. Likewise, Chinese reporters abroad may file their stories in toneless pinyin. Dungan, a variety of Mandarin Chinese spoken in Central Asia, has, since 1927, been written in orthographies that do not indicate tone. Ndjuka, in which tone is less important, ignores tone except for a negative marker. However, the reverse is also true: in the Congo, there have been complaints from readers that newspapers written in orthographies without tone marking are insufficiently legible.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 23588, 63731, 8541492, 166324, 2062347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 99 ], [ 130, 134 ], [ 240, 249 ], [ 565, 571 ], [ 701, 707 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Standard Central Thai has five tones–mid, low, falling, high and rising–often indicated respectively by the numbers zero, one, two, three and four. The Thai alphabet is an alphasyllabary, which specifies the tone unambiguously. Tone is indicated by an interaction of the initial consonant of a syllable, the vowel length, the final consonant (if present), and sometimes a tone mark. A particular tone mark may denote different tones depending on the initial consonant. The Shan alphabet, derived from the Burmese script, has five tone letters: , , , , ; a sixth tone is unmarked.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 48647, 63731, 878, 67695132, 32583978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 21 ], [ 152, 165 ], [ 172, 186 ], [ 473, 486 ], [ 505, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vietnamese uses the Latin alphabet and its six tones are marked by letters with diacritics above or below a certain vowel. Basic notation for Vietnamese tones are as follows:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 32511, 8439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 80, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Latin-based Hmong and Iu Mien alphabets use full letters for tones. In Hmong, one of the eight tones (the tone) is left unwritten while the other seven are indicated by the letters b, m, d, j, v, s, g at the end of the syllable. Since Hmong has no phonemic syllable-final consonants, there is no ambiguity. That system enables Hmong speakers to type their language with an ordinary Latin-letter keyboard without having to resort to diacritics. In the Iu Mien, the letters v, c, h, x, z indicate tones but unlike Hmong, it also has final consonants written before the tone.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 1247285, 3346538, 3346538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 21 ], [ 26, 33 ], [ 456, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Standard Zhuang and Zhuang languages used to use a unique set of six \"tone letters\" based on the shapes of numbers, but slightly modified, to depict what tone a syllable was in. This was replaced in 1982 with the use of normal letters in the same manner, like Hmong.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 33919386, 371591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 24, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The syllabary of the Nuosu language depicts tone in a unique manner, having separate glyphs for each tone other than for the mid-rising tone, which is denoted by the addition of a diacritic. Take the difference between ꉬ nge [ŋɯ³³] , and ꉫ ngex [ŋɯ³⁴]. In romanisation, the letters t, x, and p are used to demarcate tone. As codas are forbidden in Nuosu there is no ambiguity.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonetic notation", "target_page_ids": [ 807529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "André-Georges Haudricourt established that Vietnamese tone originated in earlier consonantal contrasts and suggested similar mechanisms for Chinese. It is now widely held that Old Chinese did not have phonemically contrastive tone. The historical origin of tone is called tonogenesis, a term coined by James Matisoff.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 7251429, 3288772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 302, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tone is sometimes an areal rather than a phylogenetic feature. That is to say, a language may acquire tones through bilingualism if influential neighbouring languages are tonal or if speakers of a tonal language shift to the language in question and bring their tones with them. The process is referred to as contact-induced tonogenesis by linguists. In other cases, tone may arise spontaneously and surprisingly fast: the dialect of Cherokee in Oklahoma has tone, but the dialect in North Carolina does not although they were separated only in 1838.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 1763786, 2203410, 1361095, 356371, 71973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 26 ], [ 41, 53 ], [ 212, 217 ], [ 434, 442 ], [ 527, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tone arose in the Athabascan languages at least twice, in a patchwork of two systems. In some languages, such as Navajo, syllables with glottalized consonants (including glottal stops) in the syllable coda developed low tones, whereas in others, such as Slavey, they developed high tones, so that the two tonal systems are almost mirror images of each other. Syllables without glottalized codas developed the opposite tone. For example, high tone in Navajo and low tone in Slavey are due to contrast with the tone triggered by the glottalization.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 337846, 176526, 44911, 485550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 38 ], [ 113, 119 ], [ 192, 205 ], [ 254, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other Athabascan languages, namely those in western Alaska (such as Koyukon) and the Pacific coast (such as Hupa), did not develop tone. Thus, the Proto-Athabascan word ('water') is toneless in Hupa, high-tone in Navajo, and low-tone tù in Slavey; while Proto-Athabascan ('knee') is toneless in Hupa, low-tone in Navajo, and high-tone in Slavey. provides a phonetic explanation for the opposite development of tone based on the two different ways of producing glottalized consonants with either tense voice on the preceding vowel, which tends to produce a high F0, or creaky voice, which tends to produce a low F0. Languages with \"stiff\" glottalized consonants and tense voice developed high tone on the preceding vowel and those with \"slack\" glottalized consonants with creaky voice developed low tone.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 5862045, 2652347, 2250850, 7676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 75 ], [ 108, 112 ], [ 503, 514 ], [ 576, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bantu languages also have \"mirror\" tone systems in which the languages in the northwest corner of the Bantu area have the opposite tones of other Bantu languages.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 4124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three Algonquian languages developed tone independently of one another and of neighboring languages: Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kickapoo. In Cheyenne, tone arose via vowel contraction; the long vowels of Proto-Algonquian contracted into high-pitched vowels in Cheyenne while the short vowels became low-pitched. In Kickapoo, a vowel with a following [h] acquired a low tone, and this tone later extended to all vowels followed by a fricative.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 52115, 205643, 2209422, 3563275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 26 ], [ 101, 109 ], [ 111, 118 ], [ 124, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Mohawk, a glottal stop can disappear in a combination of morphemes, leaving behind a long falling tone. Note that it has the reverse effect of the postulated rising tone in Cantonese or Middle Chinese, derived from a lost final glottal stop.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 181653, 18852, 1092292, 238084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ], [ 60, 68 ], [ 176, 185 ], [ 189, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Korean language, a 2013 study which compared voice recordings of Seoul speech from 1935 and 2005 found that in recent years, lenis consonants (ㅂㅈㄷㄱ), aspirated consonants (ㅍㅊㅌㅋ) and fortis consonants (ㅃㅉㄸㄲ) were shifting from a distinction via voice onset time to that of pitch change, and suggests that the modern Seoul dialect is currently undergoing tonogenesis. These sound shifts still show variations among different speakers, suggesting that the transition is still ongoing. Among 141 examined Seoul speakers, these pitch changes were originally initiated by females born in the 1950s, and has almost reached completion in the speech of those born in the 1990s.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 16756, 1253111, 3134, 1624295, 1690169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 128, 144 ], [ 153, 172 ], [ 247, 263 ], [ 318, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"There is tonogenetic potential in various series of phonemes: glottalized vs. plain consonants, unvoiced vs. voiced, aspirated vs. unaspirated, geminates vs. simple (...), and even among vowels\". Very often, tone arises as an effect of the loss or merger of consonants. In a nontonal language, voiced consonants commonly cause following vowels to be pronounced at a lower pitch than other consonants. That is usually a minor phonetic detail of voicing. However, if consonant voicing is subsequently lost, that incidental pitch difference may be left over to carry the distinction that the voicing previously carried (a process called transphonologization) and thus becomes meaningful (phonemic).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 8812983, 8812983, 598329, 5744903, 39626889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 241, 245 ], [ 249, 255 ], [ 295, 311 ], [ 635, 655 ], [ 686, 694 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This process happened in the Punjabi language: the Punjabi murmured (voiced aspirate) consonants have disappeared and left tone in their wake. If the murmured consonant was at the beginning of a word, it left behind a low tone; at the end, it left behind a high tone. If there was no such consonant, the pitch was unaffected; however, the unaffected words are limited in pitch and did not interfere with the low and high tones. That produced a tone of its own, mid tone. The historical connection is so regular that Punjabi is still written as if it had murmured consonants, and tone is not marked. The written consonants tell the reader which tone to use.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 25044, 4946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 45 ], [ 59, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similarly, final fricatives or other consonants may phonetically affect the pitch of preceding vowels, and if they then weaken to and finally disappear completely, the difference in pitch, now a true difference in tone, carries on in their stead. This was the case with Chinese. Two of the three tones of Middle Chinese, the \"rising\" and the \"departing\" tones, arose as the Old Chinese final consonants and disappeared, while syllables that ended with neither of these consonants were interpreted as carrying the third tone, \"even\". Most varieties descending from Middle Chinese were further affected by a tone split in which each tone divided in two depending on whether the initial consonant was voiced. Vowels following a voiced consonant (depressor consonant) acquired a lower tone as the voicing lost its distinctiveness.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 11762, 435079, 238084, 475046, 37835769, 29665697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 26 ], [ 120, 126 ], [ 306, 320 ], [ 375, 386 ], [ 609, 619 ], [ 746, 765 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The same changes affected many other languages in the same area, and at around the same time (AD 1000–1500). The tone split, for example, also occurred in Thai and Vietnamese.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 48647, 32511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 159 ], [ 164, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In general, voiced initial consonants lead to low tones while vowels after aspirated consonants acquire a high tone. When final consonants are lost, a glottal stop tends to leave a preceding vowel with a high or rising tone (although glottalized vowels tend to be low tone so if the glottal stop causes vowel glottalization, that will tend to leave behind a low vowel). A final fricative tends to leave a preceding vowel with a low or falling tone. Vowel phonation also frequently develops into tone, as can be seen in the case of Burmese.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1. The table below is the process of tonogenesis in White Hmong, described by Martha Ratliff. The tone values described in the table are from Christina Esposito.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 1247285, 31697660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 63 ], [ 78, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2. The table below shows the Vietnamese tonogenesis. The tone values are taken from James Kirby.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 32511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "3. The table below is the tonogenesis of Tai Dam (Black Tai). Displayed in the first row is the Proto-Southern Kra-Dai, as reconstructed by Norquest. Tone values are taken from Pittayaporn.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 2645817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "4. The table below shows the Chinese language tonogenesis.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 5751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The tone values are listed below:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "SC= Standard Chinese (Putonghua)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 24657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "TSH= Taiwanese Sixian Hakka", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 50545076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "THH= Taiwanese Hailu Hakka", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 56805550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "XMM= Xiamen Min (Amoy)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 10459468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "FZM= Fuzhou Min", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 2347345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "SZW= Suzhou Wu", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 493566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "SXW= Shaoxing Wu", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 38145832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The tones across all varieties (or dialects) of Chinese correspond to each other, although they may not correspond to each other perfectly. Moreover, listed above are citation tones, but in actual conversations, obligatory sandhi rules will reshape them. The Sixian and Hailu Hakka in Taiwan are famous for their near-regular and opposite pattern (of pitch height). Both will be compared with Standard Chinese below.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 255928, 8128, 200107, 25734, 24657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 30 ], [ 35, 42 ], [ 223, 229 ], [ 285, 291 ], [ 393, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "H: high; M: mid; L: low;", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "L: level; R: rising; F: falling", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "5. The table below shows Punjabi tonogenesis in bisyllabic words. Unlike the above four examples, Punjab was not under the east Asian tone sprachbund, instead belonging to a separate one in its own area of Punjab. As well, unlike the above languages, which developed tone from syllable endings, Punjab developed tone from its voiced aspirated stops losing their aspiration. Tone does occur in monosyllabic words as well, but are not discussed in the chart below.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [ 166867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(C = any consonant, T = non-retroflex stop, R = retroflex stop; C̬ = voiced, C̥ = unvoiced; Cʰ = aspirated; V = Neutral tone, V́ = Rising tone, V̀ = Falling tone)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Origin and development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Most languages of Sub-Saharan Africa are members of the Niger-Congo family, which is predominantly tonal; notable exceptions are Swahili (in the southeast), most languages spoken in the Senegambia (among them Wolof, Serer and Cangin languages), and Fulani. The Afroasiatic languages include both tonal (Chadic, Omotic) and nontonal (Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, and most Cushitic) branches. All three Khoisan language families—Khoe, Kx'a and Tuu—are tonal. All languages of the Nilotic language family are tonal.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 27067, 21601, 28450, 344458, 95357, 6010557, 100779, 1684962, 7273, 92740, 26919, 4693, 46918, 7274, 17333, 4475214, 11403668, 4475056, 1263084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ], [ 56, 74 ], [ 129, 136 ], [ 186, 196 ], [ 209, 214 ], [ 216, 221 ], [ 226, 242 ], [ 249, 255 ], [ 303, 309 ], [ 311, 317 ], [ 333, 340 ], [ 342, 348 ], [ 350, 358 ], [ 369, 377 ], [ 399, 406 ], [ 425, 429 ], [ 431, 435 ], [ 440, 443 ], [ 476, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Numerous tonal languages are widely spoken in China and Mainland Southeast Asia. Sino-Tibetan languages (including Meitei-Lon, Burmese, Mog and most varieties of Chinese; though some, such as Shanghainese, are only marginally tonal) and Kra–Dai languages (including Thai and Lao) are mostly tonal. The Hmong–Mien languages are some of the most tonal languages in the world, with as many as twelve phonemically distinct tones. Austroasiatic (such as Khmer and Mon) and Austronesian (such as Malay, Javanese, Tagalog, and Maori) languages are mostly non tonal with the rare exception of Austroasiatic languages like Vietnamese, and Austronesian languages like Cèmuhî and Tsat. Tones in Vietnamese and Tsat may result from Chinese influence on both languages. There were tones in Middle Korean. Other languages represented in the region, such as Mongolian, Uyghur, and Japanese belong to language families that do not contain any tonality as defined here. In South Asia tonal languages are rare, but some Indo-Aryan languages have tonality, including Punjabi and Dogri, as well as the Eastern Bengali lects.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 5405, 52052, 26756, 567600, 338207, 38473323, 253645, 511608, 29811, 48647, 140914, 675492, 597, 5216, 43527, 58800, 126630, 366911, 31438, 50788, 32511, 15306167, 1219663, 32511, 1219663, 5751, 27617085, 154909, 341860, 15606, 78966, 25044, 1725034, 55440841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 51 ], [ 56, 79 ], [ 81, 103 ], [ 115, 125 ], [ 127, 134 ], [ 136, 139 ], [ 149, 169 ], [ 192, 204 ], [ 237, 254 ], [ 266, 270 ], [ 275, 278 ], [ 302, 322 ], [ 426, 439 ], [ 449, 454 ], [ 459, 462 ], [ 468, 480 ], [ 490, 495 ], [ 497, 505 ], [ 507, 514 ], [ 520, 525 ], [ 614, 624 ], [ 658, 664 ], [ 669, 673 ], [ 684, 694 ], [ 699, 703 ], [ 720, 727 ], [ 777, 790 ], [ 843, 852 ], [ 854, 860 ], [ 866, 874 ], [ 1002, 1022 ], [ 1048, 1055 ], [ 1060, 1065 ], [ 1082, 1097 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A large number of North, South and Central American languages are tonal, including many of the Athabaskan languages of Alaska and the American Southwest (including Navajo), and the Oto-Manguean languages of Mexico. Among the Mayan languages, which are mostly non-tonal, Yucatec (with the largest number of speakers), Uspantek, and one dialect of Tzotzil have developed tone systems. The Ticuna language of the western Amazon is perhaps the most tonal language of the Americas. Other languages of the western Amazon have fairly simple tone systems as well. However, although tone systems have been recorded for many American languages, little theoretical work has been completed for the characterization of their tone systems. In different cases, Oto-Manguean tone languages in Mexico have been found to possess tone systems similar to both Asian and African tone languages.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 337846, 624, 179571, 176526, 1427451, 182013, 974396, 4902105, 1204899, 979049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 115 ], [ 119, 125 ], [ 134, 152 ], [ 164, 170 ], [ 181, 203 ], [ 225, 240 ], [ 270, 277 ], [ 317, 325 ], [ 346, 353 ], [ 387, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Norwegian and Swedish share tonal language features via the 'Single' and 'Double' tone, which can be marked in phonetic descriptions by either a preceding ' (single tone) or ៴ (double tone). Examples in Norwegian: 'bønder (farmers) and ៴bønner (beans) are, apart from the intonation, phonetically identical (despite the spelling difference). Similarly, and with in this case identical spelling, 'tømmer (timber) and ៴tømmer (present tense of verb tømme – to empty) are distinguished only through intonation.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The single tone starts low and rises to a high note towards the end of the word, while the double tone starts higher than the single tone, falls, and then rises again to a higher pitch than the start.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Languages that are tonal include:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Over 50% of the Sino-Tibetan languages. All Sinitic languages (most prominently, the Chinese languages), some Tibetic languages, including the standard languages of Tibet and Bhutan, and Burmese.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 26756, 2911095, 253645, 243781, 31516, 2421391, 338207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 39 ], [ 45, 62 ], [ 86, 103 ], [ 111, 128 ], [ 166, 171 ], [ 176, 182 ], [ 188, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the Austroasiatic family, Vietnamese and other members of the Vietic languages family are tonal. Other branches of this family, such as Mon, Khmer, and the Munda languages, are entirely non-tonal.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 597, 32511, 1710954, 43527, 5216, 507580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 21 ], [ 30, 40 ], [ 66, 82 ], [ 141, 144 ], [ 146, 151 ], [ 161, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Some of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of Austronesian languages in New Caledonia (such as Paicî and Cèmuhî) and New Guinea (such as Mor, Ma'ya and Matbat) plus some of the Chamic languages such as Tsat in Hainan are tonal. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 58805, 58800, 21342, 2463846, 15306167, 20611456, 33685932, 27457137, 35547313, 6256511, 1219663, 166411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 30 ], [ 41, 63 ], [ 67, 80 ], [ 90, 95 ], [ 100, 106 ], [ 112, 122 ], [ 132, 135 ], [ 137, 142 ], [ 147, 153 ], [ 172, 188 ], [ 197, 201 ], [ 205, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The entire Kra–Dai family, spoken mainly in China, Vietnam, Thailand, and Laos, and including Thai and Lao, is tonal.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 29811, 48647, 140914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 19 ], [ 95, 99 ], [ 104, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The entire Hmong–Mien family is highly tonal.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 675492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Many Afroasiatic languages in the Chadic and Omotic branches have tone systems, including Hausa.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 599, 14216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 27 ], [ 91, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The vast majority of Niger–Congo languages, such as Ewe, Igbo, Lingala, Maninka, Yoruba, and the Zulu, have tone systems. The Kru languages and Southern Mande languages have the most complex. Notable non-tonal Niger–Congo languages are Swahili, Fula, and Wolof.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 21601, 502512, 52570, 76563, 5227918, 356375, 61487, 54707, 66152551, 28450, 1684962, 95357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 43 ], [ 53, 56 ], [ 58, 62 ], [ 64, 71 ], [ 73, 80 ], [ 82, 88 ], [ 98, 102 ], [ 127, 140 ], [ 145, 169 ], [ 237, 244 ], [ 246, 250 ], [ 256, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " All Nilotic languages such as the Dinka language, the Maa languages, the Luo languages and Kalenjin languages have tone systems.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 1263084, 2704870, 1930950, 1511202, 1582407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 22 ], [ 35, 49 ], [ 55, 68 ], [ 74, 87 ], [ 92, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " All Khoisan languages in southern Africa have tone systems; some languages like Sandawe have tone systems like that of Cantonese.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 17333, 719389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 22 ], [ 81, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Slightly more than half of the Athabaskan languages, such as Navajo, have tone systems (languages in California and Oregon, and a few in Alaska, excluded). The Athabaskan tone languages fall into two \"mirror image\" groups. That is, a word which has a high tone in one language will have a cognate with a low tone in another, and vice versa.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 337846, 176526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 52 ], [ 62, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iroquoian languages like Mohawk commonly have tone; the Cherokee language has the most extensive tonal inventory, with six tones, of which four are contours. Here the correlation between contour tone and simple syllable structures is clearly shown; Cherokee phonotactics permit only syllables of the structure (s)(C)V.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 676485, 181653, 356371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 26, 32 ], [ 57, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " All Oto-Manguean languages are tonal. In some cases, as with Mixtec, tone system variations between dialects are sufficiently great to cause mutual unintelligibility.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 1427451, 195744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 27 ], [ 62, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Ticuna language of the western Amazon is strongly tonal. Various Arawakan languages have relatively basic tone systems. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 979049, 3541992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 20 ], [ 70, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Many languages of New Guinea like Siane possess register tone systems.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 20611456, 32642074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ], [ 35, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Some Indo-European languages (notably Swedish, Norwegian, Latvian, and Serbo-Croatian) as well as others possess what is termed pitch accent, where only the stressed syllable of a word can have different contour tones; these are not always considered to be cases of tone language.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 26689, 21704, 43352, 27730, 434243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 46 ], [ 48, 57 ], [ 59, 66 ], [ 72, 86 ], [ 129, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Some European-based creole languages, such as Krio, Saramaccan and Papiamento, have tone from their African substratum languages.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 49823, 1651722, 1383549, 358618, 583461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 36 ], [ 47, 51 ], [ 53, 63 ], [ 68, 78 ], [ 109, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some cases it is difficult to determine whether a language is tonal. For example, the Ket language has been described as having up to eight tones by some investigators, as having four tones by others, but by some as having no tone at all. In cases such as these, the classification of a language as tonal may depend on the researcher's interpretation of what tone is. For instance, the Burmese language has phonetic tone, but each of its three tones is accompanied by a distinctive phonation (creaky, murmured or plain vowels). It could be argued either that the tone is incidental to the phonation, in which case Burmese would not be phonemically tonal, or that the phonation is incidental to the tone, in which case it would be considered tonal. Something similar appears to be the case with Ket.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 196028, 25037, 22980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 101 ], [ 485, 494 ], [ 638, 650 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 19th-century constructed language Solresol can consist of only tone, but unlike all natural tonal languages, Solresol's tone is absolute, rather than relative, and no tone sandhi occurs.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of tonal languages", "target_page_ids": [ 20324344, 18449430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 37 ], [ 38, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Meeussen's rule", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1264016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tone letter", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17042888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tone name", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 478439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tone number", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4009976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tone pattern", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26142611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Musical language", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2263934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 964465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " HAL 01678018.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Reprinted (with additions). ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Translation of .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (Reprinted 1972, ).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (pbk).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " World map of tone languages The World Atlas of Language Structures Online", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Langue à tons", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Tone_(linguistics)", "Tonal_languages", "Linguistics_terminology" ]

[ "linguistics of tone" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The history of Antigua and Barbuda covers the period from the arrival of the Archaic peoples thousands of years ago to the present day. Prior to European colonization, the lands encompassing present-day Antigua and Barbuda were inhabited by three successive Amerindian societies. The island was claimed by England, who settled the islands in 1632. Under English/British control, the islands witnessed an influx of both Britons and African slaves migrate to the island. In 1981, the islands were granted independence as the modern state of Antigua and Barbuda.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 796013, 951, 2402376, 407950, 27992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 92 ], [ 203, 222 ], [ 258, 268 ], [ 306, 313 ], [ 439, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antigua was first settled by pre-agricultural Amerindians known as \"Archaic People\" (although they are commonly, but erroneously known in Antigua as Siboney, a pre-ceramic Cuban people). The earliest settlements on the island date to 2900BC. They were succeeded by ceramic-using agriculturalist Saladoid people who migrated up the island chain from Venezuela. They were later replaced by Arawakan speakers around 1200AD and around 1500 by Island Caribs.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early history (2900 BC–17th century)", "target_page_ids": [ 1967554, 210098, 915915, 6458, 5876587, 32374, 3541992, 65384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 29, 45 ], [ 149, 156 ], [ 265, 272 ], [ 295, 303 ], [ 349, 358 ], [ 388, 396 ], [ 439, 452 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Arawaks were the first well-documented group of Antiguans. They paddled to the island by canoe (piragua) from Venezuela, and were ejected by the Caribs—another people indigenous to the area. Arawaks introduced agriculture to Antigua and Barbuda, raising, among other crops, the famous Antiguan \"black\" pineapple. They also cultivated various other foods including corn, sweet potatoes (white variety), guava, tobacco, and cotton. Some of the vegetables listed, such as corn and sweet potatoes, still play an important role in Antiguan cuisine. For example, a popular Antiguan dish, Ducuna (DOO-koo-NAH), is a sweet, steamed dumpling made from grated sweet potatoes, flour and spices. In addition, one of the Antiguan staple foods, fungee (FOON-ji), is a cooked paste made of cornmeal and water.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early history (2900 BC–17th century)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The bulk of the Arawaks left Antigua about 1100AD. Those who remained were subsequently raided by the Caribs. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, the Caribs' superior weapons and seafaring prowess allowed them to defeat most Arawak nations in the West Indies—enslaving some and cannibalising others.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early history (2900 BC–17th century)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Catholic Encyclopedia does make it clear that the Spanish explorers had some difficulty identifying and differentiating between the various native peoples they encountered. As a result, the number and types of ethnic-tribal-national groups in existence at the time may be much more varied and numerous than the two mentioned.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early history (2900 BC–17th century)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to A Brief History of the Caribbean (Jan Rogozinski, Penguin Putnam, Inc September 2000), European and African diseases, malnutrition and slavery eventually destroyed the vast majority of the Caribbean's native population. No researcher has conclusively proven any of these causes as the real reason for the destruction of West Indian natives. Some historians believe that the psychological stress of slavery may also have played a part in the massive number of native deaths while in servitude. Others believe that the reportedly abundant, but starchy, low-protein diet may have contributed to severe malnutrition of the \"Indians\" who were used to a diet fortified with protein from sea-life.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early history (2900 BC–17th century)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Indigenous West Indians made sea vessels that they used to sail the Atlantic and Caribbean. As a result, Caribs and Arawaks populated much of South American and the Caribbean Islands. Relatives of the Antiguan Arawaks and Caribs still live in various countries in South America, notably Brazil, Venezuela and Colombia. The smaller remaining native populations in the West Indies maintain a pride in their heritage.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early history (2900 BC–17th century)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Christopher Columbus sighted islands in 1493 during his second voyage naming the larger one Santa Maria de la Antigua. However, early attempts by Europeans to settle the islands failed due to the Caribs' excellent defenses. England succeeded in colonising the islands in 1632, with Thomas Warner as the first governor. Settlers raised tobacco, indigo, ginger and sugarcane as cash crops. Sir Christopher Codrington established the first large sugar estate in Antigua in 1674, and leased Barbuda to raise provisions for his plantations. Barbuda's only town is named after him. In the fifty years after Codrington established his initial plantation, the sugar industry became so profitable that many farmers replaced other crops with sugar, making it the economic backbone of the islands.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "British rule (1632–1981)", "target_page_ids": [ 5635, 7375831, 11866662, 15250, 54929, 13873779, 2604705, 51336, 2275997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 56, 69 ], [ 282, 295 ], [ 344, 350 ], [ 352, 358 ], [ 363, 372 ], [ 388, 414 ], [ 487, 494 ], [ 536, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Slavery was common in Barbuda in the 1700s and until 1834. The island was a source of slaves for other locations, too. No new slaves had arrived on the island since the mid 1700s but their population grew naturally. An estimate in 1977 by Lowenthal and Clark indicated that during 1779 to 1834 the number of slaves exported totalled 172; most were taken to Antigua but 37 went to the Leeward and Windward islands and some to the southern US. Several slave rebellions took place on the island, with the most serious in 1834–5. Britain emancipated slaves in most of its colonies in 1834, but that did not include Barbuda, so the island then freed its own slaves. For some years thereafter, the freed slaves had little opportunity of survival on their own because of limited agricultural land and the lack of available credit to buy some. Hence, they continued to work on the plantations for nominal wages or lived in shantytowns and worked as occasional labourers. Sugar cane production remained the primary economy for over a century.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "British rule (1632–1981)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the 18th century, Antigua was used as the headquarters of the British Royal Navy Caribbean fleet. English Harbour Dockyard, as it came to be called, a sheltered and well-protected deepwater port, was the main base and facilities there were greatly expanded during the later 18th century. Admiral Horatio Nelson commanded the British fleet for much of this time, and made himself unpopular with local merchants by enforcing the Navigation Act, a British ruling that only British-registered ships could trade with British colonies. As the United States were no longer British colonies, the act posed a problem for merchants, who depended on trade with the fledgling country.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "British rule (1632–1981)", "target_page_ids": [ 26061, 24874360, 168767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 87 ], [ 303, 317 ], [ 434, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the main cash crop changed over the years, the main cash crops/products grown between 1953 and 1956 were cotton, sugar, meat, cereals, and local fruits and vegetables. Over time, the importance of crops and produce went into decline as other nations were able to sell goods at a price no longer feasible to sustain in the Antiguan economy. In more recent times, however, Antigua has developed a primarily service-based economy relying on tourism as their leading source of income. Much like other islands and nations that rely on tourism, this can become problematic as their success depends on the willingness of others to travel and explore the area. Moreover, this has tendency to follow a seasonal pattern leaving the country vulnerable at certain times in the year.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "British rule (1632–1981)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Along with most colonies of the British Empire, all slaves in Antigua were emancipated in 1833, but remained economically dependent upon the island's white plantation owners. Economic opportunities for the freed population were limited by a lack of surplus farming land, no access to credit and an economy built on agriculture rather than manufacturing. Poor labour conditions persisted until 1939 when a member of a British Crown commission urged the formation of a trade union movement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "British rule (1632–1981)", "target_page_ids": [ 4721, 1811656, 57736445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 46 ], [ 75, 86 ], [ 156, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Antigua Trades and Labour Union, formed shortly afterward, became the political vehicle for Sir Vere Cornwall Bird, who became the union's president in 1943. The Antigua Labour Party (ALP), formed by Bird and other trade unionists, first ran candidates in the 1946 elections and became the majority party in 1951, beginning a long history of electoral victories. Voted out of office in the 1971 general elections that swept the progressive labour movement into power, Bird and the ALP returned to office in 1976.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "British rule (1632–1981)", "target_page_ids": [ 4085607, 395100, 408255, 25911725, 20995038, 25902897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 35 ], [ 96, 118 ], [ 166, 186 ], [ 264, 278 ], [ 309, 316 ], [ 394, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The development of social class of Antigua and Barbuda primarily occurred during the colonial era, where the immigration of British colonists (and subsequent importation of African slaves) created a strict hierarchy based both on race and class; Antigua and Barbuda has been described as \"a classic case of the superimposition of race on class and vice versa.\" Both before and after the abolition of slavery in 1833, the two islands were dominated by a small minority of white plantation owners who constituted the colonial upper class. Beneath them were the Afro-Caribbean population, who \"constituted the subordinate working class.\" In between these two groups were several middlemen minorities: free people of color, along with Portuguese and Syrian immigrants, who dominated the professions of law, medicine, and architecture \"and the white-collar positions in banks, businesses, and the civil service.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "British rule (1632–1981)", "target_page_ids": [ 39574, 52507, 49005, 454164, 1580039, 39903086, 20910757, 618959, 970642, 10948789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 97 ], [ 109, 141 ], [ 158, 187 ], [ 524, 535 ], [ 559, 584 ], [ 619, 632 ], [ 676, 696 ], [ 698, 718 ], [ 731, 741 ], [ 746, 763 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1847 and 1852, 2,500 Portuguese immigrants from the island of Madeira emigrated to Antigua due to a severe famine. There, they established numerous small businesses and quickly joined the ranks of the colonial middle class, which up until then had been dominated by the island's mulatto population. As noted by historian Jo-Anne Ferreira, following \"the abolition of slavery, post-abolition migration became a matter of economic survival for many plantation owners, because of the impending labor problems. There was an increasing interest in and desire for European labor, so the Portuguese, among others, were imported throughout the West Indies to increase the European population vis-à-vis the African population.\" In contrast to the Portuguese, Syrian immigrants to Antigua and Barbuda did not start arriving until the 1950's, and \"are primarily involved in the import business and have managed to establish themselves in academic professions.\" As of 2008, there were approximately 475 to 500 permanent residents of Antigua and Barbuda who are of Syrian descent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "British rule (1632–1981)", "target_page_ids": [ 19898, 51329, 276495, 193629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 77 ], [ 115, 121 ], [ 156, 170 ], [ 287, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Irish first came to Antigua either as indentured servants or merchants; Irish indentured servants were primarily transported to Antigua during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. As increasing numbers of African slaves were transported to Antigua, the island's Irish population began to leave in search of opportunities in the rest of the British West Indies or in Britain's North American colonies. Numerous Irish merchants in Antigua belonged to business families from County Galway, and several Irish-Antiguans formed relationships with Irish colonists in Montserrat.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "British rule (1632–1981)", "target_page_ids": [ 775859, 51908900, 1485171, 294567, 219386, 92632, 54522688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ], [ 42, 61 ], [ 151, 182 ], [ 344, 363 ], [ 370, 403 ], [ 476, 489 ], [ 545, 574 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Afro-Caribbean inhabitants of Antigua and Barbuda, who \"account for about 91% of the country’s population\", are primarily descended from African slaves who were transported from West and Central Africa during the slave trade, in regions such as the Bight of Biafra, the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, the Gulf of Guinea, the Bight of Benin, and Senegambia. 4.4% of the Black Antiguan and Barbudan population are mixed-raced.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "British rule (1632–1981)", "target_page_ids": [ 67393, 539606, 596201, 11253654, 27308, 42548, 596197, 344458, 243749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 186 ], [ 191, 205 ], [ 253, 268 ], [ 274, 284 ], [ 286, 298 ], [ 304, 318 ], [ 324, 338 ], [ 344, 354 ], [ 411, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The islands achieved independence from the United Kingdom in 1981, becoming the nation of Antigua and Barbuda. However, it remains part of the Commonwealth of Nations, and remains a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II as Queen of Antigua and Barbuda. Queen Elizabeth II, head of state, is represented by \tGovernor-General of Antigua and Barbuda.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Independent Antigua and Barbuda (1981–present)", "target_page_ids": [ 951, 21175158, 5649, 12153654, 4509347, 450170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 109 ], [ 143, 166 ], [ 182, 205 ], [ 212, 230 ], [ 234, 262 ], [ 318, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1997, Prime Minister Lester Bird announced that a group of ecologically sensitive islands just off Antigua's northeastern coast, previously proposed for national park status, were being turned over to Malaysian developers. The Guiana Island Development Project deal, calling for a 1000-room hotel, an 18-hole golf course and a world-class casino, sparked widespread criticism by environmentalists, minority members in parliament and the press. The issue came to a head when a local resident shot the PM's brother. Today, the proposed development is mired in lawsuits and politics.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Independent Antigua and Barbuda (1981–present)", "target_page_ids": [ 393729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party (ABLP) won renewed mandates in the general elections in 1984 and 1989. In the 1989 elections, the ruling ABLP won all but two of the 17 seats. During elections in March 1994, power passed from Vere Bird to his son, Lester Bird, but remained within the ABLP which won 11 of the 17 parliamentary seats. The United Progressive Party won the 2004 elections and Baldwin Spencer became Prime Minister, removing from power the longest-serving elected government in the Caribbean. Baldwin was the Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda from 2004 to 2014.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Independent Antigua and Barbuda (1981–present)", "target_page_ids": [ 408255, 393729, 408256, 553436, 555532, 450172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 36 ], [ 252, 263 ], [ 342, 366 ], [ 380, 389 ], [ 394, 409 ], [ 526, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014 the Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party regained power from a massive win with the leader being the \"World Boss\", Gaston A. Browne. A snap election was called three years later, and the Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party led by the incumbent Prime Minister Hon. Gaston Browne dominated the elections with a landslide victory of 15-1-1.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Independent Antigua and Barbuda (1981–present)", "target_page_ids": [ 43045866, 56704585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 135 ], [ 293, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antigua and Barbuda", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antigua Carnival", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6304355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "British colonization of the Americas", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "French colonization of the Americas", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of the Americas", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of the British West Indies", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3830249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of North America", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 51370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of the Caribbean", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 51363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Politics of Antigua and Barbuda", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of prime ministers of Antigua and Barbuda", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 450172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spanish colonization of the Americas", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 53091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] } ]

[ "History_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda", "British_colonization_of_the_Americas" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Alpine skiing, or downhill skiing, is the pastime of sliding down snow-covered slopes on skis with fixed-heel bindings, unlike other types of skiing (cross-country, Telemark, or ski jumping), which use skis with free-heel bindings. Whether for recreation or for sport, it is typically practiced at ski resorts, which provide such services as ski lifts, artificial snow making, snow grooming, restaurants, and ski patrol.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28191, 28489, 197655, 28478, 6721, 175092, 40056, 25381, 25778403, 179821, 451687, 2502462, 3874974, 26437, 930112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 70 ], [ 89, 92 ], [ 110, 118 ], [ 142, 148 ], [ 150, 163 ], [ 165, 173 ], [ 178, 189 ], [ 244, 254 ], [ 262, 267 ], [ 298, 308 ], [ 342, 350 ], [ 364, 375 ], [ 377, 390 ], [ 392, 402 ], [ 409, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Off-piste\" skiers—those skiing outside ski area boundaries—may employ snowmobiles, helicopters or snowcats to deliver them to the top of a slope. Back-country skiers may use specialized equipment with a free-heel mode, including 'sticky' skins on the bottoms of the skis to stop them sliding backwards during an ascent, then locking the heel and removing the skins for their descent.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2249459, 332769, 3427178, 451687, 1042153, 41024389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 71, 81 ], [ 84, 95 ], [ 99, 107 ], [ 147, 166 ], [ 239, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alpine skiing has been an event at the Winter Olympic Games since 1936. A competition corresponding to modern slalom was introduced in Oslo in 1886.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28478, 34069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 13 ], [ 39, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 1994, there were estimated to be 55 million people worldwide who engaged in alpine skiing. The estimated number of skiers, who practised alpine, cross-country skiing, and related snow sports, amounted to 30 million in Europe, 20 million in North America, and 14 million in Japan. As of 1996, there were reportedly 4,500 ski areas, operating 26,000 ski lifts and enjoying skier visits. The predominant region for downhill skiing was Europe, followed by Japan and the US.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Participants and venues", "target_page_ids": [ 6721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ancient origins of skiing can be traced back to prehistoric times in Russia, Finland, Sweden and Norway where varying sizes and shapes of wooden planks were preserved in peat bogs. The word ski is related to the Old Norse word , which means \"split piece of wood or firewood.\" Skis were first invented to cross wetlands and marshes in the winter when they froze over. Skiing was an integral part of transportation in colder countries for thousands of years. In the 1760s, skiing was recorded as being used in military training. The Norwegian army held skill competitions involving skiing down slopes, around trees and obstacles while shooting. The birth of modern alpine skiing is often dated to the 1850s, and during the late 19th century, skiing was adapted from a method of transportation to a competitive and recreational sport. Norwegian legend Sondre Norheim first began the trend of skis with curved sides, bindings with stiff heel bands made of willow, and the slalom turn style. The wooden skis designed by Norheim closely resemble the shape of modern slalom skis. Norheim was the champion of the first downhill skiing competition, reportedly held in Oslo, Norway in 1868. Norheim impressed spectators when he used the stem christie in Christiania (Oslo) in 1868, the technique was originally called christiania turn (norwegian: christianiasving or kristianiasving) after the city (first printed in 1901 in guidelines for ski jumping). The telemark turn was the alternative technique. The christiania turn later developed into parallel turn as the standard technique in alpine skiing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25391, 10577, 5058739, 21241, 147341, 22666, 175084, 91983, 8508, 22309, 300132, 22309, 300141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 79 ], [ 81, 88 ], [ 90, 96 ], [ 101, 107 ], [ 174, 183 ], [ 216, 225 ], [ 853, 867 ], [ 956, 962 ], [ 972, 978 ], [ 1163, 1175 ], [ 1231, 1244 ], [ 1248, 1259 ], [ 1539, 1552 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term \"slalom\" is from Norwegian dialects slalåm meaning a trail (låm) on a slope (sla). In Telemark in the 1800s, the steeper and more difficult trails were called ville låmir (wild trails). Skiing competitions in Telemark often began on a steep mountain, continued along a logging-slides (tømmerslepe) and was completed with a sharp turn (Telemark turn) on a field or frozen lake. This type of competition used the natural and typical terrain in Telemark. Some races were on \"bumpy courses\" (kneikelåm) and sometimes included \"steep jumps\" (sprøytehopp) for difficulty. The first known slalom competitions were presumably held in Telemark around 1870 in conjunction with ski jumping competitions, involving the same athletes and on slopes next to the ski jump. Husebyrennet from 1886 included svingrenn (turning competition on hills), the term slalåm had not been introduced at that time. Slalom was first used at a skiing competition in Sonnenberg in 1906. Two to three decades later, the sport spread to the rest of Europe and the U.S. The first slalom ski competition occurred in Mürren, Switzerland in 1922.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 175076, 40056, 179393, 11680208, 665853, 26748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 226 ], [ 676, 687 ], [ 766, 778 ], [ 943, 953 ], [ 1088, 1094 ], [ 1096, 1107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A skier following the fall line will reach the maximum possible speed for that slope. A skier with skis pointed perpendicular to the fall line, across the hill instead of down it, will accelerate more slowly. The speed of descent down any given hill can be controlled by changing the angle of motion in relation to the fall line, skiing across the hill rather than down it.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Technique", "target_page_ids": [ 8760462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Downhill skiing technique focuses on the use of turns to smoothly turn the skis from one direction to another. Additionally, the skier can use the same techniques to turn the ski away from the direction of movement, generating skidding forces between the skis and snow which further slow the descent. Good technique results in a fluid flowing motion from one descent angle to another one, adjusting the angle as needed to match changes in the steepness of the run. This looks more like a single series of S's than turns followed by straight sections.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Technique", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The oldest and still common type of turn on skis is the stem, angling the tail of the ski off to the side, while the tips remain close together. In doing so, the snow resists passage of the stemmed ski, creating a force that retards downhill speed and sustains a turn in the opposite direction. When both skis are stemmed, there is no net turning force, only retardation of downhill speed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Technique", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carving is based on the shape of the ski itself; when the ski is rotated onto its edge, the pattern cut into its side causes it to bend into an arc. The contact between the arc of the ski edges and the snow naturally causes the ski to tend to move along that arc, changing the skiers direction of motion.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Technique", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This is an advanced form of speed control by increasing the pressure on one inside edge (for example the right ski), then releasing the pressure and shifting immediately to increasing the other inside edge (the left ski). Then repeat if necessary. Each increased pressure slows the speed. Alternating right and left allows the skis to remain parallel and point ahead without turning. The increase and release sequence results in the up and down motions of the upper body. Some skiers go down the top of moguls and control the speed by checking at the tops. This is how they can practically go straight down the fall line without gaining speed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Technique", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The snowplough turn is the simplest form of turning and is usually learned by beginners. To perform the snowplough turn one must be in the snowplough position while going down the ski slope. While doing this they apply more pressure to the inside of the opposite foot of which the direction they would like to turn. This type of turn allows the skier to keep a controlled speed and introduces the idea of turning across the fall line.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Technique", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Modern alpine skis are shaped to enable carve turning, and have evolved significantly since the 1980s, with variants including powder skis, freestyle skis, all-mountain skis, and children's skis. Powder skis are usually used when there is a large amount of fresh snow; the shape of a powder ski is wide, allowing the ski to float on top of the snow, compared to a normal downhill ski which would most likely sink into the snow. Freestyle skis are used by skiers who ski terrain parks. These skis are meant to help a skier who skis jumps, rails, and other features placed throughout the terrain park. Freestyle skis are usually fully symmetric, meaning they are the same dimensions from the tip of the ski to the backside (tail) of the ski. All-mountain skis are the most common type of ski, and tend to be used as a typical alpine ski. All-mountain skis are built to do a little bit of everything; they can be used in fresh snow (powder) or used when skiing groomed runs. Slalom race skis, usually referred to as race skis, are short, narrow skis, which tend to be stiffer because they are meant for those who want to go fast as well as make quick sharp turns.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 23418473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 930, 936 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The binding is a device used to connect the skier's boot to the ski. The purpose of the binding is to allow the skier to stay connected to the ski, but if the skier falls the binding can safely release them from the ski to prevent injury. There are two types of bindings: the heel and toe system (step-in) and the plate system binding.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ski boots are one of the most important accessories to skiing. They connect the skier to the skis, allowing them full control over the ski. When ski boots first came about they were made of leather and laces were used. The leather ski boots started off as low-cut, but gradually became taller, allowing for more ankle support, as injuries became more common . Eventually the tied laces were replaced with buckles and the leather boots were replaced with plastic. This allowed the bindings to be more closely matched to the fit of the boot, and offer improved performance. The new plastic model contained two parts of the boots: an inner boot and an outer shell. The inner part of the boot (also called the liner) is the cushioning part of the boot and contains a footbed along with a cushion to keep a skier's foot warm and comfortable. The outer shell is the part of the boot that is made of plastic and contains the buckles. Most ski boots contain a strap at shin level to allow for extra strength when tightening the boots.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ski helmets reduce the chances of head injury while skiing. Ski helmets also help to provide warmth to the head since they incorporate an inner liner that traps warmth. Helmets are available in many styles, and typically consist of a hard plastic/resin shell with inner padding. Modern ski helmets may include many additional features such as vents, earmuffs, headphones, goggle mounts, and camera mounts.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The protective gear used in alpine skiing includes: mouth guards, shin guards, chin guards, arm guards, back protectors, pole guards, and padding. Mouth guards can reduce the effects of a concussion and protect the teeth of the athlete. Shin guards, pole guards, arm guards and chin guards are mainly used in slalom skiing in order to protect the body parts having impact with the gates. Back protectors and padding, also known as stealth, is worn for giant slalom and other speed events in order to better protect the body if an athlete were to have an accident at high speeds.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Elite competitive skiers participate in the FIS World Cup, the World Championships, and the Winter Olympics. Broadly speaking, competitive skiing is divided into two disciplines:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [ 175281, 183628, 3226813, 4054119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 47 ], [ 48, 57 ], [ 63, 82 ], [ 92, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Racing, comprising slalom, giant slalom, super giant slalom, combined, and downhill, parallel slalom and parallel giant slalom.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [ 8508, 344836, 382407, 4149460, 218183, 8508, 344836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 26 ], [ 28, 40 ], [ 42, 60 ], [ 62, 70 ], [ 76, 84 ], [ 86, 101 ], [ 106, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Freestyle skiing, incorporating events such as moguls, aerials, halfpipe, and ski cross.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [ 40057, 6759160, 297972, 3061621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 48, 54 ], [ 65, 73 ], [ 79, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other disciplines administered by the FIS but not usually considered part of alpine are speed skiing and grass skiing.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [ 322186, 370531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 100 ], [ 105, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In most ski resorts, the runs are graded according to comparative difficulty so that skiers can select appropriate routes. The grading schemes around the world are related, although with significant regional variations. A beginner-rated trail at a large mountain may be more of an intermediate-rated trail on a smaller mountain.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ski trail ratings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States and Canada, there are four rating symbols: Easy (green circle), Intermediate (blue square), and Difficult (black diamond), and Experts Only (double black diamond) Ski trail difficulty is measured by percent slope, not degree angle. A 100% slope is a 45-degree angle. In general, beginner slopes (green circle) are between 6% and 25%. Intermediate slopes (blue square) are between 25% and 40%. Difficult slopes (black diamond) are 40% and up. Although slope gradient is the primary consideration in assigning a trail difficulty rating, other factors come into play. A trail will be rated by its most difficult part, even if the rest of the trail is easy. Ski resorts assign ratings to their own trails, rating a trail compared only with other trails at that resort. Also considered are width of the trail, sharpest turns, terrain roughness, and whether the resort regularly grooms the trail.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ski trail ratings", "target_page_ids": [ 179821, 3874974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 675, 685 ], [ 894, 900 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, there were more than 114,000 alpine skiing-related injuries treated in hospitals, doctor's offices, and emergency rooms.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Safety", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most common types of ski injuries are those of the knee, head, neck and shoulder area, hands and back. Ski helmets are highly recommended by professionals as well as doctors. Head injuries caused in skiing can lead to death or permanent brain damage.In alpine skiing, for every 1000 people skiing in a day, on average between two and four will require medical attention. Most accidents are the result of user error leading to an isolated fall. Learning how to fall correctly and safely can reduce the risk of injury.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Safety", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to a 2004 Harvard Medical School study, alpine skiing burns between 360 and 532 calories per hour.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Health", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Winter season lengths are projected to decline at ski areas across North America and Europe due to the effects of global warming. In the United States, winter season lengths are projected to decline by more than 50 percent by 2050 and by 80 percent by 2090 if greenhouse gas emissions continue at current rates. About half of the 103 ski resorts in the Northeastern United States operating in 2012 may not be able to maintain an economically viable ski season by 2050. In Europe, half of the glacial ice in the Alps has melted and the European Geosciences Union projects snowpack in the mountains could decline 70 percent by 2100 (however, if humans manage to keep global warming below 2°C, the snow-cover reduction would be limited to 30 percent by 2100).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Climate change", "target_page_ids": [ 2119174, 431669, 981, 2670571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 128 ], [ 353, 379 ], [ 511, 515 ], [ 535, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Para-alpine skiing", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4368276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Skiboarding", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alpine Canada Alpin – Alpine Canada Alpin, National Governing Body for Ski Racing within Canada", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association – The National Governing Body for Ski Racing", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " U.S. Ski Team – Bio information and stories on U.S. elite athletes", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Retro Ski – ski history", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alpine Ski Database", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Colorado Ski Museum", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Alpine_skiing", "Winter_Olympic_sports", "Winter_sports" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Ice dance (sometimes referred to as ice dancing) is a discipline of figure skating that historically draws from ballroom dancing. It joined the World Figure Skating Championships in 1952, and became a Winter Olympic Games medal sport in 1976. According to the International Skating Union (ISU), the governing body of figure skating, an ice dance team consists of one woman and one man.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11152, 3332, 229356, 34069, 1625178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 82 ], [ 112, 128 ], [ 144, 178 ], [ 201, 221 ], [ 260, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ice dance, like pair skating, has its roots in the \"combined skating\" developed in the 19th century by skating clubs and organizations and in recreational social skating. Couples and friends would skate waltzes, marches, and other social dances. The first steps in ice dance were similar to those used in ballroom dancing. In the late 1800s, American Jackson Haines, known as \"the Father of Figure Skating\", brought his style of skating, which included waltz steps and social dances, to Europe. By the end of the 19th century, waltzing competitions on the ice became popular throughout the world. By the early 1900s, ice dance was popular around the world and was primarily a recreational sport, although during the 1920s, local skating clubs in Britain and the U.S. conducted informal dance contests. Recreational skating became more popular during the 1930s in England.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4546369, 32895, 6111170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 28 ], [ 203, 210 ], [ 351, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first national competitions occurred in England, Canada, the U.S., and Austria during the 1930s. The first international ice dance competition took place as a special event at the World Championships in 1950 in London. British ice dance teams dominated the sport throughout the 1950s and 1960s, then Soviet teams up until the 1990s. Ice dance was formally added to the 1952 World Figure Skating Championships; it became an Olympic sport in 1976. In the 1980s and 1990s, there was an attempt by ice dancers, their coaches, and choreographers to move ice dance away from its ballroom origins to more theatrical performances. The ISU pushed back by tightening rules and definitions of ice dance to emphasize its connection to ballroom dancing. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, ice dance lost much of its integrity as a sport after a series of judging scandals, which also affected the other figure skating disciplines. There were calls to suspend the sport for a year to deal with the dispute, which seemed to affect ice dance teams from North America the most. Teams from North America began to dominate the sport starting in the early 2000s.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11124874, 19609379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 211 ], [ 373, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before the 2010–11 figure skating season, there were three segments in ice dance competitions: the compulsory dance (CD), the original dance (OD), and the free dance (FD). In 2010, the ISU voted to change the competition format by eliminating the CD and the OD and adding the new short dance (SD) segment to the competition schedule. In 2018, the ISU voted to rename the short dance to the rhythm dance (RD).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30331892, 57928574, 11328501, 11328790, 27872783, 58090808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 40 ], [ 99, 115 ], [ 126, 140 ], [ 155, 165 ], [ 280, 291 ], [ 390, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ice dance has required elements that competitors must perform and that make up a well-balanced ice dance program. They include the dance lift, the dance spin, the step sequence, twizzles, and choreographic elements. These must be performed in specific ways, as described in published communications by the ISU, unless otherwise specified. Each year the ISU publishes a list specifying the points that can be deducted from performance scores for various reasons, including falls, interruptions, and violations of the rules concerning time, music, and clothing.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10769687, 39686, 20511181, 4216732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 141 ], [ 153, 157 ], [ 163, 176 ], [ 178, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ice dance, like pair skating, has its roots in the \"combined skating\" developed in the 19th century by skating clubs and organizations and in recreational social skating. Couples and friends would skate waltzes, marches, and other social dances together. According to writer Ellyn Kestnbaum, ice dance began with late 19th-century attempts by the Viennese and British to create ballroom-style performances on ice skates. However, figure skating historian James Hines argues that ice dance had its beginnings in hand-in-hand skating, a short-lived but popular discipline of figure skating in England in the 1890s; many of the positions used in modern ice dance can be traced back to hand-in-hand skating. The first steps in ice dance were similar to those used in ballroom dancing, so unlike modern ice dance, skaters tended to keep both feet on the ice most of the time, without the \"long and flowing edges associated with graceful figure skating\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4546369, 32895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 28 ], [ 203, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1800s, American Jackson Haines, known as \"the Father of Figure Skating\", brought his style of skating to Europe. He taught people in Vienna how to dance on the ice, both singly and with partners. Capitalizing on the popularity of the waltz in Vienna, Haines introduced the American waltz, a simple four-step sequence, each step lasting one beat of music, repeated as the partners moved in a circular pattern. By the 1880s, it and the Jackson Haines waltz, a variation of the American waltz, were among the most popular ice dances. Other popular ice dance steps included the mazurka, a version of the Jackson Haines waltz developed in Sweden, and the three-step waltz, which Hines considers \"the direct predecessor of ice dancing in the modern sense\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6111170, 222533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 42 ], [ 586, 593 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the end of the 19thcentury, the three-step waltz, called the English waltz in Europe, became the standard for waltzing competitions. It was first skated in Paris in 1894; Hines states that it was responsible for the popularity of ice dance in Europe. The three-step waltz was easy and could be done by less skilled skaters, although more experienced skaters added variations to make it more difficult. Two other steps, the killian and the ten-step, survived into the 20thcentury. The ten-step, which became the fourteen-step, was first skated by Franz Schöller in 1889. Also in the 1890s, combined and hand-in-hand skating moved skating away from basic figures to the continuous movement of ice dancers around an ice rink. Hines insists that the popularity of skating waltzes, which depended upon the speed and flow across the ice of couples in dance positions and not just on holding hands with a partner, ended the popularity of hand-in-hand skating. Hines writes that Vienna was \"the dancing capital of Europe, both on and off skates\" during the 19thcentury; by the end of the century, waltzing competitions became popular throughout the world. The killian, first skated in 1909 by Austrian Karl Schreiter, was the last ice dance invented before World War I still being done as of the 21stcentury.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6844035, 4764461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 426, 433 ], [ 1252, 1263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the early 1900s, ice dance was popular around the world and was primarily a recreational sport, although during the 1920s, local clubs in Britain and the U.S. conducted informal dance contests in the ten-step, the fourteen-step, and the killian, which were the only three dances used in competition until the 1930s. Recreational skating became more popular during the 1930s in England, and new and more difficult set-pattern dances, which later were used in compulsory dances during competitions, were developed. According to Hines, the development of new ice dances was necessary to expand upon the three dances already developed; three British teams in the 1930s—Erik van der Wyden and Eva Keats, Reginald Wilkie and Daphne B. Wallis, and Robert Dench and Rosemarie Stewart—created one-fourth of the dances used in International Skating Union (ISU) competitions by 2006. In 1933, the Westminster Skating Club conducted a competition encouraging the creation of new dances. Beginning in the mid-1930s, national organizations began to introduce skating proficiency tests in set-pattern dances, improve the judging of dance tests, and oversee competitions. The first national competitions occurred in England in 1934, Canada in 1935, the U.S. in 1936, and Austria in 1937. These competitions included one or more compulsory dances, the original dance, and the free dance. By the late 1930s, ice dancers swelled memberships in skating clubs throughout the world, and in Hines' words \"became the backbone of skating clubs\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 27572533, 24961410, 1625178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 702, 717 ], [ 761, 778 ], [ 820, 847 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ISU began to develop rules, standards, and international tests for ice dance in the 1950s. The first international ice dance competition occurred as a special event during the 1950 World Figure Skating Championships in London; Lois Waring and Michael McGean of the U.S. won the event, much to the embarrassment of the British, who considered themselves the best ice dancers in the world. A second event was planned the following year, at the 1951 World Championships in Milan; Jean Westwood and Lawrence Demmy of Great Britain came in first place. Ice dance, with the CD and FD segments, was formally added to the World Championships in 1952. Westwood and Demmy won that year, and went on to dominate ice dance, winning the next four World Championships as well. British teams won every world ice dance title through 1960. Eva Romanova and Pavel Roman of Czechoslovakia were the first non-British ice dancers to win a world title, in 1962.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11124874, 26350323, 26350397, 11343995, 20334301, 20334352, 19609379, 3397578, 3397644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 219 ], [ 231, 242 ], [ 247, 261 ], [ 446, 470 ], [ 481, 494 ], [ 499, 513 ], [ 618, 645 ], [ 827, 839 ], [ 844, 855 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ice dance became an Olympic sport in 1976; Lyudmila Pakhomova and Alexandr Gorshkov from the Soviet Union were the first gold medalists. The Soviets dominated ice dance during most of the 1970s, as they did in pair skating. They won every Worlds and Olympic title between 1970 and 1978, and won medals at every competition between 1976 and 1982. In 1984, British dancers Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean, who Hines calls \"the greatest ice dancers in the history of the sport\", briefly interrupted Soviet domination of ice dance by winning a gold medal at the Olympic Games in Sarajevo. Their free dance to Ravel's Boléro has been called \"probably the most well known single program in the history of ice dance\". Hines asserts that Torvill and Dean, with their innovative choreography, dramatically altered \"established concepts of ice dancing\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 627037, 3840072, 1503105, 1503115, 113362, 48068, 319826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 61 ], [ 66, 83 ], [ 371, 384 ], [ 389, 405 ], [ 561, 586 ], [ 608, 615 ], [ 616, 622 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1970s, there was a movement in ice dance away from its ballroom roots to a more theatrical style. The top Soviet teams were the first to emphasize the dramatic aspects of ice dance, as well as the first to choreograph their programs around a central theme. They also incorporated elements of ballet techniques, especially \"the classic ballet pas de deux of the high-art instance of a man and woman dancing together\". They performed as predictable characters, included body positions that were no longer rooted in traditional ballroom holds, and used music with less predictable rhythms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 49733, 776459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 303, 309 ], [ 353, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ISU pushed back during the 1980s and 1990s by tightening rules and definitions of ice dance to emphasize its connection to ballroom dancing, especially in the free dance. The restrictions introduced during this period were designed to emphasize skating skills rather than the theatrical and dramatic aspects of ice dance. Kestnbaum argues that there was a conflict in the ice dance community between social dance, represented by the British, the Canadians, and the Americans, and theatrical dance represented by the Russians. Initially the historic and traditional cultural school of ice dance prevailed, but in 1998 the ISU reduced penalties for violations and relaxed rules on technical content, in what Hines describes as a \"major step forward\" in recognizing the move towards more theatrical skating in ice dance.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the 1998 Olympics, while ice dance was struggling to retain its integrity and legitimacy as a sport, writer Jere Longman reported that ice dance was \"mired in controversies\", including bloc voting by the judges that favored European dance teams. There were even calls to suspend the sport for a year to deal with the dispute, which seemed to impact ice dance teams from North America the most. A series of judging scandals in the late 1990s and early 2000s, affecting most figure skating disciplines, culminated in a controversy at the 2002 Olympics.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 113189, 4094320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ], [ 520, 552 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The European dominance of ice dance was interrupted at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver by Canadians Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir and Americans Meryl Davis and Charlie White. The Canadian ice dance team won the first Olympic ice dance gold medal for North America, and the Americans won the silver. Russians Oksana Domnina and Maxim Shabalin won bronze, but it was the first time Europeans had not won a gold medal in the history of ice dance at the Olympics. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 178749, 4148260, 4148271, 7847641, 7847652, 7828469, 7828470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 79 ], [ 106, 118 ], [ 123, 133 ], [ 148, 159 ], [ 164, 177 ], [ 312, 326 ], [ 331, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The U.S. began to dominate international competitions in ice dance; at the 2014 Olympics in Sochi, Davis and White won the Olympic gold medal. In 2018, at the Olympics in Pyeongchang, Virtue and Moir became the most decorated figure skaters in Olympic history after winning the gold medal there. In 2022, Gabriella Papadakis and Guillaume Cizeron of France won the Olympic gold medal; they went on to win the gold medal at the World championships a few months later, ending the North American domination on ice dance. Papadakis and Cizeron broke the world record at both events.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 893219, 961505, 32687694, 32687716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 88 ], [ 159, 167 ], [ 305, 324 ], [ 329, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Caroline Silby, a consultant with U.S. Figure Skating, ice dance teams and pair skaters have the added challenge of strengthening partnerships and ensuring that teams stay together for several years; unresolved conflict between partners can often cause the early break-up of a team. Silby further asserts that the early demise or break-up of a team is often caused by consistent and unresolved conflict between partners. Both ice dancers and pairs skaters face challenges that make conflict resolution and communication difficult: fewer available boys for girls to partner with; different priorities regarding commitment and scheduling; differences in partners' ages and developmental stages; differences in family situations; the common necessity of one or both partners moving to train at a new facility; and different skill levels when the partnership is formed. Silby estimates that the lack of effective communication within dance and pairs teams is associated with a six-fold increase in the risk of ending their partnerships. Teams with strong skills in communication and conflict resolution, however, tend to produce more successful medalists at national championship events.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2361557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before the 2010–2011 figure skating season, there were three segments in ice dance competitions: the compulsory dance (CD), the original dance (OD), and the free dance (FD). In 2010, after many years of pressure from the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to restructure competitive ice dance to follow the other figure skating disciplines, the ISU voted to change the competition format by eliminating the CD and the OD and adding the new short dance segment to the competition schedule. According to the then-president of the ISU, Ottavio Cinquanta, the changes were also made because \"the compulsory dances were not very attractive for spectators and television\". This new ice dance competition format was first included in the 2010–2011 season, incorporating just two segments: the short dance (renamed the rhythm dance, or RD in 2018) and the free dance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Competition segments", "target_page_ids": [ 30331892, 57928574, 11328501, 11328790, 15147, 7278274, 58090808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 42 ], [ 101, 117 ], [ 128, 142 ], [ 157, 167 ], [ 221, 252 ], [ 536, 553 ], [ 814, 826 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The RD is the first segment performed in all junior and senior ice dance competitions. It combines many of the elements of the CD and the OD, retaining the characteristic set patterns of the CD, in which each dance team must perform the same two patterns of a set \"pattern dance\", providing \"an essential comparison of the dancers' technical skills\". The ice dance team is judged on how well the pattern dance is integrated into the entire RD routine. The RD must also include a short six-second lift, a set of twizzles, and a step sequence.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Competition segments", "target_page_ids": [ 10769687, 4216732, 20511181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 496, 500 ], [ 511, 518 ], [ 527, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rhythms and themes of the RD are determined by the ISU prior to the start of each new season. The RD should be \"developed through skating skill and quality\", instead of through \"non-skating actions such as sliding on one knee\" or through the use of toe steps (which should only be used to reflect the dance's character and the music's nuances and underlining rhythm). The RD must have a duration of twominutes and fiftyseconds.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Competition segments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first RD in international competitions was performed by U.S. junior ice dancers Anastasia Cannuscio and Colin McManus, at the 2010 Junior Grand Prix Courchevel. French ice dancers Gabriella Papadakis and Guillaume Cizeron hold the highest RD score of 92.73, which they achieved at the 2022 World Championships. They also hold the seven highest RD scores.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Competition segments", "target_page_ids": [ 32134267, 32134309, 26613262, 32687694, 32687716, 69580137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 103 ], [ 108, 121 ], [ 130, 163 ], [ 184, 203 ], [ 208, 225 ], [ 289, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The free dance (FD) takes place after the rhythm dance in all junior and senior ice dance competitions. The International Skating Union (ISU), the body that oversees figure skating, defines the FD as \"the skating by the couple of a creative dance program blending dance steps and movements expressing the character/rhythm(s) of the dance music chosen by the couple\". The FD must have combinations of new or known dance steps and movements, as well as required elements. The program must \"utilize the full ice surface,\" and be well-balanced. It must contain required combinations of elements (spins, lifts, steps, and movements), and choreography that express both the characters of the competitors and the music chosen by them. It must also display the skaters' \"excellent skating technique\" and creativity in expression, concept, and arrangement. The FD's choreography must reflect the music's accents, nuances, and dance character, and the ice dancers must \"skate primarily in time to the rhythmic beat of the music and not to the melody alone\". For senior ice dancers, the FD must have a duration of four minutes; for juniors, 3.5 minutes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Competition segments", "target_page_ids": [ 58090808, 1625178, 11152, 39686, 10769687, 20511181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 54 ], [ 108, 135 ], [ 166, 180 ], [ 592, 597 ], [ 599, 604 ], [ 606, 611 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gabriella Papadakis and Guillaume Cizeron hold the highest FD score of 137.09 points, which they achieved at the 2022 World Championships. They also hold the six highest recorded FD scores.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Competition segments", "target_page_ids": [ 32687694, 32687716, 69580137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 24, 41 ], [ 113, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before 2010, the compulsory dance (CD) was the first segment performed in ice dance competitions. The teams performed the same pattern around two circuits of the rink, one team after another, using the same step sequences and the same standardized tempo chosen by the ISU before the beginning of each season. The CD has been compared with compulsory figures; competitors were \"judged for their mastery of fundamental elements\". Early in ice dance history, the CD contributed 60% of the total score.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Competition segments", "target_page_ids": [ 666280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 339, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2010 World Championships was the last event to include a CD (the Golden Waltz); Federica Faiella and Massimo Scali from Italy were the last ice dance team to perform a CD in international competition.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Competition segments", "target_page_ids": [ 21759167, 7851878, 7851885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 28 ], [ 84, 100 ], [ 105, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The OD was first added to ice dance competitions in 1967. It was called the \"original set pattern dance\" until 1990, when it became known simply as the \"original dance\". The OD remained the second competition segment (sandwiched between the CD and the free dance) until the end of the 2009–2010 season. Ice dancers were able to create their own routines, but they had to use a set rhythm and type of music which, like the compulsory dances, changed every season and was selected by the ISU in advance. The timing and interpretation of the rhythm were considered to be the most important aspects of the routine, and were worth the highest proportion of the OD score. The routine had a two-minute time limit and the OD accounted for 30% of the overall competition score.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Competition segments", "target_page_ids": [ 24990183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 285, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Canadian ice dancers Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir hold the highest OD score of 70.27points, achieved at the 2010 World Championships.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Competition segments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ice dance has required elements that ice dancers must perform during a competition to make up a well-balanced skating program, including the dance lift, the dance spin, the step sequence, turn sequences, and choreographic elements. They must be performed in specific ways, as described in published communications by the ISU, unless otherwise specified.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Competition elements", "target_page_ids": [ 39686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dance lift: \"a movement in which one of the partners is elevated with active and/or passive assistance of the other partner to any permitted height, sustained there and set down on the ice\". The ISU permits any rotation, position, and changes of position during a dance lift. Dance lifts are delineated from pair lifts to ensure that ice dance and pair skating remain separate disciplines. After the judging system changed from the 6.0 system to the ISU Judging System, dance lifts became more \"athletic, dramatic and exciting\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Competition elements", "target_page_ids": [ 9332020, 5869844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 433, 443 ], [ 451, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dance spin: \"a spin skated by the Couple together in any hold\". There are two types of dance spins: the spin and the combination spin, which is multiple spins in succession.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Competition elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Step sequence: \"a series of prescribed or un-prescribed steps, turns and movements\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Competition elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Turn sequences: a set of twizzles and a one foot turns sequence, or \"Specified Turns performed on one foot by each partner simultaneously, in Hold or separately\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Competition elements", "target_page_ids": [ 4216732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Choreographic elements: \"a listed or unlisted movement or series of movement(s) as specified\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Competition elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Skaters must execute the prescribed elements at least once; any extra or unprescribed elements will not be counted in their score. In 1974, the ISU published the first judges' handbook describing what judges needed to look for during ice dance competitions. Violations in ice dance include falls and interruptions, time, music, and clothing.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to ice dancer and commentator Tanith White, unlike in other disciplines wherein skaters can make up for their falls in other elements, falls in ice dance usually mean that the team will not win. White argues that falls are rare in ice dance, and since falls constitute interruptions, they tend to have large deductions because the mood of their program's theme is broken. The ISU defines a fall as the \"loss of control by a Skater with the result that the majority of his/her own body weight is on the ice supported by any other part of the body other than the blades; e.g. hand(s), knee(s), back, buttock(s) or any part of the arm\". The ISU defines an interruption as \"the period of time starting immediately when the Competitor stops performing the program or is ordered to do so by the Referee, whichever is earlier, and ending when the Competitor resumes the performance\". A study conducted during a U.S. national competition including 58 ice dancers recorded an average of 0.97 injuries per athlete.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [ 1298485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In ice dance, teams can lose one point for every fall by one partner, and two points if both partners fall. If there is an interruption while performing their program, ice dancers can lose one point if it lasts more than ten seconds but not over twenty seconds. They can lose two points if the interruption lasts twenty seconds but not over thirty seconds, and three points if it lasts thirty seconds but not more than forty seconds. They can lose five points if the interruption lasts three or more minutes. Teams can also lose points if a fall or interruption occurs during the beginning of an elevating moment in a dance lift, or as the man begins to lift the woman. They can lose an additional five points if the interruption is caused by an \"adverse condition\" up to three minutes before the start of their program.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Judges penalize ice dancers one point up to every five seconds for ending their pattern dances too early or too late. Dancers can also be penalized one point for up to every five seconds \"in excess of [the] permitted time after the last prescribed step\" (their final movement and/or pose) in their pattern dances. If they start their programs between one and thirty seconds late, they can lose one point. They can complete these programs within plus or minus ten seconds of the required times; if they cannot, judges can deduct points for finishing their program up to five seconds too early or too late. If they begin skating any element after their required time (plus the required ten seconds they have to begin), they earn no points for those elements. If the program's duration is \"thirty (30) seconds or more under the required time range, no marks will be awarded\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If a team performs a dance lift that exceeds the permitted duration, judges can deduct one point. White argues that deductions in ice dance, in the absence of a fall or interruption, are most often due to \"extended lifts\", or lifts that last too long.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ISU defines interpretation of the music and timing in ice dance as \"the personal, creative, and genuine translation of the rhythm, character and content of music to movement on ice\". The ISU has allowed vocals in the music used in ice dance since the 1997–1998 season, most likely because of the difficulty in finding suitable music without words for certain genres. Judges take the following things into account when scoring ice dances: timing (steps and movement in time to the music); the expression of the character and/or feeling and rhythm of the music, when they can be identified clearly; the use of finesse; the relationship between the dancers' ability to reflect the rhythm and character of the music; if the dancers skate primarily to the rhythmic beat during their rhythm dance; and if they can keep a \"good balance\" between skating to the melody and beat during their free dance.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Violations against the music requirements have a two-point deduction, and violations against the dance tempo requirements have a one-point deduction. Judges can deduct one point per program if the ice dancers break choreography restrictions. If the quality or tempo of the music the team uses in their program is deficient, or if there is a stop or interruption in their music, for any reason, they must stop skating when they become aware of the problem \"or at the acoustic signal of the Referee\", whichever occurs first. If any problems with the music happens within 20 seconds after they have begun their program, the team can choose to either restart their program or to continue from the point where they have stopped performing. If they decide to continue from the point where they stopped, they are continued to be judged at that point onward, as well as their performance up to that point. If any of the above mentioned problems occurs over 20 seconds after the start their program, they team can resume their program from the point of the interruption or at the point immediately before an element, if the interruption occurred at the entrance to or during the element. The element must be deleting from the team's score and the team can repeat the deleted element when they resume their program. No deductions are made for interruptions caused by music deficiencies.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The clothing worn by ice dancers at ISU Championships, the Olympics, and international competitions must be \"modest, dignified and appropriate for athletic competition—not garish or theatrical in design\". Rules about clothing tend to be more strict in ice dance; Juliet Newcomer from U.S. Figure Skating has speculated limits in the kind of costumes ice dancers chose were pushed farther during the 1990s and early 2000s than in the other disciplines, resulting in stricter rules. Clothing can, however, reflect the character of ice dancers' chosen music. Their costumes must not \"give the effect of excessive nudity inappropriate for the discipline\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All men must wear trousers. Female ice dancers must wear skirts. Accessories and props on the costumes of both dancers are not allowed. The decorations on costumes must be \"non-detachable\"; judges can deduct one point per program if part of the competitors' costumes or decorations fall on the ice. If there is a costume or prop violation, the judges can deduct one point per program. If competitors do not adhere to these guidelines, the judges can deduct points from their total score, if most of the panel, including the referee, thinks a team's outfit is inappropriate or non-compliant. However, costume deductions are rare. According to Newcomer, by the time skaters get to a national or world championship, they have received enough feedback about their costumes and are no longer willing to risk losing points.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Communication No. 2371: Ice Dance\" (PDF). (ISU No. 2371) International Skating Union. 2 February 2021. Retrieved 24 January 2022.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works cited", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Communication No. 2403: Summary of Results of Mail Voting on Proposals in Replacement of the 58th Ordinary Congress 2021\". Lausanne, Switzerland: International Skating Union. 30 June 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2022 (ISU No. 2403).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works cited", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Special Regulations & Technical Rules Single & Pair Skating and Ice Dance 2021\". (S&P/ID 2021) International Skating Union. 2021. Retrieved 23 January 2022.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works cited", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean's free skate to Boléro, 1984 Olympics", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Ice_dance", "Figure_skating_disciplines", "Mixed-sex_sports" ]

[ "ice dancing" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The history of Australia is the story of the land and peoples of the continent of Australia.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4689264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "People first arrived on the Australian mainland by sea from Maritime Southeast Asia between 50,000 and 65,000 years ago, and penetrated to all parts of the continent, from the rainforests in the north, the deserts of the centre, and the sub-Antarctic islands of Tasmania and Bass Strait. The artistic, musical and spiritual traditions they established are among the longest surviving such traditions in human history.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2912594, 759244, 1922939, 312222, 948693, 94623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 60, 83 ], [ 221, 227 ], [ 292, 300 ], [ 302, 309 ], [ 314, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first Torres Strait Islanders – ethnically and culturally distinct from the Aboriginal people – arrived from what is now Papua New Guinea around 2,500 years ago, and settled in the islands of the Torres Strait and the Cape York Peninsula forming the northern tip of the Australian landmass.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 595809, 22943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 33 ], [ 125, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first known landing in Australia by Europeans was in 1606 by Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon. Later that year, Spanish explorer Luís Vaz de Torres sailed through, and navigated, what is now called Torres Strait and associated islands. Twenty-nine other Dutch navigators explored the western and southern coasts in the 17th century and named the continent New Holland. Macassan trepangers visited Australia's northern coasts after 1720, possibly earlier. Other European explorers followed until, in 1770, Lieutenant James Cook charted the east coast of Australia for Great Britain. He returned to London with accounts favouring colonisation at Botany Bay (now in Sydney).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 601774, 22933238, 317505, 1937465, 2098301, 15630, 2496566, 27862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 96 ], [ 132, 150 ], [ 201, 214 ], [ 359, 370 ], [ 372, 391 ], [ 519, 529 ], [ 647, 657 ], [ 666, 672 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The First Fleet of British ships arrived at Botany Bay in January 1788 to establish a penal colony, the first colony on the Australian mainland. In the century that followed, the British established other colonies on the continent, and European explorers ventured into its interior. Aboriginal people were greatly weakened and their numbers diminished by introduced diseases and conflict with the colonists during this period.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 70061, 146909, 47546474, 12598742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 86, 98 ], [ 236, 254 ], [ 283, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gold rushes and agricultural industries brought prosperity. Autonomous parliamentary democracies began to be established throughout the six British colonies from the mid-19th century. The colonies voted by referendum to unite in a federation in 1901, and modern Australia came into being. Australia fought as part of British Empire and later Commonwealth in the two world wars and became a long-standing ally of the United States when threatened by Imperial Japan during World War II. Trade with Asia increased and a post-war immigration program received more than 6.5million migrants from every continent. Supported by immigration of people from almost every country in the world since the end of World War II, the population increased to more than 25.5million by 2020, with 30 per cent of the population born overseas.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30865472, 1057262, 182113, 51582, 1241326, 4721, 21175158, 142735, 4792222, 183897, 32927, 6025236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 16, 39 ], [ 71, 96 ], [ 206, 216 ], [ 231, 241 ], [ 317, 331 ], [ 342, 354 ], [ 366, 375 ], [ 404, 429 ], [ 449, 463 ], [ 471, 483 ], [ 517, 537 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Humans are believed to have arrived in Australia 50,000 to 65,000 years ago. As hunter-gatherers, they established enduring spiritual and artistic traditions and used a range of implements adapted to their environments. Recent estimates of the population at the time of British settlement range from 500,000 to one million.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [ 12598742, 210098, 94623, 312222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 80, 95 ], [ 124, 133 ], [ 138, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is considerable archaeological discussion as to the route taken by the first population. People appear to have arrived by sea during a period of glaciation, when New Guinea and Tasmania were joined to the continent; however, the journey still required sea travel, making them among the world's earliest mariners. Scott Cane wrote in 2013 that the first wave may have been prompted by the eruption of Lake Toba. If they arrived about 70,000 years ago, they could have crossed the water from Timor, when the sea level was low, but if they came later, around 50,000 years ago, a more likely route would have been through the Moluccas to New Guinea. Given that the likely landfall regions have been under approximately 50 metres of water for the past 15,000 years, it is unlikely that the timing will ever be established with certainty.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [ 20611456, 29944, 20611325, 41610449, 186406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 178 ], [ 183, 191 ], [ 211, 220 ], [ 319, 329 ], [ 394, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The oldest known sites of human occupation in Australia are in Arnhem Land in the north of the continent and have been dated to between 50,000 and 65,000 BP. The population spread into a range of very different environments. Devil's Lair in the extreme south-west of the continent was occupied around 47,000 BP and Tasmania by 39,000 BP. The earliest known human remains in Australia, found at Lake Mungo, a dry lake in the southwest of New South Wales, are about 40,000 years old. Remains found at Mungo suggest one of the world's oldest known cremations, thus indicating early evidence for religious ritual among humans.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [ 632126, 8934486, 30860272, 30860272, 175142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 74 ], [ 225, 237 ], [ 342, 370 ], [ 394, 404 ], [ 545, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The spread of the population also altered the environment. There is evidence of the deliberate use of fire to shape the Australian environment 46,000 years ago. In many parts of Australia, firestick farming was used to clear vegetation to make travel easier, drive animals into ambushes, and create open grasslands rich in animal and vegetable food sources. More than 60 species of animals, including Australian megafauna, became extinct by 10,000 ago. Researchers have variously attributed these extinctions to human hunting and firing practices, climate change or a combination of these factors.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [ 2209603, 1100954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 206 ], [ 401, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The inhabitants developed other technologies to better exploit diverse environments. Fibre and nets for use in watercraft and fishing developed before 40,000 BP. More complex tools, such as edge-ground axes hafted to wooden handles, appeared by 35,000 BP. Elaborate trade networks also developed. Ochre was transported 250 kilometres from the Barrier Range to Lake Mungo 40,000 years ago. Shells (for decorative beads) were transported 500 kilometres by 30,000 BP. More extensive trade networks developed in later times.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest Aboriginal rock art consists of hand-prints, hand-stencils, and engravings of circles, tracks, lines and cupules, and has been dated to 35,000 years ago. Around 20,000 year ago Aboriginal artists were depicting humans and animals. However, the dating is contentious and some researchers believe that known examples of Aboriginal rock art are possibly more recent.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [ 312222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Aboriginal population was confronted with significant changes to climate and environment. About 30,000 years ago, sea levels began to fall, temperatures in the south-east of the continent dropped by as much as 9 degrees Celsius, and the interior of Australia became more arid. About 20,000 years ago, New Guinea and Tasmania were connected to the Australian continent, which was more than a quarter larger than today.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "About 19,000 years ago temperatures and sea levels began to rise. Tasmania became separated from the mainland some 14,000 years ago, and between 8,000 and 6,000 years ago thousands of islands in the Torres Strait and around the coast of Australia were formed. Josephine Flood writes that the flooding and loss of land as coastlines receded might have led to greater emphasis on territorial boundaries separating groups, stronger clan identity, and the development of the Rainbow Serpent and other mythologies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The warmer climate was associated with new technologies. Small back-bladed stone tools appeared 15–19 thousand years ago. Wooden javelins and boomerangs have been found dating from 10,000 years ago. Stone points for spears have been found dating from 5–7 thousand years ago. Spear throwers were probably developed more recently than 6,500 years ago.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sea levels stabilised at around their current level about 6,500 years ago. Warmer weather, wetter conditions and the new coastlines led to significant changes in Aboriginal social and economic organisation. New coastal societies emerged around tidal reefs, estuaries and flooded river valleys, and coastal islands were incorporated into local economies. There was a proliferation of stone tool, plant processing and landscape modification technologies. Elaborate fish and eel traps involving channels up to three kilometres long were in use in western Victoria from about 6,500 years ago. Semi-permanent collections of wooden huts on mounds also appeared in western Victoria, associated with a more systematic exploitation of new food sources in the wetlands.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aboriginal Tasmanians were isolated from the mainland from about 14,000 years ago. As a result, they only possessed one quarter of the tools and equipment of the adjacent mainland and were without hafted axes, grinding technology, stone tipped weapons, spear throwers and the boomerang. By 3,700 BP they had ceased to eat fish and use bone tools. Coastal Tasmanians switched from fish to abalone and crayfish and more Tasmanians moved to the interior. The Tasmanians built watercraft from reeds and bark and journeyed up to 10 kilometres offshore to visit islands and hunt for seals and muttonbirds.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Around 4,000 years ago the first phase of occupation of the Torres Strait Islands began. By 2,500 years ago more of the islands were occupied and a distinctive Torres Strait Island maritime culture emerged. Agriculture also developed on some islands and by 700 years ago villages appeared.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One genetic study in 2012 has suggested that about 4,000 years ago, some Indian explorers settled in Australia and assimilated into the local population. However, more recent studies do not support this view.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nevertheless, some innovations were imported to the mainland from neighbouring cultures. The dingo was introduced about 4,000 years ago. Shell fish hooks appeared in Australia about 1,200 years ago and were probably introduced from the Torres Strait or by Polynesian seafarers. From the mid-1660s fishing vessels from Indonesia regularly visited the north coast of Australia in search of trepang (sea cucumber). Trade and social relationships developed which were reflected in Aboriginal art, ceremonies and oral traditions. Aboriginal people adopted dugout canoes and metal harpoon heads from the Indonesians which allowed them to better hunt dugong and turtle off the coast and nearby islands.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [ 62893, 8582692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 98 ], [ 388, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite these interactions with neighbouring cultures, the basic structure of Aboriginal society was unchanged. Family groups were joined in bands and clans averaging about 25 people, each with a defined territory for foraging. Clans were attached to tribes or nations, associated with particular languages and country. At the time of European contact there were about 600 tribes or nations and 250 distinct languages with various dialects.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aboriginal society was egalitarian with no formal government or chiefs. Authority rested with elders who held extensive ritual knowledge gained over many years. Group decisions were generally made through the consensus of elders. The traditional economy was cooperative, with males generally hunting large game while females gathered local staples such as small animals, shellfish, vegetables, fruits, seeds and nuts. Food was shared within groups and exchanged across groups.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aboriginal groups were semi-nomadic, generally ranging over a specific territory defined by natural features. Members of a group would enter the territory of another group through rights established by marriage and kinship or by invitation for specific purposes such as ceremonies and sharing abundant seasonal foods. As all natural features of the land were created by ancestral beings, a group's particular country provided physical and spiritual nourishment.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Australian Aboriginal mythology and the animist framework developed in Aboriginal Australia, the Dreaming is a sacred era in which ancestral totemic spirit beings formed The Creation. The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [ 94155, 1423, 94623, 12178732, 340304, 7322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 44 ], [ 53, 60 ], [ 110, 118 ], [ 124, 130 ], [ 154, 159 ], [ 183, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The extent to which some Aboriginal societies were agricultural is controversial. In the Lake Condah region of western Victoria the inhabitants built elaborate eel and fish traps and hundreds gathered in semi-permanent stone and bark huts during the eel season. However, these groups still moved across their territory several times a year to exploit other seasonal food sources. In semi-arid areas, millet was harvested, stacked and threshed and the seeds stored for later use. In tropical areas the tops of yams were replanted. Flood argues that such practices are better classified as resource management than agriculture and that Aboriginal societies did not develop the systematic cultivation of crops or permanent villages such as existed in the Torres Strait Islands. Elizabeth Williams has called the inhabitants of the more settled regions of the Murray valley \"complex hunter gatherers\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Indigenous prehistory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although a theory of Portuguese discovery in the 1520s exists, it lacks definitive evidence. The Dutch East India Company ship, Duyfken, captained by Willem Janszoon, made the first documented European landing in Australia in 1606. That same year, a Spanish expedition sailing in nearby waters and led by Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós had landed in the New Hebrides and, believing them to be the fabled southern continent, named the land \"Austrialia del Espiritu Santo\" (Southern Land of the Holy Spirit), in honour of his queen Margaret of Austria, the wife of Philip III of Spain. Later that year, Queirós' deputy Luís Vaz de Torres sailed to the north of Australia through Torres Strait, along New Guinea's southern coast.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early European exploration", "target_page_ids": [ 2331488, 42737, 412149, 601774, 318031, 222767, 2247325, 146843, 22933238, 317505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 41 ], [ 97, 121 ], [ 128, 135 ], [ 150, 165 ], [ 326, 352 ], [ 371, 383 ], [ 547, 566 ], [ 580, 599 ], [ 634, 652 ], [ 694, 707 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Dutch contributed a great deal to Europe's knowledge of Australia's coast. In 1616, Dirk Hartog, sailing off course, en route from the Cape of Good Hope to Batavia, landed on an island off Shark Bay, Western Australia. In 1622–23 the ship Leeuwin made the first recorded rounding of the southwest corner of the continent, where Cape Leeuwin was later named after her (the name of the ship's captain is lost).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early European exploration", "target_page_ids": [ 318138, 44252, 354064, 421247, 15498328, 1939539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 99 ], [ 139, 156 ], [ 160, 167 ], [ 193, 202 ], [ 244, 251 ], [ 333, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1627, the south coast of Australia was accidentally discovered by François Thijssen and named t Land van Pieter Nuyts, in honour of the highest ranking passenger, Pieter Nuyts, extraordinary Councillor of India. In 1628, a squadron of Dutch ships was sent by the Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies Pieter de Carpentier to explore the northern coast. These ships made extensive examinations, particularly in the Gulf of Carpentaria, named in honour of de Carpentier.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early European exploration", "target_page_ids": [ 3853004, 2665125, 35281245, 3936540, 608685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 86 ], [ 166, 178 ], [ 266, 307 ], [ 308, 328 ], [ 421, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abel Tasman's voyage of 1642 was the first known European expedition to reach Van Diemen's Land (later Tasmania) and New Zealand, and to sight Fiji. On his second voyage of 1644, he also contributed significantly to the mapping of the Australian mainland (which he called New Holland), making observations on the land and people of the north coast below New Guinea.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early European exploration", "target_page_ids": [ 1988, 32581, 29944, 4913064, 10707, 1937465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 78, 95 ], [ 103, 111 ], [ 117, 128 ], [ 143, 147 ], [ 273, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following Tasman's voyages, the Dutch were able to make almost complete maps of Australia's northern and western coasts and much of its southern and south-eastern Tasmanian coasts, as reflected in the 1648 map by Joan Blaeu, Nova et Accuratissima Terrarum Orbis Tabula.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early European exploration", "target_page_ids": [ 5418315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Dampier, an English buccaneer and explorer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688 and again in 1699, and published influential descriptions of the Aboriginal people.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early European exploration", "target_page_ids": [ 300068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1769, Lieutenant James Cook in command of , travelled to Tahiti to observe and record the transit of Venus. Cook also carried secret Admiralty instructions to locate the supposed Southern Continent. This continent was not found, a disappointment to Alexander Dalrymple and his fellow members of the Royal Society who had urged the Admiralty to undertake this mission. Cook decided to survey the east coast of New Holland, the only major part of that continent that had not been charted by Dutch navigators.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early European exploration", "target_page_ids": [ 15630, 65153, 632331, 46760, 1749962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ], [ 60, 66 ], [ 93, 109 ], [ 182, 200 ], [ 252, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 19 April 1770 the Endeavour reached the east coast of New Holland and ten days later anchored at Botany Bay. Cook charted the coast to its northern extent and formally took possession of the east coast of New Holland on 21/22 August 1770 when on Possession Island off the west coast of Cape York Peninsula.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early European exploration", "target_page_ids": [ 2496566, 103462, 481294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 110 ], [ 249, 266 ], [ 289, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He noted in his journal that he could \"land no more upon this Eastern coast of New Holland, and on the Western side I can make no new discovery the honour of which belongs to the Dutch Navigators and as such they may lay Claim to it as their property [italicised words crossed out in the original] but the Eastern Coast from the Latitude of 38 South down to this place I am confident was never seen or viseted by any European before us and therefore by the same Rule belongs to great Brittan\" [italicised words crossed out in the original].", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early European exploration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In March 1772 Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne, in command of two French ships, reached Van Diemen's land on his way to Tahiti and the South Seas. His party became the first recorded Europeans to encounter the Indigenous Tasmanians and to kill one of them.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early European exploration", "target_page_ids": [ 650126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the same year, a French expedition led by Louis Aleno de St Aloüarn, became the first Europeans to formally claim sovereignty over the west coast of Australia, but no attempt was made to follow this with colonisation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early European exploration", "target_page_ids": [ 27890122, 33613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 70 ], [ 138, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although various proposals for the colonisation of Australia were made prior to 1788, none were attempted. In 1717, Jean-Pierre Purry sent a plan to the Dutch East India Company for the colonisation of an area in modern South Australia. The company rejected the plan with the comment that, \"There is no prospect of use or benefit to the Company in it, but rather very certain and heavy costs\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 64591904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In contrast, Emanuel Bowen, in 1747, promoted the benefits of exploring and colonising the country, writing:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 31600737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Harris' Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca, or Voyages and Travels (1744–1748, 1764) recommended exploration of the east coast of New Holland, with a view to a British colonisation, by way of Abel Tasman's route to Van Diemen's Land.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "John Callander put forward a proposal in 1766 for Britain to found a colony of banished convicts in the South Sea or in Terra Australis to enable the mother country to exploit the riches of those regions. He said: \"this world must present us with many things entirely new, as hitherto we have had little more knowledge of it, than if it had lain in another planet\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 40854040, 46760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 120, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sweden's King Gustav III had ambitions to establish a colony for his country at the Swan River in 1786 but the plan was stillborn.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 23686385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sixteen years after Cook's landfall on the east coast of Australia, the British government decided to establish a colony at Botany Bay.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 2496566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) saw Britain lose most of its North American colonies and consider establishing replacement territories. Britain had transported about 50,000 convicts to the New World from 1718 to 1775 and was now searching for an alternative. The temporary solution of floating prison hulks had reached capacity and was a public health hazard, while the option of building more jails and workhouses was deemed too expensive.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1779, Sir Joseph Banks, the eminent scientist who had accompanied James Cook on his 1770 voyage, recommended Botany Bay as a suitable site for a penal settlement. Banks's plan was to send 200 to 300 convicts to Botany Bay where they could be left to their own devices and not be a burden on the British taxpayer.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 39657, 15630, 2496566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 25 ], [ 69, 79 ], [ 112, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under Banks's guidance, the American Loyalist James Matra, who had also travelled with Cook, produced a new plan for colonising New South Wales in 1783. Matra argued that the country was suitable for plantations of sugar, cotton and tobacco; New Zealand timber and hemp or flax could prove valuable commodities; it could form a base for Pacific trade; and it could be a suitable compensation for displaced American Loyalists. Following an interview with Secretary of State Lord Sydney in 1784, Matra amended his proposal to include convicts as settlers, considering that this would benefit both \"Economy to the Publick, & Humanity to the Individual\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 219394, 33343002, 317487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 45 ], [ 46, 57 ], [ 473, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The London newspapers announced in November 1784 that: \"A plan has been presented to the [Prime] Minister, and is now before the Cabinet, for instituting a new colony in New Holland. In this vast tract of land....every sort of produce and improvement of which the various soils of the earth are capable, may be expected\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The major alternative to Botany Bay was sending convicts to Africa. From 1775 convicts had been sent to garrison British forts in west Africa, but the experiment had proved unsuccessful. In 1783, the Pitt government considered exiling convicts to a small river island in Gambia where they could form a self-governing community, a \"colony of thieves\", at no expense to the government.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1785, a parliamentary select committee chaired by Lord Beauchamp recommended against the Gambia plan, but failed to endorse the alternative of Botany Bay. In a second report, Beauchamp recommended a penal settlement at Das Voltas Bay in modern Namibia. The plan was dropped, however, when an investigation of the site in 1786 found it to be unsuitable. Two weeks later, In August 1786, the Pitt government announced its intention to send convicts to Botany Bay. The Government incorporated the settlement of Norfolk Island into their plan, with its attractions of timber and flax, proposed by Banks's Royal Society colleagues, Sir John Call and Sir George Young.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 21422, 19369616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 511, 525 ], [ 630, 643 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There has been a longstanding debate over whether the key consideration in the decision to establish a penal colony at Botany Bay was the pressing need to find a solution to the penal management problem, or whether broader imperial goals — such as trade, securing new supplies of timber and flax for the navy, and the desirability of strategic ports in the region — were paramount. Leading historians in the debate have included Sir Ernest Scott, Geoffrey Blainey, and Alan Frost.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 5594733, 1653654, 23745933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 429, 445 ], [ 447, 463 ], [ 469, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The decision to settle was taken when it seemed the outbreak of civil war in the Netherlands might precipitate a war in which Britain would be again confronted with the alliance of the three naval Powers, France, Holland and Spain, which had brought her to defeat in 1783. Under these circumstances a naval base in New South Wales which could facilitate attacks on Dutch and Spanish interests in the region would be attractive. Specific plans for using the colony as a strategic base against Spanish interests were occasionally made after 1788, but never implemented.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Macintyre argues that the evidence for a military-strategic motive in establishing the colony is largely circumstantial and hard to reconcile with the strict ban on establishing a shipyard in the colony. Karskens points out that the instructions provided to the first five governors of New South Wales show that the initial plans for the colony were limited. The settlement was to be a self-sufficient penal colony based on subsistence agriculture. Trade, shipping and ship building were banned in order to keep the convicts isolated and so as not to interfere with the trade monopoly of the British East India Company. There was no plan for economic development apart from investigating the possibility of producing raw materials for Britain. Christopher and Maxwell-Stewart argue that whatever the government's original motives were in establishing the colony, by the 1790s it had at least achieved the imperial objective of providing a harbour where vessels could be careened and resupplied.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 43281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 593, 619 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The territory of New South Wales claimed by Britain included all of Australia eastward of the meridian of 135° East. This included more than half of mainland Australia and reflected the line of division between the claims of Spain and Portugal established in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. Watkin Tench subsequently commented in A Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay, \"By this partition, it may be fairly presumed, that every source of future litigation between the Dutch and us, will be for ever cut off, as the discoveries of English navigators only are comprized in this territory\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 73591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The claim also included \"all the Islands adjacent in the Pacific\" between the latitudes of Cape York and the southern tip of Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania). King argues that an unofficial British map published in 1786 (A General Chart of New Holland) showed the possible extend of this claim. In 1817, the British government withdrew the extensive territorial claim over the South Pacific, passing an act specifying that Tahiti, New Zealand and other islands of the South Pacific were not within His Majesty's dominions. However, it is unclear whether the claim ever extended to the current islands of New Zealand.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 481294, 32581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 100 ], [ 125, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The colony of New South Wales was established with the arrival of the First Fleet of 11 vessels under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip in January 1788. It consisted of more than a thousand settlers, including 778 convicts (192 women and 586 men). A few days after arrival at Botany Bay the fleet moved to the more suitable Port Jackson where a settlement was established at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788. This date later became Australia's national day, Australia Day. The colony was formally proclaimed by Governor Phillip on 7 February 1788 at Sydney. Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and a safe harbour, which Philip described as being, 'with out exception the finest Harbour in the World [...] Here a Thousand Sail of the Line may ride in the most perfect Security'.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 1275854, 70061, 2563, 2496566, 297385, 317451, 21281411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ], [ 70, 81 ], [ 125, 139 ], [ 280, 290 ], [ 328, 340 ], [ 379, 390 ], [ 460, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Governor Phillip was vested with complete authority over the inhabitants of the colony. His personal intent was to establish harmonious relations with local Aboriginal people and try to reform as well as discipline the convicts of the colony. Phillip and several of his officers—most notably Watkin Tench—left behind journals and accounts of which tell of immense hardships during the first years of settlement. Often Phillip's officers despaired for the future of New South Wales. Early efforts at agriculture were fraught and supplies from overseas were scarce. Between 1788 and 1792 about 3546 male and 766 female convicts were landed at Sydney. Many new arrivals were sick or unfit for work and the conditions of healthy convicts only deteriorated with hard labour and poor sustenance in the settlement. The food situation reached crisis point in 1790 and the Second Fleet which finally arrived in June 1790 had lost a quarter of its 'passengers' through sickness, while the condition of the convicts of the Third Fleet appalled Phillip; however, from 1791 the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of trade lessened the feeling of isolation and improved supplies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 354730, 1712490, 3077251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 292, 304 ], [ 864, 876 ], [ 1012, 1023 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1788, Phillip established a subsidiary settlement on Norfolk Island in the South Pacific where he hoped to obtain timber and flax for the navy. The island, however, had no safe harbour, which led the settlement to be abandoned and the settlers evacuated to Tasmania in 1807. The island was subsequently re-established as a site for secondary transportation in 1825.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 21422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Phillip sent exploratory missions in search of better soils, fixed on the Parramatta region as a promising area for expansion, and moved many of the convicts from late 1788 to establish a small township, which became the main centre of the colony's economic life. This left Sydney Cove only as an important port and focus of social life. Poor equipment and unfamiliar soils and climate continued to hamper the expansion of farming from Farm Cove to Parramatta and Toongabbie, but a building program, assisted by convict labour, advanced steadily. Between 1788 and 1792, convicts and their gaolers made up the majority of the population; however, a free population soon began to grow, consisting of emancipated convicts, locally born children, soldiers whose military service had expired and, finally, free settlers from Britain. Governor Phillip departed the colony for England on 11 December 1792, with the new settlement having survived near starvation and immense isolation for four years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 160458, 1635271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 84 ], [ 464, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of foreign commentators pointed to the strategic importance of the new colony. Spanish naval commander Alessandro Malaspina, who visited Sydney in March–April 1793 reported to his government that: \"The transportation of the convicts constituted the means and not the object of the enterprise. The extension of dominion, mercantile speculations and the discovery of mines were the real object.\" Frenchman François Péron, of the Baudin expedition visited Sydney in 1802 and reported to the French Government: \"How can it be conceived that such a monstrous invasion was accomplished, with no complaint in Europe to protest against it? How can it be conceived that Spain, who had previously raised so many objections opposing the occupation of the Malouines (Falkland Islands), meekly allowed a formidable empire to arise to facing her richest possessions, an empire which must either invade or liberate them?\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 1211558, 849328, 397292, 7550182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 132 ], [ 413, 427 ], [ 436, 453 ], [ 764, 780 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "King points out that supporters of the penal colony frequently compared the venture to the foundation of Rome, and that the first Great Seal of New South Wales alluded to this. Phillip, however, wrote, \"I would not wish Convicts to lay the foundations of an Empire...[.]\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After the departure of Phillip, the colony's military officers began acquiring land and importing consumer goods obtained from visiting ships. Former convicts also farmed land granted to them and engaged in trade. Farms spread to the more fertile lands surrounding Paramatta, Windsor and Camden, and by 1803 the colony was self-sufficient in grain. Boat building developed in order to make travel easier and exploit the marine resources of the coastal settlements. Sealing and whaling became important industries.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 160458, 716932, 785980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 265, 274 ], [ 276, 283 ], [ 288, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The New South Wales Corps was formed in England in 1789 as a permanent regiment of the British Army to relieve the marines who had accompanied the First Fleet. Officers of the Corps soon became involved in the corrupt and lucrative rum trade in the colony. Governor William Bligh (1806 - 1808) tried to suppress the rum trade and the illegal use of Crown Land, resulting in the Rum Rebellion of 1808. The Corps, working closely with the newly established wool trader John Macarthur, staged the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history, deposing Bligh and instigating a brief period of military rule prior to the arrival from Britain of Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 556712, 64241710, 33900, 52741, 1701995, 323691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 87, 99 ], [ 266, 279 ], [ 378, 391 ], [ 467, 481 ], [ 671, 688 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Macquarie served as the last autocratic Governor of New South Wales, from 1810 to 1821, and had a leading role in the social and economic development of New South Wales which saw it transition from a penal colony to a budding civil society. He established a bank, a currency and a hospital. He employed a planner to design the street layout of Sydney and commissioned the construction of roads, wharves, churches, and public buildings. He sent explorers out from Sydney and, in 1815, a road across the Blue Mountains was completed, opening the way for large scale farming and grazing in the lightly-wooded pastures west of the Great Dividing Range.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 12850, 146909, 62579, 55033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 67 ], [ 200, 212 ], [ 502, 516 ], [ 627, 647 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Central to Macquarie's policy was his treatment of the emancipists, whom he considered should be treated as social equals to free-settlers in the colony. He appointed emancipists to key government positions including Francis Greenway as colonial architect and William Redfern as a magistrate. His policy on emancipists was opposed by many influential free settlers, officers and officials, and London became concerned at the cost of his public works. In 1819, London appointed J. T. Bigge to conduct an inquiry into the colony, and Macquarie resigned shortly before the report of the inquiry was published.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 2276845, 756462, 1084947, 2836267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 65 ], [ 217, 233 ], [ 260, 275 ], [ 477, 488 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1820, British settlement was largely confined to a 100 kilometre radius around Sydney and to the central plain of Van Diemen's land. The settler population was 26,000 on the mainland and 6,000 in Van Diemen's Land. Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 the transportation of convicts increased rapidly and the number of free settlers grew steadily. From 1821 to 1840, 55,000 convicts arrived in New South Wales and 60,000 in Van Diemen's Land. However, by 1830, free settlers and the locally born exceeded the convict population of New South Wales.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From the 1820s squatters increasingly established unauthorised cattle and sheep runs beyond the official limits of the settled colony. In 1836, a system of annual licences authorising grazing on Crown Land was introduced in an attempt to control the pastoral industry, but booming wool prices and the high cost of land in the settled areas encouraged further squatting. By 1844 wool accounted for half of the colony's exports and by 1850 most of the eastern third of New South Wales was controlled by fewer than 2,000 pastoralists.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 8309882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1825, the western boundary of New South Wales was extended to longitude 129° East, which is the current boundary of Western Australia. As a result, the territory of New South Wales reached its greatest extent, covering the area of the modern state as well as modern Queensland, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and the Northern Territory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By 1850 the settler population of New South Wales had grown to 180,000, not including the 70–75 thousand living in the area which became the separate colony of Victoria in 1851.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After hosting Nicholas Baudin's French naval expedition in Sydney in 1802, Governor Phillip Gidley King decided to establish a settlement in Van Diemen's Land (modern Tasmania) in 1803, partly to forestall a possible French settlement. The British settlement of the island soon centred on Launceston in the north and Hobart in the south. For the first two decades the settlement relied heavily on convict labour, small-scale farming and sheep grazing, sealing, whaling and the \"dog and kangaroo\" economy where emancipists and escaped convicts hunted native game with guns and dogs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 7922134, 297832, 32581, 29944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 31 ], [ 85, 104 ], [ 142, 159 ], [ 168, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the 1820s free settlers were encouraged by the offer of land grants in proportion to the capital the settlers would bring. Almost 2 million acres of land was granted to free settlers in the decade, and the number of sheep in the island increased from 170,000 to a million. The land grants created a social division between large landowners and a majority of landless convicts and emancipists.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Van Diemen's Land became a separate colony from New South Wales in December 1825 and continued to expand through the 1830s, supported by farming, sheep grazing and whaling. Following the suspension of convict transportation to New South Wales in 1840, Van Diemen's land became the main destination for convicts. Transportation to Van Diemen's Land ended in 1853 and in 1856 the colony officially changed its name to Tasmania.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pastoralists from Van Diemen's land began squatting in the Port Phillip hinterland on the mainland in 1834, attracted by its rich grasslands. In 1835, John Batman and others negotiated the transfer of 100,000 acres of land from the Kulin people. However, the treaty was annulled the same year when the British Colonial Office issued the Proclamation of Governor Bourke stating that all unalienated land in the colony was vacant Crown Land, irrespective of whether it was occupied by traditional landowners. Its publication meant that from then, all people found occupying land without the authority of the government would be considered illegal trespassers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 268799, 734307, 18623222, 717069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 71 ], [ 151, 162 ], [ 310, 325 ], [ 353, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1836, Port Phillip was officially recognised as a district of New South Wales and opened for settlement. The main settlement of Melbourne was established in 1837 as a planned town on the instructions of Governor Bourke. Squatters and settlers from Van Diemen's Land and New South Wales soon arrived in large numbers, and by 1850 the district had a population of 75,000 Europeans, 2,000 Indigenous inhabitants and 5 million sheep. In 1851, the Port Phillip District separated from New South Wales as the colony of Victoria.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1826, the governor of New South Wales, Ralph Darling, sent a military garrison to King George Sound (the basis of the later town of Albany), to deter the French from establishing a settlement in Western Australia. In 1827, the head of the expedition, Major Edmund Lockyer, formally annexed the western third of the continent as a British colony.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 2199084, 1857897, 309294, 3692803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 55 ], [ 85, 102 ], [ 135, 141 ], [ 254, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1829, the Swan River colony was established at the sites of modern Fremantle and Perth, becoming the first convict-free and privatised colony in Australia. However, much of the arable land was allocated to absentee owners and the development of the colony was hampered by poor soil, the dry climate, and a lack of capital and labour. By 1850 there were a little more than 5,000 settlers, half of them children. The colony accepted convicts from that year because of the acute shortage of labour.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Province of South Australia was established in 1836 as a privately financed settlement based on the theory of \"systematic colonisation\" developed by Edward Gibbon Wakefield. The intention was to found a free colony based on private investment at little cost to the British government. Power was divided between the Crown and a Board of Commissioners of Colonisation, responsible to about 300 shareholders. Settlement was to be controlled to promote a balance between land, capital and labour. Convict labour was banned in the hope of making the colony more attractive to \"respectable\" families and promote an even balance between male and female settlers. The city of Adelaide was to be planned with a generous provision of churches, parks and schools. Land was to be sold at a uniform price and the proceeds used to secure an adequate supply of labour through selective assisted migration. Various religious, personal and commercial freedoms were guaranteed, and the Letters Patent enabling the South Australia Act 1834 included a guarantee of the rights of 'any Aboriginal Natives' and their descendants to lands they 'now actually occupied or enjoyed'.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 317365, 238216, 3177368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 176 ], [ 972, 986 ], [ 1000, 1024 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The colony was badly hit by the depression of 1841–44, and overproduction of wheat and overinvestment in infrastructure almost bankrupted it. Conflict with Indigenous traditional landowners also reduced the protections they had been promised. In 1842, the settlement became a Crown colony administered by the governor and an appointed Legislative Council. The economy recovered from 1845, supported by wheat farming, sheep grazing and a boom in copper mining. By 1850 the settler population had grown to 60,000 and the following year the colony achieved limited self-government with a partially elected Legislative Council.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1824, the Moreton Bay penal settlement was established on the site of present day Brisbane as a place of secondary punishment. In 1842, the penal colony was closed and the area was opened for free settlement. By 1850 the population of Brisbane had reached 8,000 and increasing numbers of pastoralists were grazing cattle and sheep in the Darling Downs west of the town. However, several attempts to establish settlements north of the Tropic of Capricorn had failed, and the settler population in the north remained small. Frontier violence between settlers and the Indigenous population became severe as pastoralism expanded north of the Tweed River.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 45582643, 192093, 718926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 41 ], [ 85, 93 ], [ 641, 652 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A series of disputes between northern pastoralists and the government in Sydney led to increasing demands from the northern settlers for separation from New South Wales. In 1857, the British government agreed to the separation and in 1859 the colony of Queensland was proclaimed. The settler population of the new colony was 25,000 and the vast majority of its territory was still occupied by its traditional owners.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1788 and 1868, approximately 161,700 convicts (of whom 25,000 were women) were transported to the Australian colonies of New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land and Western Australia. Historian Lloyd Robson has estimated that perhaps two-thirds were thieves from working class towns, particularly from the Midlands and north of England. The majority were repeat offenders. The literacy rate of convicts was above average and they brought a range of useful skills to the new colony including building, farming, sailing, fishing and hunting. The small number of free settlers meant that early governors also had to rely on convicts and emancipists for professions such as lawyers, architects, surveyors and teachers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 184077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 305, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first governors saw New South Wales as a place of punishment and reform of convicts. Convicts worked on government farms and public works such as land clearing and building. After 1792 the majority were assigned to work for private employers including emancipists (as transported convicts who had completed their sentence or had been pardoned called themselves). Emancipists were granted small plots of land for farming and a year of government rations. Later they were assigned convict labour to help them work their farms. Some convicts were assigned to military officers to run their businesses because the officers did not want to be directly associated with trade. These convicts learnt commercial skills which could help them work for themselves when their sentence ended or they were granted a \"ticket of leave\" (a form of parole).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Convicts soon established a system of piece work which allowed them to work for wages once their allocated tasks were completed. Due to the shortage of labour, wage rates before 1815 were high for male workers although much lower for females engaged in domestic work. In 1814, Governor Macquarie ordered that convicts had to work until 3 p.m. after which private employers had to pay them wages for any additional work.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By 1821 convicts, emancipists and their children owned two-thirds of the land under cultivation, half the cattle and one-third of the sheep. They also worked in trades and small business. Emancipists employed about half of the convicts assigned to private masters.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After 1815 wages and employment opportunities for convicts and emancipists deteriorated as a sharp increase in the number of convicts transported led to an oversupply of labour. A series of reforms recommended by J. T. Bigge in 1822 and 1823 also sought to change the nature of the colony and make transportation \"an object of real terror\". The food ration for convicts was cut and their opportunities to work for wages restricted. More convicts were assigned to rural work gangs, bureaucratic control and surveillance of convicts was made more systematic, isolated penal settlements were established as places of secondary punishment, the rules for tickets of leave were tightened, and land grants were skewed to favour free settlers with large capital. As a result, convicts who arrived after 1820 were far less likely to become property owners, to marry, and to establish families.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Bigge reforms also aimed to encourage affluent free settlers by offering them land grants for farming and grazing in proportion to their capital. From 1831 the colonies replaced land grants with land sales by auction at a fixed minimum price per acre, the proceeds being used to fund the assisted migration of workers. From 1821 to 1850 Australia attracted 200,000 immigrants from the United Kingdom. Although most immigrants settled in towns, many were attracted to the high wages and business opportunities available in rural areas. However, the system of land grants, and later land sales, led to the concentration of land in the hands of a small number of affluent settlers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Two-thirds of the migrants to Australia during this period received assistance from the British or colonial governments. Healthy young workers without dependants were favoured for assisted migration, especially those with experience as agricultural labourers or domestic workers. Families of convicts were also offered free passage and about 3,500 migrants were selected under the English Poor Laws. Various special-purpose and charitable schemes, such as those of Caroline Chisholm and John Dunmore Lang, also provided migration assistance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 204287, 492183, 1116031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 381, 398 ], [ 466, 483 ], [ 488, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Colonial Australia was characterised by an imbalance of the sexes as women comprised only about 15 per cent of convicts transported. The first female convicts brought a range of skills including experience as domestic workers, dairy women and farm workers. Due to the shortage of women in the colony they were more likely to marry than men and tended to choose older, skilled men with property as husbands. The early colonial courts enforced the property rights of women independently of their husbands, and the ration system also gave women and their children some protection from abandonment. Women were active in business and agriculture from the early years of the colony, among the most successful being the former convict turned entrepreneur Mary Reibey and the agriculturalist Elizabeth Macarthur. One-third of the shareholders of the first colonial bank (founded in 1817) were women.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 1822413, 5415484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 748, 759 ], [ 784, 803 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the goals of the assisted migration programs from the 1830s was to promote migration of women and families to provide a more even gender balance in the colonies. The philanthropist Caroline Chisholm established a shelter and labour exchange for migrant women in New South Wales in the 1840s and promoted the settlement of single and married women in rural areas where she hoped they would have a civilising influence on rough colonial manners and act as \"God's police\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1830 and 1850 the female proportion of the Australian settler population increased from 24 per cent to 41 per cent.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The early chaplains of the colony were also civil magistrates with the power to discipline convicts and grant tickets of leave. The Church of England was the only recognised church before 1820 and its clergy worked closely with the governors. Richard Johnson, (chief chaplain 17881802) was charged by Governor Arthur Phillip, with improving \"public morality\" in the colony and was also heavily involved in health and education. Samuel Marsden (various ministries 17951838) became known for his missionary work, the severity of his punishments as a magistrate, and the vehemence of his public denunciations of Catholicism and Irish convicts.About a quarter of convicts were Catholics and they frequently requested a Catholic priest to perform their rites. The lack of official recognition of Catholicism was combined with suspicion of Irish convicts which only increased after the Irish-led Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804. Only two Catholic priests operated temporarily in the colony before Governor Macquarie appointed official Catholic chaplains in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land in 1820.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 5955, 2523929, 2563, 1192370, 1847576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 149 ], [ 243, 258 ], [ 310, 324 ], [ 428, 442 ], [ 890, 911 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bigge reports recommended that the status of the Anglican Church be enhanced as source of stability and moral authority in the colony. An Anglican archdeacon was appointed in 1824 and allocated a seat in the first advisory Legislative Council. The Anglican clergy and schools also received state support. This policy was changed under Governor Burke by the Church Acts of 1836 and 1837. The government now provided state support for the clergy and church buildings of the four largest denominations: Anglican, Catholic, Presbyterian and, later, Methodist.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Church Acts did not alleviate sectarianism as many Anglicans saw state support of the Catholic Church as a threat. The prominent Presbyterian minister John Dunmore Lang also promoted sectarian divisions in the 1840s. State support, however, led to a growth in church activities. Charitable associations such as the Catholic Sisters of Charity, founded in 1838, provided hospitals, orphanages and asylums for the old and disabled. Religious organisations were also the main providers of school education in the first half of the nineteenth century, a notable example being Lang's Australian College which opened in 1831. Many religious associations, such as the Sisters of St Joseph, co-founded by Mary MacKillop in 1866, continued their educational activities after the provision of secular state schools grew from the 1850s.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 30889809, 2214932, 2060813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 328, 346 ], [ 665, 685 ], [ 701, 715 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1798–99 George Bass and Matthew Flinders set out from Sydney in a sloop and circumnavigated Tasmania, thus proving it to be an island. In 1801–02 Matthew Flinders in led the first circumnavigation of Australia. Aboard ship was the Aboriginal explorer Bungaree, of the Sydney district, who became the first person born on the Australian continent to circumnavigate the Australian continent.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 318185, 7722108, 29944, 3010729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 27, 43 ], [ 95, 103 ], [ 255, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1798, the former convict John Wilson and two companions crossed the Blue Mountains, west of Sydney, in an expedition ordered by Governor Hunter. Hunter suppressed news of the feat for fear that it would encourage convicts to abscond from the settlement. In 1813, Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Wentworth crossed the mountains by a different route and a road was soon built to the Central Tablelands.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 204365, 319443, 297951, 14431203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 266, 282 ], [ 284, 298 ], [ 303, 320 ], [ 397, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1824, the Governor Sir Thomas Brisbane, commissioned Hamilton Hume and former Royal Navy Captain William Hovell to lead an expedition to find new grazing land in the south of the colony, and also to find an answer to the mystery of where New South Wales' western rivers flowed. Over 16 weeks in 1824–25, Hume and Hovell journeyed to Port Phillip and back. They made many important discoveries including the Murray River (which they named the Hume), many of its tributaries, and good agricultural and grazing lands between Gunning, New South Wales and Corio Bay, Port Phillip.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 320928, 183371, 320939, 320941, 19811, 1624897, 536950, 268799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 41 ], [ 56, 69 ], [ 100, 114 ], [ 307, 332 ], [ 410, 422 ], [ 525, 549 ], [ 554, 563 ], [ 565, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles Sturt led an expedition along the Macquarie River in 1828 and discovered the Darling River. A theory had developed that the inland rivers of New South Wales were draining into an inland sea. Leading a second expedition in 1829, Sturt followed the Murrumbidgee River into a 'broad and noble river', which he named the Murray River. His party then followed this river to its junction with the Darling River. Sturt continued down river on to Lake Alexandrina, where the Murray meets the sea in South Australia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 321489, 593477, 321581, 321463, 321581, 717001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 42, 57 ], [ 85, 98 ], [ 255, 273 ], [ 399, 412 ], [ 447, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Surveyor General Sir Thomas Mitchell conducted a series of expeditions from the 1830s to 'fill in the gaps' left by these previous expeditions. Mitchell employed three Aboriginal guides and was meticulous in recording the Aboriginal place names around the colony. He also recorded a violent encounter with traditional owners on the Murray in 1836 in which his men pursued them, \"shooting as many as they could.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 321691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Polish scientist and explorer Count Paul Edmund Strzelecki conducted surveying work in the Australian Alps in 1839 and, led by his two Aboriginal guides Charlie Tarra and Jackie, became the first European to ascend Australia's highest peak, which he named Mount Kosciuszko in honour of the Polish patriot Tadeusz Kościuszko.European explorers penetrated deeper into the interior in the 1840s in a quest to discover new lands for agriculture or answer scientific enquiries. The German scientist Ludwig Leichhardt led three expeditions in northern Australia in this decade, sometimes with the help of Aboriginal guides, identifying the grazing potential of the region and making important discoveries in the fields of botany and geology. He and his party disappeared in 1848 while attempting to cross the continent from east to west. Edmund Kennedy led an expedition into what is now far-western Queensland in 1847 before being speared by Aborigines in the Cape York Peninsula in 1848.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 323082, 614012, 140362, 140367, 207212, 1219089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 62 ], [ 95, 110 ], [ 260, 276 ], [ 309, 327 ], [ 498, 515 ], [ 836, 850 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1860, Burke and Wills led the first south–north crossing of the continent from Melbourne to the Gulf of Carpentaria. Lacking bushcraft and unwilling to learn from the local Aboriginal people, Burke and Wills died in 1861, having returned from the Gulf to their rendezvous point at Coopers Creek only to discover the rest of their party had departed the location only a matter of hours previously. They became tragic heroes to the European settlers, their funeral attracting a crowd of more than 50,000 and their story inspiring numerous books, artworks, films and representations in popular culture.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 293128, 608685, 614075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 99, 118 ], [ 284, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1862, John McDouall Stuart succeeded in traversing Central Australia from south to north. His expedition mapped out the route which was later followed by the Australian Overland Telegraph Line.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 679420, 3262219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 29 ], [ 161, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The completion of the Overland Telegraph Line in 1872 was associated with further exploration of the Gibson Desert and the Nullarbor Plain. While exploring central Australia in 1872, Ernest Giles sighted Kata Tjuta from a location near Kings Canyon and called it Mount Olga. The following year Willian Gosse observed Uluru and named it Ayers Rock, in honour of the Chief Secretary of South Australia, Sir Henry Ayers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 1268406, 151976, 129977, 546746, 2822259, 5610521, 133260, 49349307, 1606515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 114 ], [ 123, 138 ], [ 183, 195 ], [ 204, 214 ], [ 236, 248 ], [ 294, 307 ], [ 317, 322 ], [ 365, 399 ], [ 405, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1879, Alexander Forrest trekked from the north coast of Western Australia to the Overland Telegraph, discovering land suitable for grazing in the Kimberley region.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 409230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the First Fleet arrived in Sydney Cove with some 1,300 colonists in January 1788 the Aboriginal population of the Sydney region is estimated to have been about 3,000 people. The first governor of New South Wales, Arthur Phillip, arrived with instructions to: \"endeavour by every possible means to open an Intercourse with the Natives and to conciliate their affections, enjoining all Our Subjects to live in amity and kindness with them.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 12850, 2563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 197 ], [ 218, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The relative isolation of the Indigenous population for some 60,000 years meant that they had little resistance to many introduced diseases. An outbreak of smallpox in April 1789 killed about half the Aboriginal population of the Sydney region while only one death was recorded among the settlers. The source of the outbreak is controversial; some researchers contend that it originated from contact with Indonesian fisherman in the far north and spread along Aboriginal trade routes while others argue that it is more likely to have been deliberately spread by settlers. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 2612879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 328, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were further smallpox outbreaks devastating Aboriginal populations from the late 1820s (affecting south-eastern Australia), in the early 1860s (travelling inland from the Coburg Peninsula in the north to the Great Australian Bight in the south), and in the late 1860s (from the Kimberley to Geraldton). According to Josphine Flood, the estimated Aboriginal mortality rate from smallpox was 60 per cent on first exposure, 50 per cent in the tropics, and 25 per cent in the arid interior. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other introduced diseases such as measles, influenza, typhoid and tuberculosis also resulted in high death rates in Aboriginal communities. Butlin estimates that the Aboriginal population in the area of modern Victoria was around 50,000 in 1788 before two smallpox outbreaks reduced it to about 12,500 in 1830. Between 1835 (the settlement of Port Phillip) and 1853, the Aboriginal population of Victoria fell from 10,000 to around 2,000. It is estimated that about 60 per cent of these deaths were from introduced diseases, 18 per cent from natural causes and 15 per cent from settler violence.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Venereal diseases were also a factor in Indigenous depopulation, reducing Aboriginal fertility rates in south-eastern Australia by an estimated 40 per cent by 1855. By 1890 up to 50 per cent of the Aboriginal population in some regions of Queensland were affected.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The British settlement was initially planned to be a self-sufficient penal colony based on agriculture. Karskens argues that conflict broke out between the settlers and the traditional owners of the land because of the settlers' assumptions about the superiority of British civilisation and their entitlement to land which they had \"improved\" through building and cultivation.<ref>Karskens, Grace (2013). \"The early colonial presence, 1788–1822\". In Bashford, Alison; MacIntyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.106. ISBN 9781107011533</bdi>.</ref>", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Broome argues that the British claims of exclusive possession to land and other property was irreconcilable with Aboriginal concepts of communal ownership of land and its food resources. Flood points out that conflict between British law and Aboriginal customary law was also a source of conflict; for example, Aboriginal groups considered they had a right to hunt all animals on their traditional land whereas British settlers considered the killing of their livestock as poaching. Conflict also arose from cross-cultural misunderstandings and from reprisals for previous actions such as the kidnapping of Aboriginal men, women and children. Reprisal attacks and collective punishments were perpetrated by colonists and Aboriginal groups alike. Sustained Aboriginal attacks on settlers, the burning of crops and the mass killing of livestock were more obviously acts of resistance to the loss of traditional land and food resources.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As the colony spread to the more fertile lands around the Hawkesbury river, north-west of Sydney, conflict between the settlers and the Darug people intensified, reaching a peak from 1794 to 1810. Bands of Darug people, led by Pemulwuy and later by his son Tedbury, burned crops, killed livestock and raided settler huts and stores in a pattern of resistance that was to be repeated as the colonial frontier expanded. A military garrison was established on the Hawkesbury in 1795. The death toll from 1794 to 1800 was 26 settlers and up to 200 Darug.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 1051506, 1593664, 42041117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 141 ], [ 227, 235 ], [ 257, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conflict again erupted from 1814 to 1816 with the expansion of the colony into Dharawal country in the Nepean region south-west of Sydney. Following the deaths of several settlers, Governor Macquarie despatched three military detachments into Dharawal lands, culminating in the Appin massacre (April 1816) in which at least 14 Aboriginal people were killed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 9050945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1820s the colony spread to the lightly-wooded pastures west of the Great Dividing Range, opening the way for large scale farming and grazing in Wiradjuri country. From 1822 to 1824 Windradyne led a group of 50-100 Aboriginal men in raids on livestock and stockmen's huts resulting in the death of 15-20 colonists. Martial law was declared in August 1824 and ended five months later when Windradyne and 260 of his followers ended their armed resistance. Estimates of Aboriginal deaths in the conflict range from 15 to 100.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 55033, 70161, 6861664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 94 ], [ 151, 160 ], [ 188, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After two decades of sporadic violence between settlers and Aboriginal Tasmanians in Van Diemen's land, the Black War broke out in 1824, following a rapid expansion of settler numbers and sheep grazing in the island's interior. When Eumarrah, leader of the North Midlands people, was captured in 1828 he said his patriotic duty was to kill as many white people as possible because they had driven his people off their kangaroo hunting grounds. Martial law was declared in the settled districts of Van Diemen's Land in November 1828 and was extended to the entire island in October 1830. A \"Black Line\" of around 2,200 troops and settlers then swept the island with the intention of driving the Aboriginal population from the settled districts. From 1830 to 1834 George Augustus Robinson and Aboriginal ambassadors including Truganini led a series of \"Friendly Missions\" to the Aboriginal tribes which effectively ended the Black War. Flood states that around 200 settler and 330 Aboriginal Tasmanian deaths in frontier violence were recorded during the period 1803 to 1834, but adds that it will never be known how many Aboriginal deaths went unreported. Clements estimates that colonists killed 600 Aboriginal people in eastern Van Diemen's Land during the Black War. Around 220 Aboriginal Tasmanians were eventually relocated to Flinders Island.As settlers and pastoralists spread into the region of modern Victoria in the 1830s, competition for land and natural resources again sparked conflict with traditional landowners. Aboriginal resistance was so intense that it was not unusual for sheep runs to be abandoned after repeated attacks. Broome estimates that 80 settlers and 1,000–1,500 Aboriginal people died in frontier conflict in Victoria from 1835 to 1853.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 491487, 60624409, 488139, 462159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 117 ], [ 233, 241 ], [ 764, 788 ], [ 826, 835 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The growth of the Swan River Colony (centred on Fremantle and Perth) in the 1830s led to conflict with a number of clans of the Noongar people. Governor Sterling established a mounted police force in 1834 and in October that year he led a mixed force of soldiers, mounted police and civilians in a punitive expedition against the Pindjarup. The expedition culminated in the Pinjarra massacre in which some 15 to 30 Aboriginal people were killed. According to Neville Green, 30 settlers and 121 Aboriginal people died in violent conflict in Western Australia between 1826 and 1852.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 5660958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 374, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The spread of sheep and cattle grazing in grasslands and semi-arid regions of Australia after 1850 brought further conflict with Aboriginal tribes more distant from the closely settled areas. Aboriginal casualty rates in conflicts increased as the colonists made greater use of mounted police, Native Police units, and newly developed revolvers and breech-loaded guns. Civilian colonists often launched punitive raids against Aboriginal groups without the knowledge of colonial authorities. Conflict was particularly intense in NSW in the 1840s and in Queensland from 1860 to 1880. In central Australia, it is estimated that 650 to 850 Aboriginal people, out of a population of 4,500, were killed by colonists from 1860 to 1895. In the Gulf Country of northern Australia five settlers and 300 Aboriginal people were killed before 1886. The last recorded massacre of Aboriginal people by settlers was at Coniston in the Northern Territory in 1928 where at least 31 Aboriginal people were killed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 9592274, 2953244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 294, 307 ], [ 903, 911 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The spread of British settlement also led to an increase in inter-tribal Aboriginal conflict as more people were forced off their traditional lands into the territory of other, often hostile, tribes. Butlin estimated that of the 8,000 Aboriginal deaths in Victoria from 1835 to 1855, 200 were from inter-tribal violence.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Broome estimates the total death toll from settler-Aboriginal conflict between 1788 and 1928 as 1,700 settlers and 17–20,000 Aboriginal people. Reynolds has suggested a higher \"guesstimate\" of 3,000 settlers and up to 30,000 Aboriginals killed. A project team at the University of Newcastle, Australia, has reached a preliminary estimate of 8,270 Aboriginal deaths in frontier massacres from 1788 to 1930.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the first two years of settlement the Aboriginal people of Sydney, after initial curiosity, mostly avoided the newcomers. Governor Phillip had a number of Aboriginal people kidnapped in an attempt to learn their language and customs. One of these, Bennelong, led the survivors of several clans into Sydney in November 1790, 18 months after the smallpox epidemic that had devastated the Aboriginal population. Bungaree, a Kuringgai man, joined Matthew Flinders in his circumnavigation of Australia from 1801 to 1803, playing an important role as emissary to the various Indigenous peoples they encountered.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [ 62822, 3010729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 260 ], [ 412, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Governor Macquarie hoped to \"effect the civilization of the Aborigines\" and reclaim them \"from their barbarous practices\". In 1815, he established a Native Institution to provide elementary education to Aboriginal children, settled 15 Aboriginal families on farms in Sydney and made the first freehold land grant to Aboriginal people at Black Town, west of Sydney. In 1816, he initiated an annual Native Feast at Parramatta which attracted Aboriginal people from as far as the Bathurst plains. However, by the 1820s the Native Institution and Aboriginal farms had failed. Aboriginal people continued to live on vacant waterfront land and on the fringes of the Sydney settlement, adapting traditional practices to the new semi-urban environment.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Escalating frontier conflict in the 1820s and 1830s saw colonial governments develop a number of policies aimed at protecting Aboriginal people. Protectors of Aborigines were appointed in South Australia and the Port Phillip District in 1839, and in Western Australia in 1840. While the aim was to extend the protection of British law to Aboriginal people, more often the result was an increase in their criminalisation. Protectors were also responsible for the distribution of rations, delivering elementary education to Aboriginal children, instruction in Christianity and training in occupations useful to the colonists. However, by 1857 the protection offices had been closed due to their cost and failure to meets their goals.Colonial governments established a small number of reserves and encouraged Christian missions which afforded some protection from frontier violence. In 1825, the NSW governor granted 10,000 acres for an Aboriginal mission at Lake Macquarie. In the 1830s and early 1840s there were also missions in the Wellington Valley, Port Phillip and Moreton Bay. The settlement for Aboriginal Tasmanians on Flinders Island operated effectively as a mission under George Robinson from 1835 to 1838.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In New South Wales, 116 Aboriginal reserves were established between 1860 and 1894. Most reserves allowed Aboriginal people a degree of autonomy and freedom to enter and leave. In contrast, the Victorian Board for the Protection of Aborigines (created in 1869) had extensive power to regulate the employment, education and place of residence of Aboriginal Victorians, and closely managed the five reserves and missions established since self government in 1858. In 1886, the protection board gained the power to exclude \"half caste\" Aboriginal people from missions and stations. The Victorian legislation was the forerunner of the racial segregation policies of other Australian governments from the 1890s.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In more densely settled areas, most Aboriginal people who had lost control of their land lived on reserves and missions, or on the fringes of cities and towns. In pastoral districts the British Waste Land Act of 1848 gave traditional landowners limited rights to live, hunt and gather food on Crown land under pastoral leases. Many Aboriginal groups camped on pastoral stations where Aboriginal men were often employed as shepherds and stockmen. These groups were able to retain a connection with their lands and maintain aspects of their traditional culture.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Imperial legislation in 1823 had provided for a Legislative Council nominated by the governor of New South Wales, and a new Supreme Court, providing additional limits to the power of governors. A number of prominent colonial figures, including William Wentworth. campaigned for a greater degree of self-government, although there were divisions about the extent to which a future legislative body should be popularly elected. Other major issues in the public debate about colonial self-government were traditional British political rights, land policy, transportation and whether colonies with a large population of convicts and former convicts could be trusted with self-government. The Australian Patriotic Association was formed in 1835 to promote representative government for New South Wales.The British government abolished transportation to New South Wales in 1840, and in 1842 granted limited representative government to the colony by establishing a reformed Legislative Council with one-third of its members appointed by the governor and two-thirds elected by male voters who met a property qualification. The property qualification meant that only 20 per cent of males were eligible to vote in the first Legislative Council elections in 1843.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 297951, 51472963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 244, 261 ], [ 688, 720 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The increasing immigration of free settlers, the declining number of convicts, and the growing middle class and working class population led to further agitation for liberal and democratic reforms. Public meetings in Adelaide in 1844 called for more representative government for South Australia. The Constitutional Association, formed in Sydney in 1848, called for manhood suffrage. The Anti-Transportation League, founded in Van Diemen's Land in 1849, also demanded more representative government. In the Port Phillip District, agitation for representative government was closely linked to demands for independence from New South Wales.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 6893822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 388, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1850, the imperial parliament passed the Australian Colonies Government Act, granting Van Diemen's Land, South Australia and the newly-created colony of Victoria semi-elected Legislative Councils on the New South Wales model. The Act also reduced the property requirement for voting. Government officials were to be responsible to the governor rather than the Legislative Council, so the imperial legislation provided for limited representative government rather than responsible government.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 3089481, 26329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 78 ], [ 471, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although gold had been found in Australia as early as 1823 by surveyor James McBrien, a gold rush began when Edward Hargraves widely publicised his discovery of gold near Bathurst, New South Wales, in February 1851. Further discoveries were made later that year in Victoria, where the richest gold fields were found. By British law all minerals belonged to the Crown, and the governors of New South Wales and Victoria quickly introduced laws aimed at avoiding the disorder associated with the California gold rush of 1848. Both colonies introduced a gold mining licence with a monthly fee, the revenue being used to offset the cost of providing infrastructure, administration and policing of the gold fields. As the size of allowable claims was small (6.1 metres square), and much of the gold was near the surface, the licensing system favoured small prospectors over large enterprises.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 1727367, 323764, 58296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 125 ], [ 171, 196 ], [ 493, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The gold rush initially caused some economic disruption including wage and price inflation and labour shortages as male workers moved to the goldfields. In 1852, the male population of South Australia fell by three per cent and that of Tasmania by 17 per cent. Immigrants from the United Kingdom, continental Europe, the United States and China also poured into Victoria and New South Wales. The Australian population increased from 430,000 in 1851 to 1,170,000 in 1861. Victoria became the most populous colony and Melbourne the largest city.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chinese migration was a particular concern for colonial officials. There were 20,000 Chinese miners on the Victorian goldfields by 1855 and 13,000 on the New South Wales diggings. There was a widespread belief that they represented a danger to white Australian living standards and morality, and colonial governments responded by imposing a range of taxes, charges and restrictions on Chinese migrants and residents. Anti-Chinese riots erupted on the Victorian goldfields in 1856 and in New South Wales in 1860. According to Stuart Macintyre, \"The goldfields were the migrant reception centres of the nineteenth century, the crucibles of nationalism and xenophobia[.]”", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As more men moved to the gold fields and the quantity of easily-accessible gold diminished, the average income of miners fell. Victorian miners increasingly saw the flat monthly licence fee as a regressive tax and complained of official corruption, heavy-handed administration and the lack of voting rights for itinerant miners. Protests intensified in October 1854 when three miners were arrested following a riot at Ballarat. Protesters formed the Ballarat Reform League to support the arrested men and demanded manhood suffrage, reform of the mining licence and administration, and land reform to promote small farms. Further protests followed and protesters built a stockade on the Eureka Field at Ballarat. On 3 December troops overran the stockade, killing about 20 protesters. Five troops were killed and 12 seriously wounded.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 8552831, 9833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 450, 472 ], [ 670, 698 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following a Royal Commission, the monthly licence was replaced with an annual miner's right at a lower cost which also gave holders the right to vote and build a dwelling on the gold fields. The administration of the Victorian goldfields was also reformed. Stuart Macintyre states, \"The Eureka rebellion was a formative event in the national mythology, the Southern Cross [on the Eureka flag] a symbol of freedom and independence.” However, according to A. G. L. Shaw, the Eureka affair \"is often painted as a great fight for Australian liberty and the rights of the working man, but it was not that. Its leaders were themselves small capitalists...and even after universal suffrage was introduced...only about a fifth of the miners bothered to vote.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 655299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 380, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elections for the semi-representative Legislative Councils, held in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Van Diemen's Land in 1851, produced a greater number of liberal members. That year, the New South Wales Legislative Council petitioned the British Government requesting self-government for the colony. The Anti-Transportation League also saw the convict system as a barrier to the achievement of self-government. In 1852, the British Government announced that convict transportation to Van Diemen's Land would cease and invited the eastern colonies to draft constitutions enabling responsible self-government. The Secretary of State cited the social and economic transformation of the colonies following the discoveries of gold as one of the factors making self-government feasible.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The constitutions for New South Wales, Victoria and Van Diemen's Land (renamed Tasmania in 1856) gained Royal Assent in 1855, that for South Australia in 1856. The constitutions varied, but each created a lower house elected on a broad male franchise and an upper house which was either appointed for life (New South Wales) or elected on a more restricted property franchise. Britain retained its right of veto over legislation regarding matters of imperial interest. When Queensland became a separate colony in 1859 it immediately became self-governing, adopting the constitution of New South Wales. Western Australia was granted self-government in 1890.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The secret ballot, adopted in Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia in 1856, followed by New South Wales (1858), Queensland (1859) and Western Australia (1877). South Australia introduced universal male suffrage for its lower house in 1856, followed by Victoria in 1857, New South Wales (1858), Queensland (1872), Western Australia (1893) and Tasmania (1900). Queensland excluded Aboriginal males from voting in 1885 (all women were also excluded). In Western Australia, where all women were disenfranchised, a property qualification for voting existed for male Aboriginals, Asians, Africans and people of mixed descent.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Societies to promote women's suffrage were formed in Victoria in 1884, South Australia in 1888 and New South Wales in 1891. The Women's Christian Temperance Union also established branches in most Australian colonies in the 1880s, promoting votes for women and a range of social causes. Female suffrage, and the right to stand for office, was first won in South Australia in 1895. Women won the vote in Western Australia in 1900, with some restrictions based on race. Women in the remainder of Australia only won full rights to vote and to stand for elected office in the decade after Federation, although there were some racial restrictions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1860s New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and South Australia introduced Selection Acts intended to promote family farms and mixed farming and grazing. Legislation typically allowed individual \"selectors\" to select small parcels of unused crown land or leased pastoral land for purchase on credit. The reforms initially had little impact on the concentration of land ownership as large landowners used loopholes in the laws to buy more land. However, refinements to the legislation, improvements in farming technology and the introduction of crops adapted to Australian conditions eventually led to the diversification of rural land use. The expansion of the railways from the 1860s allowed wheat to be cheaply transported in bulk, stimulating the development of a wheat belt from South Australia to Queensland. Land under cultivation increased from 200,000 hectares to 2 million hectares from 1850 to 1890.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The period 1850 to 1880 saw a revival in bushranging. The first bushrangers had been escaped convicts or former convicts in the early years of British settlement who lived independently in the bush, often supporting themselves by criminal activity. The early association of the bush with freedom was the beginning of an enduring myth. The resurgence of bushranging from the 1850s drew on the grievances of the rural poor (several members of the Kelly gang, the most famous bushrangers, were the sons of impoverished small farmers). The exploits of Ned Kelly and his gang garnered considerable local community support and extensive national press coverage at the time. After Kelly's capture and execution for murder in 1880 his story inspired numerous works of art, literature and popular culture and continuing debate about the extent to which he was a rebel fighting social injustice and oppressive police, or a murderous criminal.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 55229, 3231426, 157456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 52 ], [ 193, 197 ], [ 445, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the 1850s to 1871 gold was Australia's largest export and allowed the colony to import a range of consumer and capital goods. More importantly, the increase in population in the decades following the gold rush stimulated demand for housing, consumer goods, services and urban infrastructure. By the 1880s half the Australian population lived in towns, making Australia more urbanised that the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada. Between 1870 and 1890 average income per person in Australia was more than 50 per cent higher than that of the United States, giving Australia one of the highest living standards in the world.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The size of the government sector almost doubled from 10 per cent of national expenditure in 1850 to 19 per cent in 1890. Colonial governments spent heavily on infrastructure such as railways, ports, telegraph, schools and urban services. Much of the money for this infrastructure was borrowed on the London financial markets, but land-rich governments also sold land to finance expenditure and keep taxes low.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1856, building workers in Sydney and Melbourne were the first in the world to win the eight hour working day. The 1880s saw trade unions grow and spread to lower skilled workers and also across colonial boundaries. By 1890 about 20 per cent of male workers belonged to a union, one of the highest rates in the world.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Economic growth was accompanied by expansion into northern Australia. Gold was discovered in northern Queensland in the 1860s and 1870s, and in the Kimberley and Pilbara regions of Western Australia in the 1880s. Sheep and cattle runs spread to northern Queensland and on to the Gulf Country of the Northern Territory and the Kimberley region of Western Australia in the 1870s and 1880s. Sugar plantations also expanded in northern Queensland during the same period.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 409795, 491918, 18383177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 157 ], [ 162, 169 ], [ 279, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The gold discoveries in northern Australia attracted a new wave of Chinese immigrants. The Queensland sugar cane industry also relied heavily on indentured South Sea Island workers, whose low wages and poor working conditions became a national controversy and led to government regulation of the industry. Additionally, a significant population of Japanese, Filipinos and Malays were working in pearling and fishing. In 1890, the population of northern Australia is estimated at about 70,000 Europeans and 20,000 Asians and Pacific Islanders. Indigenous people probably outnumbered these groups, leaving white people a minority north of the Tropic of Capricorn.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From the late 1870s trade unions, Anti-Chinese Leagues and other community groups campaigned against Chinese immigration and low-wage Chinese labour. Following intercolonial conferences on the issue in 1880–81 and 1888, colonial governments responded with a series of laws which progressively restricted Chinese immigration and citizenship rights.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Falling wool prices and the collapse of a speculative property bubble in Melbourne heralded the end of the long boom. When British banks cut back lending to Australia, the heavily indebted Australian economy fell into economic depression. A number of major banks suspended business and the economy contracted by 20 per cent from 1891 to 1895. Unemployment rose to almost a third of the workforce. The depression was followed by the \"Federation Drought\" from 1895 to 1903.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 15982739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 433, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1890, a strike in the shipping industry spread to wharves, railways, mines and shearing sheds. Employers responded by locking out workers and employing non-union labour, and colonial governments intervened with police and troops. The strike failed, as did subsequent strikes of shearers in 1891 and 1894, and miners in 1892 and 1896. By 1896, the depression and employer resistance to trade unions saw union membership fall to only about five per cent of the workforce.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The defeat of the 1890 Maritime Strike led trade unions to form political parties. In New South Wales, the Labor Electoral League won a quarter of seats in the elections of 1891 and held the balance of power between the Free Trade Party and the Protectionist Party. Labor parties also won seats in the South Australian and Queensland elections of 1893. The world's first Labor government was formed in Queensland in 1899, but it lasted only a week.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 1928005, 25593444, 328706, 328708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 38 ], [ 107, 129 ], [ 220, 236 ], [ 245, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the mid-1890s colonial governments, often with Labor support, passed acts regulating wages, working conditions and \"coloured\" labour in a number of industries.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At an Intercolonial Conference in 1896, the colonies agreed to extend restrictions on Chinese immigration to \"all coloured races\". Labor supported the Reid government of New South Wales in passing the Coloured Races Restriction and Regulation Act, a forerunner of the White Australia Policy. However, after Britain and Japan voiced objections to the legislation, New South Wales, Tasmania and Western Australia instead introduced European language tests to restrict \"undesirable\" immigrants.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By the late 1880s, a majority of people living in the Australian colonies were native born, although more than 90 per cent were of British and Irish heritage. The Australian Natives Association, a friendly society open to Australian-born males, flourished in the 1880s. It campaigned for an Australian federation within the British Empire, promoted Australian literature and history, and successfully lobbied for the 26 January to be Australia's national day.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 326114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australian nationalists often claimed that unification of the colonies was Australia's destiny. Australians lived on a single continent, and the vast majority shared a British heritage and spoke English. Many nationalists spoke of Australians sharing common blood as members of the British \"race\". Henry Parkes stated in 1890, \"The crimson thread of kinship runs through us all...we must unite as one great Australian people.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 301816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 298, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A minority of nationalists saw a distinctive Australian identity rather than shared \"Britishness\" as the basis for a unified Australia. Some, such as the radical magazine The Bulletin and the Tasmanian Attorney-General Andrew Inglis Clark, were republicans, while others were prepared to accept a fully independent country of Australia with only a ceremonial role for the British monarch. In 1887, poet Henry Lawson wrote of a choice between \"The Old Dead Tree and the Young Tree Green/ The Land that belongs to the lord and the Queen,/And the land that belongs to you.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 324740, 56368, 156799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 183 ], [ 219, 238 ], [ 403, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A unified Australia was usually associated with a white Australia. In 1887, The Bulletin declared that all white men who left the religious and class divisions of the old world behind were Australians. The 1880s and 1890s saw a proliferation of books and articles depicting Australia as a sparsely populated white nation threatened by populous Asian neighbours. A white Australia also meant the exclusion of cheap Asian labour, an idea strongly promoted by the labour movement. According to historian John Hirst, \"Federation was not needed to make the White Australia policy, but that policy was the most popular expression of the national ideal that inspired federation.”", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The growing nationalist sentiment in the 1880s and 1890s was associated with the development of a distinctively Australian art and literature. Artists of the Heidelberg School such as Arthur Streeton, Frederick McCubbin and Tom Roberts followed the example of the European Impressionists by painting in the open air. They applied themselves to capturing the light and colour of the Australian landscape and exploring the distinctive and the universal in the \"mixed life of the city and the characteristic life of the station and the bush\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 340546, 1036601, 841884, 866899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 175 ], [ 184, 199 ], [ 201, 219 ], [ 224, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1890s Henry Lawson, Banjo Paterson and other writers associated with The Bulletin produced poetry and prose exploring the nature of bush life and themes of independence, stoicism, masculine labour, egalitarianism, anti-authoritarianism and mateship. Protagonists were often shearers, boundary riders and itinerant bush workers. In the following decade Lawson, Paterson and other writers such as Steele Rudd, Miles Franklin, and Joseph Furphy helped forge a distinctive national literature. Paterson's ballad \"The Man from Snowy River\" (1890) achieved popularity, and his lyrics to the song \"Waltzing Matilda\" (c. 1895) helped make it the unofficial national anthem for many Australians. According to Macintyre, however, even in the 1890s the \"bush legend was just that, a myth that enshrined lost possibilities[.]\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 81222, 1009782, 184121, 40429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 41 ], [ 402, 413 ], [ 516, 541 ], [ 598, 614 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Growing nationalist sentiment coincided with business concerns about the economic inefficiency of customs barriers between the colonies, the duplication of services by colonial governments and the lack of a single national market for goods and services. Colonial concerns about German and French ambitions in the region also led to British pressure for a federated Australian defence force and a unified, single-gauge railway network for defence purposes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A Federal Council of Australasia was formed in 1885 but it had few powers and New South Wales and South Australia declined to join.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 1784077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An obstacle to federation was the fear of the smaller colonies that they would be dominated by New South Wales and Victoria. Queensland, in particular, although generally favouring a white Australia policy, wished to maintain an exception for South Sea Islander workers in the sugar cane industry.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another major barrier was the free trade policies of New South Wales which conflicted with the protectionist policies dominant in Victoria and most of the other colonies. Nevertheless, the NSW premier Henry Parkes was a strong advocate of federation and his Tenterfield Oration in 1889 was pivotal in gathering support for the cause. Parkes also struck a deal with Edmund Barton, leader of the NSW Protectionist Party, whereby they would work together for federation and leave the question of a protective tariff for a future Australian government to decide.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 153023, 301816, 1241326, 1009919, 146365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 108 ], [ 201, 213 ], [ 239, 249 ], [ 258, 277 ], [ 365, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1890, representatives of the six colonies and New Zealand met in Melbourne and agreed in principle to a federation of the colonies and for the colonial legislatures to nominate representatives to attend a constitutional convention. The following year, the National Australasian Convention was held in Sydney, with all the future states and New Zealand represented. A draft constitutional Bill was adopted and transmitted to the colonial parliaments for approval by the people. The worsening economic depression and parliamentary opposition, however, delayed progress.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In early 1893 the first citizens' Federation League was established in the Riverina region of New South Wales and many other leagues were soon formed in the colonies. The leagues organised a conference in Corowa in July 1893 which developed a new plan for federation involving a constitutional convention with directly elected delegates and a referendum in each colony to endorse the proposed constitution. The new NSW premier, George Reid, endorsed the \"Corowa plan\" and in 1895 convinced the majority of other premiers to adopt it.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 17351988, 239440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 211 ], [ 428, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of the colonies sent directly elected representatives to the constitutional convention, although those of Western Australia were chosen by its parliament. Queensland did not send delegates. The convention held sessions in 1897 and 1898 which resulted in a proposed constitution for a Commonwealth of federated states under the British Crown.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Referendums held in 1898 resulted in solid majorities for the constitution in Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. However, the referendum failed to gain the required majority in New South Wales after that colony's Labor Party campaigned against it and premier Reid gave it such qualified support that he earned the nickname \"yes-no Reid\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The premiers of the other colonies agreed to a number of concessions to New South Wales (particularly that the future Commonwealth capital would be located in that state), and in 1899 further referendums were held in all the colonies except Western Australia. All resulted in yes votes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In March 1900, delegates were dispatched to London, including Barton and the Victorian parliamentarian Alfred Deakin, who had been a leading advocate for federation. Following intense negotiations with the British government, the federation Bill was passed by the imperial government on 5 July 1900 and gained Royal Assent on 9 July. Western Australia subsequently voted to join the new federation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "From autonomy to federation", "target_page_ids": [ 154954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Commonwealth of Australia was proclaimed by the Governor-General, Lord Hopetoun on 1 January 1901, and Barton was sworn in as Australia's first prime minister. The first Federal elections were held in March 1901 and resulted in a narrow plurality for the Protectionist Party over the Free Trade Party with the Australian Labor Party (ALP) polling third. Labor declared it would support the party which offered concessions to its program, and Barton's Protectionists formed a government, with Deakin as Attorney-General.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Federation", "target_page_ids": [ 4689264, 12601, 331842, 925493, 1495, 595522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ], [ 52, 68 ], [ 70, 83 ], [ 174, 191 ], [ 314, 336 ], [ 506, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 was one of the first laws passed by the new Australian parliament. This centrepiece of the White Australia policy aimed to extend the restrictions on the immigration of Asians that had previously been enacted by the colonies. Like the colonial legislation, the Immigration Restriction Act used a dictation test in a European language to exclude Asian migrants, who were considered a threat to Australia's living standards and majority British culture. The government also ended the use of indentured South Sea Islander labour in the Queensland sugar cane industry and announced that the workers would be repatriated to their islands by 1906. Deakin stated that White Australia, \"is not a surface, but a reasoned policy which goes to the roots of national life, and by which the whole of our social, industrial and political organisation is governed.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Federation", "target_page_ids": [ 2237689, 302298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 36 ], [ 81, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1902, the government introduced female suffrage in the Commonwealth jurisdiction, but at the same time excluded Aboriginal people from the franchise unless they already had the vote in a state jurisdiction.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Barton government also introduced a tariff on imports designed to raise revenue and protect Australian industry. However, the tariff was lower and less extensive than many protectionists wanted due to the need to attract sufficient support from Labor parliamentarians, who had a free vote on the issue and many of whom favoured free trade.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The three major parties all supported a system of Commonwealth conciliation and arbitration to settle industrial disputes extending across state borders, but Labor insisted that railway workers should be included in the system and preference be given to unionised labour. Disagreements about the legislation were instrumental in the fall of Deakin's Protectionist government in April 1904 and the appointment of the first national Labor government under prime minister Chris Watson. The Watson government itself fell in April and a Free Trade government under prime minister Reid successfully introduced legislation for a Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Court.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Federation", "target_page_ids": [ 155375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 469, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1905 Deakin withdrew his support for the Reid government and again formed a Protectionist government with the support of Labor. The new government embarked on a series of social reforms and a program dubbed \"new protection\" under which tariff protection for Australian industries would be linked to their provision of \"fair and reasonable\" wages. In the Harvester case of 1907, H. B. Higgins of the Conciliation and Arbitration Court set a fair and reasonable wage based on the needs of a male breadwinner supporting a wife and three children. In 1908, the High Court of Australia struck down the New Protection legislation as unconstitutional. However, the Harvester case set a standard for a basic wage which was subsequently used by the Conciliation and Arbitration Court when settling industrial disputes. By 1914 the Commonwealth, New South Wales, Queensland and Western Australia used arbitration courts to settle industrial disputes and fix wages and conditions, while Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania used wage boards to achieve the same goals.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Federation", "target_page_ids": [ 3602552, 1607958, 314201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 362, 376 ], [ 386, 399 ], [ 565, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The base of the Labor Party was the Australian Trade Union movement which grew from under 100,000 members in 1901 to more than half a million in 1914. The party also drew considerable support from clerical workers, Catholics and small farmers. In 1905, the Labor party adopted objectives at the federal level which included the \"cultivation of an Australian sentiment based upon the maintenance of racial purity\" and \"the collective ownership of monopolies\". In the same year, the Queensland branch of the party adopted an overtly socialist objective.In 1906, the federal Free Trade Party changed its name to the Anti-Socialist party and in the December 1906 elections became the largest party with 38 per cent of the vote (compared with 37 per cent for Labor and 21 per cent for the Protectionists). Deakin's Protectionist government remained in power, but following the passage of legislation for old age pensions and a new protective tariff in 1908, Labor withdrew its support for the government and in November Andrew Fisher became the second Labor prime minister. In response, the Liberal-Protectionists, Anti-Socialists and conservative \"Corner\" group entered into a coalition known as the Fusion which formed a government under prime minister Deakin in June 1909. Reid stated that the question was whether Australia should follow a course of free enterprise or state control.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Federation", "target_page_ids": [ 1116264, 70970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 67 ], [ 1015, 1028 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the elections of May 1910, Labor won a majority in both houses of parliament and Fisher again became prime minister. The Labor government introduced a series of reforms including a progressive land tax (1910), invalid pensions (1910) and a maternity allowance (1912). The government established the Commonwealth Bank (1911) but referendums to nationalise monopolies and extend Commonwealth trade and commerce powers were defeated in 1911 and 1913. The Commonwealth took over responsibility for the Northern Territory from South Australia in 1911.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Federation", "target_page_ids": [ 10044418, 21638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 28 ], [ 501, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The anti-Labor parliamentary fusion was formalised as the Commonwealth Liberal Party under the former New South Wales Labor Party leader Joseph Cook. The Liberal Party narrowly won the May 1913 elections but Labor still controlled the Senate. The Cook government's attempt to pass legislation abolishing preferential treatment for union members in the Commonwealth Public Service triggered a double dissolution of parliament. Labor comfortably won the September 1914 elections and Fisher resumed office.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Federation", "target_page_ids": [ 795855, 328539, 10044224, 1336913, 10044056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 84 ], [ 137, 148 ], [ 185, 203 ], [ 392, 410 ], [ 452, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With Federation, the Commonwealth inherited the small defence forces of the six former Australian colonies. By 1901, units of soldiers from all six Australian colonies had been active as part of British forces in the Boer War. When the British government asked for more troops from Australia in early 1902, the Australian government obliged with a national contingent. Some 16,500 men had volunteered for service by the war's end in June 1902.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Federation", "target_page_ids": [ 42720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1884, Britain and Germany had agreed to partition the eastern half of New Guinea. In 1902, British New Guinea was placed under the authority of Australia which saw the territory as vital for the protection of shipping lanes. With the passage of the Papua Act of 1905, British New Guinea became the Australian Territory of Papua. Formal Australian administration of the territory began in 1906.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Federation", "target_page_ids": [ 603723, 603723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 112 ], [ 312, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under a 1902 agreement, Australia contributed to the cost of a Royal Navy Pacific fleet to provide for the nation's defence, but Britain reserved the right to deploy the fleet outside Australian waters. Following Japan's defeat of Russia in the 1904–05 war, concern about Japanese naval power led to calls for an Australian fleet. Deakin proposed the purchase of destroyers in 1906 and his government's Surplus Revenue Act of 1908 provided £250,000 for naval expenditure. The Fisher Labor government increased the naval budget and in 1911 established the Royal Australian Navy. In October 1913, the navy's first battle cruiser, Australia, arrived in Sydney harbour, accompanied by the new light cruisers Sydney and Melbourne.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1907, Deakin proposed compulsory military training for home defence, a measure that was supported by Watson and Hughes of the Labor party. The Labor party adopted the measure at its 1908 annual conference and in 1911 the Fisher government expanded the system of compulsory military training which had been introduced by the Deakin government the previous year. Defence expenditure increased from £1 million in 1908–09 to £4.3 million in 1913–14, when it accounted for a third of the Commonwealth budget.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The breaking of the Federation Drought in 1903 heralded a period of strong economic growth. The economy grew by 75 per cent in the fourteen years to the outbreak of the First World War, with pastoralism, construction, manufacturing and government services leading the way. Rural industries were still the major employer (accounting for a quarter of all jobs) but manufacturing was fast catching up. While employment grew by 30 per cent during the period, employment in manufacturing increased by almost 70 per cent.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian population also grew strongly, driven by a fall in infant mortality, increasing adult life expectancy, and a revival in state-subsidised immigration. The population increased from four million in 1901 to five million in 1914. From 1910 to 1914 just under 300,000 migrants arrived, all white, and almost all from Britain.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Federation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When the United Kingdom declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914, the declaration automatically involved all of Britain's colonies and dominions. The outbreak of war came in the middle of the 1914 federal election campaign during which Labor leader Andrew Fisher promised to defend Britain \"to the last man and the last shilling.\" Both major parties offered Britain 20,000 Australian troops. As the Defence Act 1903 precluded sending conscripts overseas, a new volunteer force, the Australian Imperial Force (AIF), was raised to meet this commitment.Public enthusiasm for the war was high, and the initial quota for the AIF was quickly filled. The troops left for Egypt on 1 November 1914, one of the escort ships, HMAS Sydney, sinking the German cruiser Emden along the way. Meanwhile, in September, a separate Australian expeditionary force had captured German New Guinea.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [ 415475, 1781520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 482, 507 ], [ 755, 760 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After arriving in Egypt, the AIF was incorporated into an Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) under the British general William Birdwood. The Anzacs formed part of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force with the task of opening the Dardanelles to allied battleships, threatening Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire which had entered the war on the side of the Central Powers.The Anzacs, along with French, British and Indian troops, landed on the Gallipoli peninsula on 25 April 1915. The Australian and New Zealand position at Anzac Cove was vulnerable to attack and the troops suffered heavy losses in establishing a narrow beachhead. After it had become clear that the expeditionary force would be unable to achieve its objectives in the face of determined Turkish resistance, the Anzacs were evacuated in December, followed by the British and French in early January.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [ 964382, 638114, 445360, 8073, 5646, 22278, 6673, 214109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 95 ], [ 130, 146 ], [ 178, 211 ], [ 241, 252 ], [ 288, 302 ], [ 323, 337 ], [ 383, 397 ], [ 470, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australians suffered about 8,000 deaths in the campaign. Australian war correspondents variously emphasised the bravery and fighting qualities of the Australians and the errors of their British commanders. By 1916, Australian servicemen were commemorating 25 April, and the date soon became an Australian national holiday known as Anzac Day, centring on themes of \"nationhood, brotherhood and sacrifice\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [ 48034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 336, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1916, five infantry divisions of the AIF were sent to the Western Front. In July 1916, at Fromelles, in a diversionary attack during the Battle of the Somme, the AIF suffered 5,533 casualties in 24 hours, the most costly single encounter in Australian military history. Elsewhere on the Somme, 23,000 Australians were killed or wounded in seven weeks of attacks on German positions. In Spring 1917, as the Germans retreated to the Hindenburg Line, pursuing Australian troops engaged them at the First Battle of Bullecourt and the Second Battle of Bullecourt, suffering 10,000 casualties. In the summer and autumn of 1917, Australian troops also sustained heavy losses during the British offensive around Ypres. Overall, almost 22,000 Australian troops were killed in 1917.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [ 1339242, 60921, 764515, 61912324, 993445, 44454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 102 ], [ 140, 159 ], [ 434, 449 ], [ 498, 524 ], [ 533, 560 ], [ 707, 712 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 1917 the five Australian divisions were united in the Australian Corps, and in May 1918 the Australian general John Monash took over command. The Australian Corps was heavily involved in halting the German Spring Offensive of 1918 and in the allied counter-offensive of August that year. Constituting about one tenth of the British and dominion soldiers on the Western Front, the Australian Corps was responsible for more than 20 per cent of the territory reconquered, prisoners captured and field guns taken in the counter offensive.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [ 665210, 149621, 502983, 1328501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 82 ], [ 123, 134 ], [ 211, 234 ], [ 261, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Middle East, the Australian Light Horse brigades were prominent in halting the Ottoman and German threat to the Suez Canal at Romani in August 1916. In 1917, they participated in the allied advance through the Sinai into Palestine. This included a light horse mounted charge at Beersheba in October which helped win the Third Battle of Gaza. In 1918, they pressed on through Palestine and into Syria in an advance that led to the Ottoman surrender on 31 October.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [ 402124, 401909, 501628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 46 ], [ 133, 139 ], [ 327, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the time the war ended on 11 November 1918, 324,000 Australians had served overseas. Casualties included 60,000 dead and 150,000 woundedthe highest casualty rate of any allied force. Australian troops also had higher rates of unauthorised absence, crime and imprisonment than other allied forces.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Few Australians publicly opposed the war in 1914, and volunteers for the AIF outstripped the capacity to enlist and train them. There was also a surge in female participation in voluntary organisations such as the Red Cross and patriotic groups such as the One Woman, One Recruit League. Anti-German leagues were formed and 7,000 Germans and other \"enemy aliens\" were sent to internment camps during the war.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In October 1914, the Fisher Labor government introduced the War Precautions Act which gave it the power to make regulations \"for securing the public safety and defence of the Commonwealth\". After Billy Hughes replaced Fisher as prime minister in October 1915, regulations under the act were increasingly used to censor publications, penalise public speech and suppress organisations that the government considered detrimental to the war effort.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [ 2309225, 154955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 79 ], [ 196, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Business uncertainty, the enlistment of young male workers, and the disruption of shipping and export markets led to a decline in economic output. The economy contracted by 10 per cent during the course of hostilities. Inflation rose in the first two years of war and real wages fell. Soon after becoming prime minister, Hughes abandoned a promised referendum to give the Commonwealth the power to control prices, although the government later used its wartime powers to regulate the prices of some basic goods. Lower wages and perceptions of profiteering by some businesses led, in 1916, to a wave of strikes by miners, waterside workers and shearers.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Enlistments also declined, falling from 35,000 a month at its peak in 1915 to 6,000 a month in 1916. Hughes returned from a trip to England and the Western Front in July 1916 and narrowly won a Cabinet vote to hold a referendum on conscription for overseas service. In September the New South Wales Labor Party expelled Hughes on account of the issue. Following the narrow defeat of the October 1916 conscription referendum, the state branches of the Labor party began expelling other prominent pro-conscriptionists. In November, Hughes and 23 of his supporters left the parliamentary party, and in January 1917 they formed a new Nationalist government with the former opposition. The Nationalists comfortably won the May 1917 elections and Hughes continued as prime minister.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [ 1364164, 10043768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 387, 423 ], [ 718, 736 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Political and industrial unrest intensified in 1917. From August to October there was a major strike of New South Wales railway, transport, waterside and coal workers which was defeated after the Commonwealth and New South Wales governments arrested strike leaders and organised special constables and non-union labour. The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) was declared an unlawful organisation and more than 100 of its members were arrested. In September, protests by the Women's Peace Army in Melbourne resulted in extensive damage to shops and offices.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [ 37062, 50897007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 324, 355 ], [ 478, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following further falls in enlistments in 1917, Hughes announced a second referendum on conscription to be held in December. The referendum campaign proved divisive, with Hughes denouncing opponents of the measure as \"the Germans of Australia, the Sinn Féin and the IWW.\" The Catholic Archbishop of Melbourne, Daniel Mannix, and the Labor premier of Queensland T. J. Ryan were prominent campaigners against conscription. The referendum was defeated by a wider margin than in 1916. An April 1918 recruiting conference including representatives of the Commonwealth government, State governments, employers and labour leaders also failed to reach agreement on measures to increase troop numbers. Enlistments in 1918 were the lowest for the war, leading to the disbandment of 12 battalions and mutinies in the AIF.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [ 1364173, 28175, 1079288, 32226670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 100 ], [ 248, 257 ], [ 311, 324 ], [ 362, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hughes attended the Imperial War Conference and Imperial War Cabinet in London from June 1918 where Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa won British support for their separate representation at the eventual peace conference. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Hughes argued that Germany should pay the full cost of the war, but ultimately gained only £5 million in war reparations for Australia. Australia and the other self-governing British dominions won the right to become full members of the new League of Nations, and Australia obtained a special League of Nations mandate over German New Guinea allowing Australia to control trade and immigration. Australia also gained a 42 per cent share of the formerly German-ruled island of Nauru, giving access to its rich superphosphate reserves. Australia argued successfully against a Japanese proposal for a racial equality clause in the League of Nations covenant, as Hughes feared that it would jeopardise the White Australia policy. As a signatory to the Treaty of Versailles and a full member of the League of Nations, Australia took an important step towards international recognition as a sovereign nation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "First World War", "target_page_ids": [ 295105, 17926, 30030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 243, 265 ], [ 516, 533 ], [ 1023, 1043 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the war, Prime Minister Billy Hughes led a new conservative force, the Nationalist Party, formed from the old Liberal party and breakaway elements of Labor (of which he was the most prominent), after the deep and bitter split over Conscription. An estimated 12,000 Australians died as a result of the Spanish flu pandemic of 1919, almost certainly brought home by returning soldiers.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 154955, 52536, 795855, 892047, 198796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 42 ], [ 77, 94 ], [ 116, 129 ], [ 237, 249 ], [ 307, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The success of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia posed a threat in the eyes of many Australians, although to a small group of socialists it was an inspiration. The Communist Party of Australia was formed in 1920 and, though remaining electorally insignificant, it obtained some influence in the trade union movement and was banned during World War II for its support for the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and the Menzies Government unsuccessfully tried to ban it again during the Korean War. Despite splits, the party remained active until its dissolution at the end of the Cold War.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 25762, 321409, 20950, 25839, 16772, 325329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 39 ], [ 165, 193 ], [ 376, 399 ], [ 408, 426 ], [ 475, 485 ], [ 569, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Country Party (today's National Party) formed in 1920 to promulgate its version of agrarianism, which it called \"Countrymindedness\". The goal was to enhance the status of the graziers (operators of big sheep ranches) and small farmers, and secure subsidies for them. Enduring longer than any other major party save the Labor party, it has generally operated in Coalition with the Liberal Party (since the 1940s), becoming a major party of government in Australia—particularly in Queensland.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 21927, 1193, 21927, 1051313, 18453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 41 ], [ 87, 98 ], [ 117, 134 ], [ 365, 374 ], [ 384, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other significant after-effects of the war included ongoing industrial unrest, which included the 1923 Victorian Police strike. Industrial disputes characterised the 1920s in Australia. Other major strikes occurred on the waterfront, in the coalmining and timber industries in the late 1920s. The union movement had established the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) in 1927 in response to the Nationalist government's efforts to change working conditions and reduce the power of the unions.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 1937961, 351224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 126 ], [ 332, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The consumerism, entertainment culture, and new technologies that characterised the 1920s in the United States were also found in Australia. Prohibition was not implemented in Australia, though anti-alcohol forces were successful in having hotels closed after 6pm, and closed altogether in a few city suburbs.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 24856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fledgling film industry declined through the decade, despite more than 2million Australians attending cinemas weekly at 1250 venues. A Royal Commission in 1927 failed to assist and the industry that had begun so brightly with the release of the world's first feature film, The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), atrophied until its revival in the 1970s.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 70209, 551802, 142995, 2376452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 27 ], [ 139, 155 ], [ 277, 304 ], [ 333, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stanley Bruce became Prime Minister in 1923, when members of the Nationalist Party Government voted to remove W.M. Hughes. Speaking in early 1925, Bruce summed up the priorities and optimism of many Australians, saying that \"men, money and markets accurately defined the essential requirements of Australia\" and that he was seeking such from Britain. The migration campaign of the 1920s, operated by the Development and Migration Commission, brought almost 300,000 Britons to Australia, although schemes to settle migrants and returned soldiers \"on the land\" were generally not a success. \"The new irrigation areas in Western Australia and the Dawson Valley of Queensland proved disastrous\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 167807, 9701860, 59051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 527, 544 ], [ 661, 671 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Australia, the costs of major investment had traditionally been met by state and Federal governments and heavy borrowing from overseas was made by the governments in the 1920s. A Loan Council was set up in 1928 to co-ordinate loans, three-quarters of which came from overseas. Despite Imperial Preference, a balance of trade was not successfully achieved with Britain. \"In the five years from 1924..to..1928, Australia bought 43.4% of its imports from Britain and sold 38.7% of its exports. Wheat and wool made up more than two-thirds of all Australian exports\", a dangerous reliance on just two export commodities.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 10824762, 2363260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 194 ], [ 288, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australia embraced the new technologies of transport and communication. Coastal sailing ships were finally abandoned in favour of steam, and improvements in rail and motor transport heralded dramatic changes in work and leisure. In 1918, there were 50,000 cars and lorries in the whole of Australia. By 1929 there were 500,000. The stage coach company Cobb and Co, established in 1853, finally closed in 1924. In 1920, the Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Service (to become the Australian airline Qantas) was established. The Reverend John Flynn, founded the Royal Flying Doctor Service, the world's first air ambulance in 1928. Daredevil pilot, Sir Charles Kingsford Smith pushed the new flying machines to the limit, completing a round Australia circuit in 1927 and in 1928 traversed the Pacific Ocean, via Hawaii and Fiji from the US to Australia in the aircraft Southern Cross. He went on to global fame and a series of aviation records before vanishing on a night flight to Singapore in 1935.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 613975, 25254, 1033979, 226806, 2666985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 352, 363 ], [ 506, 512 ], [ 568, 595 ], [ 659, 682 ], [ 875, 889 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australia achieved independent Sovereign Nation status after World War I, under the Statute of Westminster. This formalised the Balfour Declaration of 1926, a report resulting from the 1926 Imperial Conference of British Empire leaders in London, which defined Dominions of the British empire in the following way: \"They are autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations.\"; however, Australia did not ratify the Statute of Westminster until 1942. According to historian Frank Crowley, this was because Australians had little interest in redefining their relationship with Britain until the crisis of World War II.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 29263, 4819, 20814147, 4721, 25544562, 4721, 357357, 21175158, 29263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 106 ], [ 128, 155 ], [ 185, 209 ], [ 213, 227 ], [ 261, 269 ], [ 359, 373 ], [ 522, 531 ], [ 573, 593 ], [ 646, 668 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australia Act 1986 removed any remaining links between the British Parliament and the Australian states.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 415365, 13964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ], [ 63, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1 February 1927 until 12 June 1931, the Northern Territory was divided up as North Australia and Central Australia at latitude 20°S. New South Wales has had one further territory surrendered, namely Jervis Bay Territory comprising 6,677 hectares, in 1915. The external territories were added: Norfolk Island (1914); Ashmore Island, Cartier Islands (1931); the Australian Antarctic Territory transferred from Britain (1933); Heard Island, McDonald Islands, and Macquarie Island transferred to Australia from Britain (1947).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 4056314, 58580111, 18178295, 100791, 21422, 1227, 3706207, 242046, 13383, 35470269, 198146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 97 ], [ 102, 119 ], [ 123, 136 ], [ 204, 224 ], [ 298, 312 ], [ 321, 335 ], [ 337, 352 ], [ 365, 395 ], [ 429, 441 ], [ 443, 459 ], [ 465, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Federal Capital Territory (FCT) was formed from New South Wales in 1911 to provide a location for the proposed new federal capital of Canberra (Melbourne was the seat of government from 1901 to 1927). The FCT was renamed the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) in 1938. The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the Commonwealth in 1911.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 1604190, 51983, 17306237, 1944, 21638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ], [ 138, 146 ], [ 148, 157 ], [ 229, 257 ], [ 277, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australia was deeply affected by the Great Depression of the 1930s, particularly due to its heavy dependence on exports, especially primary products such as wool and wheat. Exposed by continuous borrowing to fund capital works in the 1920s, the Australian and state governments were \"already far from secure in 1927, when most economic indicators took a turn for the worse. Australia's dependence of exports left her extraordinarily vulnerable to world market fluctuations\", according to economic historian Geoff Spenceley. Debt by the state of New South Wales accounted for almost half of Australia's accumulated debt by December 1927. The situation caused alarm amongst a few politicians and economists, notably Edward Shann of the University of Western Australia, but most political, union and business leaders were reluctant to admit to serious problems. In 1926, Australian Finance magazine described loans as occurring with a \"disconcerting frequency\" unrivalled in the British Empire: \"It may be a loan to pay off maturing loans or a loan to pay the interest on existing loans, or a loan to repay temporary loans from the bankers...\" Thus, well before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the Australian economy was already facing significant difficulties. As the economy slowed in 1927, so did manufacturing and the country slipped into recession as profits slumped and unemployment rose.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 19283335, 38431, 21654, 56838822, 231031, 157649, 67533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 53 ], [ 157, 161 ], [ 545, 560 ], [ 714, 726 ], [ 734, 765 ], [ 1163, 1188 ], [ 1194, 1212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At elections held in October 1929, the Labor Party was swept into power in a landslide victory; Stanley Bruce, the former Prime Minister, lost his own seat. The new Prime Minister, James Scullin, and his largely inexperienced government were almost immediately faced with a series of crises. Hamstrung by their lack of control of the Senate, a lack of control of the banking system and divisions within their party about how best to deal with the situation, the government was forced to accept solutions that eventually split the party, as it had in 1917. Some gravitated to New South Wales Premier Lang, others to Prime Minister Scullin.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 1495, 41053306, 167807, 172019, 78710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 50 ], [ 77, 94 ], [ 96, 109 ], [ 181, 194 ], [ 591, 603 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Various \"plans\" to resolve the crisis were suggested; Sir Otto Niemeyer, a representative of the English banks who visited in mid-1930, proposed a deflationary plan, involving cuts to government spending and wages. Treasurer Ted Theodore proposed a mildly inflationary plan, while the Labor Premier of New South Wales, Jack Lang, proposed a radical plan which repudiated overseas debt. The \"Premier's Plan\" finally accepted by federal and state governments in June 1931, followed the deflationary model advocated by Niemeyer and included a reduction of 20 per cent in government spending, a reduction in bank interest rates and an increase in taxation. In March 1931, Lang announced that interest due in London would not be paid and the Federal government stepped in to meet the debt. In May, the Government Savings Bank of New South Wales was forced to close. The Melbourne Premiers' Conference agreed to cut wages and pensions as part of a severe deflationary policy but Lang renounced the plan. The grand opening of the Sydney Harbour Bridge in 1932 provided little respite to the growing crisis straining the young federation. With multimillion-pound debts mounting, public demonstrations and move and counter-move by Lang and then Scullin, then Lyons federal governments, the Governor of New South Wales, Philip Game, had been examining Lang's instruction not to pay money into the Federal Treasury. Game judged it was illegal. Lang refused to withdraw his order and, on 13 May, he was dismissed by Governor Game. At June elections, Lang Labor's seats collapsed.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 2587895, 617415, 24654, 78710, 28267, 12850, 756488, 19437966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 71 ], [ 225, 237 ], [ 291, 317 ], [ 319, 328 ], [ 1023, 1044 ], [ 1281, 1308 ], [ 1310, 1321 ], [ 1491, 1517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "May 1931 had seen the creation of a new conservative political force, the United Australia Party formed by breakaway members of the Labor Party combining with the Nationalist Party. At Federal elections in December 1931, the United Australia Party, led by former Labor member Joseph Lyons, easily won office. They remained in power until September 1940. The Lyons government has often been credited with steering recovery from the depression, although just how much of this was owed to their policies remains contentious. Stuart Macintyre also points out that although Australian GDP grew from £386.9million to £485.9million between 1931 and 1932 and 1938–39, real domestic product per head of population was still \"but a few shillings greater in 1938–39 (£70.12), than it had been in 1920–21 (£70.04).\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 32179, 1495, 52536, 32179, 52666, 3974247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 96 ], [ 132, 143 ], [ 163, 180 ], [ 225, 247 ], [ 276, 288 ], [ 522, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australia recovered relatively quickly from the financial downturn of 1929–1930, with recovery beginning around 1932. The Prime Minister, Joseph Lyons, favoured the tough economic measures of the Premiers' Plan, pursued an orthodox fiscal policy and refused to accept the proposals of the Premier of New South Wales, Jack Lang, to default on overseas debt repayments. According to author Anne Henderson of the Sydney Institute, Lyons held a steadfast belief in \"the need to balance budgets, lower costs to business and restore confidence\" and the Lyons period gave Australia \"stability and eventual growth\" between the drama of the Depression and the outbreak of the Second World War. A lowering of wages was enforced and industry tariff protections maintained, which together with cheaper raw materials during the 1930s saw a shift from agriculture to manufacturing as the chief employer of the Australian economy—a shift which was consolidated by increased investment by the commonwealth government into defence and armaments manufacture. Lyons saw restoration of Australia's exports as the key to economic recovery.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 25887251, 3942994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 388, 402 ], [ 410, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The extent of unemployment in Australia, often cited as peaking at 29 per cent in 1932 is debated. \"Trade union figures are the most often quoted, but the people who were there...regard the figures as wildly understating the extent of unemployment\" wrote historian Wendy Lowenstein in her collection of oral histories of the depression; however, David Potts argued that \"over the last thirty years ...historians of the period have either uncritically accepted that figure (29% in the peak year 1932) including rounding it up to 'a third', or they have passionately argued that a third is far too low.\" Potts himself though suggested a peak national figure of 25 per cent unemployed. Measurement is difficult in part because there was great variation, geographically, by age and by gender, in the level of unemployment. Statistics collected by historian Peter Spearritt show 17.8 per cent of men and 7.9 per cent of women unemployed in 1933 in the comfortable Sydney suburb of Woollahra. (This is not to say that 81.9 per cent of women were working but that 7.9 per cent of the women interested/looking for work were unable to find it, a much lower figure than maybe first thought, as many women stayed home and were not in the job force in those years, especially if they were unable to find work.)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 31423362, 1477064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 265, 281 ], [ 976, 985 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the working class suburb of Paddington, 41.3 per cent of men and 20.7 per cent of women were listed as unemployed. Geoffrey Spenceley stated that apart from variation between men and women, unemployment was also much higher in some industries, such as the building and construction industry, and comparatively low in the public administrative and professional sectors.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 1525239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In country areas, worst hit were small farmers in the wheat belts as far afield as north-east Victoria and Western Australia, who saw more and more of their income absorbed by interest payments.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 4689460, 1392290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 102 ], [ 107, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Extraordinary sporting successes did something to alleviate the spirits of Australians during the economic downturn. In a Sheffield Shield cricket match at the Sydney Cricket Ground in 1930, Don Bradman, a young New South Welshman of just 21 years of age wrote his name into the record books by smashing the previous highest batting score in first-class cricket with 452 runs not out in just 415 minutes. The rising star's world beating cricketing exploits were to provide Australians with much needed joy through the emerging Great Depression in Australia and post-World War II recovery. Between 1929 and 1931 the racehorse Phar Lap dominated Australia's racing industry, at one stage winning fourteen races in a row. Famous victories included the 1930 Melbourne Cup, following an assassination attempt and carrying 9 stone 12 pounds weight. Phar Lap sailed for the United States in 1931, going on to win North America's richest race, the Agua Caliente Handicap in 1932. Soon after, on the cusp of US success, Phar Lap developed suspicious symptoms and died. Theories swirled that the champion race horse had been poisoned and a devoted Australian public went into shock. The 1938 British Empire Games were held in Sydney from 5–12 February, timed to coincide with Sydney's sesqui-centenary (150 years since the foundation of British settlement in Australia).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [ 1585656, 773497, 87021, 2264742, 174003, 20485, 18155397, 178730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 138 ], [ 160, 181 ], [ 191, 202 ], [ 527, 556 ], [ 625, 633 ], [ 754, 767 ], [ 940, 962 ], [ 1177, 1202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following federation Aboriginal affairs was a state responsibility, although the Commonwealth became responsible for the Aboriginal population of the Northern Territory from 1911. By that date the Commonwealth and all states except Tasmania had passed legislation establishing Protectors of Aborigines and Protection Boards with extensive powers to regulate the lives of Aboriginal Australians including their ownership of property, place of residence, employment, sexual relationships and custody of their children. Reserves were established, ostensibly for the protection of the Aboriginal population who had been dispossessed of their land. Church groups also ran missions throughout Australia providing shelter, food, religious instruction and elementary schooling for Indigenous people.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some officials were concerned by the growing number of Aboriginal children of mixed heritage, particularly in northern Australia where large Indigenous, South Sea Islander and Asian populations were seen as inconsistent with the white Australia policy. Laws concerning Aboriginal Australians were progressively tightened to make it easier for officials to remove Aboriginal children of mixed descent from their parents and place them in reserves, missions, institutions and employment with white employers.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The segregation of Aboriginal people on reserves and in institutions was never systematically accomplished due to funding constraints, differing policy priorities in the states and territories, and resistance from Aboriginal people. In the more densely settled areas of Australia, about 20 per cent of Aboriginal people lived on reserves in the 1920s. The majority lived in camps on the fringes of country towns and a small percentage lived in cities. During the Great Depression more Aboriginal people moved to reserves and missions for food and shelter. By 1941 almost half of the Aboriginal population of New South Wales lived on reserves.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In northern Australia, the majority of employed Aboriginal people worked in the pastoral industry where they lived in camps, often with their extended families. Many also camped on the margins of towns and reserves where they could avoid most of the controls imposed by the administrators of reserves, compounds and missions.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 1937 Native Welfare conference of state and Commonwealth officials endorsed a policy of biological absorption of mixed-descent Aboriginal Australians into the white community.[T]he destiny of the natives of aboriginal origin, but not of the full blood, lies in their ultimate absorption by the people of the Commonwealth and it therefore recommends that all efforts be directed to that end.The officials saw the policy of Aboriginal assimilation by absorption into the white community as progressive, aimed at eventually achieving civil and economic equality for mixed-descent Aboriginal people.\"... efforts of all State authorities should be directed towards the education of children of mixed aboriginal blood at white standards, and their subsequent employment under the same conditions as whites with a view to their taking their place in the white community on an equal footing with the whites.\"The following decades saw an increase in the number of Aboriginal Australians of mixed descent removed from their families, although the states and territories progressively adopted a policy of cultural, rather than biological, assimilation, and justified removals on the grounds of child welfare. In 1940, New South Wales became the first state to introduce a child welfare model whereby Aboriginal children of mixed descent were removed from their families under general welfare provisions by court order. Other jurisdictions introduced a welfare model after the war.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Inter-war years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Until the late 1930s, defence was not a significant issue for Australians. At the 1937 elections, both political parties advocated increased defence spending, in the context of increased Japanese aggression in China and Germany's aggression in Europe; however, there was a difference in opinion about how the defence spending should be allocated. The United Australia Party government emphasised co-operation with Britain in \"a policy of imperial defence\". The lynchpin of this was the British naval base at Singapore and the Royal Navy battle fleet \"which, it was hoped, would use it in time of need\". Defence spending in the inter-war years reflected this priority. In the period 1921–1936 totalled £40million on the Royal Australian Navy, £20million on the Australian Army and £6million on the Royal Australian Air Force (established in 1921, the \"youngest\" of the three services). In 1939, the Navy, which included two heavy cruisers and four light cruisers, was the service best equipped for war.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 32179, 3838015, 26061, 26327, 2795, 26328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 351, 373 ], [ 508, 517 ], [ 526, 536 ], [ 719, 740 ], [ 760, 775 ], [ 797, 823 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fearing Japanese intentions in the Pacific, Menzies established independent embassies in Tokyo and Washington to receive independent advice about developments. Gavin Long argues that the Labor opposition urged greater national self-reliance through a buildup of manufacturing and more emphasis on the Army and RAAF, as Chief of the General Staff, John Lavarack also advocated. In November 1936, Labor leader John Curtin said \"The dependence of Australia upon the competence, let alone the readiness, of British statesmen to send forces to our aid is too dangerous a hazard upon which to found Australia's defence policy.\" According to John Robertson, \"some British leaders had also realised that their country could not fight Japan and Germany at the same time.\" But \"this was never discussed candidly at...meeting(s) of Australian and British defence planners\", such as the 1937 Imperial Conference.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 15187291, 1495, 26328, 16923653, 155377, 23411464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 170 ], [ 187, 192 ], [ 310, 314 ], [ 347, 360 ], [ 408, 419 ], [ 875, 899 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By September 1939 the Australian Army numbered 3,000 regulars. A recruiting campaign in late 1938, led by Major-General Thomas Blamey increased the reserve militia to almost 80,000. The first division raised for war was designated the 6th Division, of the 2nd AIF, there being 5 Militia Divisions on paper and a 1st AIF in the First World War.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 1001558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 3 September 1939, the Prime Minister, Robert Menzies, made a national radio broadcast: \"My fellow Australians. It is my melancholy duty to inform you, officially, that, in consequence of the persistence by Germany in her invasion of Poland, Great Britain has declared war upon her, and that, as a result, Australia is also at war.\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 25839, 309288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 55 ], [ 224, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus began Australia's involvement in the six-year global conflict. Australians were to fight in an extraordinary variety of locations, including withstanding the advance of German Panzers in the Siege of Tobruk, turning back the advance of the Imperial Japanese Army in the New Guinea Campaign, undertaking bomber missions over Europe, engaging in naval battles in the Mediterranean. At home, Japanese attacks included mini-submarine raids on Sydney Harbour and very heavy air raids on and near the Northern Territory's capital, Darwin.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 1399141, 902095, 481708, 3726984, 8408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 187 ], [ 196, 211 ], [ 245, 267 ], [ 275, 294 ], [ 530, 536 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The recruitment of a volunteer military force for service at home and abroad was announced, the 2nd Australian Imperial Force and a citizen militia organised for local defence. Troubled by Britain's failure to increase defences at Singapore, Menzies was cautious in committing troops to Europe. By the end of June 1940, France, Norway, Denmark and the Low Countries had fallen to Nazi Germany. Britain stood alone with its dominions. Menzies called for \"all-out war\", increasing federal powers and introducing conscription. Menzies' minority government came to rely on just two independents after the 1940 election.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 508630, 21212, 25544562, 10041168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 125 ], [ 380, 392 ], [ 423, 431 ], [ 601, 614 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 1941, Menzies flew to Britain to discuss the weakness of Singapore's defences. Arriving in London during The Blitz, Menzies was invited into Winston Churchill's British War Cabinet for the duration of his visit. Returning to Australia, with the threat of Japan imminent and with the Australian army suffering badly in the Greek and Crete campaigns, Menzies re-approached the Labor Party to form a War Cabinet. Unable to secure their support, and with an unworkable parliamentary majority, Menzies resigned as prime minister. The Coalition held office for another month, before the independents switched allegiance and John Curtin was sworn in as prime minister. Eight weeks later, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 112274, 33265, 11238709, 1259246, 149773, 155377, 60098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 125 ], [ 152, 169 ], [ 172, 191 ], [ 333, 338 ], [ 343, 348 ], [ 629, 640 ], [ 698, 719 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1940 to 1941, Australian forces played prominent roles in the fighting in the Mediterranean theatre, including Operation Compass, the Siege of Tobruk, the Greek campaign, the Battle of Crete, the Syria–Lebanon Campaign and the Second Battle of El Alamein.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 1779568, 206146, 902095, 627326, 149773, 1647400, 29587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 104 ], [ 116, 133 ], [ 139, 154 ], [ 160, 174 ], [ 180, 195 ], [ 201, 223 ], [ 232, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A garrison of around 14,000 Australian soldiers, commanded by Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead was besieged in Tobruk, Libya, by the German-Italian army of General Erwin Rommel between April and August 1941. The Nazi propagandist Lord Haw Haw derided the defenders as 'rats', a term the soldiers adopted as an ironic compliment: \"The Rats of Tobruk\". Vital in the defence of Egypt and the Suez Canal, the siege saw the advance of the German army halted for the first time and provided a morale boost for the British Commonwealth, which was then standing alone against Hitler.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 206165, 405871, 9516, 38775264, 9184777, 29323, 21175158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 96 ], [ 113, 126 ], [ 166, 178 ], [ 232, 244 ], [ 332, 350 ], [ 391, 401 ], [ 510, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The war came closer to home when was lost with all hands in battle with the German raider Kormoran in November 1941.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 3025352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With most of Australia's best forces committed to fight against Hitler in the Middle East, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, the US naval base in Hawaii, on 8 December 1941 (eastern Australia time). The British battleship and battlecruiser sent to defend Singapore were sunk soon afterwards. Australia was ill-prepared for an attack, lacking armaments, modern fighter aircraft, heavy bombers, and aircraft carriers. While demanding reinforcements from Churchill, on 27 December 1941 Curtin published an historic announcement: \"The Australian Government... regards the Pacific struggle as primarily one in which the United States and Australia must have the fullest say in the direction of the democracies' fighting plan. Without inhibitions of any kind, I make it clear that Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom.\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "British Malaya quickly collapsed, shocking the Australian nation. British, Indian and Australian troops made a disorganised last stand at Singapore, before surrendering on 15 February 1942. Around 15,000 Australian soldiers became prisoners of war. Curtin predicted that the \"battle for Australia\" would now follow. On 19 February, Darwin suffered a devastating air raid, the first time the Australian mainland had ever been attacked by enemy forces. For the following 19 months, Australia was attacked from the air almost 100 times.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 1106744, 8408, 1283132, 1268366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 147 ], [ 332, 338 ], [ 362, 370 ], [ 480, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two battle-hardened Australian divisions were already steaming from the Middle East for Singapore. Churchill wanted them diverted to Burma, but Curtin refused, and anxiously awaited their return to Australia. US President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered his commander in the Philippines, General Douglas MacArthur, to formulate a Pacific defence plan with Australia in March 1942. Curtin agreed to place Australian forces under the command of General MacArthur, who became \"Supreme Commander of the South West Pacific\". Curtin had thus presided over a fundamental shift in Australia's foreign policy. MacArthur moved his headquarters to Melbourne in March 1942 and American troops began massing in Australia. In late May 1942, Japanese midget submarines sank an accommodation vessel in a daring raid on Sydney Harbour. On 8 June 1942, two Japanese submarines briefly shelled Sydney's eastern suburbs and the city of Newcastle.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 10979, 48596, 612372, 2646461, 3232610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 222, 243 ], [ 294, 311 ], [ 734, 750 ], [ 760, 780 ], [ 801, 815 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In an effort to isolate Australia, the Japanese planned a seaborne invasion of Port Moresby, in the Australian Territory of New Guinea. In May 1942, the US Navy engaged the Japanese in the Battle of the Coral Sea and halted the attack. The Battle of Midway in June effectively defeated the Japanese navy and the Japanese army launched a land assault on Moresby from the north. Between July and November 1942, Australian forces repulsed Japanese attempts on the city by way of the Kokoda Track, in the highlands of New Guinea. The Battle of Milne Bay in August 1942 was the first Allied defeat of Japanese land forces.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 57387, 3706900, 20518076, 61992, 60112, 2098117, 20611456, 179516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 91 ], [ 111, 134 ], [ 153, 160 ], [ 189, 212 ], [ 240, 256 ], [ 480, 492 ], [ 514, 524 ], [ 530, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meanwhile, in North Africa, the Axis Powers had driven Allies back into Egypt. A turning point came between July and November 1942, when Australia's 9th Division played a crucial role in some of the heaviest fighting of the First and Second Battle of El Alamein, which turned the North Africa Campaign in favour of the Allies.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 43507, 8087628, 835543, 11775, 29587, 493688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 43 ], [ 72, 77 ], [ 137, 161 ], [ 224, 229 ], [ 234, 261 ], [ 280, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Battle of Buna–Gona, between November 1942 and January 1943, set the tone for the bitter final stages of the New Guinea campaign, which persisted into 1945. The offensives in Papua and New Guinea of 1943–44 were the single largest series of connected operations ever mounted by the Australian armed forces. On 14 May 1943, the Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, though clearly marked as a medical vessel, was sunk by Japanese raiders off the Queensland coast, killing 268, including all but one of the nursing staff, further enraging popular opinion against Japan.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 44325870, 3726984, 1995922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 113, 132 ], [ 331, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australian prisoners of war were at this time suffering severe ill-treatment in the Pacific Theatre. In 1943, 2,815 Australian Pows died constructing Japan's Burma-Thailand Railway In 1944, the Japanese inflicted the Sandakan Death March on 2,000 Australian and British prisoners of war—only 6 survived. This was the single worst war crime perpetrated against Australians in war.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 62933, 1749599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 180 ], [ 217, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MacArthur largely excluded Australian forces from the main push north into the Philippines and Japan. It was left to Australia to lead amphibious assaults against Japanese bases in Borneo. Curtin suffered from ill health from the strains of office and died weeks before the war ended, replaced by Ben Chifley.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 795034, 2071559, 52667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 153 ], [ 181, 187 ], [ 297, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of Australia's wartime population of seven million, almost one million men and women served in a branch of the services during the six years of warfare. By war's end, gross enlistments totalled 727,200 men and women in the Australian Army (of whom 557,800 served overseas), 216,900 in the RAAF and 48,900 in the RAN. More than 39,700 were killed or died as prisoners of war, about 8,000 of whom died as prisoners of the Japanese.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 2795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the Australian civilian population suffered less at the hands of the Axis powers than did other Allied nations in Asia and Europe, Australia nevertheless came under direct attack by Japanese naval forces and aerial bombardments, particularly through 1942 and 1943, resulting in hundreds of fatalities and fuelling fear of Japanese invasion. Axis naval activity in Australian waters also brought the war close to home for Australians. Austerity measures, rationing and labour controls measures were all implemented to assist the war effort. Australian civilians dug air raid shelters, trained in civil defence and first aid, and Australian ports and cities were equipped with anti aircraft and sea defences.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 2610304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 347, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian economy was markedly affected by World War II. Expenditure on war reached 37 per cent of GDP by 1943–44, compared to 4 per cent expenditure in 1939–1940. Total war expenditure was £2,949million between 1939 and 1945.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although the peak of army enlistments occurred in June–July 1940, when more than 70,000 enlisted, it was the Curtin Labor Government, formed in October 1941, that was largely responsible for \"a complete revision of the whole Australian economic, domestic and industrial life\". Rationing of fuel, clothing and some food was introduced, (although less severely than in Britain) Christmas holidays curtailed, \"brown outs\" introduced and some public transport reduced. From December 1941, the Government evacuated all women and children from Darwin and northern Australia, and more than 10,000 refugees arrived from South East Asia as Japan advanced. In January 1942, the Manpower Directorate was set up \"to ensure the organisation of Australians in the best possible way to meet all defence requirements.\" Minister for War Organisation of Industry, John Dedman introduced a degree of austerity and government control previously unknown, to such an extent that he was nicknamed \"the man who killed Father Christmas\".", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 155377, 5622331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 132 ], [ 846, 857 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 1942 uniform tax laws were introduced in Australia, ending state governments' control of income taxation. \"The significance of this decision was greater than any other... made throughout the war, as it added extensive powers to the Federal Government and greatly reduced the financial autonomy of the states.\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Manufacturing grew significantly because of the war. \"In 1939, there were only three Australian firms producing machine tools, but by 1943 there were more than one hundred doing so.\" From having few front line aircraft in 1939, the RAAF had become the fourth largest allied Air force by 1945. A number of aircraft were built under licence in Australia before the war's end, notably the Beaufort and Beaufighter, although the majority of aircraft were from Britain and later, the US. The Boomerang fighter, designed and built in four months of 1942, emphasised the desperate state Australia found itself in as the Japanese advanced.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 78017, 78012, 189754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 386, 394 ], [ 399, 410 ], [ 487, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australia also created, virtually from nothing, a significant female workforce engaged in direct war production. Between 1939 and 1944 the number of women working in factories rose from 171,000 to 286,000. Dame Enid Lyons, widow of former Prime Minister Joseph Lyons, became the first woman elected to the House of Representatives in 1943, joining the Robert Menzies' new centre-right Liberal Party of Australia, formed in 1945. At the same election, Dorothy Tangney became the first woman elected to the Senate.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Second World War", "target_page_ids": [ 1174232, 52666, 61565, 18453, 1958306, 165705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 221 ], [ 254, 266 ], [ 306, 330 ], [ 385, 411 ], [ 451, 466 ], [ 505, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Politically, Robert Menzies and the Liberal Party of Australia dominated much of the immediate post war era, defeating the Labor government of Ben Chifley in 1949, in part because of a Labor proposal to nationalise banks and following a crippling coal strike led by the Australian Communist Party. Menzies became the country's longest-serving Prime Minister and the Liberal party, in coalition with the rural based Country Party, won every federal election until 1972.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 25839, 18453, 52667, 321409, 1051313, 21927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 27 ], [ 36, 62 ], [ 143, 154 ], [ 270, 296 ], [ 384, 393 ], [ 415, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As in the United States in the early 1950s, allegations of communist influence in society saw tensions emerge in politics. Refugees from Soviet dominated Eastern Europe immigrated to Australia, while to Australia's north, Mao Zedong's Chinese Communist Party won the Chinese Civil War in 1949 and in June 1950, Communist North Korea invaded South Korea. The Menzies government responded to a United States led United Nations Security Council request for military aid for South Korea and diverted forces from occupied Japan to begin Australia's involvement in the Korean War. After fighting to a bitter standstill, the UN and North Korea signed a ceasefire agreement in July 1953. Australian forces had participated in such major battles as Kapyong and Maryang San. 17,000 Australians had served and casualties amounted to more than 1,500, of whom 339 were killed.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 19527, 7175, 54422, 21255, 27019, 31956, 87995, 15843430, 570135, 17924964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 222, 232 ], [ 235, 258 ], [ 267, 284 ], [ 321, 332 ], [ 341, 352 ], [ 410, 441 ], [ 508, 522 ], [ 563, 573 ], [ 740, 747 ], [ 752, 763 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the course of the Korean War, the Liberal Government attempted to ban the Communist Party of Australia, first by legislation in 1950 and later by referendum, in 1951. While both attempts were unsuccessful, further international events such as the defection of minor Soviet Embassy official Vladimir Petrov, added to a sense of impending threat that politically favoured Menzies' Liberal-CP government, as the Labor Party split over concerns about the influence of the Communist Party on the trade union movement. The tensions led to another bitter split and the emergence of the breakaway Democratic Labor Party (DLP). The DLP remained an influential political force, often holding the balance of power in the Senate, until 1974. Its preferences supported the Liberal and Country Party. The Labor party was led by H.V. Evatt after Chifley's death in 1951. Evatt had served as President of the United Nations General Assembly during 1948–49 and helped draft the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). Evatt retired in 1960 amid signs of mental ill-health, and Arthur Calwell succeeded him as leader, with a young Gough Whitlam as his deputy.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 16772, 321409, 676309, 29040148, 230308, 322619, 780080, 31899, 251527, 12454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 35 ], [ 81, 109 ], [ 297, 312 ], [ 548, 560 ], [ 596, 618 ], [ 821, 831 ], [ 883, 931 ], [ 968, 1020 ], [ 1088, 1102 ], [ 1141, 1154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Menzies presided during a period of sustained economic boom and the beginnings of sweeping social change, which included youth culture and its rock and roll music and, in the late 1950s, the arrival of television broadcasting. In 1958, Australian country music singer Slim Dusty, who would become the musical embodiment of rural Australia, had Australia's first international music chart hit with his bush ballad \"Pub With No Beer\", while rock and roller Johnny O'Keefe's \"Wild One\" became the first local recording to reach the national charts, peaking at No. 20. Australian cinema produced little of its own content in the 1950s, but British and Hollywood studios produced a string of successful epics from Australian literature, featuring home grown stars Chips Rafferty and Peter Finch.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 192818, 948695, 1908072, 321623, 20911029, 5703476, 25412, 9323510, 8728999, 70209, 1075201, 2526222, 170975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 134 ], [ 143, 162 ], [ 236, 260 ], [ 268, 278 ], [ 401, 412 ], [ 414, 430 ], [ 439, 452 ], [ 455, 469 ], [ 473, 481 ], [ 565, 582 ], [ 709, 730 ], [ 759, 773 ], [ 778, 789 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Menzies remained a staunch supporter of links to the monarchy and Commonwealth of Nations and formalised an alliance with the United States, but also launched post-war trade with Japan, beginning a growth of Australian exports of coal, iron ore and mineral resources that would steadily climb until Japan became Australia's largest trading partner.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 4732795, 21175158, 4792222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 61 ], [ 66, 89 ], [ 108, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Menzies retired in 1965, he was replaced as Liberal leader and Prime Minister by Harold Holt. Holt drowned while swimming at a surf beach in December 1967 and was replaced by John Gorton (1968–1971) and then by William McMahon (1971–1972).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 13867, 52452, 52641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 97 ], [ 180, 191 ], [ 216, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following World War II, the Chifley Labor government instigated a massive programme of European immigration. In 1945, Minister for Immigration, Arthur Calwell wrote \"If the experience of the Pacific War has taught us one thing, it surely is that seven million Australians cannot hold three million square miles of this earth's surface indefinitely.\" All political parties shared the view that the country must \"populate or perish\". Calwell stated a preference for ten British immigrants for each one from other countries; however, the numbers of British migrants fell short of what was expected, despite government assistance.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 52667, 251527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 35 ], [ 144, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Migration brought large numbers of southern and central Europeans to Australia for the first time. A 1958 government leaflet assured readers that unskilled non-British migrants were needed for \"labour on rugged projects ... work which is not generally acceptable to Australians or British workers\". The Australian economy stood in sharp contrast to war-ravaged Europe, and newly arrived migrants found employment in a booming manufacturing industry and government assisted programmes such as the Snowy Mountains Scheme. This hydroelectricity and irrigation complex in south-east Australia consisted of sixteen major dams and seven power stations constructed between 1949 and 1974. It remains the largest engineering project undertaken in Australia. Necessitating the employment of 100,000 people from more than 30 countries, to many it denoted the birth of multicultural Australia.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 177948, 381399, 9608367, 6025236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 496, 518 ], [ 525, 541 ], [ 546, 556 ], [ 801, 823 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some 4.2million immigrants arrived between 1945 and 1985, about 40 per cent of whom came from Britain and Ireland. The 1957 novel They're a Weird Mob was a popular account of an Italian migrating to Australia, although written by Australian-born author John O'Grady. The Australian population reached 10 million in 1959–with Sydney its most populous city.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 27007433, 6712542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 149 ], [ 253, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 1958, the Menzies Government passed the Migration Act 1958 which replaced the Immigration Restriction Act's arbitrarily applied dictation test with an entry permit system, that reflected economic and skills criteria. Further changes in the 1960s effectively ended the White Australia Policy. It legally ended in 1973.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 25839, 43870376, 50806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 24 ], [ 47, 65 ], [ 275, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australia enjoyed significant growth in prosperity in the 1950s and 1960s, with increases in both living standards and in leisure time. The manufacturing industry, previously playing a minor part in an economy dominated by primary production, greatly expanded. The first Holden motor car came out of General Motors-Holden's Fisherman's Bend factory in November 1948. Car ownership rapidly increased—from 130 owners in every 1,000 in 1949 to 271 owners in every 1,000 by 1961. By the early 1960s, four competitors to Holden had set up Australian factories, employing between 80,000 and 100,000 workers, \"at least four-fifths of them migrants\".", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 13625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 271, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1960s, about 60 per cent of Australian manufacturing was protected by tariffs. Pressure from business interests and the union movement ensured these remained high. Historian Geoffrey Bolton suggests that this high tariff protection of the 1960s caused some industries to \"lapse into lethargy\", neglecting research and development and the search for new markets. The CSIRO was expected to fulfil research and development.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 288262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 373, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prices for wool and wheat remained high, with wool the mainstay of Australia's exports. Sheep numbers grew from 113 million in 1950 to 171million in 1965. Wool production increased from 518,000 to 819,000 tonnes in the same period. Wheat, wool and minerals ensured a healthy balance of trade between 1950 and 1966.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The great housing boom of the post war period saw rapid growth in the suburbs of the major Australian cities. By the 1966 census, only 14 per cent lived in rural Australia, down from 31 per cent in 1933, and only 8 per cent lived on farms. Virtual full employment meant high standards of living and dramatic increases in home ownership, and by the sixties, Australia had the most equitable spread of income in the world. By the beginning of the sixties, an Australia-wide McNair survey estimated that 94% of homes had a fridge, 50% a telephone, 55% a television, 60% a washing machine, and 73% a vacuum cleaner. In addition, most households had now acquired a car. According to one study, \"In 1946, there was one car for every 14 Australians; by 1960, it was one to 3.5. The vast majority of families had access to a car.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Car ownership flourished during the postwar period, with 1970/1971 census data estimating that 96.4 per cent of Australian households in the early Seventies owned at least one car; however, not all felt the rapid suburban growth was desirable. Distinguished Architect and designer Robin Boyd, a critic of Australia's built surroundings, described Australia as \"'the constant sponge lying in the Pacific', following the fashions of overseas and lacking confidence in home-produced, original ideas\". In 1956, dadaist comedian Barry Humphries performed the character of Edna Everage as a parody of a house-proud housewife of staid 1950s Melbourne suburbia (the character only later morphed into a critique of self-obsessed celebrity culture). It was the first of many of his satirical stage and screen creations based around quirky Australian characters: Sandy Stone, a morose elderly suburbanite, Barry McKenzie a naive Australian expat in London and Sir Les Patterson, a vulgar parody of a Whitlam-era politician.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 3711086, 8240, 370482, 371283, 16868280, 1728001, 1014418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 281, 291 ], [ 507, 514 ], [ 524, 539 ], [ 567, 579 ], [ 852, 863 ], [ 895, 909 ], [ 949, 966 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some writers defended suburban life. Journalist Craig Macgregor saw suburban life as a \"...solution to the needs of migrants...\" Hugh Stretton argued that \"plenty of dreary lives are indeed lived in the suburbs... but most of them might well be worse in other surroundings\". Historian Peter Cuffley has recalled life for a child in a new outer suburb of Melbourne as having a kind of joyous excitement. \"Our imaginations saved us from finding life too humdrum, as did the wild freedom of being able to roam far and wide in different kinds of (neighbouring) bushland...Children in the suburbs found space in backyards, streets and lanes, playgrounds and reserves...\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1954, the Menzies Government formally announced the introduction of the new two-tiered TV system—a government-funded service run by the ABC, and two commercial services in Sydney and Melbourne, with the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne being a major driving force behind the introduction of television to Australia. Colour TV began broadcasting in 1975.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 25839, 3079, 17306237, 83870, 17306237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 31 ], [ 139, 142 ], [ 186, 195 ], [ 206, 226 ], [ 230, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1951 Native Welfare Conference of state and Commonwealth officials agreed on a policy of cultural assimilation for all Aboriginal Australians. Paul Hasluck, the Commonwealth Minister for Territories, stated: \"Assimilation means, in practical terms, that, in the course of time, it is expected that all persons of aboriginal blood or mixed blood in Australia will live like other white Australians do.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 367299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Controls over the daily lives of Aboriginal people and the removal of Aboriginal children of mixed descent continued under the policy of assimilation, although the control was now largely exercised by Welfare Boards and removals were justified on welfare grounds. The number of Aboriginal people deemed to be wards of the state under Northern Territory welfare laws doubled to 11,000 from 1950 to 1965.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The policy of assimilation attracted increasing criticism from Aboriginal people and their supporters on the grounds of its negative effects on Aboriginal families and its denial of Aboriginal cultural autonomy. Removals of Aboriginal children of mixed descent from their families slowed by the late 1960s and by 1973 the Commonwealth had adopted a policy of self-determination for Indigenous Australians.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1997, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission estimated that between 10 per cent and one-third of Aboriginal children had been removed from their families from 1910 to 1970. Regional studies indicate that 15 per cent of Aboriginal children were removed in New South Wales from 1899 to 1968, while the figure for Victoria was about 10 per cent. Robert Manne estimates that the figure for Australia as a whole was closer to 10 per cent.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Summarising the policy of assimilation and forced removals of Aboriginal children of mixed descent, Richard Broome concludes: \"Even though the children's material conditions and Western education may have been improved by removal, even though some removals were necessary, and even though some people were thankful for it in retrospect, overall it was a disaster....It was a rupturing of tens of thousands of Aboriginal families, aimed at eradicating Aboriginality from the nation in the cause of homogeneity and in fear of difference.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 1950s, the Menzies government saw Australia as part of a \"triple alliance\" in concert with both the US and traditional ally Britain. At first, \"the Australian leadership opted for a consistently pro-British line in diplomacy\", while at the same time looking for opportunities to involve the US in South East Asia. Thus, the government committed military forces to the Korean War and the Malayan Emergency and hosted British nuclear tests after 1952. Australia was also the only Commonwealth country to offer support to the British during the Suez Crisis.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 16772, 177165, 1372970, 58568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 381, 391 ], [ 400, 417 ], [ 437, 450 ], [ 555, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Menzies oversaw an effusive welcome to Queen Elizabeth II on the first visit to Australia by a reigning monarch, in 1954. He made the following remarks during a light-hearted speech to an American audience in New York, while on his way to attend her coronation in 1953: \"We in Australia, of course, are British, if I may say so, to the boot heels...but we stand together – our people stand together – till the crack of doom.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 12153654, 4732795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 57 ], [ 95, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As British influence declined in South East Asia, the US alliance came to have greater significance for Australian leaders and the Australian economy. British investment in Australia remained significant until the late 1970s, but trade with Britain declined through the 1950s and 1960s. In the late 1950s the Australian Army began to re-equip using US military equipment. In 1962, the US established a naval communications station at North West Cape, the first of several built during the next decade. Most significantly, in 1962, Australian Army advisors were sent to help train South Vietnamese forces, in a developing conflict in which the British had no part.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 276170, 1747687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 434, 449 ], [ 531, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to diplomat Alan Renouf, the dominant theme in Australia's foreign policy under Australia's Liberal–Country Party governments of the 1950s and 1960s was anti-communism. Another former diplomat, Gregory Clark, suggested that it was specifically a fear of China that drove Australian foreign policy decisions for twenty years. The ANZUS security treaty, which had been signed in 1951, had its origins in Australia's and New Zealand's fears of a rearmed Japan. Its obligations on the US, Australia and New Zealand are vague, but its influence on Australian foreign policy thinking, at times has been significant. The SEATO treaty, signed only three years later, clearly demonstrated Australia's position as a US ally in the emerging Cold War.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 14205595, 4792222, 889148, 325329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 33 ], [ 339, 344 ], [ 624, 629 ], [ 740, 748 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Britain struggled to enter the Common Market in the 1960s, Australia saw that its historic ties with the mother country were rapidly fraying. Canberra was alarmed but kept a low profile, not wanting to alienate London. Russel Ward states that the implications of British entry into Europe in 1973: \"seemed shattering to most Australians, particularly to older people and conservatives.\" Carl Bridge, however, points out that Australia had been \"hedging its British bets\" for some time. The ANZUS treaty and Australia's decision to enter the Vietnam War did not involve Britain and by 1967 Japan was Australia's leading export partner and the US her largest source of imports. According to Bridge, Australia's decision not to follow Britain's devaluation of her currency in 1967 \"marked the demise of British Australia.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 59517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 266, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1965, Australia had increased the size of the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV), and in April the Government made a sudden announcement that \"after close consultation with the United States\", a battalion of troops was to be sent to South Vietnam. In parliament, Menzies emphasised the argument that \"our alliances made demands on us\". The alliance involved was presumably, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), and Australia was providing military assistance because South Vietnam, a signatory to SEATO, had apparently requested it. Documents released in 1971 indicated that the decision to commit troops was made by Australia and the US, not at the request of South Vietnam. By 1968, there were three Australian Army battalions at any one time at the 1st Australian Task Force (1ATF) base at Nui Dat in addition to the advisers of the AATTV placed throughout Vietnam, and personnel reached a peak total of almost 8,000, comprising about one third of the Army's combat capacity. Between 1962 and 1972 almost 60,000 personnel served in Vietnam, including ground troops, naval forces and air assets.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 1747687, 59756, 889148, 230025, 3189882, 24011329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 86 ], [ 247, 260 ], [ 392, 426 ], [ 558, 576 ], [ 777, 802 ], [ 818, 825 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1966, new Prime Minister Harold Holt expressed his government's support for the US and its role in Vietnam in particular. \"I don't know where people would choose to look for the security of this country were it not for the friendship and strength of the United States.\" While on a visit in the same year to the US, Holt assured President Lyndon B. Johnson \"...I hope there is corner of your mind and heart which takes cheer from the fact that you have an admiring friend, a staunch friend, [Australia] that will be all the way with LBJ.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 13867, 54533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 44 ], [ 346, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Liberal-CP Government was returned with a massive majority in elections held in December 1966, fought over national security issues including Vietnam. The opposition Labor Party had advocated the withdrawal of all conscripts from Vietnam, but its deputy leader Gough Whitlam had stated that a Labor government might maintain regular army troops there. Arthur Calwell, who had been leader of the Labor Party since 1960, retired in favour of Whitlam a few months later.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 12454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 265, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite Holt's sentiments and his government's electoral success in 1966, the war became unpopular in Australia, as it did in the United States. The movements to end Australia's involvement gathered strength after the Tet Offensive of early 1968 and compulsory national service (selected by ballot) became increasingly unpopular. In the 1969 elections, the government hung on despite a significant decline in popularity. Moratorium marches held across Australia in mid-1970 attracted large crowds- the Melbourne march of 100,000 being led by Labor MP Jim Cairns. As the Nixon administration proceeded with Vietnamization of the war and began the withdrawal of troops, so did the Australian Government. In November 1970 1st Australian Task Force was reduced to two battalions and in November 1971, 1ATF was withdrawn from Vietnam. The last military advisors of the AATTV were withdrawn by the Whitlam Labor Government in mid-December 1972.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [ 218181, 10034323, 2157962, 301105, 418338, 3189882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 231 ], [ 337, 351 ], [ 421, 439 ], [ 551, 561 ], [ 606, 620 ], [ 719, 744 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian military presence in Vietnam had lasted 10 years, and in purely human cost, more than 500 had been killed and more than 2,000 wounded. The war cost Australia $218million between 1962 and 1972.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Post-war boom", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Elected in December 1972 after 23 years in opposition, Labor won office under Gough Whitlam, introducing significant reforms and expanding the Federal budget. Welfare benefits were extended and payment rates increased, a national health insurance scheme was introduced, and divorce laws liberalised. Commonwealth expenditure on schools trebled in the two years to mid-1975 and the Commonwealth assumed responsibility for funding higher education, abolishing tuition fees. In foreign affairs the new government prioritised the Asia Pacific region, formally abolishing the White Australia Policy, recognising Communist China and enhancing ties with Indonesia. Conscription was abolished and the remaining Australian troops in Vietnam withdrawn. The Australian national anthem was changed from God Save the Queen to Advance Australia Fair, the imperial honours system was replaced at the Commonwealth level by the Order of Australia, and Queen Elizabeth II was officially styled Queen of Australia. Relations with the US, however, became strained after government members criticised the resumption of the US bombing campaign in North Vietnam.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Reform and reaction: 1972–1996", "target_page_ids": [ 1495, 12454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 60 ], [ 78, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Indigenous affairs, the government introduced a policy of self-determination for Aboriginal people in economic, social and political affairs. Federal expenditure on Aboriginal services increased from $23 million to $141 million during the three years of the government. One of the first acts of the Whitlam Government was to establish a Royal Commission into land rights in the Northern Territory under Justice Woodward. Legislation based on its findings was passed into law by the Fraser Government in 1976, as the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Reform and reaction: 1972–1996", "target_page_ids": [ 2977863, 27561305, 24316342, 1079696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 303, 321 ], [ 341, 374 ], [ 486, 503 ], [ 520, 551 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the Whitlam government did not control the Senate, much of its legislation was rejected or amended. After Labor was re-elected with a reduced majority at elections in May 1974, the Senate remained an obstacle to its political agenda. The government's popularity was also harmed by deteriorating economic conditions and a series of political scandals. Increased government spending, rapid wage growth, booming commodity prices and the first OPEC oil shock led to economic instability. The unemployment rate reached post-war high of 3.6 per cent in late 1974 and the annual inflation rate hit 17 per cent.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Reform and reaction: 1972–1996", "target_page_ids": [ 9999126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1974–75 the government began negotiations for US$4billion in foreign loans to fund state development of Australia's mineral and energy resources. Minister Rex Connor conducted secret discussions with a loan broker from Pakistan, and the Treasurer, Jim Cairns, misled parliament about the issue. Arguing the government was incompetent following the Loans Affair, the opposition Liberal-Country Party Coalition delayed passage of the government's money bills in the Senate, until the government would promise a new election. Whitlam refused and the deadlock ended when his government was controversially dismissed by the Governor-General, John Kerr on 11 November 1975. Opposition leader Malcolm Fraser was installed as caretaker Prime Minister, pending an election.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Reform and reaction: 1972–1996", "target_page_ids": [ 2800707, 2257227, 301105, 2257227, 1051313, 52851, 81234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 168 ], [ 205, 230 ], [ 251, 261 ], [ 351, 363 ], [ 380, 411 ], [ 605, 638 ], [ 640, 649 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Federal elections of December 1975 resulted in a landslide victory for the Liberal-Country Party Coalition and Malcolm Fraser continued as Prime Minister. The coalition government won subsequent elections in 1977 and 1980, making Fraser the second longest serving Australian Prime Minister up to that time. The Fraser government espoused a policy of administrative competence and economic austerity leavened by progressive humanitarian, social and environmental interventions. The government enacted the Whitlam government's land rights bill with few changes, increased immigration, and resettled Indochinese refugees. It promoted multiculturalism and in 1978 established the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS) as a multicultural broadcaster. In foreign policy, the government continued Labor's friendly relations with China and Indonesia, repaired the frayed relationship with the US and opposed white minority rule in South Africa and Rhodesia. The government also attempted to use its influence with the US and China to limit Soviet expansionism. Environmental policies included banning resource development on Fraser Island and the Great Barrier Reef, creating Kakadu National Park and banning whaling. However, the government refused to use Commonwealth powers to stop the construction of the Franklin Dam in Tasmania in 1982 and the resulting grassroots campaign against the dam contributed to the emergence of an influential Environmental movement in Australia,", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Reform and reaction: 1972–1996", "target_page_ids": [ 581762, 21769764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1302, 1314 ], [ 1436, 1471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the economic front, the Fraser government followed a \"fight inflation first\" strategy centred on budget cuts and wage restraint. Welfare benefits were restricted, the universal healthcare system was partially dismantled, and university funding per student cut. However, by the early 1980s economic conditions were deteriorating. The second oil shock in 1979 increased inflation which was exacerbated by a boom in commodity prices and a sharp increase in real wages. An international recession, the collapse of the resources boom and a severe drought in eastern Australia saw unemployment rise. The government responded with Keynesian deficit spending in its 1982 Budget, but by 1983 both unemployment and annual inflation exceeded 10 per cent. At the Federal elections in March 1983 the coalition government was comfortably defeated by Labor under its popular new leader Bob Hawke.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Reform and reaction: 1972–1996", "target_page_ids": [ 4059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 874, 883 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Hawke government pursued a mixture of free market reforms and consensus politics featuring \"summits\" of government representatives, business leaders, trade unions and non-government organisations in order to reach consensus on key issues such as economic policy and tax reform. The centrepiece of this policy mix was an Accord with trade unions under which wage demands would be curtailed in return for increased social benefits. Welfare payments were increased and better targeted to those on low incomes, and a retirement benefits scheme (superannuation) was extended to most employees. A new universal health insurance scheme, Medicare, was introduced. The Treasurer Paul Keating oversaw a program of deregulation and micro-economic reforms which broke with the Keynesian economics that had traditionally been favoured by the Labor party. These reforms included floating the Australian dollar, deregulating capital markets and allowing competition from foreign banks. Business regulation and competition policy was streamlined, tariffs and quotas on Australian manufactured goods and rural commodities were gradually reduced, and a number of government enterprises and services were progressively privatised. The higher education system was restructured and significantly expanded, partly funded by the reintroduction of fees in the form of student loans and \"contributions\" (HECS). Paul Kelly concludes that, \"In the 1980s both Labor and non-Labor underwent internal philosophical revolutions to support a new set of ideas—faith in markets, deregulation, a reduced role for government, low protection and the creation of a new cooperative enterprise culture.\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Reform and reaction: 1972–1996", "target_page_ids": [ 21881444, 17326, 263893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 769, 788 ], [ 1382, 1388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Hawke Government courted the growing environmental movement with a series of actions including using Federal powers to stop the Franklin Dam development in Tasmania, banning new uranium mines at Jabiluka, and proposing Kakadu National park for world heritage listing. In foreign policy, the Hawke Government maintained strong relations with the US and was instrumental in the formation of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) group. Australia contributed naval ships and troops to UN forces in the Gulf War after Iraq had invaded Kuwait in 1990.The government complemented its consensus politics with other initiatives aimed at fostering national unity. The Australia Act 1986 eliminated the last vestiges of British legal authority at the Federal level. The Australian Bicentenary in 1988 was the focus of year-long celebrations with multicultural themes. The World Expo 88 was held in Brisbane and a new Parliament House in Canberra was opened.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Reform and reaction: 1972–1996", "target_page_ids": [ 415365, 3262837, 333768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 670, 688 ], [ 771, 793 ], [ 918, 934 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Strong economic growth, falling unemployment, an unstable opposition, and Bob Hawke's popularity with the public contributed to the re-election of the Hawke Government in 1984, 1987 and 1990. However, the economy went into recession in 1990 and by late 1991 the unemployment rate had risen above 10 per cent. With the government's popularity falling, Paul Keating successfully challenged for the leadership and became Prime Minister in December 1991.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Reform and reaction: 1972–1996", "target_page_ids": [ 38703006, 23767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 240 ], [ 351, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Keating government's first priority was economic recovery. In February 1992 it released the \"One Nation\" job creation package and later legislated tax cuts to corporations and individuals to boost economic growth. Unemployment reached 11.4 per cent in 1992—the highest since the Great Depression in Australia. The Liberal-National Opposition had proposed an ambitious plan of economic reform to take to the 1993 Election, including the introduction of a Goods and Services Tax. Keating campaigned strongly against the tax and was returned to office in March 1993.In May 1994 a more ambitious \"Working Nation\" jobs program was introduced. The Keating government also pursued a number of \"big picture\" issues throughout its two terms including increased political and economic engagement in the Asia Pacific region, Indigenous reconciliation, an Australian republic and \"efficiency with equity\". The government engaged closely with the Indonesian President, Suharto and other regional partners, and successfully campaigned to increase the role of APEC as a major forum for strategic and economic co-operation. A Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation was established and, following the High Court of Australia's historic Mabo decision in 1992, the first national Native Title legislation was introduced to regulate claims and provide compensation for loss of native title. In 1993, Keating established a Republic Advisory Committee to examine options for Australia becoming a republic. The government also introduced family payments and a superannuation guarantee with compulsory employer contributions.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Reform and reaction: 1972–1996", "target_page_ids": [ 2264742, 1051313, 14118909, 970496, 962277, 65265370, 65836, 217513, 135976, 20511, 4703394, 158533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 283, 312 ], [ 318, 345 ], [ 362, 395 ], [ 411, 424 ], [ 458, 480 ], [ 818, 843 ], [ 848, 867 ], [ 960, 967 ], [ 1049, 1053 ], [ 1222, 1235 ], [ 1264, 1288 ], [ 1405, 1432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under the Hawke Government the annual migration intake had more than doubled from 54,500 in 1984–85 to more than 120,000 in 1989–90. The Keating Government responded to community concerns about the pace of immigration by cutting the immigration intake and introducing mandatory detention for illegal immigrants arriving without a valid visa. Immigration fell to 67,900 in 1992–93.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Reform and reaction: 1972–1996", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With foreign debt, inflation and unemployment still stubbornly high, and after a series of ministerial resignations, Keating lost the March 1996 Election to the Liberals' John Howard.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Reform and reaction: 1972–1996", "target_page_ids": [ 467990, 4689709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 153 ], [ 171, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Howard with a Liberal–National Party coalition served as Prime Minister from 1996 until 2007, winning re-election in 1998, 2001 and 2004 to become the second-longest serving prime minister after Menzies. One of the first programs instigated by the Howard government was a nationwide gun control scheme following a mass shooting at Port Arthur. The new government saw industrial relations and taxation as two key areas of economic reform which had been left undone by the Hawke-Keating governments. The coalition introduced industrial relations reforms in 1996 which promoted individual contracts and enterprise bargaining. In 2006, it controversially introduced the WorkChoices legislation, which made it easier for small businesses to terminate employment. After the 1996 election, Howard and treasurer Peter Costello proposed a Goods and Services Tax (GST) which they successfully took to the electorate in 1998 and implemented in July 2000.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 4689709, 24117, 17780763, 450955, 39737448, 4160372, 2218400, 389497, 962277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 62, 76 ], [ 253, 270 ], [ 288, 306 ], [ 319, 347 ], [ 528, 564 ], [ 671, 682 ], [ 809, 823 ], [ 835, 857 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A political concern for the new government was the significant public support for Pauline Hanson and, later, her One Nation party, which espoused populist policies including winding back free market reforms, Asian immigration and programs for Indigenous Australians. The government responded with public messaging criticising elites and political correctness and emphasising Australian values. The coalition initially cut immigration intakes, abolished the Office of Multicultural Affairs and other multicultural agencies, and introduced citizenship tests for migrants. Following a sharp increase in unauthorised arrivals by boat from 1999, the government opened new mandatory detention centres in remote areas of Australia and issued temporary visas for those found to be refugees. Following the Children Overboard affair and the Tampa Affair in 2001, the government introduced the Pacific Solution, which involved detaining unauthorised immigrants in detention centres in Nauru and Papua New Guinea while their refugee status was determined, as well as a policy of turning back vessels intercepted at sea.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 69926, 83013, 945731, 643520, 1100910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 96 ], [ 113, 129 ], [ 798, 823 ], [ 832, 844 ], [ 884, 900 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Indigenous affairs the Prime Minister rejected calls for a treaty with Indigenous Australians and an apology for past actions which had harmed them. Instead, the government pursued a policy of \"practical reconciliation\" involving specific measures to improve Indigenous education, health, employment and housing. In response to the High Court's decision in Wik Peoples v Queensland, in 1996, the Howard Government amended native title legislation to limit native title claims. In 2007, following the release of the \"Little Children are Sacred\" report detailing widespread abuse in Aboriginal communities, the Howard Government launched the Northern Territory Intervention in order to create a safe environment for Indigenous children. The government's response was criticised by the co-chairs of the report, received a divided response from the Indigenous community, but was supported by the Labor opposition.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 207641, 12939277, 12939421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 360, 384 ], [ 519, 545 ], [ 643, 674 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Honouring a commitment made during the 1996 election campaign, the Howard Government set up a people's convention on an Australian republic. The resulting 1999 referendum on a republic failed. Howard, an avowed monarchist, became the only Australian Prime Minister to publicly oppose a constitutional amendment he had put to the people.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1999, Australia led a United Nations force into East Timor to help establish democracy and independence for that nation, following political violence. During this period Australia committed to a number of other peacekeeping and stabilisation operations: notably in Bougainville, including Operation Bel Isi (1998–2003); as well as Operation Helpem Fren and the Australian-led Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI) in the early 2000s; and the 2006 East Timorese crisis. Following the September 2001 terrorist attacks on the US and the subsequent War on Terror, Australia committed troops to the Afghanistan War and the Iraq War. These events, along with the 2002 Bali Bombings and other terrorist incidents, led to the creation of a National Security Committee and further anti-terrorist legislation.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 3487647, 193907, 724325, 1104040, 1104040, 5308122, 19666611, 5043324, 103098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 61 ], [ 268, 280 ], [ 292, 309 ], [ 334, 355 ], [ 379, 425 ], [ 462, 487 ], [ 614, 629 ], [ 638, 646 ], [ 677, 695 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In foreign affairs, the government advocated a policy of \"Asia first, but not Asia only\", emphasising traditional links to the Commonwealth and the US. Relations with Indonesia became strained over East Timor but generally improved after the Bali bombings. Australia's support of US policy during the War on Terror was followed by an Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement in 2004. Trade agreements with Singapore and Thailand were also secured and relations with China improved. Australia joined the US in refusing to ratify the Kyoto Protocol on greenhouse gas emissions, arguing that it would harm Australia's economy and would be ineffective without the participation of China and India.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 874182, 16775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 335, 379 ], [ 537, 551 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After initial cuts, the immigration intake increased from 92,270 in 1999–2000 to 157,000 in 2005–06, with a bias towards skilled workers to meet the needs of a rapidly growing economy. The immigration intake also became increasingly diverse, with the proportion of immigrants from South Asia increasing from 8 per cent in 1996–97 to 20 per cent in 2007–08. Inbound tourism also grew, helped by the Sydney Olympic games in 2000.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The economy continued its uninterrupted expansion since the early 1990s recession, with record jobs growth and the lowest unemployment rates since the 1970s. Exports and imports grew from a value of about a third of Australia's economic output in the early 1990s to 40 per cent in 2005. China became Australia's second largest trading partner after Japan, and foreign investment in Australia more than doubled. The coalition delivered Budget surpluses in most years which, along with the proceeds of government asset sales – most notably of Telstra – were partly invested in a Future Fund to reduce the national debt. Income inequality and private debt increased as the economy expanded, with the biggest increase in incomes accruing to the top 10 per cent of income earners.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 7627531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 577, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 2007 the Howard Government was consistently trailing the Labor opposition in opinion polls, with key issues being rising interest rates, the unpopular Work Choices industrial relations reforms, and climate change policy. The government was also hampered by leadership tensions between Howard and Costello and opinion polls indicating a desire for a generational change in leadership (opposition leader Kevin Rudd was eighteen years younger than Howard and widely seen as more vibrant). Labor won the November 2007 election with a swing of more than 5 per cent and Howard became only the second sitting Prime Minister to lose his seat in an election.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 1056082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 503, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kevin Rudd became Prime Minister in December 2007 and held office until June 2010, when he was replaced as leader by Julia Gillard, Australia's first female Prime Minister. Following the August 2010 federal election, Gillard formed a minority Labor government with the support of the Australian Greens and three independents. Gillard was replaced as Prime Minister by Rudd in June 2013, and Labor lost the subsequent September 2013 election.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 519437, 14449214, 171629, 27837851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 130 ], [ 187, 215 ], [ 284, 301 ], [ 417, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first Rudd Government moved quickly to ratify the Kyoto protocols, dismantle the previous government's Work Choices industrial relations reforms, and issue an apology to Aboriginal Australians for past policies, particularly the removal of Aboriginal children from their families. The government was soon confronted by the Global Financial Crisis and subsequent global recession, responding with a series of economic stimulus measures worth A$75 billion. Although economic growth slowed in 2008, Australia was one of the few advanced economies in the world to avoid recession.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 21003944, 28412, 32005855, 19337279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ], [ 233, 283 ], [ 327, 350 ], [ 366, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rudd declared climate change \"the great moral challenge of our generation\" and his government proposed an emissions trading scheme (ETS) to address the issue. The necessary legislation, however, was twice rejected in the Senate when the Opposition and Greens refused to support it. After the December 2009 UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen failed to produce an agreed international response to global warming the government decided to postpone its ETS until 2013, a decision which saw Labor lose some electoral support to the Greens. The government also lost some public support when it proposed a Resources Super Profits Tax following the release of the Henry Tax Review in May 2010. The resulting media campaign against the tax by the mining industry particularly affected Labor's support in the resource-rich states of Queensland and Western Australia.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 11584565, 15718582, 27716877, 28318421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 130 ], [ 306, 348 ], [ 607, 634 ], [ 664, 680 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Illegal immigration policy proved another difficult issue for the government, which initially closed the Nauru processing centre, abolished temporary protection visas and took measures to improve the legal rights and processing time for applicants for asylum. However, unauthorised arrivals by boat increased sharply from 2009 and the number in mandatory detention stretched capacity. The new leader of the Opposition, Tony Abbot, promised that a Coalition government would \"stop the boats.\"", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 556739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 419, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2010, with the government behind the Opposition in polls and Rudd's popularity rating falling, the Labor caucus replaced Rudd with Gillard as leader. The new leader was able to negotiate concessions on a new mining tax with large mining companies but failed to reach agreement with East Timor on a proposed migration processing centre there. Following the September 2010 election, the Gillard Government passed a series of legislation with the support of the Greens who now held the balance of power in the Senate. This included enabling legislation for a National Broadband Network, a carbon pricing scheme, a mining tax, a National Disability Insurance Scheme, and school funding reforms.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 32055949, 36133183, 37816275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 564, 590 ], [ 594, 615 ], [ 633, 669 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Illegal immigration policy, however, remained a politically sensitive issue. The government negotiated an agreement with Malaysia to process some people there but the plan did not gain the support of the Opposition or the Greens and was struck down by the High Court. As the number of unauthorised immigrants arriving by boat continued to climb, the government reopened offshore processing centres on Manus Island and Nauru.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Indigenous affairs, the government introduced, in 2012, a modified policy in the Northern Territory ('Stronger Futures in the Northern Territory') under a 10-year funding agreement. The new policy retained many features of the Northern Territory Intervention but was broader in scope and involved more collaboration with Indigenous stakeholders.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Following mounting leadership speculation and poor polling for the government, Rudd defeated Gillard in a leadership ballot in June 2013 and returned as Prime Minister, promising to replace the carbon tax with an emissions trading scheme and to ensure that people arriving without authority by boat would not be settled in Australia. The Opposition, promising to \"stop the boats,\" abolish the carbon tax and mining tax, and reduce the Budget deficit and government debt, won the September 2013 election.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The return of the Liberal-National Coalition to power after six years in opposition initially failed to restore stability to the office of prime minister. Prime Minister Tony Abbott's rival Malcolm Turnbull challenged for and won the leadership of the Liberals within Abbott's first term. After Turnbull narrowly returned the Coalition to office in 2016, Party dissatisfaction with his leadership saw him replaced by Scott Morrison in 2018. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 1051313, 556739, 314742, 14521782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 44 ], [ 170, 181 ], [ 190, 206 ], [ 417, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abbott Government (2013–2015)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Prime Minister Tony Abbott's Liberal-National Coalition Government began implementing its policies on unauthorised maritime arrivals, including Operation Sovereign Borders, boat turnbacks, the reintroduction of temporary protection visas, and the resettlement in third countries of those found to be refugees. The new policy strained relations with Indonesia, but the number of people arriving by boat fell from 20,587 in 2013 to none in 2015. The government continued Australia's economic engagement with Asia, signing trade agreements with China, South Korea and Japan. The government also embraced the intervention against Islamic State in Iraq and Syria, joining the air campaign, sending special forces and providing training for the Iraqi army.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 40256601, 40554984, 7914040, 43236422, 43287359, 43517689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 66 ], [ 144, 171 ], [ 542, 547 ], [ 549, 560 ], [ 565, 570 ], [ 605, 647 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The government made cuts to Indigenous programs, brought the Indigenous Affairs portfolio into the Cabinet, and established the Indigenous Advisory Council.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 40544488, 5429395, 66635848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 89 ], [ 99, 106 ], [ 128, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The government's May 2014 Budget, which included measures such as the deregulation of university fees, welfare cuts and projected cuts to funding to the states for health and education, proved unpopular, with the perception that it had involved breaking a number of election promises. The government secured the passage of legislation abolishing the carbon tax (July 2014) and the mining tax (September 2014).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Prime Minister announced a number of decisions – most notably the reintroduction of knighthoods and a knighthood for Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh – which had not been approved by cabinet and which were widely criticised in the media. By September 2015 the government had lost 30 Newspolls in a row and Malcolm Turnbull successfully challenged for the leadership.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 62093, 10656491, 314742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 153 ], [ 287, 295 ], [ 310, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Turnbull Government (2015–2018)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The new Turnbull government promised to promote a \"smart, agile and innovative Australia\" and \"jobs and growth\". The government announced a National Innovation and Science Agenda and delivered a Budget featuring cuts to company tax. However, the elections of July 2016 saw the government returned with a majority on only one and a minority in the Senate, making it more difficult to secure the passage of government legislation. Following a national postal plebiscite, the government legalised same-sex marriage in December 2017.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 37747170, 6081982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 268 ], [ 494, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In foreign affairs, Australia signed a refugee exchange deal with the US in September 2016, allowing those in detention on Manus Island and Nauru to be settled in the US. There was increased tension with China because of Australia's criticism of China's policies in the South China Sea, Australia's new laws targeting foreign influence in domestic politics, and a ban, on national security grounds, on Chinese companies supplying Australia's 5G communications network. Trade with China, however, continued to grow.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 23475353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 443, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, the United States, Japan, India and Australia agreed to revive the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue in order to counter Chinese ambitions in the South China Sea. Australia signed a modified Trans-Pacific Partnership trade agreement with 10 other nations in March 2018 after the US withdrew from the original agreement.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 34231453, 74209, 56387329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 107 ], [ 153, 168 ], [ 198, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The government lost five by-elections in July 2018. When, in August, the government sought to introduce legislation for a National Energy Guarantee, including a commitment to meet Australia's emissions target under the Paris Agreement, a number of Coalition members vowed to vote against the bill. The resulting controversy further harmed the government, which had already lost more than 30 consecutive Newspolls. The parliamentary Liberal Party elected Scott Morrison as its new leader and he was sworn in as Prime Minister.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 62528684, 30242372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 208 ], [ 219, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Morrison Government (2018–2022)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Morrison government committed to remaining in the Paris Agreement, but promised a greater focus on reduction of energy prices. In foreign affairs the government signed the Indonesia–Australia Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (IA-CEPA) in March 2019. In April, the treasurer delivered a Budget focusing on tax cuts, increased spending on roads and other infrastructure, and a forecast return to a surplus. The government was returned at the elections of May 2019 with a three-seat majority.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 58252952, 63094089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 176, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, a constitutional convention of 250 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander delegates had issued the Uluru Statement from the Heart, calling for the recognition of Indigenous sovereignty, a Makarrata (truth telling and agreement-making) Commission, constitutional recognition of Indigenous Australians and a \"voice to parliament\". In 2019, the government announced a process to \"develop options for a model that will ensure that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are heard at all levels of government\".", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 57899992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Within a year the government was confronted with the international COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent recession, Australia's first in 29 years. From 1 February 2020, Australia progressively closed its borders to foreign nationals who had recently visited high-risk countries, culminating, on 20 March, in a general ban on the entry of foreign nationals. On 13 March 2020, a National Cabinet, including Australian government, state government and territory government leaders, was created to address the crisis. The national cabinet announced a series of increasingly tighter restrictions on non-essential business, travel and gatherings of people with the aim of suppressing COVID. These restrictions were progressively eased from early May, although individual states and territories intermittently reimposed restrictions in response to particular outbreaks of COVID-19.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 63440399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 376, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian government made provision for $267 billion in economic stimulus measures, and $16.6 billion in health measures in response to COVID-19. As a result of the COVID-19 recession, the unemployment rate rose from about 5 per cent in February 2020 to 7.5 per cent in July 2020. As the economy began to recover from the second half of 2020, the unemployment rate fell to 5.6 per cent in March 2021 and hours worked returned to pre-recession levels. As at 17 April 2021, Australia was ranked 134 out of 177 countries in the number of COVID-19 deaths per capita.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2021 Australia and the United Kingdom announced that they had struck a preliminary deal on a free-trade agreement.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 64325501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 16 September 2021, the government announced that Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States had agreed to the creation of an enhanced trilateral security partnership, dubbed AUKUS. The first initiative under AUKUS would be for Australia to acquire nuclear-powered submarine technology. As a result of the agreement, Australia cancelled its 2016 contract for the diesel-electric Attack-class submarine with the French company Naval Group. China condemned the AUKUS agreement, stating it \"seriously undermines regional peace and stability and intensifies the arms race\". France announced it would withdraw its ambassador from Australia in protest against the lack of consultation on the security agreement and the cancellation of the $90 billion dollar contract for French submarines.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 68730481, 15174021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 191 ], [ 390, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 23 May 2022, Anthony Albanese was sworn in as Australia's new prime minister. His Labor Party defeated Scott Morrison's conservative government in the election. Prime Minister Albanese formed Australia's first Labor government in almost a decade.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Australia in a globalised world: 1996 to present", "target_page_ids": [ 556745, 59119786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 32 ], [ 154, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1960, Aboriginal affairs were still regulated by state governments and, in the Northern Territory, by the Australian government. In most states Aboriginal Australians were banned from drinking alcohol and their freedom of association, movement and control of property was restricted. Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory banned Aboriginal people from voting and Queensland and Western Australia controlled their right to marry. Aboriginals were often subjected to unofficial \"colour bars\" restricting their access to many goods, services and public facilities, especially in country towns.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The official policy of the Australian government and most state governments, however, was the assimilation of Aboriginal people into mainstream culture: \"all aborigines and part-aborigines are expected to eventually attain the same manner of living as other Australians and to live as members of a single Australian community enjoying the same rights and privileges, accepting the same responsibilities, observing the same customs and influenced by the same beliefs, hopes and loyalties as other Australians.\"", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 1960s was a key decade for Indigenous rights, with the demand for change led by Indigenous activists and organisations such as the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders. In 1962, the Menzies Government's Commonwealth Electoral Act gave Indigenous people the right to vote at federal elections. In 1965, Queensland became the last state to confer state voting rights on Aboriginal people.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 53870094, 31239961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 212 ], [ 227, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1963, the Yolngu people of Arnhem Land sent a bark petition to the Australian parliament asking for recognition of their traditional land rights. They subsequently took their case to the Supreme Court of the Northern Territory which ruled against them in September 1971.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1965, Charles Perkins, helped organise freedom rides into parts of Australia to expose discrimination and inequality. In 1966, the Gurindji people of Wave Hill station commenced the Gurindji strike in a quest for equal pay and recognition of land rights.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 1698688, 2587391, 1422478, 1422478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 42, 55 ], [ 134, 142 ], [ 185, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1966, the Australian government gave Aboriginal people the same rights to social security benefits as other Australians.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A 1967 referendum called by the Holt Government saw Australians vote by a 91 per cent majority to change the Australian constitution to include all Aboriginal Australians in the national census and allow the Federal parliament to legislate on their behalf. A Council for Aboriginal Affairs was established.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 1239701, 31239067, 18579518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 17 ], [ 32, 47 ], [ 109, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Demands for Indigenous self-determination and the preservation of cultural identity were increasingly promoted. In January 1972 Aboriginal activists erected an Aboriginal \"tent embassy\" on the lawns of parliament house, Canberra and issued a number demands including land rights, compensation for past loss of land and self-determination. The leader of the opposition Gough Whitlam was among those who visited the tent embassy to discuss their demands.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 600797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Whitlam government came to power in December 1972 with a policy of self-determination for Aboriginal people. The government also passed legislation against racial discrimination and established a Royal Commission into land rights in the Northern Territory, which formed the basis for the Fraser government's Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 27561305, 1079696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 233 ], [ 312, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Land Rights Act only applied to the Northern Territory, but Aboriginal communities could also acquire land through various state land rights acts or other legislation. By the early 1980s Aboriginal communities had gained title to about 30 per cent of Northern Territory land and 20 per cent of South Australian land. In 1982, the Queensland government granted Aboriginal reserve land to its occupiers but the grants gave limited rights and was revocable at any time. Only a small proportion of land in other states had been transferred to traditional owners. In 1985, the Hawke government handed over Uluru (Ayers Rock) to traditional owners with a lease back to the Commonwealth. In 1987, the West Australian government granted Aboriginal reserve land (amounting to 7 per cent of the state's land) to traditional owners on 50 year and 99 year leases. Key issues for Indigenous communities with recognised land rights included security of title, the protection of culturally significant sites, and the right to veto, or to be adequately compensated for, mining and development on their land. Compensation for previous dispossession of land was an unresolved issue.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 133260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 605, 610 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1992, the High Court of Australia handed down its decision in the Mabo Case, holding that Indigenous native title survived reception of English law and continued to exist unless extinguished by conflicting law or interests in land. The Keating government passed a Native Title Act in 1993 to regulate native title claims and established a Native Title Tribunal to hear those claims. In the subsequent Wik decision of 1996, the High Court found that a pastoral lease did not necessarily extinguish native title. In response, the Howard government amended the Native Title Act to provide better protection for pastoralists and others with an interest in land. By March 2019 the Native Titles Tribunal had determined that 375 Indigenous communities had established native title over 39 per cent of the Australian continent, with one third under exclusive title.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 20511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1960 the Indigenous population grew faster than the Australian population as a whole and increasingly lived in urban areas. The Aboriginal population was 106,000 in 1961 (1 per cent of the total population), with 20 per cent living in capital cities compared with 40 per cent for the population as a whole. In 2016, the Indigenous population was 786,900 (3 per cent of the population), with a third living in major cities compared with more than two-thirds of people who were not indigenous. While most of this growth was due to a higher Indigenous birth rate, people of Indigenous descent were also more willing to identify as Indigenous. According to Richard Broome: \"identification as Indigenous is almost universal among those with a claim due to the growing pride in Indigenous identity in the face of stronger community acceptance.\"", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the drift to large cities, the period from 1965 to 1980 also saw a movement of Indigenous Australians away from towns and settlements to small outstations (or homelands), particularly in Arnhem Land and Central Australia. The movement to outstations was associated with a wider trend for the revival of traditional culture. However, the expense of providing infrastructure to small remote communities has seen pressure from federal, state and territory governments to redirect funding towards larger Indigenous communities.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 5001671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1971 to 2006, indicators for Indigenous employment, median incomes, home ownership, education and life expectancy all improved, although they remained well below the level for those who were not indigenous. In 2008, the Council of Australian Governments created targets for \"closing the gap\" in inequality in a number of key areas of education, employment, literacy and child mortality. By 2020, the outcomes for Indigenous Australians improved in most of these areas. However, the gap widened for child mortality and school attendance, and targets for closing the inequality gap were not met for employment and child literacy and numeracy. Targets for closing the gap in early childhood education and Year 12 school attainment were on track.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 1650877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "High rates of Indigenous incarceration and deaths in custody were highlighted by the report of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody in April 1991. The Keating government responded with $400 million in new spending to address some of the recommendations of the report. However, by 2001 Indigenous incarceration rates and deaths in custody had increased. Deaths in custody continued at an average of 15 per year during the decade to 2018.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Richard Broome has concluded: \"To close the gap [between Indigenous and other Australians] on inequality and well being will take many years; some despairingly say generations. Compensation for lost wages, for missing out on native title settlements and for being removed from one's family and kin remain unresolved.\"", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Holmes and Pinto point out that in 1960 domesticity and motherhood were still the dominant conceptions of femininity. In 1961, women made up only 25 per cent of employed adults and twice as many women described their occupation as \"home duties\" compared with those in paid employment. The fertility rate fell from a post-war high of 3.5 to less than 2 in the 1970s and 1980s.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The reforming drive of the 1960s and the increasing influence of the women's movement led to a series of legislative and institutional changes. These included the abolition of the \"marriage bar\" in the Australian public service in 1966, the Arbitration Commission's equal pay decisions of 1969 and 1972, the introduction of paid maternity leave in the Australian public service in 1973, and the enactment of the federal Sex Discrimination Act in 1984 and the Affirmative Action Act of 1986.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 23024374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 420, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Single mothers' benefits were introduced in 1973 and the Family Law Act 1975 bought in no-fault divorce. From the 1980s there was an increase in government funding of women's refuges, health centres, rape crisis centres and information services. The Australian government began funding child care with the Child Care Act of 1972, although state, territory and local government were still the main providers of funding. In 1984, the Australian government introduced standardised fee relief for child care, and funding was greatly expanded in 1990 by the decision to extend fee relief to commercial child care centres.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 5740757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Holmes and Pinto, reliable birth control, increased employment opportunities, and improved family welfare and childcare provision increased opportunities for women outside motherhood and domesticity. In 2019–20, women were more likely than men to hold a bachelor's degree or higher qualification. Sixty-eight per cent of women aged 20–74 years old participated in the labour force, compared with 78 per cent of men. However, 43 per cent of employed women were working part-time, compared with 16 per cent of men, and the average earnings of women working full-time was 14 per cent below that of men.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the five-to-ten years to 2020, the number of women in private sector leadership roles, female federal Justices and Judges, and federal parliamentarians have all increased gradually. However, between 1999 and 2021, Australia has fallen from ninth to 50th in the Inter-Parliamentary Union's ranking of countries by women's representation in national parliaments.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 221863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1961, just over 90 per cent of the Australian population had been born in Australia, New Zealand, the UK or Ireland. Another eight per cent had been born in continental Europe. The White Australia policy was in force and migrants were expected to assimilate into the Australian way of life. As the White Australia policy was gradually dismantled in the 1960s and formally abolished in 1973, governments developed a policy of multiculturalism to manage Australia's increasing cultural diversity. In August 1973 Labor's immigration minister Al Grassby announced his vision of A Multi‐Cultural Society for the Future and a policy of cultural pluralism based on principles of social cohesion, equality of opportunity and cultural identity soon gained bipartisan support. The Galbally Report on migrant services in 1978 recommended that: \"every person should be able to maintain his or her culture without prejudice or disadvantage and should be encouraged to understand and embrace other cultures.\" In response to the report, the Fraser government expanded funding for settlement services, established the Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs (AIMA), funded multicultural and community language education programs in schools and established the multi-lingual Special Broadcasting Service (SBS). State and territory government programs to support multiculturalism followed.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By the late 1980s Australia had a high migrant intake which included significant numbers of new arrivals from Asian and Middle‐Eastern countries, leading to public debate on immigration policy. In 1984, the historian Geoffrey Blainey called for a reduction in Asian immigration in the interests of social cohesion. In 1988, the opposition Leader, John Howard called for the abandonment of multiculturalism, a reduction in Asian immigration, and a focus on 'One Australia'. In the same year, the government's FitzGerald review of immigration recommended a sharper economic focus in the selection of immigrants. In 1989, the Hawke government released its National Agenda for a Multicultural Australia which endorsed respect for cultural diversity and the need for settlement services, but indicated that pluralism was limited by the need for \"an overriding and unifying commitment to Australia\".", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Multicultural programs continued to expand between 1986 and 1996 with an emphasis on addressing disadvantage in migrant communities as well as settlement services for recent migrants. James Walter argues that the Hawke and Keating governments (1983–96) also promoted high migration as a means of improving Australia's competitive advantage in a globalised market.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1996, Pauline Hanson, a newly elected independent member of parliament, called for a cut in Asian immigration and an end to multiculturalism. In 1998, her One Nation Party gained 23 per cent of the vote in the Queensland elections. The Howard Government (1996 to 2007) initially abolished a number of multicultural agencies and reduced funding to some migrant services as part of a general program of budget cuts. In 1999, the government adopted a policy of \"Australian multiculturalism\" with an emphasis on citizenship and adherence to \"Australian values\".", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the US, the Bali bombings and other terrorist incidents, some media and political commentary sought to link terrorism with Islam. In 2004, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) reported an increase in vilification and violence against Australian Muslims and some other minority ethnic groups. The government increased funding for multicultural, citizenship and settlement programs, with an emphasis on the promotion of social cohesion and security. The annual immigration intake also increased substantially as the economy boomed, from 67,900 in 1998–99 to 148,200 in 2006–07. The proportion of migrants selected for their skills increased from 30 per cent in 1995–96 to 68 per cent in 2006–07.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Immigration continued to grow under the Labor government (2007–13) with prime minister Kevin Rudd proclaiming a \"big Australia\" policy. The immigration intake averaged around 190,000 a year from 2011–12 to 2015–16, a level based on research indicating the optimum level to increase economic output per head of population. India and China became the largest source countries of new migrants. The immigration intake was reduced to 160,000 in 2018–19 as some State governments complained that high immigration was adding to urban congestion. The opposition also linked high immigration with low wages growth while the One Nation party continued to oppose high immigration while proclaiming: \"It's okay to be white.\".", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By 2020, 30 per cent of the Australian population were born overseas. The top five countries of birth for those born overseas were England, China, India, New Zealand and the Philippines. Australia's population encompassed migrants born in almost every country in the world,", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 1960s and 1970s saw increased government support for the arts and the flourishing of distinctively Australian artistic works. The Gorton government (1968–71) established the Australian Council for the Arts, the Australian Film Development Corporation (AFDC) and the National Film and Television Training School. The Whitlam government (1972–75) established the Australia Council with funding to promote crafts, Aboriginal arts, literature, music, visual arts, theatre, film and television.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 31220409, 3779377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 151 ], [ 178, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1966, a television drama quota was introduced requiring broadcasters to show 30 minutes of locally produced drama each week. The police series Homicide (1964–67) became the highest rating program and the family drama Skippy the Bush Kangaroo became a local and international success. By 1969 eight of the twelve most popular television programs were Australian. With these successes, locally produced dramas became a staple of Australian television in the 1970s and 1980s. Notable examples include Rush (1973–76), The Sullivans (1976–83) and Neighbours (1985–present).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 61066, 4732861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 244 ], [ 545, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the late 1960s a \"new wave\" of Australian theatre emerged, initially centred on small theatre groups such as the Pram Factory, La Mama and the Australian Performing Group in Melbourne and the Jane Street Theatre and Nimrod Theatre Company in Sydney. Playwrights associated with the new wave included David Williamson, Alex Buzo, Jack Hibberd and John Romeril. Features of the new wave were the extensive use of Australian colloquial speech (including obscenities), the exploration of the Australian identity, and the critique of cultural myths. By the end of the 1970s new Australian plays were a feature of small and large theatre companies in most states.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 34650890, 2861467, 43081489, 657473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 130 ], [ 132, 139 ], [ 148, 175 ], [ 221, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Support through the AFDC (from 1975 the Australian Film Commission) and state funding bodies, and generous tax concessions for investors introduced in 1981, led to a large increase in Australian produced films. Almost 400 were produced between 1970 and 1985. Notable films include The Adventures of Barry McKenzie (1972), Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975), My Brilliant Career (1979), Breaker Morant (1980), Gallipoli (1981), the Mad Max trilogy (1979–85) and Crocodile Dundee (1986).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1973, Patrick White became the first Australian to win a Nobel Prize for Literature. While there were only around twenty Australian novels published in 1973, this had grown to around 300 in 1988. By 1985 more than 1,000 writers had received grants and more than 1,000 books had been subsidised by the Literature Board. Writers who published their first book between 1975 and 1985 include Peter Carey, David Malouf, Murray Bail, Elizabeth Jolley, Helen Garner and Tim Winton.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 23932, 24419, 1213430, 70002, 2053255, 292983, 1033702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ], [ 391, 402 ], [ 404, 416 ], [ 418, 429 ], [ 431, 447 ], [ 449, 461 ], [ 466, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There was also a growing recognition of Indigenous cultural movements. In the early 1970s Aboriginal elders at Papunya began using acrylic paints to make \"dot\" paintings based on the traditional Honey Ant Dreaming. Indigenous artists from other regions also developed distinctive styles based on a fusion of modern art materials and traditional stories and iconography. Indigenous writers such as Oodgeroo Noonuccal (Kath Walker), Jack Davis and Kevin Gilbert produced significant work in the 1970s and 1980s. A National Black Theatre was established in Sydney in the early 1970s. The Aboriginal Islander Dance Theatre was established in 1976 and the Bangarra Dance Theatre in 1989. In 1991, the rock band Yothu Yindi, which drew on traditional Aboriginal music and dance, achieved commercial and critical success.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 5347459, 1114702, 1943362, 7004416, 13703842, 2007121, 149024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 118 ], [ 397, 415 ], [ 431, 441 ], [ 446, 459 ], [ 512, 534 ], [ 651, 673 ], [ 706, 717 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In music, ABC television's popular music show Countdown (1974–87) helped promote Australian music while radio station 2JJ (later JJJ) in Sydney promoted live performances and recordings by Australian independent artists and record labels.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carter and Griffen-Foley state that by the end of the 1970s: \"There was a widely shared sense of Australian culture as independent, no longer troubled by its relationship with Britain.\" However, by 1990 commentators as diverse as P. P. McGuiness and Geoffrey Serle were complaining that the large increase in artistic works had led to the celebration of mediocrity. Poet Chris Wallace-Crabbe questioned whether Australia had overcome its former \"cultural cringe\" only to fall into cultural overconfidence.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 7669420, 26994002, 3071157, 2435562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 230, 245 ], [ 250, 264 ], [ 371, 391 ], [ 446, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the new millennium, the globalisation of the Australian economy and society, and developments in jet travel and the internet have largely overcome the \"tyranny of distance\" which had influenced Australian arts and culture. Overseas cultural works could be more readily accessed in person or virtually. Australian performers such as the Australian Ballet and Australian Chamber Orchestra frequently toured abroad. The growing number of international art exhibitions, such as Art Basel Hong Kong and the Queensland Art Gallery's Asia-Pacific Triennial of Contemporary Art, have increased the exposure of Australian art in the region and the wider global market.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 1994106, 1993574, 15110655, 6026910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 339, 356 ], [ 361, 389 ], [ 477, 496 ], [ 530, 572 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In film, the number of Australian productions averaged 14 per year in the 1970s but grew to 31 per year in the 2000s and 37 per year in the 2010s. A number of Australian directors and actors, including Baz Luhrmann, George Miller, Peter Weir, Cate Blanchett, Nicole Kidman, Geoffrey Rush and others, have been able to establish careers both in Australia and abroad. The technical expertise developed in the Australian industry, and the increasing number of internationally successful Australian directors and actors, encouraged foreign producers to make more films in Australia. Major international productions made in Australia in the past decade include Fury Road and The Great Gatsby.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [ 152171, 152157, 44458, 160126, 21504, 171515, 30951080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 214 ], [ 216, 229 ], [ 231, 241 ], [ 243, 257 ], [ 259, 272 ], [ 274, 287 ], [ 671, 687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carter and Griffen-Follet conclude: \"Australia is no longer a Dominion or client state within a closed imperial market, but a medium-sized player, exporter as well as importer, within globalised cultural industries and markets.\"", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture: 1960s to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Stuart MacIntyre, the first Australian histories, such as those by William Wentworth and James Macarthur, were polemical works written to influence public opinion and British government policy in the colony. After the Australian colonies became self-governing in the 1850s, colonial governments commissioned histories aimed at promoting migration and investment from Britain. The beginning of professional academic history in Australian universities from 1891 saw the dominance of an Imperial framework for interpreting Australian history, in which Australia emerged from the successful transfer of people, institutions, and culture from Britain. The apogee of the imperial school of Australian history was the Australian volume of the Cambridge History of the British Empire published in 1933.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [ 3974247, 297951, 30305549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 29 ], [ 80, 97 ], [ 102, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military history received government support after the First World War, most prominently with Charles Bean's 12 volume History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918 (1921–42). Bean's earlier work as Australia's official war correspondent had helped establish the Anzac legend which, according to McKenna: \"immediately supplanted all other narratives of nationhood – the march of the explorers, the advance of settlement, Eureka, Federation and Australia's record of progressive democratic legislation.\"", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [ 745420, 1140683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 108 ], [ 119, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Radical nationalist interpretations of Australian history became more prominent from the 1930s. Brian Fitzpatrick published a series of histories from 1939 to 1941 which sought to demonstrate the exploitative nature of Britain's economic relationship with Australia and the role of the labour movement in a struggle for social justice and economic independence. One of the most influential works of the radical nationalist trend was Russel Ward's The Australian Legend (1958) which sought to trace the origins of a distinctive democratic national ethos from the experiences of the convicts, bushrangers, gold-diggers, drovers and shearers. In the 1960s Marxist historians such as Bob Gollan and Ian Turner explored the relationship of the labour movement to radical nationalist politics.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [ 6134188, 7045750, 60407775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 113 ], [ 433, 446 ], [ 695, 705 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rapid expansion of university history departments in the 1950s and 1960s saw an increasing diversity of interpretations and specialisations in Australian history. A number of academic historians still worked within the imperial history tradition, while others explored the contribution of liberal, conservative and other traditions to Australia's distinctive political, cultural and economic development. In the first two volumes of his History of Australia (1962, 1968) Manning Clark developed an idiosyncratic interpretation of Australian history telling the story of \"epic tragedy\" in which \"the explorers, Governors, improvers, and perturbators vainly endeavoured to impose their received schemes of redemption on an alien, intractable setting\". According to MacIntyre, Clark \"had few imitators and the successive volumes had a much greater impact on the public than the profession.\" Another notable \"big picture\" interpretation of Australian history from this period is Geoffrey Blainey's The Tyranny of Distance (1966).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [ 693836, 1653654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 475, 488 ], [ 980, 996 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1970s saw a number of challenges to traditional imperial and nationalist interpretations of Australian history. Humphrey McQueen in A New Britannia (1970) attacked radical nationalist historical narratives from a Marxist New Left perspective. Anne Summers in Damned Whores and God's Police (1975) and Miriam Dixson in The Real Matilda (1976) analysed the role of women in Australian history. Others explored the history of those marginalised because of their sexuality or ethnicity. Oral history became an increasingly prominent addition to traditional archival sources in a number of topic areas. Wendy Lowenstein's Weevils in the Flour (1978), a social history of the Great Depression, is a notable early example.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [ 6853502, 35535813, 58786617, 31423362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 132 ], [ 247, 259 ], [ 305, 318 ], [ 602, 618 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There was also a revival in Aboriginal history. Notable works include Charles Rowley's The Destruction of Aboriginal Society (1970), Henry Reynolds' The Other Side of the Frontier (1981) and Peter Reid's work on Aboriginal children who had been removed from their parents. While Indigenous-settler relations remains an important field, Reid states that in the past few decades historians of Indigenous Australia have increasingly explored local histories and \"the changing internal relations between individuals and family, clan and community.\"", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [ 60407812, 1908125, 19493694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 84 ], [ 133, 147 ], [ 149, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Academic history continued to be influenced by British, American and European trends in historical method and modes of interpretation. Post-structuralist ideas on the relationship between language and meaning were influential in the 1980s and 1990s, for example, in Greg Dening's Mr Bligh's Bad Language (1992). Memory studies and Pierre Nora's ideas on the relationship between memory and history influenced work in a number of fields including military history, ethnographic history, oral history and historical work in Australian museums. Interdisciplinary histories drawing on the insights of fields such as sociology, anthropology, cultural studies and environmental studies have become more common since the 1980s. Transnational approaches which analyse Australian history in a global and regional context have also flourished in recent decades.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [ 17367419, 4874188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 267, 278 ], [ 332, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historians such as McKenna, MacIntyre and others point out that in the 21st century most historical works are not created by academic historians, and public conceptions of Australia's history are more likely to be shaped by popular histories, historical fiction and drama, the media, the internet, museums and public institutions. Popular histories by amateur historians regularly outsell work by academic historians. The internet and developments in digital technology mean that individuals and community groups can readily research, produce and distribute their own historical works. Local histories and family histories have proliferated in recent decades. A 2003 survey by the University of Technology, Sydney found that 32 per cent of respondents had engaged in family history or a history-related hobby.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These developments, along with the prevalence of interdisciplinary histories, have led some Australian historians to question the boundaries of history as an academic discipline. MacIntyre has questioned the claim that specialised procedures and forms of communication can protect the discipline from \"the natural impulses of humanity\" and \"popular history\". Clark and Ashton have stated that: \"The accessibility of history has fundamentally changed how we perceive the discipline and raises an important question: Can anyone be an historian today?\" Historians have also questioned the boundaries between historical writing and other activities, particularly when they argue that groups have been marginalised by academic histories. Peter Reid states that \"Aboriginal history today takes form in dance, art, novel, biography, autobiography, oral history, archival research, family papers, drama, poetry and film.\"", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The history wars were a series of public disputes about interpretations of Australian history involving historians, politicians and media commentators which occurred between approximately 1993 and 2007 but which had their roots in the revisionist histories from the 1970s and political debates about multiculturalism, Indigenous land rights, the stolen generations and national identity.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [ 2612879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a 1993 lecture, Geoffrey Blainey made a distinction between a \"three cheers\" view of history which saw Australian history as largely a success, and a \"black armband\" view which claimed that \"much of Australian history was a disgrace\". He opined that the \"black armband view of history might well represent the swing of the pendulum from a position that had been too favourable, too self-congratulatory, to an opposite extreme that is even more unreal and decidedly jaundiced\".", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Three years later, the Prime Minister John Howard referred to Blainey's speech stating, \"I profoundly reject the black armband view of Australian history. I believe the balance sheet of Australian history is a very generous and benign one. I believe that, like any other nation, we have black marks upon our history but amongst the nations of the world we have a remarkably positive history.\" He later defined black armband history as the view \"that most Australian history since 1788 has been little more than a disgraceful story of imperialism, exploitation, racism, sexism and other forms of discrimination\" and stated his intention to \"ensure that our history as a nation is not written definitively by those who take the view that we should apologise for most of it.\" In 1997, Howard repeated his criticism of black armband history in the context of the political controversies about Indigenous native title and the Stolen Generations, stating that contemporary Australians should not be held accountable for wrongs committed by past generations.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A number of historians, including Henry Reynolds, Elaine Thompson and Don Watson, responded publicly, variously accusing the prime minister of seeking to rewrite history to exclude the critical analysis of Australia's past and of misrepresenting recent Australian historiography for political purposes. However, historian Patrick O'Farrell, agreed with John Howard that the \"guilt school of Australian history has gone too far\".", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [ 2617419, 3794726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 80 ], [ 322, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 1996, the Brisbane newspaper The Courier-Mail published a series of articles alleging that Manning Clark (who had died in 1991 and had been closely associated with the opposition Labor party since 1972) had been \"an agent of influence\" for the Soviet Union. The newspaper explicitly linked its allegations to current political debates about Australia's history. John Howard commented that he considered Clark an unduly pessimistic black armband historian. The Press Council later found that the newspaper had had insufficient evidence for its allegation that Clark had been a Soviet agent.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Human Rights and Equal Opportunities Commission (HREOC), in 1997, released its Bringing Them Home report on the forced removal of Indigenous children from their families. The report found that between 10 per cent and 33 per cent of Aboriginal children had been forcibly separated from their parents between 1910 and 1970. The authors of the report stated that the policy of forced removals amounted to genocide and called for an apology to, and compensation for, the victims. Prime minister Howard offered his personal regret for the forced removals but he refused to offer a parliamentary apology, arguing that it might prejudice future legal actions and no government should be expected to apologise for the actions of previous governments. The release of the report and the government's response sparked a heated political, media and public debate about the facts of forced removals and the appropriate political response.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [ 1178452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The anthropologist Ron Brunton published a paper in 1998 criticising the HREOC inquiry on various grounds including that the inquiry has not tested the claims of witnesses against the historical record. In 2000, the government claimed that a maximum of 10 per cent of Aboriginal children had been separated from their parents and that the policy was lawful and well-intentioned. A number of historians, including Janet McCalman and Anna Haebich, contributed to the political and academic debate.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [ 1923185, 56443956, 37124378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 30 ], [ 413, 427 ], [ 432, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Keith Windschuttle published a series of articles in 2000 in which he argued that claims of frontier massacres and the Aboriginal death toll in frontier violence had been exaggerated by historians. In a subsequent book The Fabrication of Aboriginal History (2002) Windschuttle argued that there had been no genocide of Aboriginal Tasmanians and that historians had systematically misrepresented evidence about the nature and extent of violence against Aboriginal Tasmanians for political reasons. Geoffrey Blainey praised the book and it sparked a widespread and often acrimonious academic, media and public debate about settler violence against Aboriginal people and about Windschuttle's criticisms of particular historians.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [ 708643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A new battlefront in the history wars opened in 2000 when the council of the National Museum of Australia commissioned the historian Graeme Davison to review the explanatory labels for the museum's inaugural exhibition to determine whether they amounted to \"the reworking of Australian history into political correctness.\" Davison found no political bias in the labels and the exhibition went ahead with the opening of the museum in March 2001. Following a number of media allegations of left-wing political bias in the museum's exhibitions, the museum council initiated another review which, in 2003, found that there was no systemic political or cultural bias in the museum. A number of historians publicly criticised the inquiry as political interference in the independence of the museum. In 2006, a Sydney newspaper reported that the director of the museum, Peter Morton was systematically reworking the collection, stating: \"I want people to come out feeling good about Australia.\"", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Australian archaeology", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3402083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australian telegraphic history", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16000033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Economic history of Australia", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2505080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Europeans in Oceania", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2112567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of Oceania", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of broadcasting", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 527026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of monarchy in Australia", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16679794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Immigration history of Australia", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1182599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of conflicts in Australia", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34406644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of towns and cities in Australia by year of foundation", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 45357222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military history of Australia", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1323516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Territorial evolution of Australia", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6310075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Timeline of Australian history", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 967552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whaling in Australia", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5455466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Women in Australia", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39661445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Barker, Anthony. What Happened When: A Chronology of Australia from 1788. Allen & Unwin. 2000. online edition", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bambrick, Susan ed. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Australia (1994)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Basset, Jan The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary of Australian History (1998)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Davison, Graeme, John Hirst, and Stuart Macintyre, eds. The Oxford Companion to Australian History (2001) online at many academic libraries; ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galligan, Brian, and Winsome Roberts, eds. Oxford Companion to Australian Politics (2007); online at many academic libraries", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " O'Shane, Pat et al. Australia: The Complete Encyclopedia (2001)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Serle. Percival, ed. Dictionary of Australian Biography (1949)online edition", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shaw, John, ed. Collins Australian Encyclopedia (1984)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Taylor, Peter. The Atlas of Australian History (1991)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Atkinson, Alan. The Europeans in Australia: A History. Volume 2: Democracy. (2005). 440 pp.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bolton, Geoffrey. The Oxford History of Australia: Volume 5: 1942–1995. The Middle Way (2005) online", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Clarke, Frank G. The History of Australia (2002). online edition", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Day, David. Claiming a Continent: A New History of Australia (2001)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dickey, Brian. No charity there: A short history of social welfare in Australia (Routledge, 2020).", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Edwards, John. Curtin's Gift: Reinterpreting Australia's Greatest Prime Minister, (2005) online edition", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Firth, Stewart. Australia in international politics: an introduction to Australian foreign policy (Routledge, 2020).", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hughes, Robert. The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia's Founding (1988). ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Irving, Terry and Connell, Raewyn. Class Structure in Australian History (1992), Longman Cheshire: Melbourne.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kelly, Paul. 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A Concise History of Australia (2nd. ed. 2009) excerpt and text search ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Martin, A. W. Robert Menzies: A Life (2 vol 1993–99), online at ACLS e-books", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " McQueen, Humphrey. A New Britannia (1970) University of Queensland Press, Brisbane.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Megalogenis, George. The Longest Decade (2nd ed. 2008), politics 1990–2008", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Millar, T. B. 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Inventing Australia (Routledge, 2020), historiography.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anderson, Grahame: The Merchant of the Zeehaen: Isaac Gilsemans and the Voyages of Abel Tasman. (Wellington: Te Papa Press, 2001)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 36374876, 1988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 64 ], [ 84, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ariese, Csilla: Databases of the People Aboard the VOC Ships Batavia (1629) & Zeewijk (1727): An Analysis of the Potential for Finding the Dutch Castaways' Human Remains in Australia. (Australian National Centre of Excellence for Maritime Archaeology, Department of Maritime Archaeology, Western Australian Museum, 2012)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 32524, 5931503, 2911738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 69 ], [ 79, 86 ], [ 289, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bonke, H.: De zeven reizen van de Jonge Lieve: Biografie van een VOC-schip, 1760–1781 [The seven voyages of the Jonge Lieve: A biography of a VOC ship]. (Nijmegen: SUN, 1999) [in Dutch]", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bontekoe, Willem Ysbrandsz: Memorable Description of the East Indian Voyage, 1618–25. Translated from the Dutch by C.B. Bodde-Hodgkinson, with an introduction and notes by Pieter Geyl. (London: G. Routledge & Sons, 1929)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1469816, 1745836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 173, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dash, Mike: The True Story of the Mad Heretic Who Led History's Bloodiest Mutiny. (New York: Crown, 2002, )", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 2793449, 10944431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Day, Alan: The A to Z of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia. (Scarecrow Press, 2009, )", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " De Vlamingh, Willem: De ontdekkingsreis van Willem Hesselsz. de Vlamingh in de jaren 1696–1697. Edited by Günter Schilder. 2 vols. \"WLV,\" Vols. LXXVIII, LXXIX. (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976) [in Dutch]", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 378347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Drake-Brockman, Henrietta: Voyage to Disaster: The Life of Francisco Pelsaert Covering His Indian Report to the Dutch East India Company and the Wreck of the Ship 'Batavia' in 1629 Off the Coast of Western Australia Together With the Full Text of His Journals, Concerning the Rescue Voyages, the Mutiny On the Abrolhos Islands and the Subsequent Trials of the Mutineers. [Translated from the Dutch by E. D. Drok]. (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1963)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1148908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Duyker, Edward: The Dutch in Australia [Australian Ethnic Heritage series]. (Melbourne: AE Press, 1987)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 18726540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Duyker, Edward (ed.): The Discovery of Tasmania: Journal Extracts from the Expeditions of Abel Janszoon Tasman and Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne 1642 & 1772. (Hobart: St David's Park Publishing/Tasmanian Government Printing Office, 1992, pp.106)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Duyker, Edward: Mirror of the Australian Navigation by Jacob Le Maire: A Facsimile of the 'Spieghel der Australische Navigatie.' Being an Account of the Voyage of Jacob Le Maire and Willem Schouten (1615–1616), published in Amsterdam in 1622. Hordern House for the Australian National Maritime Museum, Sydney, 1999, 202 pp", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 170465, 412593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 178 ], [ 183, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Edwards, Hugh: Islands of Angry Ghosts: Murder, Mayhem and Mutiny: The Story of the Batavia. Originally published in 1966. (New York: William Morrow & Co., 1966; HarperCollins, 2000)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 12674965, 49990996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 16, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Edwards, Hugh: The Wreck on the Half-Moon Reef. (Adelaide: Rigby Limited, 1970)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fitzsimons, Peter: Batavia: Betrayal, Shipwreck, Murder, Sexual Slavery, Courage: A Spine-Chilling Chapter in Australian History. (Sydney: Random House Australia, 2011)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 32524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gerritsen, Rupert; Cramer, Max; Slee, Colin: The Batavia Legacy: The Location of the First European Settlement in Australia, Hutt River, 1629. (Geraldton: Sun City Print, 2007)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Godard, Philippe: The First and Last Voyage of the Batavia. (Perth: Abrolhos, 1994)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Green, Jeremy N.: Treasures from the 'Vergulde Draeck' (Gilt Dragon). (Perth: Western Australian Museum, 1974)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 3751673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Green, Jeremy N.: The Loss of the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie Jacht 'Vergulde Draeck', Western Australia 1656. An Historical Background and Excavation Report With an Appendix On Similar Loss of the Fluit 'Lastdrager' [2 volumes]. (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1977)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 3751673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Green, Jeremy N.: The Loss of the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie Retourschip 'Batavia', Western Australia, 1629. An Excavation Report and Catalogue of Artefacts. (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1989)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 32524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Heeres, J. 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(Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press, 1980)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 6508770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Henderson, J.: Sent Forth a Dove: The Discovery of Duyfken. (Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press, 1999, 232pp)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 412149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hiatt, Alfred; Wortham, Christopher; et al. (eds.): European Perceptions of Terra Australis. (Farnham: Ashgate, 2011)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 46760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hoving, Ab; Emke, Cor: De schepen van Abel Tasman [The Ships of Abel Tasman]. (Hilversum: Uitgeverij Verloren, 2000) [in Dutch]", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kenny, John: Before the First Fleet: European Discovery of Australia, 1606–1777. Kangaroo Press, 1995, 192 pp", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Leys, Simon: The Wreck of the Batavia. A True Story. (New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 2005)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " McHugh, Evan: 1606: An Epic Adventure. (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2006)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mundle, Rob: Great South Land: How Dutch Sailors found Australia and an English Pirate almost beat Captain Cook. (ABC Books, 2016, )", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 64483139, 46760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Murdoch, Priscilla: Duyfken and the First Discoveries of Australia. Artarmon, N.S.W.: Antipodean Publishers, 1974", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 412149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mutch, T. D.: The First Discovery of Australia – With an Account of the Voyage of the \"Duyfken\" and the Career of Captain Willem Jansz. (Sydney, 1942) Reprinted from the Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society, Vol. XXVIII., Part V", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 8952150, 601774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 47 ], [ 123, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nichols, Robert; Woods, Martin (eds.): Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita to Australia. (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 2013, )", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 46760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pelsaert, Francisco: The Batavia Journal of Francisco Pelsaert (1629). Edited and translated by Marit van Huystee. (Fremantle, W.A.: Western Australian Maritime Museum, 1998)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1148908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peters, Nonja: The Dutch Down Under, 1606–2006. (Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press, 2006)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 45499340, 188079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 26, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Playford, Phillip: The Wreck of the Zuytdorp on the Western Australian Coast in 1712. (Nedlands: Royal Western Australian Historical Society, 1960)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 54449516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Playford, Phillip: Carpet of Silver: The Wreck of the Zuytdorp. (Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press, 1996)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 452573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Playford, Phillip: Voyage of Discovery to Terra Australis by Willem de Vlamingh in 1696–97. [Includes journal of Willem Vlamingh translated from an early 18th-century manuscript held in the Archives Nationales de France]. (Perth: Western Australian Museum, 1998)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 378347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pearson, Michael: Great Southern Land: The Maritime Exploration of Terra Australis. 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", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 58343449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Broomhall, Susan (2016), 'Dishes, Coins and Pipes: The Epistemological and Emotional Power of VOC Material Culture in Australia,'. In The Global Lives of Things: The Material Culture of Connections in the Early Modern World, edited by Anne Gerritsen & Giorgio Riello. (London: Routledge, 2016), pp.145–61", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Broomhall, Susan (2017), 'Fire, Smoke and Ashes: Communications of Power and Emotions by Dutch East India Company Crews on the Australian Continent,'. In Fire Stories, edited by G. Moore. 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Melbourne: Wren, 1973); v.1. Colonial Australia, 1788–1840 – v.2. Colonial Australia, 1841–1874 -v.3. Colonial Australia, 1875–1900 -v.4. Modern Australia, 1901–1939 -v.5. Modern Australia, 1939–1970", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Daniels, Kay, ed. Australia's Women, a Documentary History: From a Selection of Personal Letters, Diary Entries, Pamphlets, Official Records, Government and Police Reports, Speeches, and Radio Talks (2nd ed. U of Queensland Press, 1989) 335pp. The first edition was entitled Uphill All the Way: A Documentary History of Women in Australia (1980).", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Teale, Ruth, ed. 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[ "History_of_Australia" ]

[ "Australian history" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Duchy of Anjou (, ; ; ) was a French province straddling the lower river Loire. Its capital was Angers and it was roughly coextensive with the diocese of Angers. Anjou was bordered by Brittany to the west, Maine to the north, Touraine to the east and Poitou to the south. The adjectival form is Angevin, and inhabitants of Anjou are known as Angevins. In 1482, the duchy became part of the Kingdom of France, and from then remained a province of the Kingdom under the name of the Duchy of Anjou. Following the Decree dividing France into departments in 1790, the province was disestablished and split into six new départements: Deux-Sèvres, Indre-et-Loire, Loire-Atlantique, Maine-et-Loire, Sarthe, and Vienne.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 81167, 31464821, 82357, 14004075, 38748, 316560, 79849, 60739, 26536792, 90607, 67522, 90579, 67523, 90604, 25076196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 49 ], [ 77, 82 ], [ 100, 106 ], [ 147, 164 ], [ 188, 196 ], [ 210, 215 ], [ 230, 238 ], [ 255, 261 ], [ 299, 306 ], [ 634, 645 ], [ 647, 661 ], [ 663, 679 ], [ 681, 695 ], [ 697, 703 ], [ 709, 715 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The county of Anjou was united to the royal domain between 1205 and 1246, when it was turned into an apanage for the king's brother, Charles I of Anjou. This second Angevin dynasty, a branch of the Capetian dynasty, established itself on the throne of Naples and Hungary. Anjou itself was united to the royal domain again in 1328, but was detached in 1360 as the Duchy of Anjou for the king's son, Louis I of Anjou. The third Angevin dynasty, a branch of the House of Valois, also ruled for a time the Kingdom of Naples. The dukes had the same autonomy as the earlier counts, but the duchy was increasingly administered in the same fashion as the royal domain and the royal government often exercised the ducal power while the dukes were away.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Duchy of Anjou", "target_page_ids": [ 610038, 266499, 39833, 6279, 258779, 41235379, 598361, 62241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 50 ], [ 101, 108 ], [ 133, 151 ], [ 198, 214 ], [ 252, 258 ], [ 263, 270 ], [ 398, 414 ], [ 459, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 17 February 1332, Philip VI bestowed it on his son John the Good, who, when he became king in turn (22 August 1350), gave the countship to his second son Louis I, raising it to a duchy in the peerage of France by letters patent of 25 October 1360. Louis I, who became in time count of Provence and titular king of Naples, died in 1384, and was succeeded by his son Louis II, who devoted most of his energies to his Neapolitan ambitions, and left the administration of Anjou almost entirely in the hands of his wife, Yolande of Aragon. On his death (29 April 1417), she took upon herself the guardianship of their young son Louis III, and, in her capacity of regent, defended the duchy against the English. Louis III, who also devoted himself to winning Naples, died on 15 November 1434, leaving no children. The duchy of Anjou then passed to his brother René, second son of Louis II and Yolande of Aragon.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Duchy of Anjou", "target_page_ids": [ 77498, 77502, 598361, 526853, 732584, 1296558, 1784382, 86924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 30 ], [ 54, 67 ], [ 157, 164 ], [ 279, 296 ], [ 368, 376 ], [ 519, 536 ], [ 626, 635 ], [ 857, 861 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike his predecessors, who had rarely stayed long in Anjou, René from 1443 onwards paid long visits to it, and his court at Angers became one of the most brilliant in the kingdom of France. But after the sudden death of his son John in December 1470, René, for reasons which are not altogether clear, decided to move his residence to Provence and leave Anjou for good. After making an inventory of all his possessions, he left the duchy in October 1471, taking with him the most valuable of his treasures. On 22 July 1474 he drew up a will by which he divided the succession between his grandson René II of Lorraine and his nephew Charles II, count of Maine. On hearing this, King Louis XI, who was the son of one of King René's sisters, seeing that his expectations were thus completely frustrated, seized the duchy of Anjou. He did not keep it very long, but became reconciled to René in 1476 and restored it to him, on condition, probably, that René should bequeath it to him. However that may be, on the death of the latter (10 July 1480) he again added Anjou to the royal domain.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Province of Anjou", "target_page_ids": [ 655723, 48503, 655725, 70506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 230, 234 ], [ 336, 344 ], [ 598, 617 ], [ 678, 691 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later, King Francis I again gave the duchy as an appanage to his mother, Louise of Savoy, by letters patent of 4 February 1515. On her death, in September 1531, the duchy returned into the king's possession. In 1552 it was given as an appanage by Henry II to his son Henry of Valois, who, on becoming king in 1574, with the title of Henry III, conceded it to his brother Francis, duke of Alençon, at the treaty of Beaulieu near Loches (6 May 1576). Francis died on 10 June 1584, and the vacant appanage definitively became part of the royal domain.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Province of Anjou", "target_page_ids": [ 50012, 75985, 384512, 19304486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ], [ 267, 282 ], [ 371, 395 ], [ 535, 547 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At first Anjou was included in the gouvernement (or military command) of Orléanais, but in the 17th century was made into a separate one. Saumur, however, and the Saumurois, for which King Henry IV had in 1589 created an independent military governor-generalship in favour of Duplessis-Mornay, continued till the Revolution to form a separate gouvernement, which included, besides Anjou, portions of Poitou and Mirebalais. Attached to the généralité (administrative circumscription) of Tours, Anjou on the eve of the Revolution comprised five êlections (judicial districts):--Angers, Baugé, Saumur, Château-Gontier, Montreuil-Bellay and part of the êlections of La Flèche and Richelieu. Financially it formed part of the so-called pays de grande gabelle, and comprised sixteen special tribunals, or greniers à sel (salt warehouses):--Angers, Baugé, Beaufort, Bourgueil, Candé, Château-Gontier, Cholet, Craon, La Flèche, Saint-Florent-le-Vieil, Ingrandes, Le Lude, Pouancé, Saint-Rémy-la-Varenne, Richelieu, Saumur. From the point of view of purely judicial administration, Anjou was subject to the parlement of Paris; Angers was the seat of a presidial court, of which the jurisdiction comprised the sénéchaussées of Angers, Saumur, Beaugé, Beaufort and the duchy of Richelieu; there were besides presidial courts at Château-Gontier and La Flèche. When the Constituent Assembly, on 26 February 1790, decreed the division of France into départments, Anjou and the Saumurois, with the exception of certain territories, formed the départment of Maine-et-Loire, as at present constituted.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Province of Anjou", "target_page_ids": [ 57876, 2337495, 82357, 15146151, 74393, 3116282, 3239316, 2730327, 15793883, 326010, 82357, 15146151, 15822021, 1271060, 12492284, 2321993, 15898839, 15822603, 15896504, 16021424, 15822537, 15822681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 197 ], [ 439, 449 ], [ 576, 582 ], [ 584, 589 ], [ 591, 597 ], [ 599, 614 ], [ 616, 632 ], [ 662, 671 ], [ 676, 685 ], [ 746, 753 ], [ 834, 840 ], [ 842, 847 ], [ 849, 857 ], [ 859, 868 ], [ 870, 875 ], [ 894, 900 ], [ 902, 907 ], [ 920, 942 ], [ 944, 953 ], [ 955, 962 ], [ 964, 971 ], [ 973, 994 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under the kingdom of France, Anjou was practically identical with the diocese of Angers, bound on the north by Maine, on the east by Touraine, on the south by Poitou (Poitiers) and the Mauges, and the west by the countship of Nantes or the duchy of Brittany. Traditionally Anjou was divided into four natural regions: the Baugeois, the Haut-Anjou (or Segréen), the Mauges, and the Saumurois.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Province of Anjou", "target_page_ids": [ 2687967, 14004075, 316560, 79849, 60739, 51489, 67453, 38748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 70, 87 ], [ 111, 116 ], [ 133, 141 ], [ 159, 165 ], [ 167, 175 ], [ 226, 232 ], [ 249, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It occupied the greater part of what is now the department of Maine-et-Loire. On the north, it further included Craon, Candé, Bazouges (Château-Gontier), Le Lude; on the east, it further added Château-la-Vallière and Bourgueil; while to the south, it lacked the towns of Montreuil-Bellay, Vihiers, Cholet, and Beaupréau, as well as the district lying to the west of the Ironne and Thouet on the left bank of the Loire, which formed the territory of the .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Province of Anjou", "target_page_ids": [ 38523, 67523, 15898839, 12492284, 3116282, 16021424, 15793460, 1271060, 3239316, 5476153, 2321993, 6930778, 17704295, 31464821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 58 ], [ 62, 76 ], [ 112, 117 ], [ 119, 124 ], [ 136, 151 ], [ 154, 161 ], [ 193, 212 ], [ 217, 226 ], [ 271, 287 ], [ 289, 296 ], [ 298, 304 ], [ 310, 319 ], [ 381, 387 ], [ 412, 417 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the end of the provincial system in 1790, the name of 'Anjou' has been used to describe the former region in which the duchy and province occupied. This region roughly correlates to several regions: Mayenne angevine (north west), Haut Anjou (centre-northern), Segreen (western), Baugeois (eastern), Les Mauges (south western), and Saumurois (south).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Region of Anjou", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Attribution:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The chronicles of Normandy by William of Poitiers and of Jumièges and Ordericus Vitalis ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 21724, 252427, 3096849, 283897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 27 ], [ 31, 50 ], [ 55, 66 ], [ 71, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The chronicles of Maine, particularly the Actus pontificum cenomannis in urbe degentium ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 316560, 8844337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 24 ], [ 43, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Gesta consulum Andegavorum ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 68052681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chroniques des comtes d'Anjou, published by Marchegay and Salmon, with an introduction by E. Mabille, Paris, 1856–1871 ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Louis Helphen, Êtude sur les chroniques des comtes d'Anjou et des seigneurs d'Amboise (Paris, 1906) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Louis Helphen, Recueil d'annales angevines et vendómoises (Paris, 1903) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Auguste Molinier, Les Sources de l'histoire de France (Paris, 1902), ii. 1276–1310 ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Louis Helphen, Le Comté d'Anjou au XIe siècle (Paris, 1906) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kate Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings (2 vols., London, 1887)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 18291836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A. Lecoy de La Marche, Le Roi René (2 vols., Paris, 1875). ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 14837107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Célestin Port, Dictionnaire historique, géographique et biographique de Maine-et-Loire (3 vols., Paris and Angers, 1874–1878) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 38479825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " idem, Préliminaires. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Edward Augustus Freeman, The History of the Norman Conquest of England, its Causes and its Results (2d vol.)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 231317, 48462430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 26, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Luc d'Achery, Spicilegium, sive Collectio veterum aliquot scriptorum qui in Galliae bibliothecis, maxime Benedictinorum, latuerunt ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1547361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] } ]

[ "Anjou", "Former_countries_in_Europe", "Former_provinces_of_France", "History_of_Deux-Sèvres", "History_of_Indre-et-Loire", "History_of_Loire-Atlantique", "History_of_Maine-et-Loire", "History_of_Mayenne", "History_of_Sarthe", "History_of_Vienne", "History_of_Centre-Val_de_Loire", "History_of_Pays_de_la_Loire", "History_of_Nouvelle-Aquitaine", "Former_duchies_of_France" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The human leg, in the general word sense, is the entire lower limb of the human body, including the foot, thigh or sometimes even the hip or gluteal region. However, the definition in human anatomy refers only to the section of the lower limb extending from the knee to the ankle, also known as the crus or, especially in non-technical use, the shank. Legs are used for standing, and all forms of locomotion including recreational such as dancing, and constitute a significant portion of a person's mass. Female legs generally have greater hip anteversion and tibiofemoral angles, but shorter femur and tibial lengths than those in males.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13280372, 54176, 11492, 234101, 2268160, 3298206, 54176, 188506, 336880, 12644602, 7885, 168041, 188506, 188497, 244517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 66 ], [ 74, 84 ], [ 100, 104 ], [ 106, 111 ], [ 134, 137 ], [ 141, 148 ], [ 184, 197 ], [ 262, 266 ], [ 274, 279 ], [ 370, 378 ], [ 439, 446 ], [ 544, 555 ], [ 560, 572 ], [ 593, 598 ], [ 603, 608 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In human anatomy, the lower leg is the part of the lower limb that lies between the knee and the ankle. Anatomists restrict the term leg to this use, rather than to the entire lower limb. The thigh is between the hip and knee and makes up the rest of the lower limb. The term lower limb or lower extremity is commonly used to describe all of the leg.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 188506, 336880, 234101, 2268160, 188506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 88 ], [ 97, 102 ], [ 192, 197 ], [ 213, 216 ], [ 221, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The leg from the knee to the ankle is called the crus. The calf is the back portion, and the tibia or shinbone together with the smaller fibula make up the front of the lower leg.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 23174230, 244517, 321814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 63 ], [ 93, 98 ], [ 137, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Evolution has provided the human body with two distinct features: the specialization of the upper limb for visually guided manipulation and the lower limb's development into a mechanism specifically adapted for efficient bipedal gait. While the capacity to walk upright is not unique to humans, other primates can only achieve this for short periods and at a great expenditure of energy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 9236, 4210, 55022, 22984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 221, 228 ], [ 229, 233 ], [ 301, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The human adaption to bipedalism has also affected the location of the body's center of gravity, the reorganization of internal organs, and the form and biomechanism of the trunk. In humans, the double S-shaped vertebral column acts as a great shock-absorber which shifts the weight from the trunk over the load-bearing surface of the feet. The human legs are exceptionally long and powerful as a result of their exclusive specialization for support and locomotion—in orangutans the leg length is 111% of the trunk; in chimpanzees 128%, and in humans 171%. Many of the leg's muscles are also adapted to bipedalism, most substantially the gluteal muscles, the extensors of the knee joint, and the calf muscles.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 173961, 152776, 105355, 33607453, 22433, 7844, 4210, 3298206, 188506, 2287328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 95 ], [ 119, 134 ], [ 153, 165 ], [ 211, 227 ], [ 468, 477 ], [ 519, 529 ], [ 603, 613 ], [ 638, 653 ], [ 676, 680 ], [ 696, 707 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The major bones of the leg are the femur (thigh bone), tibia (shin bone), and adjacent fibula, and these are all long bones. The patella (kneecap) is the sesamoid bone in front of the knee. Most of the leg skeleton has bony prominences and margins that can be palpated and some serve as anatomical landmarks that define the extent of the leg. These landmarks are the anterior superior iliac spine, the greater trochanter, the superior margin of the medial condyle of tibia, and the medial malleolus. Notable exceptions to palpation are the hip joint, and the neck and body, or shaft of the femur.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 4099, 188497, 244517, 321814, 780913, 309891, 210315, 188506, 1404351, 41101954, 3159908, 978266, 4901581, 8337890, 2268160, 6985401, 4798434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 14 ], [ 35, 40 ], [ 55, 60 ], [ 87, 93 ], [ 113, 122 ], [ 129, 136 ], [ 154, 167 ], [ 184, 188 ], [ 260, 268 ], [ 287, 306 ], [ 367, 396 ], [ 402, 420 ], [ 449, 472 ], [ 482, 498 ], [ 540, 549 ], [ 559, 563 ], [ 568, 582 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Usually, the large joints of the lower limb are aligned in a straight line, which represents the mechanical longitudinal axis of the leg, the Mikulicz line. This line stretches from the hip joint (or more precisely the head of the femur), through the knee joint (the intercondylar eminence of the tibia), and down to the center of the ankle (the ankle mortise, the fork-like grip between the medial and lateral malleoli). In the tibial shaft, the mechanical and anatomical axes coincide, but in the femoral shaft they diverge 6°, resulting in the femorotibial angle of 174° in a leg with normal axial alignment. A leg is considered straight when, with the feet brought together, both the medial malleoli of the ankle and the medial condyles of the knee are touching. Divergence from the normal femorotibial angle is called genu varum if the center of the knee joint is lateral to the mechanical axis (intermalleolar distance exceeds 3cm), and genu valgum if it is medial to the mechanical axis (intercondylar distance exceeds 5cm). These conditions impose unbalanced loads on the joints and stretching of either the thigh's adductors and abductors.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 1063965, 2268160, 6985402, 188506, 38462161, 336880, 8337890, 8337890, 244517, 4798434, 915361, 915283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 150 ], [ 186, 195 ], [ 219, 236 ], [ 251, 261 ], [ 267, 289 ], [ 335, 340 ], [ 392, 398 ], [ 403, 419 ], [ 429, 441 ], [ 499, 512 ], [ 823, 833 ], [ 943, 954 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The angle of inclination formed between the neck and shaft of the femur (collodiaphysial angle) varies with age—about 150° in the newborn, it gradually decreases to 126–128° in adults, to reach 120° in old age. Pathological changes in this angle result in abnormal posture of the leg: a small angle produces coxa vara and a large angle coxa valga; the latter is usually combined with genu varum, and coxa vara leads genu valgum. Additionally, a line drawn through the femoral neck superimposed on a line drawn through the femoral condyles forms an angle, the torsion angle, which makes it possible for flexion movements of the hip joint to be transposed into rotary movements of the femoral head. Abnormally increased torsion angles result in a limb turned inward and a decreased angle in a limb turned outward; both cases resulting in a reduced range of a person's mobility.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 525959, 10943352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 308, 317 ], [ 336, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are several ways of classifying the muscles of the hip:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " By location or innervation (ventral and dorsal divisions of the plexus layer);", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By development on the basis of their points of insertion (a posterior group in two layers and an anterior group); and", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By function (i.e. extensors, flexors, adductors, and abductors).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some hip muscles also act either on the knee joint or on vertebral joints. Additionally, because the areas of origin and insertion of many of these muscles are very extensive, these muscles are often involved in several very different movements. In the hip joint, lateral and medial rotation occur along the axis of the limb; extension (also called dorsiflexion or retroversion) and flexion (anteflexion or anteversion) occur along a transverse axis; and abduction and adduction occur about a sagittal axis.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 2410386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 493, 501 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The anterior dorsal hip muscles are the iliopsoas, a group of two or three muscles with a shared insertion on the lesser trochanter of the femur. The psoas major originates from the last vertebra and along the lumbar spine to stretch down into the pelvis. The iliacus originates on the iliac fossa on the interior side of the pelvis. The two muscles unite to form the iliopsoas muscle, which is inserted on the lesser trochanter of the femur. The psoas minor, only present in about 50 per cent of subjects, originates above the psoas major to stretch obliquely down to its insertion on the interior side of the major muscle.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3048640, 3963656, 2516987, 280497, 3042819, 5273835, 3963656, 3042605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 49 ], [ 114, 131 ], [ 150, 161 ], [ 210, 222 ], [ 260, 267 ], [ 286, 297 ], [ 411, 428 ], [ 447, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The posterior dorsal hip muscles are inserted on or directly below the greater trochanter of the femur. The tensor fasciae latae, stretching from the anterior superior iliac spine down into the iliotibial tract, presses the head of the femur into the acetabulum but also flexes, rotates medially, and abducts to hip joint. The piriformis originates on the anterior pelvic surface of the sacrum, passes through the greater sciatic foramen, and inserts on the posterior aspect of the tip of the greater trochanter. In a standing posture it is a lateral rotator, but it also assists extending the thigh. The gluteus maximus has its origin between (and around) the iliac crest and the coccyx, from where one part radiates into the iliotibial tract and the other stretches down to the gluteal tuberosity under the greater trochanter. The gluteus maximus is primarily an extensor and lateral rotator of the hip joint, and it comes into action when climbing stairs or rising from a sitting to a standing posture. Furthermore, the part inserted into the fascia latae abducts and the part inserted into the gluteal tuberosity adducts the hip. The two deep glutei muscles, the gluteus medius and minimus, originate on the lateral side of the pelvis. The medius muscle is shaped like a cap. Its anterior fibers act as a medial rotator and flexor; the posterior fibers as a lateral rotator and extensor; and the entire muscle abducts the hip. The minimus has similar functions and both muscles are inserted onto the greater trochanter.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 978266, 3117585, 3159908, 4226156, 6985402, 188500, 1104396, 232244, 4784672, 621267, 5000184, 213351, 3783520, 658129, 658130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 89 ], [ 108, 128 ], [ 150, 179 ], [ 194, 210 ], [ 224, 241 ], [ 251, 261 ], [ 327, 337 ], [ 387, 393 ], [ 414, 437 ], [ 605, 620 ], [ 661, 672 ], [ 681, 687 ], [ 780, 798 ], [ 1167, 1181 ], [ 1186, 1193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ventral hip muscles function as lateral rotators and play an important role in the control of the body's balance. Because they are stronger than the medial rotators, in the normal position of the leg, the apex of the foot is pointing outward to achieve better support. The obturator internus originates on the pelvis on the obturator foramen and its membrane, passes through the lesser sciatic foramen, and is inserted on the trochanteric fossa of the femur. \"Bent\" over the lesser sciatic notch, which acts as a fulcrum, the muscle forms the strongest lateral rotators of the hip together with the gluteus maximus and quadratus femoris. When sitting with the knees flexed it acts as an abductor. The obturator externus has a parallel course with its origin located on the posterior border of the obturator foramen. It is covered by several muscles and acts as a lateral rotator and a weak adductor. The inferior and superior gemelli muscles represent marginal heads of the obturator internus and assist this muscle. These three muscles form a three-headed muscle (tricipital) known as the triceps coxae. The quadratus femoris originates at the ischial tuberosity and is inserted onto the intertrochanteric crest between the trochanters. This flattened muscle act as a strong lateral rotator and adductor of the thigh.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 2194031, 3183605, 4923704, 4722318, 5012148, 5967603, 3042834, 46400617, 46400617, 3042838, 4787682, 4922756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 277, 295 ], [ 328, 345 ], [ 354, 362 ], [ 383, 405 ], [ 430, 448 ], [ 480, 500 ], [ 706, 724 ], [ 909, 917 ], [ 922, 946 ], [ 1114, 1131 ], [ 1150, 1168 ], [ 1194, 1217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The adductor muscles of the thigh are innervated by the obturator nerve, with the exception of pectineus which receives fibers from the femoral nerve, and the adductor magnus which receives fibers from the tibial nerve. The gracilis arises from near the pubic symphysis and is unique among the adductors in that it reaches past the knee to attach on the medial side of the shaft of the tibia, thus acting on two joints. It share its distal insertion with the sartorius and semitendinosus, all three muscles forming the pes anserinus. It is the most medial muscle of the adductors, and with the thigh abducted its origin can be clearly seen arching under the skin. With the knee extended, it adducts the thigh and flexes the hip. The pectineus has its origin on the iliopubic eminence laterally to the gracilis and, rectangular in shape, extends obliquely to attach immediately behind the lesser trochanter and down the pectineal line and the proximal part of the linea aspera on the femur. It is a flexor of the hip joint, and an adductor and a weak medial rotator of the thigh. The adductor brevis originates on the inferior ramus of the pubis below the gracilis and stretches obliquely below the pectineus down to the upper third of the linea aspera. Except for being an adductor, it is a lateral rotator and weak flexor of the hip joint.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3783441, 3956449, 1633440, 3654372, 3042850, 2525620, 3042876, 331750, 244517, 234146, 3042885, 8772596, 1633440, 4981868, 4764647, 3540254, 3042841, 3963126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 56, 71 ], [ 95, 104 ], [ 136, 149 ], [ 159, 174 ], [ 206, 218 ], [ 224, 232 ], [ 254, 269 ], [ 373, 391 ], [ 459, 468 ], [ 473, 487 ], [ 519, 532 ], [ 733, 742 ], [ 765, 783 ], [ 919, 933 ], [ 963, 975 ], [ 1083, 1098 ], [ 1117, 1144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The adductor longus has its origin at superior ramus of the pubis and inserts medially on the middle third of the linea aspera. Primarily an adductor, it is also responsible for some flexion. The adductor magnus has its origin just behind the longus and lies deep to it. Its wide belly divides into two parts: One is inserted into the linea aspera and the tendon of the other reaches down to adductor tubercle on the medial side of the femur's distal end where it forms an intermuscular septum that separates the flexors from the extensors. Magnus is a powerful adductor, especially active when crossing legs. Its superior part is a lateral rotator but the inferior part acts as a medial rotator on the flexed leg when rotated outward and also extends the hip joint. The adductor minimus is an incompletely separated subdivision of the adductor magnus. Its origin forms an anterior part of the magnus and distally it is inserted on the linea aspera above the magnus. It acts to adduct and lateral rotate the femur.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3042843, 3963126, 3042850, 5433582, 28371360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 38, 65 ], [ 196, 211 ], [ 392, 409 ], [ 771, 787 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The muscles of the thigh can be classified into three groups according to their location: anterior and posterior muscles and the adductors (on the medial side). All the adductors except gracilis insert on the femur and act on the hip joint, and so functionally qualify as hip muscles. The majority of the thigh muscles, the \"true\" thigh muscles, insert on the leg (either the tibia or the fibula) and act primarily on the knee joint. Generally, the extensors lie on anterior of the thigh and flexors lie on the posterior. Even though the sartorius flexes the knee, it is ontogenetically considered an extensor since its displacement is secondary.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 234101, 22469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 24 ], [ 571, 586 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of the anterior thigh muscles the largest are the four muscles of the quadriceps femoris: the central rectus femoris, which is surrounded by the three vasti, the vastus intermedius, medialis, and lateralis. Rectus femoris is attached to the pelvis with two tendons, while the vasti are inserted to the femur. All four muscles unite in a common tendon inserted into the patella from where the patellar ligament extends it down to the tibial tuberosity. Fibers from the medial and lateral vasti form two retinacula that stretch past the patella on either sides down to the condyles of the tibia. The quadriceps is the knee extensor, but the rectus femoris additionally flexes the hip joint, and articular muscle of the knee protects the articular capsule of the knee joint from being nipped during extension. The sartorius runs superficially and obliquely down on the anterior side of the thigh, from the anterior superior iliac spine to the pes anserinus on the medial side of the knee, from where it is further extended into the crural fascia. The sartorius acts as a flexor on both the hip and knee, but, due to its oblique course, also contributes to medial rotation of the leg as one of the pes anserinus muscles (with the knee flexed), and to lateral rotation of the hip joint.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 911778, 3042890, 3042854, 3009040, 3042861, 309891, 5878570, 6171253, 15177191, 8715360, 234146, 3159908, 8772596, 13629122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 88 ], [ 102, 116 ], [ 162, 180 ], [ 182, 190 ], [ 196, 205 ], [ 369, 376 ], [ 392, 409 ], [ 433, 450 ], [ 502, 512 ], [ 735, 770 ], [ 811, 820 ], [ 903, 932 ], [ 940, 953 ], [ 1029, 1042 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are four posterior thigh muscles. The biceps femoris has two heads: The long head has its origin on the ischial tuberosity together with the semitendinosus and acts on two joints. The short head originates from the middle third of the linea aspera on the shaft of the femur and the lateral intermuscular septum of thigh, and acts on only one joint. These two heads unite to form the biceps which inserts on the head of the fibula. The biceps flexes the knee joint and rotates the flexed leg laterally—it is the only lateral rotator of the knee and thus has to oppose all medial rotator. Additionally, the long head extends the hip joint. The semitendinosus and the semimembranosus share their origin with the long head of the biceps, and both attaches on the medial side of the proximal head of the tibia together with the gracilis and sartorius to form the pes anserinus. The semitendinosus acts on two joints; extension of the hip, flexion of the knee, and medial rotation of the leg. Distally, the semimembranosus' tendon is divided into three parts referred to as the pes anserinus profondus. Functionally, the semimembranosus is similar to the semitendinosus, and thus produces extension at the hip joint and flexion and medial rotation at the knee. Posteriorly below the knee joint, the popliteus stretches obliquely from the lateral femoral epicondyle down to the posterior surface of the tibia. The subpopliteal bursa is located deep to the muscle. Popliteus flexes the knee joint and medially rotates the leg.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 2850751, 4787682, 3540254, 15338431, 321814, 3042885, 3042881, 3042926, 5337854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 58 ], [ 110, 128 ], [ 241, 253 ], [ 288, 325 ], [ 417, 435 ], [ 648, 662 ], [ 671, 686 ], [ 1299, 1308 ], [ 1338, 1364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the popliteus (see above) as the single exception, all muscles in the leg are attached to the foot and, based on location, can be classified into an anterior and a posterior group separated from each other by the tibia, the fibula, and the interosseous membrane. In turn, these two groups can be subdivided into subgroups or layers—the anterior group consists of the extensors and the peroneals, and the posterior group of a superficial and a deep layer. Functionally, the muscles of the leg are either extensors, responsible for the dorsiflexion of the foot, or flexors, responsible for the plantar flexion. These muscles can also classified by innervation, muscles supplied by the anterior subdivision of the plexus and those supplied by the posterior subdivision. The leg muscles acting on the foot are called the extrinsic foot muscles whilst the foot muscles located in the foot are called intrinsic. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3042926, 7054506, 4057221, 4057221, 3110848, 2525620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 18 ], [ 245, 266 ], [ 539, 551 ], [ 597, 612 ], [ 688, 708 ], [ 749, 770 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dorsiflexion (extension) and plantar flexion occur around the transverse axis running through the ankle joint from the tip of the medial malleolus to the tip of the lateral malleolus. Pronation (eversion) and supination (inversion) occur along the oblique axis of the ankle joint.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Three of the anterior muscles are extensors. From its origin on the lateral surface of the tibia and the interosseus membrane, the three-sided belly of the tibialis anterior extends down below the superior and inferior extensor retinacula to its insertion on the plantar side of the medial cuneiform bone and the first metatarsal bone. In the non-weight-bearing leg, the anterior tibialis dorsal flexes the foot and lifts the medial edge of the foot. In the weight-bearing leg, it pulls the leg towards the foot. The extensor digitorum longus has a wide origin stretching from the lateral condyle of the tibia down along the anterior side of the fibula, and the interosseus membrane. At the ankle, the tendon divides into four that stretch across the foot to the dorsal aponeuroses of the last phalanges of the four lateral toes. In the non-weight-bearing leg, the muscle extends the digits and dorsiflexes the foot, and in the weight-bearing leg acts similar to the tibialis anterior. The extensor hallucis longus has its origin on the fibula and the interosseus membrane between the two other extensors and is, similarly to the extensor digitorum, is inserted on the last phalanx of big toe (\"hallux\"). The muscle dorsiflexes the hallux, and acts similar to the tibialis anterior in the weight-bearing leg. Two muscles on the lateral side of the leg form the fibular (peroneal) group. The fibularis (peroneus) longus and fibularis (peroneus) brevis both have their origins on the fibula, and they both pass behind the lateral malleolus where their tendons pass under the fibular retinacula. Under the foot, the fibularis longus stretches from the lateral to the medial side in a groove, thus bracing the transverse arch of the foot. The fibularis brevis is attached on the lateral side to the tuberosity of the fifth metatarsal. Together, these two fibularis muscles form the strongest pronators of the foot. The fibularis muscles are highly variable, and several variants can occasionally be present.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 2020477, 8168246, 4901937, 350138, 324681, 3042915, 1069590, 347059, 240498, 3042940, 8337890, 4901898, 4910228, 6627091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 173 ], [ 197, 205 ], [ 210, 238 ], [ 283, 304 ], [ 319, 334 ], [ 517, 542 ], [ 770, 781 ], [ 990, 1014 ], [ 1391, 1418 ], [ 1423, 1450 ], [ 1520, 1537 ], [ 1573, 1591 ], [ 1706, 1733 ], [ 1851, 1868 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of the posterior muscles three are in the superficial layer. The major plantar flexors, commonly referred to as the triceps surae, are the soleus, which arises on the proximal side of both leg bones, and the gastrocnemius, the two heads of which arises on the distal end of the femur. These muscles unite in a large terminal tendon, the Achilles tendon, which is attached to the posterior tubercle of the calcaneus. The plantaris closely follows the lateral head of the gastrocnemius. Its tendon runs between those of the soleus and gastrocnemius and is embedded in the medial end of the calcaneus tendon.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 2287328, 2270895, 2289425, 380167, 497502, 3042934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 129 ], [ 139, 145 ], [ 208, 221 ], [ 337, 352 ], [ 405, 414 ], [ 420, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the deep layer, the tibialis posterior has its origin on the interosseus membrane and the neighbouring bone areas and runs down behind the medial malleolus. Under the foot it splits into a thick medial part attached to the navicular bone and a slightly weaker lateral part inserted to the three cuneiform bones. The muscle produces simultaneous plantar flexion and supination in the non-weight-bearing leg, and approximates the heel to the calf of the leg. The flexor hallucis longus arises distally on the fibula and on the interosseus membrane from where its relatively thick muscle belly extends far distally. Its tendon extends beneath the flexor retinaculum to the sole of the foot and finally attaches on the base of the last phalanx of the hallux. It plantarflexes the hallux and assists in supination. The flexor digitorum longus, finally, has its origin on the upper part of the tibia. Its tendon runs to the sole of the foot where it forks into four terminal tendon attached to the last phalanges of the four lateral toes. It crosses the tendon of the tibialis posterior distally on the tibia, and the tendon of the flexor hallucis longus in the sole. Distally to its division, the quadratus plantae radiates into it and near the middle phalanges its tendons penetrate the tendons of the flexor digitorum brevis. In the non-weight-bearing leg, it plantar flexes the toes and foot and supinates. In the weight-bearing leg it supports the plantar arch. (For the popliteus, see above.)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 1743994, 8337890, 629386, 3042896, 5344040, 3042900, 3042974, 3042967, 6684786, 3042926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 41 ], [ 142, 158 ], [ 226, 240 ], [ 464, 486 ], [ 647, 665 ], [ 817, 840 ], [ 1195, 1212 ], [ 1301, 1324 ], [ 1450, 1462 ], [ 1473, 1482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The intrinsic muscles of the foot, muscles whose bellies are located in the foot proper, are either dorsal (top) or plantar (sole).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On the dorsal side, two long extrinsic extensor muscles are superficial to the intrinsic muscles, and their tendons form the dorsal aponeurosis of the toes. The short intrinsic extensors and the plantar and dorsal interossei radiates into these aponeuroses. The extensor digitorum brevis and extensor hallucis brevis have a common origin on the anterior side of the calcaneus, from where their tendons extend into the dorsal aponeuroses of digits 1–4. They act to dorsiflex these digits.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3042920, 3117611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 262, 287 ], [ 292, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The plantar muscles can be subdivided into three groups associated with three regions: those of the big digit, the little digit, and the region between these two. All these muscles are covered by the thick and dense plantar aponeurosis, which, together with two tough septa, form the spaces of the three groups. These muscles and their fatty tissue function as cushions that transmit the weight of the body downward. As a whole, the foot is a functional entity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 873391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The abductor hallucis stretches along the medial edge of the foot, from the calcaneus to the base of the first phalanx of the first digit and the medial sesamoid bone. It is an abductor and a weak flexor, and also helps maintain the arch of the foot. Lateral to the abductor hallucis is the flexor hallucis brevis, which originates from the medial cuneiform bone and from the tendon of the tibialis posterior. The flexor hallucis has a medial and a lateral head inserted laterally to the abductor hallucis. It is an important plantar flexor which comes into prominent use in classical ballet (i.e. for pointe work). The adductor hallucis has two heads; a stronger oblique head which arises from the cuboid and lateral cuneiform bones and the bases of the second and third metatarsals; and a transverse head which arises from the distal ends of the third-fifth metatarsals. Both heads are inserted on the lateral sesamoid bone of the first digit. The muscle acts as a tensor to the arches of the foot, but can also adduct the first digit and plantar flex its first phalanx.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3042952, 3042962, 1161691, 411526, 3042955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 291, 313 ], [ 575, 591 ], [ 602, 613 ], [ 620, 637 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The opponens digiti minimi originates from the long plantar ligament and the plantar tendinous sheath of the fibularis (peroneus) longus and is inserted on the fifth metatarsal. When present, it acts to plantar flex the fifth digit and supports the plantar arch. The flexor digiti minimi arises from the region of base of the fifth metatarsal and is inserted onto the base of the first phalanx of the fifth digit where it is usually merged with the abductor of the first digit. It acts to plantar flex the last digit. The largest and longest muscles of the little toe is the abductor digiti minimi. Stretching from the lateral process of the calcaneus, with a second attachment on the base of the fifth metatarsal, to the base of the fifth digit's first phalanx, the muscle forms the lateral edge of the sole. Except for supporting the arch, it plantar flexes the little toe and also acts as an abductor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3042801, 3936752, 3936577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 267, 287 ], [ 575, 597 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The four lumbricales have their origin on the tendons of the flexor digitorum longus, from where they extend to the medial side of the bases of the first phalanx of digits two-five. Except for reinforcing the plantar arch, they contribute to plantar flexion and move the four digits toward the big toe. They are, in contrast to the lumbricales of the hand, rather variable, sometimes absent and sometimes more than four are present. The quadratus plantae arises with two slips from margins of the plantar surface of the calcaneus and is inserted into the tendon(s) of the flexor digitorum longus, and is known as the \"plantar head\" of this latter muscle. The three plantar interossei arise with their single heads on the medial side of the third-fifth metatarsals and are inserted on the bases of the first phalanges of these digits. The two heads of the four dorsal interossei arise on two adjacent metatarsals and merge in the intermediary spaces. Their distal attachment is on the bases of the proximal phalanges of the second-fourth digits. The interossei are organized with the second digit as a longitudinal axis; the plantars act as adductors and pull digits 3–5 towards the second digit; while the dorsals act as abductors. Additionally, the interossei act as plantar flexors at the metatarsophalangeal joints. Lastly, the flexor digitorum brevis arises from underneath the calcaneus to insert its tendons on the middle phalanges of digit 2–4. Because the tendons of the flexor digitorum longus run between these tendons, the brevis is sometimes called perforatus. The tendons of these two muscles are surrounded by a tendinous sheath. The brevis acts to plantar flex the middle phalanges.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3042981, 3042974, 3042969, 3042776, 4901170, 3042967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 20 ], [ 437, 454 ], [ 665, 683 ], [ 860, 877 ], [ 1291, 1316 ], [ 1331, 1354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flexibility can be simply defined as the available range of motion (ROM) provided by a specific joint or group of joints. For the most part, exercises that increase flexibility are performed with intentions to boost overall muscle length, reduce the risks of injury and to potentially improve muscular performance in physical activity. Stretching muscles after engagement in any physical activity can improve muscular strength, increase flexibility, and reduce muscle soreness. If limited movement is present within a joint, the \"insufficient extensibility\" of the muscle, or muscle group, could be restricting the activity of the affected joint.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 2449393, 210242, 475008, 2741315, 868983, 15184823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 66 ], [ 96, 101 ], [ 165, 176 ], [ 317, 334 ], [ 336, 346 ], [ 461, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stretching prior to strenuous physical activity has been thought to increase muscular performance by extending the soft tissue past its attainable length in order to increase range of motion. Many physically active individuals practice these techniques as a “warm-up” in order to achieve a certain level of muscular preparation for specific exercise movements. When stretching, muscles should feel somewhat uncomfortable but not physically agonizing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 828050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 259, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Plantar flexion: One of the most popular lower leg muscle stretches is the step standing heel raises, which mainly involves the gastrocnemius, soleus, and the Achilles tendon. Standing heel raises allow the individual to activate their calf muscles by standing on a step with toes and forefoot, leaving the heel hanging off the step, and plantar flexing the ankle joint by raising the heel. This exercise is easily modified by holding on to a nearby rail for balance and is generally repeated 5–10 times.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 118524, 2289425, 2270895, 380167, 2287328, 40482907, 4057221, 336880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 94 ], [ 129, 142 ], [ 144, 150 ], [ 160, 175 ], [ 237, 248 ], [ 286, 294 ], [ 339, 354 ], [ 359, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dorsiflexion: In order to stretch the anterior muscles of the lower leg, crossover shin stretches work well. This motion will stretch the dorsiflexion muscles, mainly the anterior tibialis, extensor hallucis longus and extensor digitorum longus, by slowly causing the muscles to lengthen as body weight is leaned on the ankle joint by using the floor as resistance against the top of the foot. Crossover shin stretches can vary in intensity depending on the amount of body weight applied on the ankle joint as the individual bends at the knee. This stretch is typically held for 15–30 seconds.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 168041, 39595, 4057221, 2020477, 347059, 3042915, 188506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 47 ], [ 48, 72 ], [ 139, 151 ], [ 172, 189 ], [ 191, 215 ], [ 220, 245 ], [ 539, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eversion and inversion: Stretching the eversion and inversion muscles allows for better range of motion to the ankle joint. Seated ankle elevations and depressions will stretch the fibularis (peroneus) and tibilalis muscles that are associated with these movements as they lengthen. Eversion muscles are stretched when the ankle becomes depressed from the starting position. In like manner, the inversion muscles are stretched when the ankle joint becomes elevated. Throughout this seated stretch, the ankle joint is to remain supported while depressed and elevated with the ipsilateral (same side) hand in order to sustain the stretch for 10–15 seconds. This stretch will increase overall eversion and inversion muscle group length and provide more flexibility to the ankle joint for larger range of motion during activity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 4057221, 4057221, 6627091, 2020477, 168041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 48 ], [ 53, 62 ], [ 182, 202 ], [ 207, 216 ], [ 576, 587 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The arteries of the leg are divided into a series of segments.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the pelvis area, at the level of the last lumbar vertebra, the abdominal aorta, a continuation the descending aorta, splits into a pair of common iliac arteries. These immediately split into the internal and external iliac arteries, the latter of which descends along the medial border of the psoas major to exits the pelvis area through the vascular lacuna under the inguinal ligament.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 280497, 1002607, 1893020, 2357487, 3263830, 2346283, 2516987, 11294624, 2024810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 60 ], [ 66, 81 ], [ 102, 118 ], [ 142, 163 ], [ 198, 206 ], [ 211, 234 ], [ 296, 307 ], [ 345, 360 ], [ 371, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The artery enters the thigh as the femoral artery which descends the medial side of the thigh to the adductor canal. The canal passes from the anterior to the posterior side of the limb where the artery leaves through the adductor hiatus and becomes the popliteal artery. On the back of the knee the popliteal artery runs through the popliteal fossa to the popliteal muscle where it divides into anterior and posterior tibial arteries.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 239675, 4507232, 8932065, 931001, 3849218, 3042926, 2324593, 2308823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 49 ], [ 101, 115 ], [ 222, 237 ], [ 254, 270 ], [ 334, 349 ], [ 357, 373 ], [ 396, 404 ], [ 409, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the lower leg, the anterior tibial enters the extensor compartment near the upper border of the interosseus membrane to descend between the tibialis anterior and the extensor hallucis longus. Distal to the superior and extensor retinacula of the foot it becomes the dorsal artery of the foot. The posterior tibial forms a direct continuation of the popliteal artery which enters the flexor compartment of the lower leg to descend behind the medial malleolus where it divides into the medial and lateral plantar arteries, of which the posterior branch gives rise to the fibular artery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 4637117, 2020477, 347059, 8168246, 4901937, 2346232, 8337890, 5288660, 5288490, 30863487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 119 ], [ 143, 160 ], [ 169, 193 ], [ 209, 217 ], [ 222, 253 ], [ 269, 294 ], [ 444, 460 ], [ 487, 493 ], [ 498, 522 ], [ 572, 586 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For practical reasons the lower limb is subdivided into somewhat arbitrary regions: The regions of the hip are all located in the thigh: anteriorly, the subinguinal region is bounded by the inguinal ligament, the sartorius, and the pectineus and forms part of the femoral triangle which extends distally to the adductor longus. Posteriorly, the gluteal region corresponds to the gluteus maximus. The anterior region of the thigh extends distally from the femoral triangle to the region of the knee and laterally to the tensor fasciae latae. The posterior region ends distally before the popliteal fossa. The anterior and posterior regions of the knee extend from the proximal regions down to the level of the tuberosity of the tibia. In the lower leg the anterior and posterior regions extend down to the malleoli. Behind the malleoli are the lateral and medial retromalleolar regions and behind these is the region of the heel. Finally, the foot is subdivided into a dorsal region superiorly and a plantar region inferiorly.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 239677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The veins are subdivided into three systems. The deep veins return approximately 85 percent of the blood and the superficial veins approximately 15 percent. A series of perforator veins interconnect the superficial and deep systems. In the standing posture, the veins of the leg have to handle an exceptional load as they act against gravity when they return the blood to the heart. The venous valves assist in maintaining the superficial to deep direction of the blood flow.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 53227, 2297262, 2297321, 37228139, 53227, 275216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ], [ 49, 58 ], [ 113, 129 ], [ 169, 184 ], [ 387, 399 ], [ 464, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superficial veins:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Great saphenous vein", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 239687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Small saphenous", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 2290836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Deep veins:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Femoral vein, whose segments are the common femoral vein and the subsartorial vein.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 2072649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Popliteal vein", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 1982116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anterior tibial vein", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 2308615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Posterior tibial vein", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 2308597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fibular vein", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 2308698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sensory and motor innervation to the lower limb is supplied by the lumbosacral plexus, which is formed by the ventral rami of the lumbar and sacral spinal nerves with additional contributions from the subcostal nerve (T12) and coccygeal nerve (Co1). Based on distribution and topography, the lumbosacral plexus is subdivided into the lumbar plexus (T12-L4) and the Sacral plexus (L5-S4); the latter is often further subdivided into the sciatic and pudendal plexuses:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 5120412, 7075199, 5005810, 240462, 3940561, 3110332, 3934956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 89 ], [ 114, 126 ], [ 205, 220 ], [ 231, 246 ], [ 338, 351 ], [ 369, 382 ], [ 452, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lumbar plexus is formed lateral to the intervertebral foramina by the ventral rami of the first four lumbar spinal nerves (L1-L4), which all pass through psoas major. The larger branches of the plexus exit the muscle to pass sharply downward to reach the abdominal wall and the thigh (under the inguinal ligament); with the exception of the obturator nerve which pass through the lesser pelvis to reach the medial part of the thigh through the obturator foramen. The nerves of the lumbar plexus pass in front of the hip joint and mainly support the anterior part of the thigh.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 5335253, 2516987, 3618404, 2024810, 3956449, 4789639, 3183605, 2268160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 66 ], [ 158, 169 ], [ 259, 273 ], [ 299, 316 ], [ 345, 360 ], [ 384, 397 ], [ 448, 465 ], [ 520, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The iliohypogastric (T12-L1) and ilioinguinal nerves (L1) emerge from the psoas major near the muscle's origin, from where they run laterally downward to pass anteriorly above the iliac crest between the transversus abdominis and abdominal internal oblique, and then run above the inguinal ligament. Both nerves give off muscular branches to both these muscles. Iliohypogastric supplies sensory branches to the skin of the lateral hip region, and its terminal branch finally pierces the aponeurosis of the abdominal external oblique above the inguinal ring to supply sensory branches to the skin there. Ilioinguinalis exits through the inguinal ring and supplies sensory branches to the skin above the pubic symphysis and the lateral portion of the scrotum.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3956127, 3956255, 5000184, 2279794, 2762064, 3042593, 331750, 18841931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 33, 51 ], [ 180, 191 ], [ 204, 225 ], [ 230, 256 ], [ 506, 532 ], [ 702, 717 ], [ 749, 756 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The genitofemoral nerve (L1, L2) leaves psoas major below the two former nerves, immediately divides into two branches that descends along the muscle's anterior side. The sensory femoral branch supplies the skin below the inguinal ligament, while the mixed genital branch supplies the skin and muscles around the sex organ. The lateral femoral cutaneous nerve (L2, L3) leaves psoas major laterally below the previous nerve, runs obliquely and laterally downward above the iliacus, exits the pelvic area near the iliac spine, and supplies the skin of the anterior thigh.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 674652, 3956459, 3042819, 3159908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 328, 359 ], [ 472, 479 ], [ 512, 523 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The obturator nerve (L2-L4) passes medially behind psoas major to exit the pelvis through the obturator canal, after which it gives off branches to obturator externus and divides into two branches passing behind and in front of adductor brevis to supply motor innervation to all the other adductor muscles. The anterior branch also supplies sensory nerves to the skin on a small area on the distal medial aspect of the thigh. The femoral nerve (L2-L4) is the largest and longest of the nerves of the lumbar plexus. It supplies motor innervation to iliopsoas, pectineus, sartorius, and quadriceps; and sensory branches to the anterior thigh, medial lower leg, and posterior foot.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3956449, 8332477, 3042834, 3042841, 3654372, 3048640, 1633440, 234146, 911778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 94, 109 ], [ 148, 166 ], [ 228, 243 ], [ 430, 443 ], [ 548, 557 ], [ 559, 568 ], [ 570, 579 ], [ 585, 595 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The nerves of the sacral plexus pass behind the hip joint to innervate the posterior part of the thigh, most of the lower leg, and the foot. The superior (L4-S1) and inferior gluteal nerves (L5-S2) innervate the gluteus muscles and the tensor fasciae latae. The posterior femoral cutaneous nerve (S1-S3) contributes sensory branches to the skin on the posterior thigh. The sciatic nerve (L4-S3), the largest and longest nerve in the human body, leaves the pelvis through the greater sciatic foramen. In the posterior thigh it first gives off branches to the short head of the biceps femoris and then divides into the tibial (L4-S3) and common fibular nerves (L4-S2). The fibular nerve continues down on the medial side of biceps femoris, winds around the fibular neck and enters the front of the lower leg. There it divides into a deep and a superficial terminal branch. The superficial branch supplies the fibularis muscles and the deep branch enters the extensor compartment; both branches reaches into the dorsal foot. In the thigh, the tibial nerve gives off branches to semitendinosus, semimembranosus, adductor magnus, and the long head of the biceps femoris. The nerve then runs straight down the back of the leg, through the popliteal fossa to supply the ankle flexors on the back of the lower leg and then continues down to supply all the muscles in the sole of the foot. The pudendal (S2-S4) and coccygeal nerves (S5-Co2) supply the muscles of the pelvic floor and the surrounding skin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3934840, 3934834, 3117585, 3934742, 234113, 4784672, 2850751, 2525620, 3110848, 3408987, 3169282, 6627091, 3042885, 3042881, 3042850, 3849218, 155214, 240462, 674776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 153 ], [ 166, 188 ], [ 236, 256 ], [ 262, 295 ], [ 373, 386 ], [ 475, 498 ], [ 576, 590 ], [ 617, 623 ], [ 636, 656 ], [ 831, 835 ], [ 842, 869 ], [ 907, 924 ], [ 1075, 1089 ], [ 1091, 1106 ], [ 1108, 1123 ], [ 1233, 1248 ], [ 1385, 1393 ], [ 1406, 1421 ], [ 1458, 1470 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lumbosacral trunk is a communicating branch passing between the sacral and lumbar plexuses containing ventral fibers from L4. The coccygeal nerve, the last spinal nerve, emerges from the sacral hiatus, unites with the ventral rami of the two last sacral nerves, and forms the coccygeal plexus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 6969837, 240462, 232244, 6982906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 134, 149 ], [ 191, 204 ], [ 280, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lower leg and ankle need to keep exercised and moving well as they are the base of the whole body. The lower extremities must be strong in order to balance the weight of the rest of the body, and the gastrocnemius muscles take part in much of the blood circulation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lower leg and foot", "target_page_ids": [ 2289425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are a number of exercises that can be done to strengthen the lower leg. For example, in order to activate plantar flexors in the deep plantar flexors one can sit on the floor with the hips flexed, the ankle neutral with knees fully extended as they alternate pushing their foot against a wall or platform. This kind of exercise is beneficial as it hardly causes any fatigue. Another form of isometric exercise for the gastrocnemius would be seated calf raises which can be done with or without equipment. One can be seated at a table with their feet flat on the ground, and then plantar flex both ankles so that the heels are raised off the floor and the gastrocnemius flexed. An alternate movement could be heel drop exercises with the toes being propped on an elevated surface—as an opposing movement this would improve the range of motion. One-legged toe raises for the gastrocnemius muscle can be performed by holding one dumbbell in one hand while using the other for balance, and then standing with one foot on a plate. The next step would be to plantar flex and keep the knee joint straight or flexed slightly. The triceps surae is contracted during this exercise. Stabilization exercises like the BOSU ball squat are also important especially as they assist in the ankles having to adjust to the ball's form in order to balance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lower leg and foot", "target_page_ids": [ 4057221, 41101954, 2267142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 127 ], [ 1107, 1113 ], [ 1211, 1215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lower leg injuries are common while running or playing sports. About 10% of all injuries in athletes involve the lower extremities. The majority of athletes sprain their ankles; this is mainly caused by the increased loads onto the feet when they move into the foot down or in an outer ankle position. All areas of the foot, which are the forefoot, midfoot, and rearfoot, absorb various forces while running and this can also lead to injuries. Running and various activities can cause stress fractures, tendinitis, musculotendinous injuries, or any chronic pain to our lower extremities such as the tibia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [ 4057221, 4057221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 257, 270 ], [ 277, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Injuries to quadriceps or hamstrings are caused by the constant impact loads to the legs during activities, such as kicking a ball. While doing this type of motion, 85% of that shock is absorbed to the hamstrings; this can cause strain to those muscles.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jumping – is another risk because if the legs do not land properly after an initial jump, there may be damage to the meniscus in the knees, sprain to the ankle by everting or inverting the foot, or damage to the Achilles tendon and gastrocnemius if there is too much force while plantar flexing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Weight lifting – such as the improperly performed deep squat, is also dangerous to the lower limbs, because the exercise can lead to an overextension, or an outstretch, of our ligaments in the knee and can cause pain over time.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [ 28032864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Running – the most common activity associated with lower leg injury. There is constant pressure and stress being put on the feet, knees, and legs while running by gravitational force. Muscle tears in our legs or pain in various areas of the feet can be a result of poor biomechanics of running.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most common injuries in running involve the knees and the feet. Various studies have focused on the initial cause of these running related injuries and found that there are many factors that correlate to these injuries. Female distance runners who had a history of stress fracture injuries had higher vertical impact forces than non-injured subjects. The large forces onto the lower legs were associated with gravitational forces, and this correlated with patellofemoral pain or potential knee injuries. Researchers have also found that these running-related injuries affect the feet as well, because runners with previous injuries showed more foot eversion and over-pronation while running than non-injured runners. This causes more loads and forces on the medial side of the foot, causing more stress on the tendons of the foot and ankle. Most of these running injuries are caused by overuse: running longer distances weekly for a long duration is a risk for injuring the lower legs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Voluntary stretches to the legs, such as the wall stretch, condition the hamstrings and the calf muscle to various movements before vigorously working them. The environment and surroundings, such as uneven terrain, can cause the feet to position in an unnatural way, so wearing shoes that can absorb forces from the ground's impact and allow for stabilizing the feet can prevent some injuries while running as well. Shoes should be structured to allow friction-traction at the shoe surface, space for different foot-strike stresses, and for comfortable, regular arches for the feet.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [ 2289425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The chance of damaging our lower extremities will be reduced by having knowledge about some activities associated with lower leg injury and developing a correct form of running, such as not over-pronating the foot or overusing the legs. Preventative measures, such as various stretches, and wearing appropriate footwear, will also reduce injuries.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A fracture of the leg can be classified according to the involved bone into:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [ 839943, 4099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 10 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Femoral fracture (in the upper leg)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [ 30733805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crus fracture (in the lower leg)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [ 30755279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lower leg and foot pain management is critical in reducing the progression of further injuries, uncomfortable sensations and limiting alterations while walking and running. Most individuals suffer from various pains in their lower leg and foot due to different factors. Muscle inflammation, strain, tenderness, swelling and muscle tear from muscle overuse or incorrect movement are several conditions often experienced by athletes and the common public during and after high impact physical activities. Therefore, suggested pain management mechanisms are provided to reduce pain and prevent the progression of injury.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pain management", "target_page_ids": [ 39595, 11492, 3226145, 2843057, 15311728, 70426, 2843057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 234 ], [ 239, 243 ], [ 270, 289 ], [ 291, 297 ], [ 299, 309 ], [ 311, 319 ], [ 324, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A plantar fasciitis foot stretch is one of the recommended methods to reduce pain caused by plantar fasciitis (Figure 1). To do the plantar fascia stretch, while sitting in a chair place the ankle on the opposite knee and hold the toes of the impaired foot, slowly pulling back. The stretch should be held for approximately ten seconds, three times per day.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pain management", "target_page_ids": [ 873402, 873391, 336880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 19 ], [ 132, 146 ], [ 191, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several methods can be utilized to help control pain caused by shin splints. Placing ice on the affected area prior to and after running will aid in reducing pain. In addition, wearing orthotic devices including a neoprene sleeve (Figure 2) and wearing appropriate footwear such as a foot arch can help to eliminate the condition. Stretching and strengthening of the anterior tibia or medial tibia by performing exercises of plantar and dorsi flexors such as calf stretch can also help in easing the pain.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pain management", "target_page_ids": [ 1456094, 217524, 4910228, 244517, 11492, 11492, 2287328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 75 ], [ 214, 222 ], [ 284, 293 ], [ 376, 381 ], [ 425, 432 ], [ 437, 442 ], [ 459, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are numerous appropriate approaches to handling pain resulting from Achilles tendinitis. The primary action is to rest. Activities that do not provide additional stress to the affected tendon are also recommended. Wearing orthothics or prostheses will provide cushion and will prevent the affected Achilles tendon from experiencing further stress when walking and performing therapeutic stretches. A few stretch modalities or eccentric exercises such as toe extension and flexion and calf and heel stretch are beneficial in lowering pain with Achilles tendinopathy patients (Figure 4)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pain management", "target_page_ids": [ 1002659, 144865, 72750, 380167, 29763544, 4057221, 4057221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 93 ], [ 191, 197 ], [ 242, 252 ], [ 304, 319 ], [ 432, 450 ], [ 464, 473 ], [ 478, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adolescent and adult women in many Western cultures often remove the hair from their legs. Toned, tanned, shaved legs are sometimes perceived as a sign of youthfulness and are often considered attractive in these cultures.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 21208262, 145387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 50 ], [ 58, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Men generally do not shave their legs in any culture. However, leg-shaving is a generally accepted practice in modeling. It is also fairly common in sports where the hair removal makes the athlete appreciably faster by reducing drag; the most common case of this is competitive swimming.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 48916, 2137292, 22425760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 119 ], [ 228, 232 ], [ 278, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Distraction osteogenesis (leg lengthening)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2989216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Literature specified by multiple pages above:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Interactive images at InnerBody", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Animal_locomotion", "Lower_limb_anatomy" ]

[ "human lower limb" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Iberia, in its most common meaning, refers to the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. In history, the name is also used for an area in the Caucasus more or less identical with the modern country of Georgia. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14883, 48768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 67 ], [ 204, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Iberia may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom of Iberia (c. 302 BC–580 AD), an ancient Georgian kingdom", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Regions in the Caucasus", "target_page_ids": [ 336787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sasanian Iberia (523–626/627 AD), the eastern parts of Caucasian Georgia under direct Sasanian rule", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Regions in the Caucasus", "target_page_ids": [ 48677308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Principality of Iberia (580-880 AD), in early medieval Caucasian Georgia", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Regions in the Caucasus", "target_page_ids": [ 14625802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bagratid Iberia (888-1008), a Georgian monarchy concentrated on historical lands of Tao and Klarjeti ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Regions in the Caucasus", "target_page_ids": [ 581599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iberia (theme) (c. 1000-1074 AD), an administrative and military unit of the Byzantine Empire carved out of several Georgian lands", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Regions in the Caucasus", "target_page_ids": [ 12243810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iberia District, Tahuamanu Province, Peru", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern places", "target_page_ids": [ 17162084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iberia, Minnesota, United States, an unincorporated community", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern places", "target_page_ids": [ 46377962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iberia, Missouri, United States, a city", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern places", "target_page_ids": [ 122911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iberia, Ohio, United States, a census-designated place", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern places", "target_page_ids": [ 2871061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iberia Parish, Louisiana, United States", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern places", "target_page_ids": [ 97697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iberia (book), an illustrated travel book by James Michener", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 4868200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iberia (Albéniz), a piano suite by Isaac Albéniz", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 3612266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ibéria, the second of three sections of Images pour orchestre, a musical composition by Claude Debussy", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 5513650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Deportes Iberia, a Chilean football club based in Los Ángeles", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 21486484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iberia SC, a former Spanish football club based in Zaragoza, Aragon", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 22653522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iberia (airline), the largest Spanish airline", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 98613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SS Iberia, several ships", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 25566744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iberia Airport, Iberia District, Peru", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 34969528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IberiaBank, an American financial holding company originating in New Iberia, Louisiana, United States (1887)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31211168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iberian (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 602383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Italian East Africa (, AOI) was an Italian colony in the Horn of Africa. It was formed in 1936 through the merger of Italian Somalia, Italian Eritrea, and the newly occupied Ethiopian Empire, conquered in the Second Italo-Ethiopian War.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18936303, 62142, 518090, 27612351, 9602302, 494313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 49 ], [ 57, 71 ], [ 117, 132 ], [ 134, 149 ], [ 174, 190 ], [ 209, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Italian East Africa was divided into six governorates. Eritrea and Somalia, Italian possessions since the 1880s, were enlarged with captured Ethiopian territory and became the Eritrea and Somalia Governorates. The remainder of \"Italian Ethiopia\" consisted the Harar, Galla-Sidamo, Amhara, and Scioa Governorates. Fascist colonial policy had a divide and conquer characteristic, and favoured the Oromos, the Somalis and other Muslims in an attempt to weaken their ties to the Amharas who had been the ruling ethnic group in the Ethiopian Empire.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 29291425, 29291667, 29292953, 33964137, 29291648, 29291675, 29291658, 44281414, 201153, 22686, 1571696, 355173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 53 ], [ 176, 183 ], [ 188, 207 ], [ 228, 244 ], [ 260, 265 ], [ 267, 279 ], [ 281, 287 ], [ 293, 310 ], [ 343, 361 ], [ 395, 401 ], [ 407, 414 ], [ 475, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Second World War, Italian East Africa was occupied by a British-led force including colonial units and Ethiopian guerrillas in November 1941. After the war, Italian Somalia and Eritrea came under British administration, while Ethiopia regained its independence. In 1950, occupied Somalia became the United Nations Trust Territory of Somaliland, administered by Italy from 1950 until its independence in 1960. Occupied Eritrea became an autonomous part of Ethiopia in 1952, and was later annexed by the Ethiopian Empire in 1962.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 988219, 31717, 20854645, 52069410, 59531553, 31769, 12514182, 14532, 27612351, 8845210, 9602302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ], [ 49, 61 ], [ 67, 74 ], [ 95, 109 ], [ 114, 134 ], [ 282, 298 ], [ 310, 324 ], [ 325, 354 ], [ 372, 377 ], [ 420, 436 ], [ 447, 474 ], [ 513, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historians are still divided about the reasons for the Italian attack on Ethiopia in 1935. Some Italian historians such as Franco Catalano and Giorgio Rochat argue that the invasion was an act of social imperialism, contending that the Great Depression had badly damaged Mussolini's prestige, and that he needed a foreign war to distract public opinion. Other historians such as Pietro Pastorelli have argued that the invasion was launched as part of an expansionist program to make Italy the main power in the Red Sea area and the Middle East. A middle way interpretation was offered by the American historian MacGregor Knox, who argued that the war was started for both foreign and domestic reasons, being both a part of Mussolini's long-range expansionist plans and intended to give Mussolini a foreign policy triumph that would allow him to push the Fascist system in a more radical direction at home.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 104202, 1033346, 19283335, 19283178, 23819837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 114 ], [ 196, 214 ], [ 236, 252 ], [ 271, 280 ], [ 611, 625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike forty years earlier, Italy's forces were far superior to the Ethiopian forces, especially in air power, and they were soon victorious. Emperor Haile Selassie was forced to flee the country, with Italian forces entering the capital city, Addis Ababa, to proclaim an \"Italian Empire of Ethiopia\" by 5 May 1936. Some Ethiopians welcomed the Italians and collaborated with them in the government of the newly created Italian Empire, like Ras Seyoum Mengesha, Ras Getachew Abate and Ras Kebbede Guebret. In 1937 the friendship of Seyoum Mengesha with the Italian Viceroy Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta enabled this Ras to play an influential role in securing the release of 3,000 Ethiopian POWs being held in Italian Somaliland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11776, 42120, 52593, 33964137, 21656798, 2522403, 518090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 26 ], [ 150, 164 ], [ 244, 255 ], [ 273, 299 ], [ 445, 460 ], [ 573, 601 ], [ 709, 727 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Italian victory in the war coincided with the zenith of the international popularity of dictator Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime, during which colonialist leaders praised Mussolini for his actions. Mussolini's international popularity decreased as he endorsed the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany, beginning a political tilt toward Germany that eventually led to the downfall of Mussolini and the Fascist regime in Italy in World War II. Italian East Africa was formed on 1 June 1936, shortly after the conquest, by merging the pre-existing colonies of Italian Somaliland and Italian Eritrea with the newly conquered territory. The maintenance and creation of Ethiopian colonies was very costly.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19283178, 10494547, 18951602, 21212, 518090, 27612351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 117 ], [ 120, 134 ], [ 270, 291 ], [ 295, 307 ], [ 564, 582 ], [ 587, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 10 June 1940, Italy declared war on Britain and France, which made Italian military forces in Libya a threat to Egypt and those in the Italian East Africa a danger to the British and French territories in the Horn of Africa. Italian belligerence also closed the Mediterranean to Allied merchant ships and endangered British supply routes along the coast of East Africa, the Gulf of Aden, Red Sea and the Suez Canal. (The Kingdom of Egypt remained neutral during World War II, but the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 allowed the British to occupy Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.) Egypt, the Suez Canal, French Somaliland and British Somaliland were also vulnerable to invasion, but the Comando Supremo (Italian General Staff) had planned for a war after 1942. In the summer of 1940, Italy was far from ready for a long war or for the occupation of large areas of Africa.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 227177, 62142, 58716, 26191, 29323, 9555087, 284003, 479382, 985801, 537228, 51427, 67238621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 57 ], [ 212, 226 ], [ 377, 389 ], [ 391, 398 ], [ 407, 417 ], [ 424, 440 ], [ 450, 457 ], [ 487, 516 ], [ 557, 577 ], [ 603, 620 ], [ 625, 643 ], [ 686, 701 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hostilities began on 13 June 1940, with an Italian air raid on the base of 1 Squadron Southern Rhodesian Air Force (237 (Rhodesia) Squadron RAF) at Wajir in the East Africa Protectorate (Kenya). In August 1940, the protectorate of British Somaliland was occupied by Italian forces and absorbed into Italian East Africa. This occupation lasted around six months.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18702219, 4521212, 1968029, 219249, 12759268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 114 ], [ 148, 153 ], [ 161, 185 ], [ 215, 227 ], [ 231, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By early 1941, Italian forces had been largely pushed back from Kenya and Sudan. On 6 April 1941, Addis Ababa was occupied by the 11th (African) Division, which received the surrender of the city. The remnants of the Italian forces in the AOI surrendered after the Battle of Gondar in November 1941, except for groups that fought an Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia against the British until the Armistice of Cassibile (3 September 1943) ended hostilities between Italy and the Allies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1077329, 13654097, 12588895, 2998260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 153 ], [ 265, 281 ], [ 333, 366 ], [ 397, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 1942, with the final official surrender of the Italians, the British, under American pressure, signed an interim Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement with Selassie, acknowledging Ethiopian sovereignty. Makonnen Endelkachew was named as Prime Minister and on 19 December 1944, the final Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement was signed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6924472, 1203275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 149 ], [ 202, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the peace treaty of February 1947, Italy officially renounced sovereignty over its African colonies. Eritrea was placed under British military administration for the duration, and in 1950, it became part of Ethiopia. After 1945, Britain controlled both Somalilands, as protectorates. In November 1949, the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland under close supervision, on condition that Somalia achieve independence within ten years. British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as the State of Somaliland, the Trust Territory of Somalia (ex-Italian Somaliland) became independent on 1 July 1960 and the territories united as the Somali Republic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 384992, 219249, 5579191, 12514182, 2061685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 36 ], [ 272, 284 ], [ 523, 542 ], [ 548, 574 ], [ 667, 682 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The colony was administered by a Viceroy of Ethiopia and Governor General of Italian East Africa, appointed by the Italian king. The dominion was further divided for administrative purposes into six Governorates, further divided into forty Commissariati.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial administration", "target_page_ids": [ 1124627, 29291425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 96 ], [ 195, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When established in 1936, Italian East Africa consisted of the old Italian possessions in the Horn of Africa: Italian Eritrea and Italian Somaliland, combined with the recently conquered Empire of Ethiopia. Victor Emmanuel III of Italy consequently adopted the title of \"Emperor of Ethiopia\", although this was not recognized by any country other than Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan. The territory was divided into the six Governorates: Eritrea and Somalia, consisting of the respective former colonies, enlarged with territory from Ethiopia. The remainder of \"Italian Ethiopia\" consisted of the Harar, Galla-Sidamo, Amhara, and Addis Abeba Governorates. The Addis Abeba Governorate was enlarged into the Scioa Governorate with territory from neighboring Harar, Galla-Sidamo and Amhara in November 1938.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial administration", "target_page_ids": [ 62142, 27612351, 518090, 9602302, 69840, 606626, 21212, 183897, 29291425, 29291667, 29292953, 33964137, 29291648, 29291675, 29291658, 44281414, 44281414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 108 ], [ 110, 125 ], [ 130, 148 ], [ 187, 205 ], [ 207, 235 ], [ 271, 290 ], [ 352, 364 ], [ 369, 383 ], [ 420, 436 ], [ 438, 445 ], [ 450, 457 ], [ 562, 578 ], [ 597, 602 ], [ 604, 616 ], [ 618, 624 ], [ 630, 653 ], [ 706, 723 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Italian East Africa was briefly enlarged in 1940, as Italian forces conquered British Somaliland, thereby bringing all Somali territories, aside from the small colony of French Somaliland, under Italian administration. However, the enlarged colony was dismembered only a year later, when in the course of the East African Campaign the colony was occupied by British forces.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial administration", "target_page_ids": [ 12759268, 51427, 537228, 988219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 77 ], [ 78, 96 ], [ 170, 187 ], [ 309, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fascist colonial policy in Italian East Africa had a divide and conquer characteristic. To weaken the Orthodox Christian Amhara people who had run Ethiopia in the past, territory claimed by Eritrean Tigray-Tigrinyas and Somalis was given to the Eritrea Governorate and Somalia Governorate. Reconstruction efforts after the war in 1936 were partially focused on benefiting the Muslim peoples in the colony at the expense of the Amhara to strengthen support by Muslims for the Italian colony.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial administration", "target_page_ids": [ 201153, 355173, 65047467, 1571696, 29291667, 29292953, 19541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 71 ], [ 121, 134 ], [ 199, 215 ], [ 220, 227 ], [ 245, 264 ], [ 269, 288 ], [ 459, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Italy's Fascist regime encouraged Italian peasants to colonize Ethiopia by setting up farms and small manufacturing businesses. However, few Italians came to the Ethiopian colony, with most going to Eritrea and Somalia. While Italian Eritrea enjoyed some degree of development, supported by nearly 80,000 Italian colonists, by 1940 only 3,200 farmers had arrived in Ethiopia, less than ten percent of the Fascist regime's goal. Continued insurgency by native Ethiopians, lack of natural resources, rough terrain, and uncertainty of political and military conditions discouraged development and settlement in the countryside.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial administration", "target_page_ids": [ 19786473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 305, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Italians invested substantively in Ethiopian infrastructure development. They created the \"imperial road\" between Addis Ababa and Massaua, Addis Ababa and Mogadishu and Addis Ababa - Assab. 900km of railways were reconstructed or initiated (like the railway between Addis Ababa and Assab), dams and hydroelectric plants were built, and many public and private companies were established in the underdeveloped country. The most important were: \"Compagnie per il cotone d'Etiopia\" (Cotton industry); \"Cementerie d'Etiopia\" (Cement industry); \"Compagnia etiopica mineraria\" (Minerals industry); \"Imprese elettriche d'Etiopia\" (Electricity industry); \"Compagnia etiopica degli esplosivi\" (Armament industry); \"Trasporti automobilistici (Citao)\" (Mechanic & Transport industry).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial administration", "target_page_ids": [ 555921, 60154, 1126612, 1126612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 141 ], [ 159, 168 ], [ 187, 192 ], [ 286, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Italians even created new airports and in 1936 started the world famous Linea dell'Impero, a flight connecting Addis Ababa to Rome. The line was opened after the Italian conquest of Ethiopia and was followed by the first air links with the Italian colonies in Africa Orientale Italiana (Italian East Africa), which began in a pioneering way since 1934. The route was enlarged to 6,379km and initially joined Rome with Addis Ababa via Syracuse, Benghazi, Cairo, Wadi Halfa, Khartoum, Kassala, Asmara, Dire Dawa. There was a change of aircraft in Benghazi (or sometimes in Tripoli). The route was carried out in three and a half days of daytime flight and the frequency was four flights per week in both directions. Later from Addis Ababa there were three flights a week that continued to Mogadishu, capital of Italian Somalia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial administration", "target_page_ids": [ 56988346, 25458, 494313, 25458, 52593, 28441, 204114, 6293, 1126657, 17320, 1504036, 56827, 1242250, 204114, 17473936, 60154, 518090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 89 ], [ 126, 130 ], [ 162, 190 ], [ 408, 412 ], [ 418, 429 ], [ 434, 442 ], [ 444, 452 ], [ 454, 459 ], [ 461, 471 ], [ 473, 481 ], [ 483, 490 ], [ 492, 498 ], [ 500, 509 ], [ 545, 553 ], [ 571, 578 ], [ 787, 796 ], [ 809, 824 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most important railway line in the African colonies of the Kingdom of Italy, the 784km long Djibouti-Addis Ababa, was acquired following the conquest of the Ethiopian Empire by the Italians in 1936. The route was served until 1935 by steam trains that took about 36 hours to do the total trip between the capital of Ethiopia and the port of Djibouti. In 1938 following the Italian conquest, train speed was increased with the introduction of four high capacity railcars \"type 038\" derived from the model Fiat ALn56.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial administration", "target_page_ids": [ 17899555, 17207794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 116 ], [ 345, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These diesel trains were able to reach 70km/h and so the time travel was cut in half to just 18 hours: they were used until the mid 1960s. At the main stations there were some bus connections to the other cities of Italian Ethiopia not served by the railway. Additionally, near the Addis Ababa station was created a special unit against fire, that was the only one in all Africa.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial administration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However Ethiopia and Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI) proved to be extremely expensive to maintain, as the budget for the fiscal year 1936-37 had been set at 19.136 billion lira to create the necessary infrastructure for the colony. At the time, Italy's entire yearly revenue was only 18.581 billion lira.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial administration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The architects of the Fascist regime had drafted grandiose urbanistic projects for the enlargement of Addis Ababa, in order to build a state-of-the-art capital of the Africa Orientale Italiana, but these architectural plans -like all the other developments- were stopped by World War II.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial administration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to Fascism, education in Italian East Africa had primarily been the responsibility of both Roman Catholic and Protestant missionaries. With Mussolini's rise to power, government schools were created which eventually incorporated the Catholic missionaries' educational programmes while those of the Protestant missionaries became marginalised and circumscribed. Andrea Festa, who was made director of the central office governing primary education in Eritrea in November 1932, declared in 1934 that Fascist efforts in education needed to ensure that native Africans were \"acquainted with a little of our civilisation\" and that they needed to \"know Italy, its glories, and ancient history, in order to, become a conscious militia man in the shade of our flag.\" Such education initiatives were designed to train Africans in a variety of practical tasks useful to the Fascist regime as well as to indoctrinate them with the tenets and lifestyle of Fascist ideology with the aim of creating citizens obedient and subservient to the state. Their propagandistic nature was especially apparent in history textbooks issued to African children, which entirely omitted any discussion of events such as Italian disunity, Giuseppe Mazzini's \"Young Italy\" movement, the revolutions of 1848, or Giuseppe Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand and instead stressed the \"glories\" of the Roman Empire and those of the Italian state that claimed to be its successor. Glorification and lionisation of Mussolini and his \"great work\" likewise pervaded them, while periods during which Libya and other then-Italian possessions had been controlled by older, non-Italian empires, such as the Ottoman Empire, were portrayed through an unflattering lens. Use of the Fascist salute was mandatory in schools for African children, who were constantly encouraged to become \"little soldiers of the Duce\", and every day there was morning ceremony at which the Italian flag was hoisted and patriotic songs were sung. Italian children, whose education the Fascist government prioritised over that of Africans, received education similar to that in Fascist Italy's metropole, though with some aspects of it tailored to the local situation in East Africa. Fascist Italy sought to neutralise any educational institutions which provided instruction to Africans beyond the level expected by Fascist ideology, in particular the secondary education network that prior to the Italian invasion had prepared and enabled a relatively small but significant amount of Ethiopians to study abroad at universities in Europe.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial administration", "target_page_ids": [ 36948, 10156432, 21486576, 1840514, 25507, 17633, 22278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1215, 1233 ], [ 1262, 1281 ], [ 1286, 1306 ], [ 1307, 1333 ], [ 1376, 1388 ], [ 1569, 1574 ], [ 1673, 1687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 1937, following an attempt on the life of Rodolfo Graziani, educated Ethiopians, already having been distrusted by colonial government authorities and many having already been placed in concentration camps, became victims of state-sponsored mass murder, with much of the intelligentsia of Ethiopia being executed and the remainder exiled to penal colonies on Italian-controlled islands in the Mediterranean Sea. Fascist education in the colony proved to be a failure in the end, with only one twentieth of Italian colonial soldiers possessing any literacy. During World War II, which saw the liberation of Italian East Africa from Fascism, few Africans displayed any loyalty to the Fascist state that the state's schools had so fervently tried to instill, and Ethiopia post-World War II found itself impoverished of skilled workers due to the very limited and propagandistic education provided to its non-Italian inhabitants under Mussolini's rule.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial administration", "target_page_ids": [ 202123, 311305, 19006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 70 ], [ 283, 297 ], [ 405, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1939, there were 165,267 Italian citizens in the Italian East Africa, the majority of them concentrated around the main urban centres of Asmara, Addis Ababa and Mogadishu. The total population was estimated around 12.1 million, with a density of just over . The distribution of population was, however, very uneven. Eritrea, with an area of , had a population estimated in about 1.5 million, with a population density of ; Ethiopia with an area of and a population of some 9.5 million, had a resulting density of ; sparsely populated Italian Somaliland finally, with an area of and a population of just 1.1 million, had a very low density of .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial administration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In February 1937, following many murders of Italian and Eritrean soldiers and an assassination attempt on Italian East Africa's Viceroy, Marshal Rodolfo Graziani, Italian soldiers raided the famous Ethiopian monastery Debre Libanos, where the assassins were believed to have taken refuge, and executed the monks and nuns. Afterwards, Italian soldiers destroyed native settlements in Addis Ababa, which resulted -according to Ethiopian estimates- in nearly 30,000 Ethiopians being killed and their homes left burned to the ground. The massacre has come to be known as Yekatit 12.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial administration", "target_page_ids": [ 202123, 2189701, 52593, 6204551, 30965119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 161 ], [ 218, 231 ], [ 383, 394 ], [ 463, 473 ], [ 567, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the massacres, Graziani became known as \"the Butcher of Ethiopia\". He was subsequently removed by Mussolini and replaced by Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, who followed a more conciliatory policy towards the natives, obtaining a huge success in pacifying Ethiopia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial administration", "target_page_ids": [ 2522403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the eve of the Italian entry into the Second World War (January/February 1940) the Ethiopian guerrillas were still in control of some areas of Harar and the Galla-Sidamo Governorate. Amedeo's conciliatory efforts obtained that Abebe Aregai, then the last leader of the \"Arbegnoch\" (as the guerrilla fighters were called in Ethiopia) made a surrender proposal to the Italians in the spring of 1940 (after the 1939 surrender of Ethiopian leaders Zaudiè Asfau and Olonà Dinkel). The Italian declaration of war on 10 June 1940 and British influence blocked the surrender proposal.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Colonial administration", "target_page_ids": [ 1203252, 52069410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 230, 242 ], [ 273, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of governors-general of Italian East Africa", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1124627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of governors of the Governorates of Italian East Africa", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60659951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dubats", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8687489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Political history of Eastern Africa", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5883157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Italian Ethiopia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33964137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Italians of Ethiopia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33251542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12588895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Italian African Police", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15444016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Italian East African lira", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3845070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Augusto Turati", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4001827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Languages of Africa", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 59556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antonicelli, Franco (1961) Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945, Saggi series 295, Torino : Einaudi, p. 387 [in Italian]", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Brioni, Simone and Shimelis Bonsa Gulema, eds. (2017) The Horn of Africa and Italy: Colonial, Postcolonial and Transnational Cultural Encounters, Oxford : Peter Lang, ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Calchi Novati, Gian Carlo (2011).L'Africa d'Italia, Carrocci, Roma. [in Italian]", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Del Boca, Angelo (1986) Italiani in Africa Orientale: La caduta dell'Impero, Biblioteca universale Laterza 186, Roma : Laterza, [in Italian]", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mauri, Arnaldo (1967). Il mercato del credito in Etiopia, Milano, Giuffrè, pp.XVI, 504 [in Italian].", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mockler, Anthony (1984). Haile Selassie's War: The Italian-Ethiopian Campaign, 1935–1941, New York : Random House, ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tuccimei, Ercole (1999). La Banca d'Italia in Africa, Presentazione di Arnaldo Mauri, Laterza, Bari, [in Italian]", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Italian East African Armed Forces, 10 June 1940", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1940 Colonial Brigade, 10 June 1940", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ascari: I Leoni di Eritrea/Ascari: The Eritrean Lions", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Geographic map of Italian business community in Africa (December 2012)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Italian_East_Africa", "Former_colonies_in_Africa", "Former_Italian_colonies", "Italian_colonisation_in_Africa", "East_Africa", "Horn_of_Africa", "History_of_Ethiopia", "History_of_Eritrea", "1930s_in_Eritrea", "1930s_in_Ethiopia", "1930s_in_Somalia", "1940s_in_Eritrea", "1940s_in_Ethiopia", "1940s_in_Somalia", "Former_Italian-speaking_countries", "Former_countries_of_the_interwar_period", "Italian_military_occupations", "World_War_II_occupied_territories", "Ethiopia–Italy_relations", "Eritrea–Italy_relations", "Italy–Somalia_relations", "States_and_territories_established_in_1936", "States_and_territories_disestablished_in_1941", "1936_establishments_in_Africa", "1941_disestablishments_in_Africa", "1936_establishments_in_the_Italian_Empire", "1941_disestablishments_in_the_Italian_Empire", "20th_century_in_Eritrea", "20th_century_in_Ethiopia", "20th_century_in_Somalia", "20th_century_in_Africa", "Real_unions", "Client_states_of_Fascist_Italy" ]

[ "Africa Orientale Italiana" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Blum Blum Shub (B.B.S.) is a pseudorandom number generator proposed in 1986 by Lenore Blum, Manuel Blum and Michael Shub that is derived from Michael O. Rabin's one-way function.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 45524, 1884319, 308357, 40166098, 298404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 58 ], [ 79, 90 ], [ 92, 103 ], [ 108, 120 ], [ 142, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "__TOC__", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Blum Blum Shub takes the form", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ",", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where M = pq is the product of two large primes p and q. At each step of the algorithm, some output is derived from xn+1; the output is commonly either the bit parity of xn+1 or one or more of the least significant bits of x_n+1.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23666, 194467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 47 ], [ 156, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The seed x0 should be an integer that is co-prime to M (i.e. p and q are not factors of x0) and not 1 or 0.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2503259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The two primes, p and q, should both be congruent to 3 (mod 4) (this guarantees that each quadratic residue has one square root which is also a quadratic residue), and should be safe primes with a small gcd((p-3)/2, (q-3)/2) (this makes the cycle length large).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 48167, 200091, 29208, 89244, 12354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 49 ], [ 90, 107 ], [ 116, 127 ], [ 178, 188 ], [ 203, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An interesting characteristic of the Blum Blum Shub generator is the possibility to calculate any xi value directly (via Euler's theorem):", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 69566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ",", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the Carmichael function. (Here we have ).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1181756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a proof reducing its security to the computational difficulty of factoring. When the primes are chosen appropriately, and O(log log M) lower-order bits of each xn are output, then in the limit as M grows large, distinguishing the output bits from random should be at least as difficult as solving the quadratic residuosity problem modulo M.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Security", "target_page_ids": [ 7543, 44578, 17860, 1183041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 70 ], [ 131, 132 ], [ 133, 136 ], [ 310, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Let , and (where is the seed). We can expect to get a large cycle length for those small numbers, because .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Example", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The generator starts to evaluate by using and creates the sequence , , , = 9, 81, 236, 36, 31, 202. The following table shows the output (in bits) for the different bit selection methods used to determine the output.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Example", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following Common Lisp implementation provides a simple demonstration of the generator, in particular regarding the three bit selection methods. It is important to note that the requirements imposed upon the parameters p, q and s'' (seed) are not checked.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Example", "target_page_ids": [ 6068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " GMPBBS, a C-language implementation by Mark Rossmiller", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " BlumBlumShub, a Java-language implementation by Mark Rossmiller", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An implementation in Java", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Randomness tests", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Pseudorandom_number_generators", "Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generators" ]

[ "B.B.S." ]

[ { "plaintext": "Roma or ROMA may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Roma, Queensland, a town", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 145324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma Airport", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 9828385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma Courthouse", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 21710388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Electoral district of Roma, defunct", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 36014357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Town of Roma, defunct town, now part of the Maranoa Regional Council", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 8559311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roma Street, Brisbane, a street in Queensland", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 59511236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roma Street busway station", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 3782004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roma Street Parkland, park in Brisbane, Queensland", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 624088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roma Street railway station, a station in Brisbane, Queensland", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 853048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mata Roma, a municipality in the state of Maranhão", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 25499005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma Negra, a nickname of the city of Salvador, Bahia", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 3715871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rome or Roma, the capital of Italy", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 25458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A.S. Roma, one of the football clubs of Rome", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 2358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma Tre University (founded in 1992)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 2097545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Esposizione Universale Roma or EUR, a residential and business district", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 220724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ancient Rome or Roma", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 521555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma, Lesotho, in the Maseru District", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 12932610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Colonia Roma, a neighbourhood in Mexico City", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 4071536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma, Peru, a town in La Libertad Region", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 38131850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma (Lisbon Metro), a Green Line station on Avenida de Roma", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 41225984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma, Botoșani, a commune", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 7933254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " La Roma, a fossil-site", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 34376692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma (Requena), a village in Valencia", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 53718711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma, Gotland, a town", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 17530549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma, Texas, a town", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 136622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma Independent School District", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 5917763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma (given name), a female given name", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Names", "target_page_ids": [ 13720244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma (surname), a surname (and list of people with the name)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Names", "target_page_ids": [ 55515312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roman (given name), or Roma, a male given name", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Names", "target_page_ids": [ 19115451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roman (surname), a surname (and list of people with the name)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Names", "target_page_ids": [ 42433686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Roma people or Romani people, an ethnic group living mostly in Europe and the Americas", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 26152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma called Roy, ancient Egyptian High Priest of Amun", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 27281327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sister Roma or Michael Williams (born 1962), American drag performer and director", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 13126533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma (footballer, born 1979), born Paulo Marcel Pereira Merabet, Brazilian football forward", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 13477591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma (footballer, born 1985), born Juliano Laurentino dos Santos, Brazilian football winger", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 18483029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma (1972 film), an Italian film by Federico Fellini", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Film and television", "target_page_ids": [ 1721399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma (2004 film), an Argentinian film by Adolfo Aristarain", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Film and television", "target_page_ids": [ 2443552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma (2018 film), a Mexican film by Alfonso Cuarón", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Film and television", "target_page_ids": [ 51550709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma (Don character), a fictional character in the Don film series", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Film and television", "target_page_ids": [ 57720394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma (novel), a 2007 novel by Steven Saylor about Ancient Rome", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [ 419245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma (comics), a Marvel comics character", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [ 3553503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma!, an American glam rock band", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 34985995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma Symphony (Bizet), a 19th-century symphony by Georges Bizet", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 23263425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma (opera), a 1912 opera by Jules Massenet", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 7706468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma, a 1991 album by Terry Ronald", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 4287987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Roma\" (song), a 2005 song by Cameron Cartio", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 32129953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma Revolving Restaurant, in Durban, South Africa", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Companies", "target_page_ids": [ 27765898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tony Roma's, chain restaurant", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Companies", "target_page_ids": [ 3099072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Party of the Roma, a political party in Romania", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Political organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 13886758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma Democratic Social Party, a political party in the Czech Republic", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Political organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 1898212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma Party, a political party in Serbia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Political organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 9008855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma (airship), a US army airship (Italian ex-T34) which crashed on February 21, 1922", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 8646638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Italian ironclad Roma, an armoured steam frigate commissioned in 1865", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 48022209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Italian battleship Roma (1907), a predreadnought battleship of the Regina Elena class", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 27112297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Italian battleship Roma (1940), a battleship of the Vittorio Veneto class", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 25023161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SS Roma (1926)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 20850378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MV Doulos or SS Roma", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 1131618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ferrari Roma, grand touring sports car manufactured by Italian automobile manufacturer Ferrari", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 62334520, 11225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 88, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A.S. Roma, a football team in Rome, Italy", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 2358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A.S. Roma (Superleague Formula team), auto racing team associated with above", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 23296291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A.S. Roma Futsal, futsal team associated with above", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 23697292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dallas Roma F.C., a soccer team in Dallas, Texas, United States", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 5770018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " M. Roma Volley, a volleyball team in Rome, Italy", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 12988142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma Esporte Apucarana, a football team in Apucarana, Paraná, Brazil", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 9721908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma S.C., a defunct soccer team in Paterson, New Jersey, United States", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 5449984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma United, a football club in the Cayman Islands ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 7687759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rugby Roma Olimpic, a rugby team in Rome, Italy", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 14302440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Premio Roma, a horse race in Rome, Italy", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 20052075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma Cup, a horse race in Perth, Western Australia, Australia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 27400379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma Golf Open, a golf tournament in Rome, Italy", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 12951660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma Masters, a defunct golf tournament in Rome, Italy", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 5300582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma Open, a tennis tournament in Rome, Italy", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 20793508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma (mythology), a Roman deity", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 145327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 472 Roma, an asteroid", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2846293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ROMA or Representational Oligonucleotide Microarray Analysis, a genomics technology", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 4762114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma rice, an Italian cultivated variety of rice particularly suitable for risotto", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 711987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roma tomato, a plum tomato commonly found in supermarkets", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 4955683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ROMA Design Group, a San Francisco-based interdisciplinary design firm", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 29384440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Romas (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20188944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nova Roma (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5963728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rome (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romaic", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 292885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romanus (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 500094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aromanians", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 323104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romagna", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 309737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romagnol language", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22392901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romain (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8090280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romaine (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2320913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roman (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romanesco (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40979578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romanesque (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10447061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romana (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6323294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romand", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 465924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romandy", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romania (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2050159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romanian (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 66320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romanicus", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Romance (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 228460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romanza (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4523826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romance languages (Romanic)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romanization (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9975274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romano (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3572671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romansh language", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rûm", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 293598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rumelia", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 296425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] } ]

[]

[ "Erroma" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Peckforton Castle is a Victorian country house built in the style of a medieval castle. It stands in woodland at the north end of Peckforton Hills northwest of the village of Peckforton, Cheshire, England. It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated GradeI listed building. The house was built in the middle of the 19thcentury as a family home for John Tollemache, a wealthy Cheshire landowner, estate manager, and Member of Parliament. It was designed by Anthony Salvin in the Gothic style. During the Second World War it was used as a hostel for physically disabled children.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1312933, 969337, 49557, 7898124, 12768872, 7406, 32178591, 202009, 8690136, 844761, 11915588, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 46 ], [ 71, 79 ], [ 80, 86 ], [ 130, 146 ], [ 176, 186 ], [ 188, 196 ], [ 229, 263 ], [ 287, 302 ], [ 378, 393 ], [ 486, 500 ], [ 508, 514 ], [ 533, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Tollemache family used the castle for occasional gatherings, but otherwise it was unused until 1969. From 1969 to 1980 the castle was leased by the 4th Lord Tollemache to George W. Barrett, and it again became a private residence and closed to the public. The right wing and tower and the castle gardens were restored by Barrett, an American employed by the U.S. Government. His daughter Pascale's wedding was the first to be held in the chapel and a special decree had to be obtained by the Archbishop of Canterbury to legally hold Catholic weddings in the grounds of the castle.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 511080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1970s and 1980s it was used as a location for shooting films and television programmes. The castle was bought in 1988 by Evelyn Graybill, who converted it into a hotel. In 2006 it was purchased by the Naylor family, who expanded its use to include hosting weddings, conferences and other functions.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Peckforton Castle was built between 1844 and 1850 for John Tollemache, the largest landowner in Cheshire at the time, who was described by William Ewart Gladstone as \"the greatest estate manager of his day\". Tollemache's first choice of architect was George Latham of Nantwich, but he was not appointed, and was paid £2,000 in compensation. Instead Tollemache appointed Anthony Salvin, who had a greater reputation and more experience, and who had already carried out work on the Tollemache manor house, Helmingham Hall in Suffolk. The castle was built by Dean and Son of Leftwich, with Joseph Cookson of Tarporley acting as clerk of works. Stone was obtained from a quarry about to the west of the site, and a railway was built to carry the stone. The castle cost £60,000.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early history", "target_page_ids": [ 8690136, 33954, 34845704, 186899, 844761, 4121188, 27886, 9591870, 4014967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 69 ], [ 139, 162 ], [ 251, 264 ], [ 268, 276 ], [ 370, 384 ], [ 504, 519 ], [ 523, 530 ], [ 572, 580 ], [ 605, 614 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although it was built as a family home its design was that of a medieval castle. It has a gatehouse, a portcullis, a dry moat, external windows that are little more than arrow slots, and large towers. In 1851 The Illustrated London News said that it \"seems to exhibit the peculiar beauties of Carnarvon Castle without its inconveniences\" and in 1858 Sir George Gilbert Scott called it \"the largest and most carefully and learnedly executed Gothic mansion of the present\" and that it was \"the very height of masquerading\". It is regarded as \"the last serious fortified home built in England\" and \"it was executed to the highest standards and is one of the great buildings of its age\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early history", "target_page_ids": [ 18836, 3084010, 183673, 153861, 18561489, 1197159, 28603210, 99199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 72 ], [ 90, 99 ], [ 103, 113 ], [ 121, 125 ], [ 170, 181 ], [ 209, 236 ], [ 293, 309 ], [ 350, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There has been debate about the motives for building a more-or-less complete medieval-style castle in the 19thcentury. Although he was a great estate manager, Tollemache was also perceived as \"a man of considerable eccentricity\". Dr Jill Allibone is of the opinion that he might have been protecting himself and his family from the political troubles of the time. In a defensive building he would be able to protect himself against any revolution by the masses from nearby Manchester or Liverpool. A possible practical reason for building such a solid residence rather than an Italianate-style villa was to provide shelter from the adverse weather conditions which could affect the Cheshire plain. However Durdey comes to the conclusion that the decisive factors were to use his \"vast inheritance\" to provide himself with a house that was \"impressive, dominant and suitable for Cheshire's greatest landowner\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early history", "target_page_ids": [ 20206, 18081, 1546750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 473, 483 ], [ 487, 496 ], [ 577, 587 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peckforton Castle stands in a wooded area near the northern extremity of Peckforton Hills at an elevation of . The land falls steeply downwards to the north and the west of the castle, and the Sandstone Trail, a long-distance footpath, runs along the base of these slopes. The ruins of Beeston Castle stand on a separate steeply sloping hill to the north. The village of Beeston is to the northeast and the village of Peckforton is to the southeast. Access is via the road between Beeston and Peckforton.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Location", "target_page_ids": [ 7898124, 5436285, 26636274, 867326, 153722, 12768872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 89 ], [ 193, 208 ], [ 212, 234 ], [ 286, 300 ], [ 372, 379 ], [ 420, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The castle is faced with red sandstone, and has lead, asphalt and tile roofs. It is mainly in three storeys with a five-storey tower. The buildings are arranged around a ward with the principal accommodation on the north side. It is surrounded by a dry moat which is bridged at the gatehouse. To the west of the inner ward are the stables, the coach house, a rectangular bell tower and the kitchens and service area. To the north is the great hall range which consists of 18bays. Behind the entrance to the hall is the circular main tower. At the east end of the gallery wing is the octagonal library tower. The outer walls of the castle have full-height slender turrets at the changes in direction. Corbel tables support part of the battlements. The walls contain arrow slots, and in the gatehouse is a garderobe. The flat roof has a crenellated parapet.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 27772, 657, 8734940, 335634, 354978, 424400, 665111, 424400, 354988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 38 ], [ 54, 61 ], [ 170, 174 ], [ 663, 669 ], [ 700, 706 ], [ 734, 744 ], [ 804, 813 ], [ 835, 846 ], [ 847, 854 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The porch leads into the great hall which has a Minton tile floor and a large stone chimney piece. In the east wing is the long gallery which has oak panelling, a chimney-piece and a panelled ceiling. Behind the long gallery is an irregularly-shaped billiard room and the drawing room. To the south of these is the library. Behind the great hall is the main staircase. The circular tower at the north-west corner contains the octagonal dining room with a Minton tile floor, two fireplaces, and a vault of eight radial ribs running to a central boss. The room contains an oak sideboard with a carved Green Man. Below the dining room is a wine cellar. On the fifth floor of the circular tower is a room designed for playing rackets, which is approached by a stone spiral staircase.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 1848778, 5323081, 10259654, 8040039, 3708640, 970063, 325829, 1567004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 35 ], [ 48, 59 ], [ 123, 135 ], [ 496, 501 ], [ 544, 548 ], [ 575, 584 ], [ 599, 608 ], [ 722, 729 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The castle had no formal garden, but at the bottom of the drive were kitchen gardens which included vegetable gardens, an orchard, extensive glass houses and a large orangery. At one time, 17gardeners were employed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 1101085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the east side of the ward is the family's private chapel, a GradeII* listed building. It was also designed by Salvin and is constructed of rock-faced sandstone with a tile roof. Its plan consists of a two-bay nave, a south aisle, a vestry, and a narrower and lower single-bay chancel. On the gable ends of the nave and chancel are stone cross finials. Over the chancel arch is a cruciform stone bellcote. Inside the chapel an arcade of three Gothic arches separates the south aisle from the nave. The reredos is made of oak and is inscribed with the Lord's Prayer and the Ten Commandments. The choirstalls and the benches in the nave are carved with poppyheads. The baptistry at the west end contains a carved stone font with a carved oak cover. Although it is described as a modest building, the chapel is considered to \"complete the ensemble\" of the castle.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 2933470, 297040, 297058, 1872984, 780816, 807687, 864921, 1009272, 2893007, 237122, 54044, 412297, 18494, 2539671, 22362810, 1085111, 262346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 211 ], [ 212, 216 ], [ 226, 231 ], [ 235, 241 ], [ 279, 286 ], [ 295, 300 ], [ 346, 352 ], [ 382, 391 ], [ 398, 406 ], [ 429, 435 ], [ 445, 451 ], [ 504, 511 ], [ 553, 566 ], [ 575, 591 ], [ 653, 663 ], [ 669, 678 ], [ 719, 723 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The entrance lodge to the southeast of the castle is also listed at GradeII*. It was designed by Salvin and is constructed in red brick and stone with a tile roof. It consists of an archway with a round turret behind and a two-storey lodge to the left.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 335634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before moving into the castle in the 1890s, Wilbraham Tollemache, 2nd Baron Tollemache added central heating and electric light. In 1922 a large scheme of afforestation was started on the Peckforton Hills, and the resulting woodland has been granted the status of a Site of Special Scientific Interest. Bentley Tollemache, 3rd Baron Tollemache, grandson of Wilbraham Tollemache, and his family left Peckforton at the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later history and present use", "target_page_ids": [ 8690342, 99430, 43723221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 86 ], [ 267, 302 ], [ 304, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the war the castle was used as a hostel for physically handicapped children who had been evacuated from the London area. Bentley Tollemache died in 1955 and, as he had no sons, the estate passed to his cousin, John Tollemache.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later history and present use", "target_page_ids": [ 511080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 217, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s, the castle was used as a location for shooting films and television programmes. These include the Doctor Who serial The Time Warrior, broadcast in 1973–74, and a 1991 movie of Robin Hood starring Patrick Bergin and Uma Thurman. From 1982 to 1986, Treasure Trap, one of the world's first live action role-playing games, took place on the site. In 1988 the castle was purchased by an American, Evelyn Graybill, for £1million. She renovated most of the building and secured planning permission to convert it into a hotel.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later history and present use", "target_page_ids": [ 8209, 1096722, 6309072, 2336182, 78834, 19763032, 17560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 149 ], [ 157, 173 ], [ 217, 227 ], [ 237, 251 ], [ 256, 267 ], [ 288, 301 ], [ 328, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2006 Chris Naylor was married in the castle, following which the Naylor family bought the property. Peckforton Castle is now used as an hotel and for corporate events and weddings.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later history and present use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The building was severely damaged by fire in June 2011 during a wedding, the cost of the damage being in the region of £6 million. In December 2011 the bridegroom admitted to a charge of arson.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later history and present use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Grade I listed buildings in Cheshire West and Chester", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40373409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Listed buildings in Peckforton", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 42942508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Castles in Great Britain and Ireland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 142937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of castles in England", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 49636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Citations", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sources", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Peckforton Castle website", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Photographs of the castle", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Hotels_in_Cheshire", "Grade_I_listed_buildings_in_Cheshire", "Grade_I_listed_houses", "Country_houses_in_Cheshire", "Houses_completed_in_1850", "Gothic_Revival_architecture_in_Cheshire", "Anthony_Salvin_buildings", "Mock_castles_in_England", "Country_house_hotels" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Sir Walter Winterbottom (31 March 1913– 16 February 2002) was the first manager of the England national football team (1946–1962) and FA Director of Coaching. He resigned from the FA in 1962 to become General Secretary of the Central Council of Physical Recreation (CCPR) and was appointed as the first Director of the Sports Council in 1965. He was knighted for his services to sport in 1978 when he retired. The Football Association marked the 100th anniversary of Winterbottom's birth by commissioning a bust which was unveiled by Roy Hodgson at St Georges Park on 23 April 2013 in recognition of his outstanding contribution to the development of English football.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9904, 7792161, 1405832, 46136, 2394550, 27384148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 118 ], [ 227, 265 ], [ 320, 334 ], [ 415, 435 ], [ 535, 546 ], [ 550, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born in Oldham, Lancashire, Walter Winterbottom was the only son of James Winterbottom, a ring frame fitter in a textile machine works. At the age of 12 he was awarded a scholarship to Oldham High School where he excelled. He won a bursary to Chester Diocesan Teachers Training College, graduating as the top student in 1933 and took a teaching post at the Alexandra Road School, Oldham. Whilst teaching he played football for Royton Amateurs and then Mossley where he was spotted by Manchester United. He signed for United as a part-time professional in 1936 but continued teaching. In his first season (1936/37) at Manchester United he showed great promise, playing 21 first team League games and 2 FA cup games, appearing as wing half and centre half. But in the following two seasons he made only 4 first team appearances. and 41 Central League appearances, his playing career effectively ended by a spinal disease, later diagnosed as ankylosing spondylitis. Whilst still playing for Manchester United he left his teaching position to study at Carnegie College of Physical Education, Leeds. On graduating he was appointed as a lecturer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 179445, 50435, 569791, 19961, 41837544, 8262427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 14 ], [ 16, 26 ], [ 452, 459 ], [ 484, 501 ], [ 1048, 1086 ], [ 1088, 1093 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During World War II Winterbottom served as an officer in the Royal Air Force, reaching the rank of wing commander and working at the Air Ministry with overall responsibility for training PE instructors at home and overseas. He was also a guest player with Chelsea and ran coaching courses for the FA at grammar schools in London. In 1946 Stanley Rous, who was the secretary of The Football Association, persuaded the FA council to appoint Winterbottom as The FA's first Director of Coaching and suggested he take on the additional responsibility of being the first England team manager.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 2053502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 338, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Walter Winterbottom has the distinction of being England's first, youngest and longest serving England team manager; he is also the only England manager to have had no previous professional managerial experience. In all matches in which he was in charge, England played 139, won 78, drew 33, and lost 28; goals for 383, against 196. At home England lost six matches in sixteen years. England won the British championship in thirteen out of his sixteen seasons (seven times outright and six times sharing top place). In the World Cup tournament England qualified on all four occasions, reaching the quarter finals twice, playing 28 matches, winning 15, drawing 7 and losing 6; goals for 75 against 35 (including World Cup qualifying matches).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [ 762761, 11370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 400, 420 ], [ 523, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although he had coaching and managerial responsibilities, Winterbottom never had the power to pick his own team (it was chosen by a selection committee). Over time his technical knowledge increasingly influenced selectors. Finally, prior to Alf Ramsey's arrival in 1962, he convinced the FA that the team manager must have sole control of selection.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [ 413271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 241, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his time Winterbottom repeatedly warned the English football establishment that countries in Continental Europe and South America were overtaking England and that English football had to change. His sixteen years as England team manager helped greatly in creating a modern and competitive national team and four years after his departure in 1966 England won the World Cup. His innovations included the introduction of England B, Under 23, youth and schoolboy teams providing players with continuity and experience in international football before being selected for the full England team.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Notable victories during his era were 10—0 away to Portugal in 1947, 4—0 away to Italy in 1948, 3—1 at home to recently crowned World Champions West Germany in 1954 after the 4—2 at home to Brazil in 1956 and 9—3 at home to Scotland in 1961. Notable defeats were losing 2–0 to the Republic of Ireland at Goodison Park, losing 1—0 to the USA in the 1950 World Cup and 6—3 at home to Hungary in 1953 when England lost their unbeaten home record to a foreign team at Wembley, followed by a 7—1 away defeat to the same team in 1954.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [ 11638793, 2292109, 59893, 1598174, 30831699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 317 ], [ 319, 340 ], [ 348, 362 ], [ 367, 397 ], [ 487, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also while he was manager, England visited Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Denmark, Mexico, Peru, Portugal, the Soviet Union, United States and Uruguay for the first time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Winterbottom led England to four consecutive World Cup finals, a record subsequently equalled only by Helmut Schön of West Germany. England entered the World Cup for the first time in 1950, qualifying for the tournament in Brazil by winning the British Home Championship. England had never before played in South America. They beat Chile by 2—0 but lost 1—0 to the USA and 1—0 to Spain to be eliminated in the first round.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [ 1008893, 59893, 2292109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 114 ], [ 209, 229 ], [ 349, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Winterbottom again led England to qualification in Switzerland in 1954 by winning the British Home championship. A 4—4 draw against Belgium and a 2—0 victory against Switzerland took them to the quarter finals where they were beaten 4—2 by the defending champions, Uruguay.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [ 60523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "England qualified for the 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden with wins over the Republic of Ireland and Denmark, with a team that had lost only once in 17 games. Three months before the tournament began the Munich air disaster robbed the team of key players from Manchester United: Roger Byrne, Tommy Taylor and Duncan Edwards died. England drew against the USSR, Brazil and Austria but lost to the Soviet Union in a playoff for a quarter-final place.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [ 60986, 157511, 961249, 961255, 425351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 45 ], [ 202, 221 ], [ 278, 289 ], [ 291, 303 ], [ 308, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Winterbottom again led his team to qualification for the 1962 World Cup in Chile with wins over Portugal and Luxembourg. After progressing from their group on goal average, England reached the quarter-finals but were beaten 3—1 by the eventual winners, Brazil.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [ 61392, 961668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 71 ], [ 159, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Winterbottom is best known as the England team manager, it is in coaching that he made important contributions to the development of English football. He made no secret of his belief that his job as Director of Coaching was the more important of his two roles at the FA.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When he joined the FA in 1946, club directors, managers and players were cynical about the need for coaching but Winterbottom had a passion for coaching and a vision of how it should develop.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He soon created a national coaching scheme with summer residential courses at Lilleshall, Shropshire, and persuaded some of his international players to take the courses that led to exams for the FA preliminary and full coaching badges. This gave the scheme credibility. They developed their teaching skills by coaching in schools and then moved into part-time coaching positions in junior clubs. He gathered around him a cadre of young FA staff coaches: men like Bill Nicholson, Don Howe, Alan Brown, Ron Greenwood, Dave Sexton, Malcolm Allison, Joe Mercer, Vic Buckingham, Jimmy Hill and Bobby Robson. Over time a new breed of managers emerged in the League clubs and began to change attitudes to coaching.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [ 1094965, 1799179, 14939805, 760538, 1797159, 2849977, 760513, 674519, 22017974, 68685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 464, 478 ], [ 480, 488 ], [ 490, 500 ], [ 502, 515 ], [ 517, 528 ], [ 530, 545 ], [ 547, 557 ], [ 559, 573 ], [ 575, 585 ], [ 590, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Winterbottom's courses were expanded to include professional players, referees, schoolmasters, club trainers, schoolboys and youth leaders. In addition to Lilleshall they were held at Loughborough College, Carnegie College, Bisham Abbey and Birmingham University. In 1947 three hundred had taken the full coaching award and the numbers of qualified coaches grew each year.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [ 5092775, 5932272, 113540, 209935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 165 ], [ 184, 204 ], [ 224, 236 ], [ 241, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The courses attracted international participation and praise. Winterbottom was regarded by many as a leading technical thinker and exponent of association football, of his generation, in the world and lectured internationally.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He inspired a new generation of managers, most notably Ron Greenwood and Bobby Robson, who graduated through every level of coaching, both eventually becoming England team manager.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [ 760538, 68685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 68 ], [ 73, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In assessing Winterbottom's tenure as England manager, Goldblatt writes that \"[Winterbottom] introduced a measure of tactical thinking and discussion to the England squad, though his inability to anticipate or learn significantly from the Hungarian debacle suggests that his grasp of tactics and communication with the players was limited.\" William Baker writes that Winterbottom, because of his \"upper-class origins [sic]\", could not \"effectively instruct, much less inspire, working-class footballers.\" Football journalist Brian Glanville said in an interview: \"I got on very well with Walter Winterbottom, but he was a rotten manager.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [ 3607856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 525, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Winterbottom was also responsible for the publishing at the FA. The first coaching bulletin was launched in 1946 and this became the FA Bulletin and then the FA News. The FA Year Book was introduced in 1948 along with the FA Book for Boys annual. The first coaching films and film strips followed in 1950.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An important landmark was the publication of Winterbottom's book, Soccer Coaching, the first modern soccer coaching manual. This was followed by three more books, Skilful Soccer, Modern Soccer and Training for Soccer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "England team manager", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1962 Winterbottom resigned from the FA and took up an appointment as General Secretary of the Central Council of Physical Recreation and two years later became the Director of the newly formed Sports Council. He stepped onto the wider stage of sport and emerged to have a profound effect on sport in Britain during the second half of the twentieth century.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sports administrator", "target_page_ids": [ 7792161, 1405832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 135 ], [ 196, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the Central Council of Physical Education (CCPR) Winterbottom worked to provide coaches and better facilities for sports governing bodies. He soon became involved in the ongoing political debate about the recommendations of the 1960 Report of the Wolfenden Committee on Sport, which had recommended the establishment of a Sports Council responsible for distributing government money to sport. He was in favour but the CCPR was divided on the issue. In 1965 the Government under set up a Sports Council and Winterbottom was seconded to become the first Director of the Sports Council with Denis Howell as his chairman.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sports administrator", "target_page_ids": [ 957572, 5611041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 250, 259 ], [ 591, 603 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Winterbottom believed that participation in a sport played a much more important role in society that was generally accepted. For 16 years he battled to win significantly more investment in sport from national and local government to support a Sport for All campaign. Despite a harsh economic climate great progress was made in providing new facilities. In ten years 499 sports centres were built and 524 new swimming pools. Under his leadership sports governing bodies were helped to develop more professional organisations and provide more coaches. He conceived the idea of the Sports Aid Foundation, raising money from industry to back young elite sportsmen and women with Olympic medal winning chances.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sports administrator", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He was a member of the Council of Europe and Chairman of the Committee for the Development of Sport and was influential in the acceptance of the Sport For All concept by Canada and UNESCO.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sports administrator", "target_page_ids": [ 5865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1978, after reaching the age of 65, Winterbottom retired from the Sports Council and was knighted for his services to sport. He became an advisor to the British government on ways in which British manufacturers of sports equipment could work with foreign firms. In 1979, he visited Australia and New Zealand to help their governments to support sport in the community.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He was head of the FIFA Technical Studies Group for the World Cup in 1966, 1970, 1974, 1978 and a member in 1982. In 1985 The Winterbottom Report, an FA enquiry into artificial playing surfaces was published and in 1987–89 he was a member of the Football League enquiry into artificial pitches.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He died in the Royal Surrey Hospital after an operation for cancer on 16 February 2002. He was 88 years old. A memorial service was held at St. Nicolas Church, Cranleigh, Surrey on 1 March 2002.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 203621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "British Home Championship", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Managerial statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 762761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Champions: 1947, 1948, 1950, 1952 (shared), 1953 (shared), 1954, 1955, 1956 (shared), 1957, 1958 (shared), 1959 (shared), 1960 (shared), 1961", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Managerial statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Runners-up: 1949, 1951", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Managerial statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Graham Morse: Sir Walter Winterbottom - The Father of Modern English Football, Kings Road Publishing, 2013.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "People_from_Oldham", "1913_births", "2002_deaths", "Royal_Air_Force_personnel_of_World_War_II", "English_footballers", "Footballers_from_Oldham", "Manchester_United_F.C._players", "English_Football_League_players", "English_football_managers", "England_national_football_team_managers", "1950_FIFA_World_Cup_managers", "1954_FIFA_World_Cup_managers", "1958_FIFA_World_Cup_managers", "1962_FIFA_World_Cup_managers", "Alumni_of_the_University_of_Chester", "Association_football_people_awarded_knighthoods", "Knights_Bachelor", "Commanders_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire", "Chelsea_F.C._wartime_guest_players", "English_Football_Hall_of_Fame_inductees", "Association_football_midfielders", "Mossley_A.F.C._players", "Olympic_football_managers_of_Great_Britain", "Royal_Air_Force_wing_commanders", "Deaths_from_cancer_in_England", "Association_football_coaches" ]

[ "Sir Walter Winterbottom" ]

[ { "plaintext": "George Hamilton-Gordon may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen (1784–1860), Peelite politician and British prime minister", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George Hamilton-Gordon, 5th Earl of Aberdeen (1816–1864), Liberal politician", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4998132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George Hamilton-Gordon, 6th Earl of Aberdeen (1841–1870), Scottish peer", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4998916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George Hamilton-Gordon, 2nd Baron Stanmore (1871–1957), Liberal politician", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13753194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George Gordon (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 197238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Earl of Aberdeen", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "CBE may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " CBE, IATA code for Greater Cumberland Regional Airport.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Travel", "target_page_ids": [ 1991725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CBE, ICAO code for Aerocaribe, airline based in Cancun, Mexico.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Travel", "target_page_ids": [ 1480897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CBE, Railway code for Coimbatore Junction", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Travel", "target_page_ids": [ 21716139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cross Bronx Expressway, a major freeway in the New York City borough of the Bronx.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Travel", "target_page_ids": [ 1005093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CBE, the former callsign of the CBC Radio One AM station in Windsor, Ontario.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Communications", "target_page_ids": [ 1585138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CBE-FM, callsign of the CBC Radio Two FM station in Windsor, Ontario.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Communications", "target_page_ids": [ 2291961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Central Bank of Egypt, the central (or reserve) bank in Egypt.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Banking", "target_page_ids": [ 8183823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Commercial Bank of Ethiopia, an Ethiopian bank founded in 1963.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Banking", "target_page_ids": [ 5117767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CBE, Competency-based education, another term for Competency-based learning", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 28968839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Calgary Board of Education, public school board for the city of Calgary, Alberta.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 2137431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cannabielsoin, a component of cannabis", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 67710149, 38310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 31, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Carbon Balance Error, the error in accounting for Carbon in a mass balance", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 2428476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cat-back exhaust, a type of automotive exhaust.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 1688648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cell Broadband Engine, a multi-core general purpose CPU developed jointly by Sony, Toshiba and IBM.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 803950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Center for the Built Environment, a research institution at UC, Berkeley.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 6376093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chemical beam epitaxy, a thin film growth method using beams of molecules.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 3593867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, a branch of engineering dealing with the physical and life sciences.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 6038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " College of Built Environments, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 20908076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CBE, International Meteor Organization designation for meteor shower Coma Berenicids.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 29765241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Collisionless Boltzmann equation in plasma physics and gravitational dynamics.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 1026522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Common Base Event, a computing term referring to IBM's implementation of the Web Services Distributed Management (WSDM) Event Format standard.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 3440382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Council of Biology Editors, a former name of the Council of Science Editors, who publish the CBE style guide.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 529669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Current Best Estimate, a common expression of related to the highest fidelity value known at the time.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, a grade within the British order of chivalry.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours", "target_page_ids": [ 212182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Conqueror of the British Empire, a self-awarded title of the Ugandan dictator, Idi Amin.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honours", "target_page_ids": [ 70842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brazilian Fencing Confederation, or Confederação Brasileira de Esgrima", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 40893553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " College Basketball Experience Classic (CBE Classic), pre-season college basketball tournament.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 4295170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beyond Earth, a 2014 video game", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Christians for Biblical Equality, a Christian organization primarily focused on advocating gender equality.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 1953163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Congregation Beth Elohim, a Reform synagogue in Brooklyn, New York founded in 1861", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 5292174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] } ]

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[]

[ { "plaintext": "Soho is an area of the City of Westminster, part of the West End of London. Originally a fashionable district for the aristocracy, it has been one of the main entertainment districts in the capital since the 19th century.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 54060, 69887, 15052313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 42 ], [ 56, 74 ], [ 159, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The area was developed from farmland by Henry VIII in 1536, when it became a royal park. It became a parish in its own right in the late 17th century, when buildings started to be developed for the upper class, including the laying out of Soho Square in the 1680s. St Anne's Church was established during the late 17th century, and remains a significant local landmark; other churches are the Church of Our Lady of the Assumption and St Gregory and St Patrick's Church in Soho Square. The aristocracy had mostly moved away by the mid-19th century, when Soho was particularly badly hit by an outbreak of cholera in 1854. For much of the 20th century Soho had a reputation as a base for the sex industry in addition to its night life and its location for the headquarters of leading film companies. Since the 1980s, the area has undergone considerable gentrification. It is now predominantly a fashionable district of upmarket restaurants and media offices, with only a small remnant of sex industry venues. London's gay community is centred on Old Compton Street in Soho.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14187, 1440690, 2819894, 45099192, 9131234, 7591, 20603860, 951578, 41940, 428916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 50 ], [ 239, 250 ], [ 265, 281 ], [ 393, 444 ], [ 449, 468 ], [ 603, 610 ], [ 689, 701 ], [ 721, 731 ], [ 850, 864 ], [ 1043, 1061 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soho's reputation as a major entertainment district of London stems from theatres such as the Windmill Theatre on Great Windmill Street and the Raymond Revuebar owned by entrepreneur Paul Raymond, and music clubs such as the 2i's Coffee Bar and the Marquee Club. Trident Studios was based in Soho, and the nearby Denmark Street has hosted numerous music publishing houses and instrument shops from the 20th century onwards. The independent British film industry is centred around Soho, including the British headquarters of Twentieth Century Fox and the British Board of Film Classification offices. The area has been popular for restaurants since the 19th century, including the long-standing Kettner's which was visited by numerous celebrities. Near to Soho is London's Chinatown, centred on Gerrard Street and containing several restaurants.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 490264, 5695835, 2336406, 5509380, 2497030, 2303867, 5837175, 170318, 19359987, 310623, 5144417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 110 ], [ 144, 160 ], [ 183, 195 ], [ 225, 240 ], [ 249, 261 ], [ 263, 278 ], [ 313, 327 ], [ 524, 545 ], [ 554, 590 ], [ 763, 781 ], [ 794, 808 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name \"Soho\" first appears in the 17th century. The name may possibly derive from a former hunting cry. James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, used \"soho\" as a rallying call for his men at the Battle of Sedgemoor on 6 July 1685, half a century after the name was first used for this area of London.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [ 165554, 240503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 140 ], [ 192, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Soho name has been reused by other entertainment and restaurant districts such as the Soho, Hong Kong entertainment zone and the cultural and commercial area of Soho in Málaga. The New York City neighbourhood of SoHo, Manhattan, gets its name from its location South of Houston Street, but is also a reference to London's Soho. The Pittsburgh neighbourhood of Uptown was also formerly called Soho, most likely having been named by its founder James Tustin after the London district, though it may refer to Soho, West Midlands.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [ 300433, 184763, 645042, 100821, 61620, 25101, 2603647, 612048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 105 ], [ 173, 179 ], [ 185, 198 ], [ 216, 231 ], [ 274, 288 ], [ 336, 346 ], [ 364, 370 ], [ 510, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soho is about in area, bounded by Shaftesbury Avenue to the south, Oxford Street to the north, Regent Street to the west, and Charing Cross Road to the east. However, apart from Oxford Street, all of these roads are 19th-century metropolitan improvements, and Soho has never been an administrative unit, with formally defined boundaries. The area to the west is known as Mayfair, to the north Fitzrovia, to the east St Giles and Covent Garden, and to the south St James's. According to the Soho Society, Chinatown, the area between Leicester Square to the south and Shaftesbury Avenue to the north, is part of the area. Soho is part of the West End electoral ward which elects three councillors to Westminster City Council.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Location", "target_page_ids": [ 230257, 229195, 229189, 43990, 94167, 380402, 9854380, 161781, 938388, 310623, 93740, 22863008, 1306818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 53 ], [ 68, 81 ], [ 96, 109 ], [ 127, 145 ], [ 372, 379 ], [ 394, 403 ], [ 417, 425 ], [ 430, 443 ], [ 462, 472 ], [ 505, 514 ], [ 533, 549 ], [ 641, 649 ], [ 699, 723 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The nearest London Underground stations are Oxford Circus, Piccadilly Circus, Tottenham Court Road, Leicester Square and Covent Garden.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Location", "target_page_ids": [ 210617, 241568, 230797, 173845, 229590, 373255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 39 ], [ 44, 57 ], [ 59, 76 ], [ 78, 98 ], [ 100, 116 ], [ 121, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Middle Ages, the area that is now Soho was farmland that belonged to the Abbot and Convent of Abingdon and the master of Burton St Lazar Hospital in Leicestershire, who managed a leper hospital in St Giles in the Fields. In 1536, the land was taken by Henry VIII as a royal park for the Palace of Whitehall. The area south of what is now Shaftesbury Avenue did not stay in the Crown possession for long; Queen Mary sold around in 1554, and most of the remainder was sold between 1590 and 1623. A small section of land remained, until sold by Charles II in 1676.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18836, 5381246, 61153, 44700, 7795254, 14187, 323722, 20713, 46688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 132, 147 ], [ 160, 174 ], [ 190, 195 ], [ 208, 230 ], [ 263, 273 ], [ 298, 317 ], [ 415, 425 ], [ 555, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1660s, ownership of Soho Fields passed to Henry Jermyn, 1st Earl of St Albans, who leased 19 out of the of land to Joseph Girle. He was granted permission to develop property and quickly passed the lease and development to bricklayer Richard Frith. Much of the land was granted freehold in 1698 by William III to William Bentinck, 1st Earl of Portland, while the southern part of Soho was sold piecemeal in the 16th and 17th centuries, partly to Robert Sidney, Earl of Leicester.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1524852, 47387, 1820890, 4480630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 84 ], [ 306, 317 ], [ 321, 359 ], [ 454, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soho was part of the ancient parish of St Martin in the Fields, forming part of the Liberty of Westminster. As the population started to grow a new church was provided and in 1687 a new parish of St Anne was established for it. The parish stretched from Oxford Street in the north to Leicester Square in the south and from what is now Charing Cross Road in the east to Wardour Street in the west. It, therefore, included all of contemporary eastern Soho, including the Chinatown area. The western portion of modern Soho, around Carnaby Street, was part of the parish of St James, which was split off from St Martin in 1686.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26369851, 4165279, 26371030, 20925704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 62 ], [ 84, 106 ], [ 196, 203 ], [ 570, 578 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Building progressed rapidly in the late 17th century, with large properties such as Monmouth House (built for James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, Charles II's eldest illegitimate son), Leicester House, Fauconberg House, Carlisle House and Newport House.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 50571170, 165554, 93740, 31873022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 98 ], [ 110, 143 ], [ 184, 199 ], [ 219, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soho Square was first laid out in the 1680s on the former Soho Fields. Firth built the first houses around the square, and by 1691, 41 had been completed. It was originally called King Square in honour of Charles II, and a statue of him was based in the centre. Several upper-class families moved into the area, including those of Richard Graham, 1st Viscount Preston and Edward Howard, 2nd Earl of Carlisle. The square had become known as Soho Square by 1720, at which point it had fashionable houses on all sides. Only No10 and No15 from this period have survived into the 21st century.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1440690, 17747103, 11407926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 331, 367 ], [ 372, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though the Earls of Leicester and Portland had intended Soho to be an upper-class estate comparable to Bloomsbury, Marylebone and Mayfair, it never developed as such. Immigrants began to settle in the area from around 1680 onwards, particularly French Huguenots after 1688. The area became known as London's French quarter. The French church in Soho Square was founded by Huguenots and opened on 25 March 1893, with a coloured brick and terracotta façade designed by Aston Webb.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 93897, 24324929, 94167, 75899, 551402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 113 ], [ 115, 125 ], [ 130, 137 ], [ 252, 261 ], [ 467, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A significant event in the history of epidemiology and public health was Dr. John Snow's study of an 1854 outbreak of cholera in Soho. He identified the cause of the outbreak as water from the public pump at the junction of Broad Street (now Broadwick Street) and Cambridge Street (now Lexington Street), close to the rear wall of what is today the John Snow public house.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 66997, 463734, 1160623, 17056077, 7591, 23617, 1295206, 24578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 50 ], [ 55, 68 ], [ 73, 86 ], [ 101, 114 ], [ 118, 125 ], [ 200, 204 ], [ 242, 258 ], [ 359, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Snow mapped the addresses of the sick and noted that they were mostly people whose nearest access to water was the Broad Street pump. He persuaded the authorities to remove the handle of the pump, thus preventing any more of the infected water from being collected. The spring below the pump was later found to have been contaminated with sewage. This is an early example of epidemiology, public health medicine and the application of science—the germ theory of disease—in a real-life crisis. Science writer Steven Johnson has written about the changes related to the cholera outbreak, and notes that almost every building on the street that existed in 1854 has since been replaced. A replica of the pump, with a memorial plaque and without a handle (to signify Snow's action to halt the outbreak) was erected in 1992 near the location of the original.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 66997, 185259, 1595207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 375, 387 ], [ 447, 469 ], [ 508, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the mid-18th century, the aristocrats who had been living in Soho Square or Gerrard Street had moved away, as more fashionable areas such as Mayfair became available. The historian and topographer William Maitland wrote that the parish \"so greatly abound with French that is an easy Matter for a Stranger to imagine himself in France.\" Soho's character stems partly from the ensuing neglect by rich and fashionable London, and the lack of the redevelopment that characterised the neighbouring areas.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 94167, 43898400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 151 ], [ 200, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The aristocracy had mostly disappeared from Soho by the 19th century, to be replaced by prostitutes, music halls and small theatres. The population increased significantly, reaching 327 inhabitants per acre by 1851, making the area one of the most densely populated areas of London. Houses became divided into tenements with chronic overcrowding and disease. The 1854 cholera outbreak caused the remaining upper-class families to leave the area. Numerous hospitals were built to cope with the health problem; six were constructed between 1851 and 1874. Businesses catering to household essentials were established at the same time.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The restaurant trade in Soho improved dramatically in the early 20th century. The construction of new theatres along Shaftesbury Avenue and Charing Cross Road improved the reputation of the area, and a meal for theatre-goers became common. Public houses in Soho increased in popularity during the 1930s and were filled with struggling authors, poets and artists.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 230257, 43990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 135 ], [ 140, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the decline of the sex industry in Soho in the 1980s, the area has returned to being more residential. The Soho Housing Association was established in 1976 to provide reasonable rented accommodation. By the 21st century, it had acquired around 400 flats. St Anne's Church in Dean Street was refurbished after decades of neglect, and a Museum of Soho was established.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 30 April 1999, the Admiral Duncan pub on Old Compton Street, which serves the gay community, was damaged by a nail bomb that left three dead and 30 injured. The bomb was the third that had been planted by David Copeland, a neo-Nazi who was attempting to stir up ethnic and homophobic tensions by carrying out a series of bombings.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 577928, 634513, 337402, 54361, 437868, 5097395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 36 ], [ 113, 122 ], [ 208, 222 ], [ 226, 234 ], [ 266, 272 ], [ 277, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soho is near the heart of London's theatre area. It is home to Soho Theatre, built in 2000 to present new plays and comedy.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 1154952, 6958722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 47 ], [ 63, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Windmill Theatre was based on Great Windmill Street, and was named after a windmill at this location that was demolished in the 18th century. It initially opened as the Palais de Luxe in 1910 as a small cinema, but was unable to compete with larger venues and was converted into a theatre by Howard Jones. It re-opened in December 1931, but was still unsuccessful. In 1932, the general manager Vivian Van Damm introduced a non-stop variety show throughout the afternoon and evening. It was famous for its nude tableaux vivants, in which the models had to remain motionless to avoid the censorship laws then in place. The theatre claimed that, aside from a compulsory closure between 4 and 16 September 1939, it was the only theatre in London which did not close during World War II, leading to the slogan \"We never closed\". Several prominent comedians including Harry Secombe, Jimmy Edwards and Tony Hancock began their careers at the Windmill. It closed on 31 October 1964 and was again turned into a cinema.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 490264, 1841344, 14033, 1528175, 36972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 514, 530 ], [ 866, 879 ], [ 881, 894 ], [ 899, 911 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Raymond Revuebar at No.11 Walker's Court was a small theatre specialising in striptease and nude dancing. It was owned by Paul Raymond and opened in 1958. The facade supported a brightly lit sign declaring it to be the \"World Centre of Erotic Entertainment.\" Raymond subsequently bought the lease of the Windmill and ran it as a \"nude entertainment\" venue until 1981. The upstairs became known as the Boulevard Theatre and in 1980 was adopted as a comedy club called \"The Comic Strip\" by a small group of alternative comedians including Rik Mayall, Dawn French, Jennifer Saunders, Alexei Sayle and Adrian Edmondson, before they found wider recognition with the series The Comic Strip Presents on Channel 4. The name and control of the theatre (but not the property itself) were bought by Raymond's business associate Gérard Simi in 1996. The theatre suffered financial difficulties owing to increasing rent, leading to its closure in 2004. It became a gay bar and cabaret venue called Too2Much; in 2005, Elton John staged a joint bachelor party there with his longtime partner David Furnish in anticipation of their civil partnership. The venue was subsequently renamed to the Soho Revue Bar, but closed in 2009.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 5695835, 47922252, 2336406, 247080, 363905, 317010, 89605, 271849, 30876119, 6321, 501560, 5052197, 2213967, 72009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 30, 44 ], [ 126, 138 ], [ 472, 487 ], [ 541, 551 ], [ 553, 564 ], [ 566, 583 ], [ 585, 597 ], [ 602, 618 ], [ 700, 709 ], [ 956, 963 ], [ 1008, 1018 ], [ 1081, 1094 ], [ 1120, 1137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soho is a centre of the independent film and video industry as well as the television and film post-production industry. Audio post duo White Lightning (Robbie Weston and Rick Dzendzera) opened two audio post facilities in different parts of Soho in 1986: Silk Sound at 13 Berwick Street, and The Bridge Facilities at 55-57 Great Marlborough Street. Silk Sound is still in operation, but The Bridge was sold to Miloco Studios in 2009, and relocated to the Orinoco Complex at 36 Leroy Street in Greater London. White Lightning also opened a third studio at 16 Dufours Place, called Space Facilities, in late 1995, but it closed the same year The Bridge was sold. Twentieth Century House in Soho Square was built in 1937 for Twentieth Century Fox. The British Board of Film Classification, formerly known as the British Board of Film Censors, has been based in the square since 1950. Soho's key fibre communications network has been managed by Sohonet since 1995, which connects the Soho media and post-production community to British film studios such as Pinewood and Shepperton, along with other locations worldwide include HBO and Warner Brothers. In the 2010s, research commissioned by Westminster City Council showed 23 per cent of the workforce in Soho works in the creative industries.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 166849, 991405, 1385862, 13445372, 170318, 19359987, 70733, 1733310, 1569176, 75376, 21621392, 4765530, 34052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 110 ], [ 273, 287 ], [ 324, 348 ], [ 411, 425 ], [ 723, 744 ], [ 750, 786 ], [ 942, 949 ], [ 981, 1021 ], [ 1025, 1045 ], [ 1054, 1062 ], [ 1067, 1077 ], [ 1124, 1127 ], [ 1132, 1147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many small and easily affordable restaurants and cafes were established in Soho during the 19th century, particularly as a result of Greek and Italian immigration. The restaurants were not looked upon favourably at first, but their reputation changed at the start of the 20th century. In 1924, a guide reported \"of late years, the inexpensive restaurants of Soho have enjoyed an extraordinary vogue.\" Arthur Ransome's Bohemia in London (1907) mentions Old and New Soho, including details about Soho coffee-houses including The Moorish Café and The Algerian.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 176386, 44998861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 401, 415 ], [ 418, 435 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kettner's was a restaurant on Romilly Street, established in 1867 by Napoleon III's chef Auguste Kettner. It was frequently visited by Albert, Prince of Wales (where he is alleged to have dined with his mistress, Lillie Langtry) and Oscar Wilde. The restaurant survived both World Wars without incident, and was regularly visited by Agatha Christie and Bing Crosby.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 62581, 46721, 69811, 22614, 984, 4010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 81 ], [ 135, 158 ], [ 213, 227 ], [ 233, 244 ], [ 333, 348 ], [ 353, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 20th century, several Soho pubs and private members clubs gained notoriety for both their proprietors and clientele. Clive Jennings says of regular clientele such as Jeffrey Barnard and Francis Bacon that \"the lethal triangle of The French, The Coach & Horses and The Colony were the staging points of the Dean Street shuffle, with occasional forays into other joints such as The Gargoyle or the Mandrake... The Groucho or Blacks\". Christopher Howse notes of the coterie of bohemian heavy drinkers that \"There was no worry about pensions in Soho. People didn’t live that long.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 2146670, 206186, 24462327, 2529479, 3311799, 4198847, 42952327, 659538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 188 ], [ 193, 206 ], [ 236, 246 ], [ 248, 266 ], [ 271, 281 ], [ 313, 324 ], [ 383, 395 ], [ 415, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Gargoyle Club opened at 69 Dean Street in 1925. It was founded by the socialite the Hon David Tennant as a place where writers, artists and musicians could mingle with the upper crust and eat and drink at affordable prices for the next three decades. In May 1979 the Gargoyle's uppermost room started hosting a weekly club-night on Saturdays called the Comedy Store, which made the reputations of many of the UK's upcoming \"alternative comedians\". Among the original lineup here were Alexei Sayle, Rik Mayall and Adrian Edmondson who broke away in 1980 to establish The Comic Strip team at Raymond's Revue Bar, before they found wider recognition with the series The Comic Strip Presents on Channel 4. The Gargoyle's success and Bohemian clientele led to other restaurants being founded around Soho, including the Eiffel Tower and Bellotti's.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 42953051, 397603, 363869, 271849, 363905, 30876119, 247080, 6321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 105 ], [ 357, 369 ], [ 428, 449 ], [ 488, 500 ], [ 502, 512 ], [ 517, 533 ], [ 570, 585 ], [ 695, 704 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1970s the building at 69 Dean Street housed another nightspot in its cellars, initially known as Billy's and run by Soho's only Jamaican club owner, Vince Howard. The Blitz Kids, a group of London clubgoers who spearheaded the New Romantic movement in the early 1980s, originally met at Billy's. The club changed its name to Gossip's and became part of London's clubland heritage by spawning several weekly club-nights that influenced British music and fashion during the 1980s.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 315019, 191246, 30855169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 188 ], [ 238, 250 ], [ 373, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gerrard Street is the centre of London's Chinatown, and along with Lisle Street and Little Newport Street, house a mix of import companies, oriental food shops and restaurants. Street festivals are held throughout the year, particularly on the Chinese New Year. In March 2022, Cadbury opened a temporary vegan chocolate shop at 15 Bateman Street.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 5144417, 310623, 19682699, 54573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 32, 50 ], [ 244, 260 ], [ 277, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soho Radio is an internet radio station on Great Windmill Street, next to the Windmill Theatre. Since May 2014 it has been streaming live and pre-recorded programming from its premises, which also function as a retail space and coffee shop. The station states on its website that it aims \"to reflect the culture of Soho through our vibrant and diverse content.\" There is no playlist policy, and presenters are allowed to play any music they like. In 2016, it was voted the world's best radio station at Mixcloud's Online Radio Awards.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 51145584, 23536190, 490264, 38501011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 17, 31 ], [ 78, 94 ], [ 503, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soho is home to numerous religious and spiritual groups. St Anne's Church on Wardour Street was built between 1677 and 1686, possibly to the design of Sir Christopher Wren or William Talman. An additional tower was built in 1717 by Talman and reconstructed in 1803. The church was damaged by a V1 flying bomb during World War II in 1940, but the tower survived. In 1976, John Betjeman campaigned to save the building. The church was fully restored in the late 1980s and formally re-opened by the Princess Royal on 12 March 1990. The Church of Our Lady of the Assumption and St Gregory on Warwick Street was built in 1788 and is the only remaining 18th-century Roman Catholic embassy chapel in London and principal church of the Personal Ordinariate of Our Lady of Walsingham. St Patrick's Church in Soho Square was built in 1792 to accommodate Irish immigrants who had moved to the area.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 2819894, 52946, 2384435, 32821, 155287, 172426, 45099192, 30485545, 9131234, 1440690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 73 ], [ 151, 171 ], [ 175, 189 ], [ 294, 308 ], [ 371, 384 ], [ 496, 510 ], [ 533, 584 ], [ 728, 774 ], [ 776, 795 ], [ 799, 810 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other religious buildings in Soho include the Hare Krishna Temple off Soho Square, which was part-funded by George Harrison and opened in 1979. A small mosque on Berwick Street attracted controversy in 2016 when it stopped admitting women owing to its capacity problems. The French Protestant Church of London, the only one of its kind in the city and constructed in the Flemish Gothic style, has been at Nos.8–9 Soho Square since 1893.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 174201, 12731, 22945530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 58 ], [ 108, 123 ], [ 275, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The music scene in Soho can be traced back to 1948 and Club Eleven, generally regarded as the first venue where modern jazz, or bebop, was performed in the UK. It closed in 1950 following a drugs raid. The Harmony Inn was a hang-out for musicians on Archer Street operating during the 1940s and 1950s.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 17246015, 48145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 66 ], [ 128, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ken Colyer Band's 51 Club, a venue for traditional jazz, opened on Great Newport Street in 1951. Blues guitarist and harmonica player Cyril Davies and guitarist Bob Watson launched the London Skiffle Centre, London's first skiffle club, on the first floor of the Roundhouse pub on Wardour Street in 1952. It was renamed the London Blues and Barrelhouse Club in the late 1950s, and closed in 1964.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 4735854, 1284864, 1220992, 143390, 61642824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 43, 59 ], [ 139, 151 ], [ 228, 235 ], [ 329, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 1950s, Soho became the centre of the beatnik culture in London. The first coffee bar to open was Moka at No.29 Frith Street. It was formally opened in 1953 by the film star Gina Lollobrigida, and the frothed coffee produced from stainless steel machines was pioneering in British culture. Le Macabre on Wardour Street, had coffin-shaped tables, fostered beat poetry, jive dance and political debate. The Goings On, in Archer Street, was a Sunday afternoon club organised by the beat poet Pete Brown, active in the mid-1960s. For the rest of the week, it operated as an illegal gambling den. Pink Floyd played at the club at the beginning of their career.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 62385, 292315, 1757532, 11921, 5079506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 57 ], [ 186, 203 ], [ 501, 511 ], [ 590, 602 ], [ 604, 614 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2i's Coffee Bar was one of the first rock clubs in Europe. It initially opened on No.44 Gerard Street in 1956, but soon moved to its more famous venue of No.59 Old Compton Street. Soho quickly became the centre of the fledgling rock scene in London. Clubs included the Flamingo Club, a regular gig for Georgie Fame, Ronan O'Rahilly's The Scene, which opened in 1963 and catered for the Mod movement with regular attendees including Steve Marriot and Andrew Loog Oldham, and jazz clubs like Ronnie Scott's, which opened in 1959 at 39 Gerrard Street and moved to 47 Frith Street in 1965.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 5509380, 32327730, 1355256, 1150330, 42150703, 810633, 329878, 329871, 4188457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 273, 286 ], [ 306, 318 ], [ 320, 335 ], [ 338, 347 ], [ 390, 402 ], [ 436, 449 ], [ 454, 472 ], [ 494, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soho's Wardour Street was the home of the Marquee Club, which opened in 1958. In the 1960s, numerous major rock bands played at the venue, including early performances from the Rolling Stones in July 1962 and The Who in late 1964, Jimi Hendrix, David Bowie, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Jethro Tull, AC/DC and Iron Maiden. Eric Clapton and Brian Jones both lived for a time in Soho, sharing a flat with future rock publicist, Tony Brainsby.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 2497030, 31056, 36517, 16095, 8786, 17909, 5079506, 98369, 149225, 159172, 10049, 81456, 16707033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 54 ], [ 177, 191 ], [ 209, 216 ], [ 231, 243 ], [ 245, 256 ], [ 258, 270 ], [ 272, 282 ], [ 284, 295 ], [ 297, 302 ], [ 307, 318 ], [ 320, 332 ], [ 337, 348 ], [ 423, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trident Studios was based at 17 St Anne's Court, Soho and was a major London recording studio. It was established by Norman and Barry Sheffield in 1968, who wanted expand from the small studio they had above their music shop. It became immediately successful after The Beatles decided to record several tracks on The White Album there, as the facilities were better than Abbey Road studios. Queen were originally managed by the Sheffields, and recorded their first four albums and filmed the video for Bohemian Rhapsody at Trident. Other artists who recorded at Trident include David Bowie, Elton John, Free and Thin Lizzy. It closed as a general-purpose recording studio in 1981, but has since reopened in various guises, including providing sound and mixing services for television.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 2303867, 24471146, 29812, 75350, 140630, 42010, 41953, 8786, 5052197, 269523, 166705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 32, 47 ], [ 265, 276 ], [ 313, 328 ], [ 371, 389 ], [ 391, 396 ], [ 502, 519 ], [ 578, 589 ], [ 591, 601 ], [ 603, 607 ], [ 612, 622 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although technically not part of Soho, the adjacent Denmark Street is known for its connections with British popular music, and is nicknamed the British Tin Pan Alley due to its large concentration of shops selling musical instruments. The Sex Pistols lived beneath No.6 and recorded their first demos there. Jimi Hendrix, the Rolling Stones and David Bowie have all recorded at studios on Denmark Street and Elton John wrote his hit \"Your Song\" in the street. Led Zeppelin's first rehearsal in 1968 was in a basement studio on Gerrard Street.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 5837175, 349020, 245614, 30320, 16095, 31056, 8786, 5052197, 2480513, 17909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 66 ], [ 101, 122 ], [ 153, 166 ], [ 240, 251 ], [ 309, 321 ], [ 323, 341 ], [ 346, 357 ], [ 409, 419 ], [ 435, 444 ], [ 461, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Soho area has been at the heart of London's sex industry for more than 200 years; between 1778 and 1801, 21 Soho Square was location of the White House, a brothel described by the magistrate Henry Mayhew as \"a notorious place of ill-fame\". Shortly before World War I, two rival gangs, one led by Chan Nan (also called \"Brilliant Chang\") and the other by Eddie Manning, controlled drugs and prostitution in Soho. Both were eventually arrested and imprisoned; Manning died midway through a three-year sentence in 1933. Following World War II, gangs set up rings of prostitutes in the area, concentrated around Brewer Street and Rupert Street. Photographers also visited Soho in the hope of being able to blackmail people caught in the act of visiting prostitutes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 20603860, 20680426, 206013, 13253, 230390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 60 ], [ 109, 123 ], [ 159, 166 ], [ 195, 207 ], [ 706, 715 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the Street Offences Act 1959 drove prostitution off the streets, many clubs such as the Blue Lagoon at No. 50 Carnaby Street became fronts for it. Gangs controlled the clubs and the prostitutes, and the police were bribed. In 1960 London's first sex cinema, the Compton Cinema Club (a members-only club to get around the law), opened at 56 Old Compton Street. It was owned by Michael Klinger and Tony Tenser who later produced two early Roman Polanski films, including Repulsion (1965). As post-war austerity relaxed into the \"swinging '60s\", clip joints also surfaced; these unlicensed establishments sold coloured water as champagne with the promise of sex to follow, thus fleecing tourists looking for a \"good time.\" Harrison Marks, a \"glamour photographer\" and girlie magazine publisher, had a photographic gallery on Gerrard Street and published several magazines in the 1950s and '60s. The model Pamela Green prompted him to take up nude photography, and she remained the creative force in their business.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 34636155, 43349438, 29513137, 7612433, 25428, 1001142, 3180099, 863296, 548186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 33 ], [ 108, 129 ], [ 381, 396 ], [ 401, 412 ], [ 442, 456 ], [ 474, 483 ], [ 548, 558 ], [ 725, 739 ], [ 907, 919 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the 1970s, the sex shops had grown from the handful opened by Carl Slack in the early 1960s. From 1976 to 1982, Soho had 54 sex shops, 39 sex cinemas and cinema clubs, 16 strip and peep shows, 11 sex-oriented clubs and 12 licensed massage parlours. The proliferation of sex shops dissuaded some people from visiting Soho. The growth of the sex industry in Soho during this time was partly caused by corruption in the Metropolitan Police. The vice squad at the time suffered from police officers enforcing against organised crime in the area, while simultaneously accepting bribes. This changed following the appointment of Robert Mark as chief constable, who began to crack down on corruption. In 1972 local residents started the Soho Society in order to control the increasing expansion of the sex industry in the area and improve it with a comprehensive redevelopment plan. This led to a series of corruption trials in 1975, following which several senior police officers were imprisoned. This caused a small recession in Soho which depressed property values at the time Paul Raymond had started buying freeholds there.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 192450, 145043, 22625, 10677280, 38891489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 420, 439 ], [ 445, 455 ], [ 516, 531 ], [ 626, 637 ], [ 733, 745 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the 1980s, purges of the police force along with pressure from the Soho Society and new and tighter licensing controls by the City of Westminster led to a crackdown on illegal premises. The number of sex industry premises dropped from 185 in 1982 to around 30 in 1991. By 2000, substantial relaxation of general censorship, the ready availability of non-commercial sex, and the licensing or closing of unlicensed sex shops had reduced the red-light area to just a small area around Berwick Street. Much of the business has been reported to have been run by Albanian gangs. By the end of 2014, gentrification and competition from the internet had reduced the number of flats in Soho used for prostitution, but the area remains a red-light district and a centre of the sex industry in London.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 54060, 607813, 41940, 205998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 148 ], [ 315, 325 ], [ 596, 610 ], [ 731, 749 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The National Hospital for Diseases of the Heart and Paralysis was established at No.32 Soho Square in 1874. The property had previously been owned by the naturalist and botanist Sir Joseph Banks. It moved to Westmoreland Street in 1914, and then to Fulham Road in 1991.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 39657, 3130559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 194 ], [ 249, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2019, Soho was reported to be the unhealthiest place to live in Britain. Researchers from the University of Liverpool found that the area had the greatest access to takeaways, pubs and off-licences and these were combined with high levels of air pollution and low levels of parks and green spaces.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 156512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Berwick Street was built between 1687 and 1703, and is probably named after James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick, the illegitimate son of James II of England. It has held a street market since the early 18th century, which has been formally organised since 1892.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Streets", "target_page_ids": [ 991405, 214079, 5243711, 991405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 76, 112 ], [ 138, 157 ], [ 173, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnaby Street was laid out in the late 17th century. It was named after Karnaby House, built on the street's eastern side in 1683. It was a popular residence for Huguenots at first, before becoming populated by shops in the 19th century. In 1957, a fashion boutique was opened, and Carnaby Street became the fashion centre of 1960s Swinging London, although it quickly became known for poor quality \"kitsch\" products.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Streets", "target_page_ids": [ 429221, 463284, 98141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 333, 348 ], [ 401, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "D'Arblay Street was laid out between 1735 and 1744. It was originally known as Portland Street after William Bentinck, 2nd Duke of Portland and given its current named in 1909 in commemoration of Frances Burney, Lady D'Arblay, who had lived in the street. The George public house at No.1 was opened in 1889, but there has been a tavern on this site since 1739. Several of the original houses have survived into the 21st century.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Streets", "target_page_ids": [ 47918625, 1595491, 56578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 101, 139 ], [ 196, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dean Street was built in the 1680s and was originally settled by French immigrants. It is home to the Soho Theatre, and a pub known as The French House which during World War II was popular with the French Government-in-exile. Karl Marx lived at No.64 Dean Street around 1850. The Colony Club was founded by Muriel Belcher and based at No.41 Dean Street from 1948 to 2008. It was frequented by several important artists including Francis Bacon, Lucian Freud and Frank Auerbach.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Streets", "target_page_ids": [ 4198847, 6958722, 24462327, 16743, 3311799, 3310837, 206186, 207637, 171314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 102, 114 ], [ 135, 151 ], [ 227, 236 ], [ 277, 292 ], [ 308, 322 ], [ 430, 443 ], [ 445, 457 ], [ 462, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frith Street was named after Richard Frith, a local builder. On Roque's Map of London it is marked as Thrift Street. It was a popular aristocratic residence, although without as many foreign residents as some other streets. A plaque above the stage door of the Prince Edward Theatre identifies the site where Mozart lived as a child between 1764 and '65. John Logie Baird first demonstrated television in his laboratory at No22 in 1926. The premises is now the location of Bar Italia. Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club is located at No46 Frith Street having moved there from Gerrard Street in 1965.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Streets", "target_page_ids": [ 5144563, 33163, 39570, 6751010, 4188457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 309, 315 ], [ 355, 371 ], [ 473, 483 ], [ 485, 509 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Greek Street was first laid out around 1680 and was named after a nearby Greek church. It initially housed several upper-class tenants including Arthur Annesley, 5th Earl of Anglesey and Peter Plunket, 4th Earl of Fingall. Thomas De Quincey lived in the street after running away from Manchester Grammar School in 1802. Josiah Wedgwood ran his main pottery warehouse and showrooms at Nos.12–13 between 1774 and 1797. The street now mostly contains restaurants, and several historical buildings from the early 18th century are still standing.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Streets", "target_page_ids": [ 5911855, 30291487, 162587, 650804, 16295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 145, 182 ], [ 223, 240 ], [ 285, 310 ], [ 320, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gerrard Street was built between 1677 and 1685 on land owned by Charles Gerard, 1st Earl of Macclesfield called the Military Ground. The initial development contained a large house belonging to the Earl of Devonshire, which was subsequently occupied by Charles Montagu, 4th Earl of Manchester, Baron Wharton and Richard Lumley, 1st Earl of Scarbrough. Several foreign restaurants had become established on Gerrard Street by the end of the 19th century, including the Hotel des Etrangers and the Mont Blanc. Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club opened at 39 Gerrard Street in 1959 and remained there until its move to No47 Frith Street in 1965. Scott kept 39 Gerrard Street open for up and coming British Jazz musicians (referred to as 'the Old Place') until the lease ran out in 1967. The 43 Club was based on Gerrard Street. It was one of the most notorious clubs in Soho, run as a cover for organised crime and illegal after-hours selling of alcohol and following a police investigation, the owner Kate Meyrick was jailed in 1928. During the 1950s, the cheap rents on Gerrard Street attracted Chinese Londoners, many who moved from Poplar. By 1970, the street had become the centre of London's Chinatown, and it became pedestrianised and decorated with a Chinese gateway and lanterns. It continues to host numerous Chinese restaurants and shops into the 21st century.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Streets", "target_page_ids": [ 5144417, 567446, 233785, 395608, 2622088, 1574014, 4188457, 22803986, 22625, 22791831, 94247, 310623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 64, 104 ], [ 198, 216 ], [ 253, 292 ], [ 294, 307 ], [ 312, 350 ], [ 507, 531 ], [ 777, 784 ], [ 881, 896 ], [ 988, 1000 ], [ 1122, 1128 ], [ 1175, 1193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Golden Square is a garden square to the southwest of Soho. Built over land formerly used for grazing, its name is a corruption of gelding. Building began in 1675 and it was complete by the early 18th century. It was originally home to several upper class residents including Barbara Villiers, Duchess of Cleveland, James Brydges (later to become 1st Duke of Chandos), and Henry St John, 1st Viscount St John. By the mid-18th century, the aristocracy had moved west towards Mayfair, and a number of foreign embassies were established around the square. In the 19th century, it became a popular residence for local musicians and instrument makers, while by the 20th it had become an established centre of woollen merchants. A statue of King George II sits in the centre of the square, designed by John Van Nost and constructed in 1753.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Streets", "target_page_ids": [ 3928547, 220971, 545343, 1307208, 641446, 42665050, 94167, 46389, 11150730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 130, 137 ], [ 275, 313 ], [ 315, 328 ], [ 346, 365 ], [ 372, 407 ], [ 473, 480 ], [ 734, 748 ], [ 795, 808 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Great Marlborough Street was first laid out in the early 18th century, and named after the military commander John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. The street was initially fashionable and was home to numerous peers. The London College of Music was based at No.47 from 1896 to 1990, while the department store Liberty is on the corner with Regent Street. The street was the location of Philip Morris's original London factory and gave its name to the Marlboro brand of cigarettes. Marlborough Street Magistrates Court was based at No.20–21 and had become one of the country's most important magistrates courts by the late 19th century. The Marquess of Queensbury's libel trial against Oscar Wilde took place here in 1895. The Rolling Stones' Mick Jagger and Keith Richards were tried for drugs possession at the court in 1967, with fellow band member Brian Jones being similarly charged a year later.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Streets", "target_page_ids": [ 1385862, 142292, 9033910, 2400286, 27032017, 404590, 25423248, 74094, 28661, 22614, 31056, 57187, 157487, 81456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 110, 149 ], [ 224, 247 ], [ 313, 320 ], [ 389, 402 ], [ 454, 462 ], [ 484, 520 ], [ 643, 665 ], [ 668, 673 ], [ 688, 699 ], [ 729, 743 ], [ 745, 756 ], [ 761, 775 ], [ 854, 865 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Great Windmill Street was named after a 17th-century windmill on this location. The Scottish anatomist William Hunter opened his anatomical theatre at No.16 in 1766, running it until his death in 1783. It continued to be used for anatomical lectures until 1831. The principles of The Communist Manifesto were laid out by Karl Marx in 1850 at a meeting in the Red Lion pub.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Streets", "target_page_ids": [ 22176322, 234337, 30312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 103, 117 ], [ 280, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Old Compton Street is named after the Bishop of London Henry Compton, and was first laid out in the 1670s, fully developed by 1683. During the late 18th and 19th centuries, it became a popular meeting place for French exiles. The street was the birthplace of Europe's rock club circuit (2i's club) and contained the first adult cinema in England (The Compton Cinema Club). Dougie Millings, who was the famous tailor for The Beatles, had his first shop at 63 Old Compton Street, which opened in 1962. Old Compton Street is now the core of London's main gay village, where there are several businesses catering for the gay community.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Streets", "target_page_ids": [ 428916, 699337, 5509380, 3316348, 29812, 66932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 55, 68 ], [ 287, 291 ], [ 373, 388 ], [ 420, 431 ], [ 552, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poland Street was named for the King of Poland pub which stood at one end. It was destroyed by a bomb in 1940. Henry Howard, 6th Earl of Suffolk lived at No.15 in 1717, while Percy Bysshe Shelley briefly lodged in the street in 1811. William Blake lived at No.28 from 1785 to 1791, and wrote several works there, including Songs of Innocence and The Book of Thel. The street was the site of the St James Workhouse whose infirmary is believed to be the predecessor to the St. James Infirmary. The first multi-storey car park in London opened on Poland Street in 1934.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Streets", "target_page_ids": [ 50597923, 25574915, 20502020, 33175, 2088652, 3596939, 43997780, 209361, 1496209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 111, 144 ], [ 175, 195 ], [ 234, 247 ], [ 323, 341 ], [ 346, 362 ], [ 395, 413 ], [ 471, 490 ], [ 502, 523 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wardour Street dates back to 1585, when it was known as Commonhedge Lane and connected Oxford Street to the King's Mews (now part of Trafalgar Square). It began to be built up in the 1680s and was named after local landowner Edward Wardour. Most of the original houses were rebuilt in the 18th century, and the street became known for antiques and furniture dealers. Several music publishers were established along Wardour Street in the early 20th century, including Novello and Co at Nos.152–160. The most famous location of the Marquee Club was at No.90 Wardour Street between 1964 and 1988. Another seventies rock hangout was The Intrepid Fox pub (at 97/99 Wardour Street), originally dedicated to Charles James Fox (who is featured on a relief on the outside of the building). It subsequently became a haven for the Goth subculture before closing in 2006.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Streets", "target_page_ids": [ 308205, 62107, 3095222, 2497030, 53200947, 142125, 12905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 133, 149 ], [ 467, 481 ], [ 530, 542 ], [ 629, 645 ], [ 701, 718 ], [ 820, 835 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A detailed mural depicting Soho characters, including writer Dylan Thomas and jazz musician George Melly, is in Broadwick Street, at the junction with Carnaby Street.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 8783, 549191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 73 ], [ 92, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In fiction, Robert Louis Stevenson had Dr. Henry Jekyll set up a home for Edward Hyde in Soho in his novel, Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. Charles Dickens referred to Soho in several of his works; in A Tale of Two Cities, Lucie Manette and her father Dr. Alexandre Manette live on Soho Square, while Golden Square is mentioned in Nicholas Nickleby, in which Ralph Nickleby has a house on the square, and the George II statue in the centre is described as \"mournful\". Joseph Conrad used Soho as the home for The Secret Agent, a French immigrant who ran a pornography shop. Dan Kavanagh (Julian Barnes)'s 1980 novel Duffy is set in Soho.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 26444, 42829172, 5884, 3433040, 930137, 839388, 209892, 60652872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 34 ], [ 108, 145 ], [ 147, 162 ], [ 208, 228 ], [ 338, 355 ], [ 515, 531 ], [ 594, 607 ], [ 622, 627 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lee Ho Fook's, formerly in Gerrard Street, is mentioned in Warren Zevon's song \"Werewolves of London\". The Who song \"Pinball Wizard\", also covered by Elton John, contains the line \"From Soho down to Brighton, I must've played them all\", in reference to the locations frequented by the title character. The song A Rainy Night in Soho by The Pogues mentions Soho in the title.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 200591, 475991, 36517, 1994297, 5052197, 49796, 7634867, 30514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 71 ], [ 80, 100 ], [ 103, 110 ], [ 117, 131 ], [ 150, 160 ], [ 199, 207 ], [ 311, 332 ], [ 336, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The area is the setting for the 2021 film Last Night in Soho by Edgar Wright.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 59858039, 1328408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 60 ], [ 64, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of schools in the City of Westminster", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21265363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Street names of Soho", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 55375819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The museum of Soho", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Soho memories", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Soho Society", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Soho,_London", "Areas_of_London", "Districts_of_the_City_of_Westminster", "Red-light_districts_in_England", "Entertainment_districts_in_the_United_Kingdom" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In the United Kingdom and the British Overseas Territories, personal bravery, achievement, or service are rewarded with honours. The honours system consists of three types of award:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 31717, 207114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ], [ 30, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Honours are used to recognise merit in terms of achievement and service;", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Decorations tend to be used to recognise specific deeds;", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 340586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medals are used to recognise service on a particular operation or in a specific theatre, long or valuable service, and good conduct.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 375211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Appointments to the various orders and awards of other honours are usually published in The London Gazette.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1098136, 359850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 34 ], [ 88, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the Anglo-Saxon monarchs are known to have rewarded their loyal subjects with rings and other symbols of favour, it was the Normans who introduced knighthoods as part of their feudal government. The first English order of chivalry, the Order of the Garter, was created in 1348 by Edward III. Since then, the system has evolved to address the changing need to recognise other forms of service to the United Kingdom.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Brief history", "target_page_ids": [ 19594141, 21476352, 16897, 11298, 2853547, 73259, 46377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 33 ], [ 133, 140 ], [ 156, 166 ], [ 185, 202 ], [ 222, 239 ], [ 245, 264 ], [ 289, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the head of state, the Sovereign is the 'fount of honour', but the system for identifying and recognising candidates to honour has changed considerably over time. Various orders of knighthood have been created (see below) as well as awards for military service, bravery, merit, and achievement which take the form of decorations or medals. Most medals are not graded. Each one recognises specific service and as such there are normally set criteria which must be met. These criteria may include a period of time and will often delimit a particular geographic region. Medals are not normally presented by the Sovereign. A full list is printed in the 'order of wear', published (infrequently) by the London Gazette.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern honours", "target_page_ids": [ 13456, 19012, 1149235, 359850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ], [ 26, 35 ], [ 44, 59 ], [ 701, 715 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Honours are split into classes ('orders') and are graded to distinguish different degrees of achievement or service, according to various criteria. Nominations are reviewed by honours committees made up of government officials and private citizens from different fields, who meet twice a year to discuss the candidates and make recommendations for appropriate honours to be awarded by the Queen.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern honours", "target_page_ids": [ 46386571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A list of approximately 1,350 names is published twice a year, at the New Year and on the date of the Sovereign's (official) birthday. Since their decisions are inevitably subjective, the twice-yearly honours lists often provoke criticism from those who feel strongly about particular cases. Candidates are identified by public or private bodies, by government departments, or are nominated by members of the public. Depending on their roles, those people selected by the honours committee are submitted either to the Prime Minister, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, or Secretary of State for Defence for their approval before being sent to the Sovereign for final approval. Certain honours are conferred solely at the Sovereign's discretion, such as appointments to the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle, the Royal Victorian Order, and the Order of Merit. The honour's insignias are then presented by the Sovereign or her designated representative. The Prince of Wales, the Duke of Cambridge and the Princess Royal have deputised for the Queen at investiture ceremonies at Buckingham Palace.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern honours", "target_page_ids": [ 21637, 682330, 24150, 59655, 302332, 73259, 355679, 390033, 326833, 125248, 72201, 125231, 1416762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 78 ], [ 102, 133 ], [ 518, 532 ], [ 534, 589 ], [ 594, 624 ], [ 795, 814 ], [ 820, 840 ], [ 846, 867 ], [ 877, 891 ], [ 990, 1005 ], [ 1011, 1028 ], [ 1037, 1051 ], [ 1084, 1095 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By convention, a departing prime minister is allowed to nominate Prime Minister's Resignation Honours, to reward political and personal service. In recent history, only Tony Blair and Gordon Brown have not taken up this privilege (although Brown did issue the 2010 Dissolution Honours to similar effect).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Modern honours", "target_page_ids": [ 12627343, 3301347, 13076, 27510062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 101 ], [ 169, 179 ], [ 184, 196 ], [ 260, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The current system is made up of six orders of chivalry and four orders of merit. The statutes of each order specify matters such as the size of the order, the use of post-nominal letters and insignia design and display.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Current orders of chivalry", "target_page_ids": [ 26783, 465387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 93 ], [ 167, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Orders were created for particular reasons at particular times. In some cases these reasons have ceased to have any validity and orders have fallen into abeyance, primarily due to the decline of the British Empire during the twentieth century. Reforms of the system have sometimes made other changes. For example, the British Empire Medal temporarily ceased to be awarded in the UK in 1993, as was the companion level award of the Imperial Service Order (although its medal is still used). The British Empire Medal was revived, however, in 2012 with 293 BEMs awarded for the 2012 Birthday Honours, and has continued to be awarded in some other Commonwealth nations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dormant orders of chivalry", "target_page_ids": [ 4721, 1125801, 36037068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 213 ], [ 431, 453 ], [ 575, 596 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Order of St Patrick was founded in 1783 by George III for the Kingdom of Ireland, and after the Acts of Union 1800 continued for Irish peers in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. After the Irish Free State's secession in 1922, only members of the royal family were appointed to the order, the last in 1936. The last surviving knight was Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, who died on 10 June 1974. Although dormant, the order technically still exists, and may be used as an award at any time. Queen Elizabeth II is the current sovereign of this order.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dormant orders of chivalry", "target_page_ids": [ 42029, 168432, 160466, 152256, 42953, 222097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 57 ], [ 66, 84 ], [ 100, 118 ], [ 152, 195 ], [ 207, 223 ], [ 355, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These orders, relating to the British Raj or the British Indian Empire, are also dormant. The senior order, the Order of the Star of India, was divided into three grades, Knight Grand Commander, Knight Commander and Companion, of which the first and highest was conferred upon the Princes and Chiefs of Indian states and upon important British civil servants working in India. Women were not eligible to receive the award. The junior order, the Order of the Indian Empire, was divided into the same ranks and also excluded women. The third order, the Order of the Crown of India, was used exclusively to honour women. Its members, all sharing a single grade, consisted of the wives and close female relatives of Indian Princes or Chiefs; the Viceroy or Governor-General; the Governors of Bombay, Madras and Bengal; the Principal Secretary of State for India; and the Commander-in-Chief in India. Upon Indian independence in 1947, appointments to all these orders ceased.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dormant orders of chivalry", "target_page_ids": [ 4208015, 4208015, 160793, 266209, 266209, 3499611, 9744971, 3499866, 224442, 1054908, 265059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 41 ], [ 49, 70 ], [ 344, 357 ], [ 742, 749 ], [ 753, 769 ], [ 788, 794 ], [ 796, 802 ], [ 807, 813 ], [ 819, 857 ], [ 867, 894 ], [ 901, 920 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Maharaja Tej Singh Prabhakar Bahadur of Alwar, who was a KCSI and the last surviving member of the Order of the Star of India, died in February 2009, aged 97. The last surviving member of the Order of the Indian Empire, HH Maharaja Meghrajji III of Dhrangadhra-Halvad, a KCIE died in August 2010, aged 87. Queen Elizabeth II was appointed to the Order of the Crown of India (then as Princess Elizabeth) and is the last surviving former member of that order. The Queen remains also the Sovereign of the Indian orders as they have never been abolished.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dormant orders of chivalry", "target_page_ids": [ 15437873, 546954, 547015, 21760026, 547138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 46 ], [ 100, 126 ], [ 193, 219 ], [ 224, 268 ], [ 347, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Order of Burma was created in May 1940 by King George VI of the United Kingdom to recognise subjects of the British colony of Burma (Myanmar). This order had one class which entitled the member to the postnominal letters OB but no title. It was originally intended to reward long and faithful service by military and police. In 1945 the Royal Warrant was altered to allow for membership for acts of gallantry as well as meritorious service. The Order was one of the rarest awarded with only 33 appointments by the time appointments were discontinued in 1948 when Burma declared independence.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dormant orders of chivalry", "target_page_ids": [ 5224280, 46755, 19457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 51, 82 ], [ 130, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Royal Guelphic Order, also known as the Hanoverian Guelphic Order, was an honour founded by George, Prince Regent in the name of his father King George III in 1815. In the United Kingdom it was used only briefly, until the death of William IV in 1837 that resulted in the ending of the personal union with the Kingdom of Hanover due to succession to the throne of Hanover following the Salic Law, unlike in the United Kingdom where women could inherit the throne. The order continued for some time as a national order of Hanover until the defeat and forced dissolution of the kingdom by Prussia in 1866. Since then the order has been a house order to be awarded by the House of Hanover. The order's current head is Ernst August Prinz von Hanover, head of the house of Hanover. The Order includes two Divisions, Civil and Military. During the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover it originally had three classes, but with several reorganizations since 1841 as house order today it has four classes and an additional Cross of Merit.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Orders formerly associated with the British monarch", "target_page_ids": [ 2423225, 40225, 42029, 43271, 475807, 821998, 242701, 1977418, 176558, 364923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ], [ 96, 117 ], [ 144, 159 ], [ 236, 246 ], [ 290, 304 ], [ 314, 332 ], [ 591, 598 ], [ 640, 651 ], [ 673, 689 ], [ 719, 749 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Current awarded decorations in order of wear:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Decorations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 1 July 2009, BBC News reported that the Queen had approved a new posthumous award, the Elizabeth Cross, to honour members of the armed forces killed in action or by terrorist attack since World War II. The cross itself is given to the family of the deceased.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Decorations", "target_page_ids": [ 23454376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are five ranks of hereditary peerage: duke, marquess, earl, viscount, and baron. Until the mid-20th century, peerages were usually hereditary, and, until the end of the 20th century, English, Scottish, British, and UK peerages (except, until very recent times, those for the time being held by women) carried the right to a seat in the House of Lords.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other honours and appointments", "target_page_ids": [ 413079, 58255, 58253, 58249, 79913, 79915, 13658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 42 ], [ 44, 48 ], [ 50, 58 ], [ 60, 64 ], [ 66, 74 ], [ 80, 85 ], [ 342, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hereditary peerages are now normally given only to members of the Royal Family. The most recent were the grants to the Queen's youngest son, the Earl of Wessex, on his marriage in 1999; to the Queen's grandson Prince William, who was made the Duke of Cambridge on the morning before his marriage to Catherine Middleton on 29 April 2011; and to the Queen's grandson Prince Harry, who was made the Duke of Sussex on the morning before his marriage to Meghan Markle on 19 May 2018. No hereditary peerages were granted to commoners after the Labour Party came to power in 1964, until Margaret Thatcher tentatively reintroduced them by two grants to men with no sons in 1983: Speaker of the House of Commons George Thomas and former Deputy Prime Minister William Whitelaw. Both these titles died with their holders. She followed this with an Earldom in 1984 for former Prime Minister Harold Macmillan not long before his death, reviving a traditional honour for former Prime Ministers. Macmillan's grandson succeeded him on his death in 1986. No hereditary peerages have been created since, and Thatcher's own title was a life peerage (see further explanation below). The concession of a baronetcy (i.e., hereditary knighthood), was granted to her husband Denis following her resignation (explained below, see baronet).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other honours and appointments", "target_page_ids": [ 46542, 413730, 72201, 248240, 1677192, 14457, 290378, 11214029, 24710172, 19831, 143313, 70849, 80933, 79912, 79912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 78 ], [ 145, 159 ], [ 210, 224 ], [ 243, 260 ], [ 299, 318 ], [ 365, 377 ], [ 396, 410 ], [ 449, 462 ], [ 518, 526 ], [ 580, 597 ], [ 703, 716 ], [ 750, 766 ], [ 879, 895 ], [ 1183, 1192 ], [ 1305, 1312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hereditary peerages are not \"honours under the crown\" and so cannot normally be withdrawn. A peerage can be revoked only by a specific Act of Parliament, and then for only the current holder, in the case of hereditary peerages. A hereditary peer can disclaim his peerage for his own lifetime under Peerage Act 1963 within a year after inheriting the title.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other honours and appointments", "target_page_ids": [ 271796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 298, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern life peerages were introduced under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, following a test case (the Wensleydale Peerage Case) which established that non-statutory life peers would not have the right to sit in the House of Lords. At that time, life peerages were intended only for Law Lords, there being a desire to introduce legal expertise into the chamber to assist appellate law work, without conferring rights on future generations of these early working peers because the future generations might contain no legal experts.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other honours and appointments", "target_page_ids": [ 612906, 10679967, 606895, 610732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 78 ], [ 92, 101 ], [ 107, 131 ], [ 287, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subsequently, under the Life Peerages Act 1958, life peerages became the norm for all new grants outside the Royal Family, this being seen as a modest reform of the nature of the second legislative chamber. However, its effects were gradual because hereditary peers, and their successors, retained until recently their rights to attend and vote with the life peers. All hereditary peers except 92—chosen in a secret ballot of all hereditary peers—have now lost their rights to sit in the second chamber. All hereditary peers retain dining rights to the House of Lords, retaining its title as \"the best club in London\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other honours and appointments", "target_page_ids": [ 612899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All Life Peers hold the rank of baron and automatically have the right to sit in the House of Lords. The title exists only for the duration of their own lifetime and is not passed to their heirs (although the children even of life peers enjoy the same courtesy titles as hereditary peers). Some life peerages are created as an honour for achievement, some for the specific purpose of introducing legislators from the various political parties (known as working peers) and some under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, with a view to judicial work. There is a discrete number appointed as \"People's Peers\", on recommendation of the general public. Twenty-six Church of England bishops have a seat in the House of Lords.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other honours and appointments", "target_page_ids": [ 79915, 79984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 37 ], [ 252, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a life peerage is not technically an \"honour under the Crown\", it cannot normally be withdrawn once granted. Thus, while knighthoods have been withdrawn as \"honours under the Crown\", convicted criminals who have served their sentences have returned to the House of Lords. In the case of Lord Archer of Weston-super-Mare, he has chosen only to exercise dining rights and has yet to speak following his release from his conviction for perjury.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other honours and appointments", "target_page_ids": [ 16336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 290, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A baronetcy is the lowest hereditary title in the United Kingdom. It carries the title sir. A Baronetcy is, in the order of precedence, below a Barony but above most knighthoods. Baronetcies are not peerages. When a baronetcy becomes vacant on the death of a holder, the heir, if he wishes to be addressed as \"Sir\", is required to register the proofs of succession. The Official Roll of Baronets is kept at the Ministry of Justice (transferred from the Home Office in 2001) by the Registrar of the Baronetage. Anyone who considers that he is entitled to be entered on the roll may petition the Crown through the Lord Chancellor. Anyone succeeding to a baronetcy therefore must exhibit proofs of succession to the Lord Chancellor. A person who is not entered on the roll will not be addressed or mentioned as a baronet or accorded precedence as a baronet, effectively declining the honour. The baronetcy can be revived at any time on provision of acceptable proofs of succession. As of 2017, 208 baronetcies are listed as presumedly not extinct, but awaiting proofs of succession.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other honours and appointments", "target_page_ids": [ 79912, 226197, 226197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 9 ], [ 612, 627 ], [ 713, 728 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As with hereditary peerages, baronetcies generally ceased to be granted after the Labour Party came to power in 1964. The sole subsequent exception was a baronetcy created in 1990 for the husband of Margaret Thatcher, Sir Denis Thatcher, later inherited by their son Mark Thatcher.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other honours and appointments", "target_page_ids": [ 19831, 253374, 928596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 216 ], [ 222, 236 ], [ 267, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Descended from medieval chivalry, knights exist both within the orders of chivalry and in a class known as Knights Bachelor. Regular recipients include High Court judges and Chief Constables. Knighthood carries the title sir; the female equivalent dame exists only within the orders of chivalry—Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) is usually awarded as an equivalent of a Knight Bachelor.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other honours and appointments", "target_page_ids": [ 59639, 390067, 26569402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 32 ], [ 107, 123 ], [ 152, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Members of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem (founded 1888) may wear the Order's insignia but the ranks within the Order of St John do not confer official rank in the order of precedence and, likewise, the abbreviations or postnominal initials associated with the various grades of membership in the Order of St John do not indicate precedence among the other orders. Thus someone knighted in the order does not take precedence with the knights of other British orders nor should they be addressed as \"Sir\" or \"Dame\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other honours and appointments", "target_page_ids": [ 374541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other British and Commonwealth orders, decorations and medals which do not carry titles but entitle the holder to place post-nominal letters after his or her name also exist, as do a small number of Royal Family Orders.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other honours and appointments", "target_page_ids": [ 187172, 349563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 61 ], [ 120, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until the mid-20th century, the British honours system was the primary—and generally the sole—honours system utilised across the various dominions and territories of the British Empire, which became the Commonwealth of Nations from 1949. Today, British honours and decorations continue to be awarded to citizens of Commonwealth realms and British Overseas Territories. Within the Commonwealth realms, however, the nature of the British honour or decoration awarded and the permissibility of its conferment varies from government to government. The British honours system comprises both dynastic honours, which are honours in the personal gift of the Sovereign, and British state honours or decorations (known as imperial honours or decorations outside the UK), which are not. Dynastic honours continue to be conferred by the Sovereign in her capacity across the Commonwealth realms, though outside the United Kingdom they are typically non-titular honours such as the Order of Merit or the lower grades of the Royal Victorian Order.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "British honours in the Commonwealth realms", "target_page_ids": [ 4721, 21175158, 205142, 207114, 1977418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 184 ], [ 203, 226 ], [ 315, 333 ], [ 339, 367 ], [ 586, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1917 and 1919, the government of Canada passed the Nickle Resolutions, which, despite being non-binding, gradually ended the conferment of titular honours—peerages, baronetcies and knighthoods—to Canadians. Occasional conferments of knighthoods (in 1934 and 1935) and imperial honours, notably following the Second World War, continued until 1955, when the Canadian government officially ended all awards of imperial honours to Canadians. In 1967, Canada established its own honours system with the Order of Canada and created its own system of bravery decorations in 1972, followed by its own system of military decorations for valour in 1993. Canadian service personnel remained eligible to receive the imperial Victoria Cross until 1993, when a Canadian version was instituted.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "British honours in the Commonwealth realms", "target_page_ids": [ 3683968, 160112, 17491404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 71 ], [ 502, 517 ], [ 717, 731 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1975, the Australian government established its own honours system with the creation of the Order of Australia, also creating its own system of bravery decorations in that year. Indigenous police and fire service decorations followed from 1986, with a new system of military decorations created in 1991. Imperial honours continued to be conferred on Australians through 1989, when the last recommendations were made. With effect from 5 October 1992, the Australian government discontinued the awarding of imperial honours. Also in 1975, New Zealand instituted its first indigenous honour, the Queen's Service Order, followed by the Order of New Zealand in 1987. In 1996, it replaced imperial honours with the New Zealand Order of Merit, and replaced imperial gallantry and bravery decorations with New Zealand decorations in 1999.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "British honours in the Commonwealth realms", "target_page_ids": [ 153398, 4913064, 1398099, 362297, 362253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 113 ], [ 540, 551 ], [ 596, 617 ], [ 635, 655 ], [ 712, 738 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other Commonwealth realms have continued to apply the imperial honours system together with their own honours systems. Jamaica established its own honours system in 1969 with the passage of the National Honours and Awards Act, followed by Barbados and Saint Lucia in 1980, the Solomon Islands in 1981, Belize in 1991, Antigua and Barbuda in 1998, Papua New Guinea in 2004 and Grenada in 2007. The government of the Bahamas continues to solely utilise imperial honours. In 2007, it passed a National Honours Act which established a Bahamian honours system; however, it had not come into effect as of 2015.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "British honours in the Commonwealth realms", "target_page_ids": [ 15660, 3455, 27208, 265083, 3458, 951, 22943, 17238662, 3451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 126 ], [ 239, 247 ], [ 252, 263 ], [ 277, 292 ], [ 302, 308 ], [ 318, 337 ], [ 347, 363 ], [ 376, 383 ], [ 415, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In practice, legislation across the Commonwealth realms regulating the awarding of imperial honours to citizens of a realm, including knighthoods and damehoods, does not necessarily prevent a citizen of a Commonwealth realm from receiving a substantive award of an imperial honour for service in the United Kingdom or to its government. There continue to be numerous examples of Canadians, New Zealanders and Australians who have been honoured by the British government and are permitted to use the honour or its accompanying style whether they are resident in their own nation or in the United Kingdom.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "British honours in the Commonwealth realms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Citizens of countries that do not have the Queen as their head of state sometimes have honours conferred upon them, in which case the awards are \"honorary\". In the case of knighthoods, the holders are entitled to place initials after their name but not style themselves \"Sir\" as they are not entitled to receive the accolade. Examples of foreigners with honorary knighthoods are Billy Graham, Bill Gates, Bob Geldof, Bono and Rudolph Giuliani, while Arsène Wenger and Gérard Houllier are honorary OBEs. Honorary knighthoods are of Orders of Chivalry rather than as Knights Bachelor as the latter confers no postnominal letters.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honorary awards", "target_page_ids": [ 13456, 2728601, 690865, 3747, 169967, 76772, 25938, 24148454, 335819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 71 ], [ 316, 324 ], [ 379, 391 ], [ 393, 403 ], [ 405, 415 ], [ 417, 421 ], [ 426, 442 ], [ 450, 463 ], [ 468, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Recipients of honorary awards who later become subjects of Her Majesty may apply to convert their awards to substantive ones. Examples of this are Marjorie Scardino, American CEO of Pearson PLC, and Yehudi Menuhin, the American-born violinist and conductor. They were granted an honorary damehood and knighthood respectively while still American citizens, and converted them to substantive awards after they assumed British nationality, becoming Dame Marjorie and Sir Yehudi. Menuhin later accepted a life peerage with the title Lord Menuhin.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honorary awards", "target_page_ids": [ 7798491, 961917, 57520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 164 ], [ 182, 193 ], [ 199, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sir Tony O'Reilly, who holds both British and Irish nationality, uses the style \"Sir\", but has also gained approval from the Irish Government to accept the award as is necessary under the Irish Constitution. Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, the German soprano, became entitled to be known as \"Dame Elisabeth\" when she took British nationality. Irish-born Sir Terry Wogan was initially awarded an honorary knighthood, but by the time he collected the accolade from the Queen in December 2005, he had obtained dual nationality and the award was upgraded to a substantive knighthood.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honorary awards", "target_page_ids": [ 202018, 31717, 14560, 21583, 553319, 152513, 379142, 233249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 34, 41 ], [ 46, 51 ], [ 52, 63 ], [ 125, 141 ], [ 188, 206 ], [ 208, 229 ], [ 349, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bob Geldof is often erroneously referred to as \"Sir Bob\"; he is not entitled to this style as an honorary knight as he is a citizen of the Republic of Ireland (i.e., he is not a citizen of a Commonwealth realm).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honorary awards", "target_page_ids": [ 169967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is no law in the UK preventing foreigners from holding a peerage (e.g., Newburgh), though only Commonwealth and Irish citizens may sit in the House of Lords. This has yet to be tested under the new arrangements. However, some other countries have laws restricting the acceptances of awards granted to would-be recipients by foreign powers. In Canada, where the House of Commons of Canada (but not necessarily the Senate of Canada) has opposed the granting of titular honours with its (non-binding) Nickle Resolution, then Prime Minister Jean Chrétien advised the Queen not to grant Conrad Black a titular honour while he remained a Canadian citizen.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honorary awards", "target_page_ids": [ 445735, 21175158, 5042916, 64313, 123498, 3683968, 75626, 226085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 86 ], [ 101, 113 ], [ 349, 355 ], [ 367, 393 ], [ 419, 435 ], [ 504, 521 ], [ 543, 556 ], [ 588, 600 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Each year, around 2,600 people receive their awards personally from The Queen or a member of the Royal Family. The majority of investitures take place at Buckingham Palace, but an annual ceremony also takes place at the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh (during Holyrood Week), and some happen at Windsor Castle. There are approximately 120 recipients at each Investiture. The Queen usually conducts the investitures, although the Prince of Wales, The Princess Royal or, more recently, the Duke of Cambridge also hold some investitures on behalf of the Queen.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Ceremony", "target_page_ids": [ 12153654, 211788, 1416762, 3969, 23785316, 4689517, 125248, 125231, 72201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 77 ], [ 97, 109 ], [ 127, 138 ], [ 154, 171 ], [ 220, 243 ], [ 300, 314 ], [ 434, 449 ], [ 451, 469 ], [ 493, 510 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the ceremony, the Queen enters the ballroom of Buckingham Palace attended by two Gurkha orderly officers, a tradition begun in 1876 by Queen Victoria. On duty on the dais are five members of the Queen's Body Guard of the Yeomen of the Guard, which was created in 1485 by Henry VII; they are the oldest, but not most senior, military corps in the United Kingdom. Four gentlemen ushers are on duty to help look after the recipients and their guests.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Ceremony", "target_page_ids": [ 3969, 180363, 47923, 148392, 14186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 71 ], [ 88, 94 ], [ 142, 156 ], [ 228, 247 ], [ 278, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Queen is escorted by either the Lord Chamberlain or the Lord Steward. After the National Anthem has been played, he stands to the right of the Queen and announces the name of each recipient and the achievement for which they are being decorated. The Queen is provided with a brief background for each recipient by her equerry as they approach to receive their decorations.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Ceremony", "target_page_ids": [ 318753, 318642, 234540, 1343122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 52 ], [ 60, 72 ], [ 84, 99 ], [ 322, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Men who are to be knighted kneel on an investiture stool to receive the accolade, which is bestowed by the Queen using the sword used by her father, George VI as Duke of York and Colonel of the Scots Guards (only men are knighted. Women receive their honours in the same fashion as men receiving decorations or medals, even if they are receiving a damehood). Occasionally an award for gallantry may be made posthumously and in this case the Queen presents the decoration or medal to the recipient's next-of-kin in private before the public investiture begins. The Elizabeth Cross was created especially for this purpose.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Ceremony", "target_page_ids": [ 16897, 2728601, 46755, 171477, 2989331, 5244726, 1416762, 23454376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 72, 80 ], [ 149, 158 ], [ 162, 174 ], [ 179, 186 ], [ 194, 206 ], [ 540, 551 ], [ 564, 579 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the investiture ceremony, those honoured are ushered out of the ballroom into the Inner Quadrangle of Buckingham Palace, where the royal rota of photographers are stationed. Here recipients are photographed with their awards. In some cases, members of the press may interview some of the more well-known people who have been honoured.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Ceremony", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2003, Sunday Times published a list of almost 300 people who had declined an honour between 1951 and 1999. In 2020, the Guardian reported based on a Freedom of Information request, that the number of people refusing an honour had more than doubled in the previous nine years.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 2313472, 19344515, 911519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 21 ], [ 119, 131 ], [ 152, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Outgoing prime ministers:", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Neville Chamberlain declined an earldom and appointment as Knight of the Garter.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 21453, 58249, 73259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 33, 37 ], [ 60, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sir Winston Churchill declined a dukedom in order to remain in the House of Commons and to allow his son Randolph Churchill a political career.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 33265, 58255, 13828, 486610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 22 ], [ 34, 38 ], [ 68, 84 ], [ 106, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sir Edward Heath declined a life peerage in order to remain in the House of Commons.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 52269, 610639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 17 ], [ 29, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sir John Major declined a life peerage, saying elevation to the House of Lords was incompatible with retirement from politics.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 15898, 13658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ], [ 65, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sir Tony Blair declined a life peerage.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 3301347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gordon Brown declined a life peerage.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 13076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " David Cameron declined a life peerage.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 419342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Cleese declined appointment as CBE and later declined a life peerage.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 15858, 212182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 37, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frank Pick declined both a knighthood and a peerage.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 3316158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " David Bowie declined a knighthood.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 8786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stephen Hawking declined a knighthood.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 19376148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Benjamin Zephaniah declined an OBE, describing it as a legacy of colonialism.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 382063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George Bernard Shaw declined an Order of Merit, replying that \"merit\" in authorship could only be determined by the posthumous verdict of history.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 12855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Honor Blackman declined a CBE as she was a republican.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 499963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Lennon returned his MBE (awarded in 1965) in 1969, although no official provision exists for renouncing an honour.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 15852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Geraldine McEwan declined a damehood.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 1244979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vanessa Redgrave declined a damehood in 1999, but accepted it in 2022. She also accepted a CBE in 1967.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 63741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gareth Peirce declined a CBE.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Refusal", "target_page_ids": [ 43134125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Honours are sometimes revoked (forfeited), for example if a recipient is subsequently convicted of a serious criminal offence. The Honours Forfeiture Committee is an ad hoc committee convened under the chairmanship of the Head of the Home Civil Service, to consider cases where information has been received which indicates an individual is unsuitable to hold an award. Sometimes the original decision to grant an honour was made on the basis of inaccurate information (including through manipulation of the public nominations system), but normally cases relate to actions that took place after the award was made. Recommendations are made to the monarch of the United Kingdom, who has the sole authority to rescind an honour.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Revocation", "target_page_ids": [ 5785, 34557884, 65461, 47063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 125 ], [ 131, 159 ], [ 222, 252 ], [ 647, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2009, Gordon Brown confirmed that the process remains as set out in 1994 by the then Prime Minister John Major in a written answer to the House of Commons:", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Revocation", "target_page_ids": [ 13076, 15898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 21 ], [ 103, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2016, the House of Commons approved a motion to ask the Honours Forfeiture Committee to strip Sir Philip Green of his knighthood for his role in the downfall of British Home Stores. It was the first time MPs voted to recommend rescinding a knighthood.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Revocation", "target_page_ids": [ 13828, 722808, 1106309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 37 ], [ 109, 121 ], [ 172, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kaiser Wilhelm II was a Knight of the Garter prior to the start of the First World War, when it was revoked.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Revocation", "target_page_ids": [ 50450, 73259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 24, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roger Casement had been honoured for his human rights work while a British diplomat; however, upon being convicted on 30 June 1916 of High Treason for his role in the Irish 1916 Easter Rising, the King directed that Casement would cease to be a member of the Order of St Michael and St George, his name being stricken from the register, and letters patent were also issued \"degrading\" him \"from the degree, title and dignity of Knight Bachelor\". He was executed that August.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Revocation", "target_page_ids": [ 25730, 1961132, 10350, 238216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 134, 146 ], [ 173, 191 ], [ 341, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benito Mussolini was stripped of his honorary knighthood after Italy declared war on the United Kingdom in 1940.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Revocation", "target_page_ids": [ 19283178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anthony Blunt, knighted as Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures for his services to Art, lost his knighthood in the 1980s when he was revealed to be the \"Fourth Man\" in the early 1950s Burgess and Maclean spying scandal which also touched on the 1960s Philby spying affair, as a result of which he confessed to the security services. Although Blunt was never charged or convicted, the honour was withdrawn on the advice of the then Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Revocation", "target_page_ids": [ 338938, 17012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 248, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nicolae Ceaușescu forfeited his honorary knighthood that he earlier received for his friendship with Western democracies.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Revocation", "target_page_ids": [ 49562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Albert Henry was the former Premier of the Cook Islands. He was later convicted of electoral fraud in the 1980s.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Revocation", "target_page_ids": [ 4442524, 7067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 43, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Terry Lewis, knighted for his services to Queensland police, was stripped of his knighthood in 1993 after being sentenced to prison on charges of corruption and forgery as a result of the findings of the Fitzgerald Inquiry.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Revocation", "target_page_ids": [ 1932117, 59051, 891633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 42, 52 ], [ 204, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jack Lyons, who had received his knighthood for his huge charitable donations and services to industry, lost it when he was convicted of fraud in the 1980s.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Revocation", "target_page_ids": [ 4330567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Robert Mugabe was stripped of his honorary GCB after calls from the Government to the Royal Family due to the crisis in Zimbabwe under his régime, including hyperinflation, and violence in the 2008 presidential elections.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Revocation", "target_page_ids": [ 17380298, 311455, 34399, 13681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 43, 46 ], [ 120, 128 ], [ 157, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lester Piggott, the high-profile jockey, had his OBE removed after being convicted and sentenced to imprisonment for tax evasion.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Revocation", "target_page_ids": [ 805292, 212182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 49, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fred Goodwin, the former CEO of Royal Bank of Scotland had his knighthood annulled, after the Financial Services Authority found that the failure of RBS had an important role in the financial crisis of 2008–9, because Goodwin was the dominant decision maker at the time.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Revocation", "target_page_ids": [ 1572499, 9191790, 236446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 32, 54 ], [ 94, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "James Crosby, former CEO of HBOS and non-executive director of the Financial Services Authority was stripped of his knighthood at his request in April 2013 as the result of the bank's collapse during the UK financial crisis.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Revocation", "target_page_ids": [ 16062717, 19389212, 236446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 28, 32 ], [ 67, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Honours, decorations and medals are arranged in the \"Order of Wear\", an official list which describes the order in which they should be worn. Updates to the Order of Wear are published in The London Gazette when necessary. The current Order of Wear was published on 11 January 2019. Additional information on the social events at which an award may be worn is contained in the insignia case given to each recipient.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Order of Wear", "target_page_ids": [ 359850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The list places the Victoria Cross and George Cross at the top, followed by the orders of knighthood arranged in order of date of creation. Below the Knights of the Garter and Thistle, individuals of a higher rank precede those of a lower rank. For instance, a Knight Grand Cross of any order precedes any Knight Commander. For those of equal rank, members of the higher-ranked Order take precedence. Within the same Order, precedence is accorded to that individual who received the honour earlier.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Order of Wear", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Not all orders have the same number of ranks. The Order of Merit, the Order of the Companions of Honour, the Distinguished Service Order and the Imperial Service Order are slightly different, being single-rank honours, and have been placed at appropriate positions of seniority. The precedence of Knight Bachelor is below the knights of the different orders and above those with the rank of Commander or lower.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Order of Wear", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Decorations are followed by medals of various categories, being arranged in date order within each section. These are followed by Commonwealth and honorary foreign awards of any level. Miscellaneous details are explained in notes at the bottom of the list.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Order of Wear", "target_page_ids": [ 21175158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The order of wear is not connected to and should not be confused with the order of precedence.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Order of Wear", "target_page_ids": [ 214436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For peers, see Forms of address in the United Kingdom.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [ 355349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For baronets, the style Sir John Smith, Bt (or Bart) is used. Their wives are styled Lady Smith. A baronetess is styled Dame Jane Smith, Btss.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For knights, the style Sir John Smith, [ postnominals ] is used, attaching the proper postnominal letters depending on rank and order (for knights bachelor, no postnominal letters are used). Their wives are styled Lady Smith, with no postnominal letters. A dame is styled Dame Jane Smith, [postnominals]. More familiar references or oral addresses use the first name only, e.g. Sir John, or Dame Joan.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [ 349563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wives of knights and baronets are styled Lady Smith, although customarily no courtesy title is automatically reciprocated to male consorts.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recipients of orders, decorations and medals receive no styling of Sir or Dame, but they may attach the according postnominal letters to their name, e.g., John Smith, VC. Recipients of gallantry awards may be referred to in Parliament as \"gallant\", in addition to \"honourable\", \"noble\", etc.: The honourable and gallant Gentleman.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [ 187172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bailiffs or Dames Grand Cross (GCStJ), Knights/Dames of Justice/Grace (KStJ/DStJ), Commander Brothers/Sisters (CStJ), Officer Brothers/Sisters (OStJ), Serving Brothers/Sisters (SBStJ/SSStJ), and Esquires (EsqStJ) of the Order of St John do not receive any special styling with regards to prenominal address i.e. Sir or Dame. They may, however, attach the relevant postnominal initials (solely) within internal correspondence of the Order. In the Priory of Australia, Canada and the United States, the rank of Serving Brother/Sister is no longer granted. The rank now awarded is referred to as Member of the Order of St John for both men and women.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For honours bestowed upon those in the entertainment industry (e.g., Anthony Hopkins, Maggie Smith), it is an accepted practice to omit the title for professional credits.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [ 9262, 2397, 82765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 61 ], [ 69, 84 ], [ 86, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reforms of the system occur from time to time. In the last century notable changes to the system have included a Royal Commission in 1925 following the scandal in which Prime Minister David Lloyd George was found to be selling honours. The sale of British Honours, including titles, is now prohibited by the Honours (Prevention of Abuses) Act 1925. There was a further review in 1993 when Prime Minister John Major created the public nominations system.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Reform", "target_page_ids": [ 46836, 4469673, 15898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 202 ], [ 308, 347 ], [ 404, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2004, the Public Administration Select Committee (PASC) of the House of Commons and, concurrently, Sir Hayden Phillips, Permanent Secretary at the Department of Constitutional Affairs, both concluded reviews of the system. The PASC recommended some radical changes; Sir Hayden concentrated on issues of procedure and transparency. In February 2005, the Government responded to both reviews by issuing a Command paper detailing which of the proposed changes it had accepted. These included diversifying and opening up the system of honours selection committees for the Prime Minister's list and also the introduction of a miniature badge. Furthermore, the 2004 review suggested a regular report on the transparency and operation of the system at a suggested frequency of every 3 years. These reviews have taken place in 2008, 2011, 2014 and 2018. The most recent review covers the period 2015 to 2018 and shows a notable shift towards community and voluntary recognition, and a continued emphasis on ensuring that the Honours System reflects British societal diversity.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Reform", "target_page_ids": [ 666205, 13828, 35399197, 1483745, 301450, 472279, 46386571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 56 ], [ 71, 87 ], [ 111, 126 ], [ 128, 147 ], [ 155, 191 ], [ 411, 424 ], [ 539, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2012, same-sex civil partners of individual recipients of British honours are not themselves granted honours by way of their partnered relation. In July 2012, Conservative MP Oliver Colvile introduced a private member's bill, titled \"Honours (Equality of Titles for Partners) Bill\", to amend the honours system to both allow husbands of those made dames and for civil partners of recipients to receive honours by their relationship statuses.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Reform", "target_page_ids": [ 630822, 26471684, 208556, 2963809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 35 ], [ 181, 195 ], [ 209, 230 ], [ 354, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A scandal in the 1920s was the sale by Maundy Gregory of honours and peerages to raise political funds for David Lloyd George.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 3962152, 46836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 53 ], [ 107, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1976, the Harold Wilson era was mired by controversy over the 1976 Prime Minister's Resignation Honours, which became known as the \"Lavender List\".", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 52271, 15771925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 26 ], [ 65, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2006, The Sunday Times newspaper revealed that every donor who had given £1,000,000 or more to the Labour Party since 1997 was given a Knighthood or a Peerage (see Cash-for-Honours scandal). Moreover, the government had given honours to 12 of the 14 individuals who have donated more than £200,000 to Labour and of the 22 who donated more than £100,000, 17 received honours. An investigation by the Crown Prosecution Service did not lead to any charges being made.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 4409798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Times published an analysis of the recipients of honours in December 2015 which showed that 46% of those getting knighthoods and above in 2015 had been to fee-paying public schools. In 1955 it was 50%. Only 6.55% of the population attends such schools. 27% had been to Oxford or Cambridge universities (18% in 1955).", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 23913718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lack of racial diversity continues to attract criticism, with 89.6% of all award recipients identified as white, and only 3.2% of higher award winners (inc Knighthood and Damehoods) identifying as BAME in 2019. Although the trend has been positive, with an increase in ethnic minority recipients between 2014 and 2019 from 6.5% to 10.4%, there continues to be a significant gap in the ethnic diversity of the honours recipients versus corresponding census data at any point in recent years. At the same time, 87.1% of the United Kingdom is composed of white people, according to the 2011 census. This would suggest that the racial diversity of the honours reflects the racial diversity of the United Kingdom.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 21958604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 587, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " British nobility", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8436139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mentioned in dispatches", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 841947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Military awards and decorations of the United Kingdom", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27429936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Orders of precedence in the United Kingdom", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 232762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Orders and decorations of the Commonwealth realms", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 187172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Orders, decorations, and medals of Australia", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 363039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Orders, decorations, and medals of Canada", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2039988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Orders, decorations, and medals of New Zealand", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 340438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Orders, decorations, and medals of Hong Kong", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 498976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " De-la-Noy, Michael, The Honours System, London, 1992 (first published 1985)", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The UK Honours System", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " London Gazette website", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ede & Ravenscroft – Orders of Chivalry: Robemakers for the regalia of the various Orders of Chivalry (with photos)", "section_idx": 20, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_the_United_Kingdom", "British_honours_system" ]

[ "British honours system" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Electroporation, or electropermeabilization, is a microbiology technique in which an electrical field is applied to cells in order to increase the permeability of the cell membrane, allowing chemicals, drugs, electrode arrays or DNA to be introduced into the cell (also called electrotransfer). In microbiology, the process of electroporation is often used to transform bacteria, yeast, or plant protoplasts by introducing new coding DNA. If bacteria and plasmids are mixed together, the plasmids can be transferred into the bacteria after electroporation, though depending on what is being transferred, cell-penetrating peptides or CellSqueeze could also be used. Electroporation works by passing thousands of volts (~8 kV/cm) across suspended cells in an electroporation cuvette. Afterwards, the cells have to be handled carefully until they have had a chance to divide, producing new cells that contain reproduced plasmids. This process is approximately ten times more effective in increasing cell membrane's permeability than chemical transformation.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21393077, 41092, 33051527, 7955, 583438, 9028799, 34385, 19828134, 964229, 23974, 9470331, 53893297, 583438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 62 ], [ 85, 101 ], [ 167, 180 ], [ 229, 232 ], [ 360, 369 ], [ 370, 378 ], [ 380, 385 ], [ 390, 395 ], [ 396, 406 ], [ 455, 462 ], [ 604, 629 ], [ 633, 644 ], [ 1030, 1053 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electroporation is also highly efficient for the introduction of foreign genes into tissue culture cells, especially mammalian cells. For example, it is used in the process of producing knockout mice, as well as in tumor treatment, gene therapy, and cell-based therapy. The process of introducing foreign DNA into eukaryotic cells is known as transfection. Electroporation is highly effective for transfecting cells in suspension using electroporation cuvettes. Electroporation has proven efficient for use on tissues in vivo, for in utero applications as well as in ovo transfection. Adherent cells can also be transfected using electroporation, providing researchers with an alternative to trypsinizing their cells prior to transfection. One downside to electroporation, however, is that after the process the gene expression of over 7,000 genes can be affected. This can cause problems in studies where gene expression has to be controlled to ensure accurate and precise results.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4250553, 18838, 33708419, 619632, 619632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 77 ], [ 117, 123 ], [ 186, 199 ], [ 344, 356 ], [ 615, 626 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although bulk electroporation has many benefits over physical delivery methods such as microinjections and gene guns, it still has limitations, including low cell viability. Miniaturization of electroporation has been studied, leading to microelectroporation and nanotransfection of tissue utilizing electroporation-based techniques via nanochannels to minimally invasively deliver cargo to the cells.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4817599, 961961, 55008417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 101 ], [ 107, 115 ], [ 263, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electroporation has also been used as a mechanism to trigger cell fusion. Artificially induced cell fusion can be used to investigate and treat different diseases, like diabetes, regenerate axons of the central nerve system, and produce cells with desired properties, such as in cell vaccines for cancer immunotherapy. However, the first and most known application of cell fusion is production of monoclonal antibodies in hybridoma technology, where hybrid cell lines (hybridomas) are formed by fusing specific antibody-producing B lymphocytes with a myeloma (B lymphocyte cancer) cell line.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12240016, 1169523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 72 ], [ 422, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electroporation is performed with electroporators, purpose-built appliances that create an electrostatic field in a cell solution. The cell suspension is pipetted into a glass or plastic cuvette which has two aluminium electrodes on its sides. For bacterial electroporation, typically a suspension of around 50 microliters is used. Prior to electroporation, this suspension of bacteria is mixed with the plasmid to be transformed. The mixture is pipetted into the cuvette, the voltage and capacitance are set, and the cuvette is inserted into the electroporator. The process requires direct contact between the electrodes and the suspension. Immediately after electroporation, one milliliter of liquid medium is added to the bacteria (in the cuvette or in an Eppendorf tube), and the tube is incubated at the bacteria's optimal temperature for an hour or more to allow recovery of the cells and expression of the plasmid, followed by bacterial culture on agar plates.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Laboratory practice", "target_page_ids": [ 354618, 106235, 10008, 18094, 23974, 12285825, 3262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 150 ], [ 154, 161 ], [ 219, 228 ], [ 311, 322 ], [ 404, 411 ], [ 759, 773 ], [ 955, 959 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The success of the electroporation depends greatly on the purity of the plasmid solution, especially on its salt content. Solutions with high salt concentrations might cause an electrical discharge (known as arcing), which often reduces the viability of the bacteria. For a further detailed investigation of the process, more attention should be paid to the output impedance of the porator device and the input impedance of the cells suspension (e.g. salt content).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Laboratory practice", "target_page_ids": [ 1239265, 643070, 643036, 1605200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 211 ], [ 358, 374 ], [ 405, 420 ], [ 451, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the cell membrane is not able to pass current (except in ion channels), it acts as an electrical capacitor. Subjecting membranes to a high-voltage electric field results in their temporary breakdown, resulting in pores that are large enough to allow macromolecules (such as DNA) to enter or leave the cell.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Laboratory practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Additionally, electroporation can be used to increase permeability of cells during in Utero injections and surgeries. Particularly, the electroporation allows for a more efficient transfection of DNA, RNA, shRNA, and all nucleic acids into the cells of mice and rats. The success of in vivo electroporation depends greatly on voltage, repetition, pulses, and duration. Developing central nervous systems are most effective for in vivo electroporation due to the visibility of ventricles for injections of nucleic acids, as well as the increased permeability of dividing cells. Electroporation of injected in utero embryos is performed through the uterus wall, often with forceps-type electrodes to limit damage to the embryo.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Laboratory practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In vivo gene electrotransfer was first described in 1991 and today there are many preclinical studies of gene electrotransfer. The method is used to deliver large variety of therapeutic genes for potential treatment of several diseases, such as: disorders in immune system, tumors, metabolic disorders, monogenetic diseases, cardiovascular diseases, analgesia….", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "In vitro and animal studies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With regards to irreversible electroporation, the first successful treatment of malignant cutaneous tumors implanted in mice was completed in 2007 by a group of scientists who achieved complete tumor ablation in 12 out of 13 mice. They accomplished this by sending 80 pulses of 100 microseconds at 0.3Hz with an electrical field magnitude of 2500 V/cm to treat the cutaneous tumors. Currently, a number of companies, including AngioDynamics, Inc. and VoltMed, Inc., are continuing to develop and deploy irreversible electroporation-based technologies within clinical environments.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "In vitro and animal studies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first group to look at electroporation for medical applications was led by Lluis M Mir at the Institute Gustave Roussy. In this case, they looked at the use of reversible electroporation in conjunction with impermeable macromolecules. The first research looking at how nanosecond pulses might be used on human cells was conducted by researchers at Eastern Virginia Medical School and Old Dominion University, and published in 2003.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "In vitro and animal studies", "target_page_ids": [ 3973592, 308123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 353, 384 ], [ 389, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first medical application of electroporation was used for introducing poorly permeant anticancer drugs into tumor nodules. Soon also gene electrotransfer became of special interest because of its low cost, easiness of realization and safety. Namely, viral vectors can have serious limitations in terms of immunogenicity and pathogenicity when used for DNA transfer.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medical applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A higher voltage of electroporation was found in pigs to irreversibly destroy target cells within a narrow range while leaving neighboring cells unaffected, and thus represents a promising new treatment for cancer, heart disease and other disease states that require removal of tissue. Irreversible electroporation (IRE) has since proven effective in treating human cancer, with surgeons at Johns Hopkins and other institutions now using the technology to treat pancreatic cancer previously thought to be unresectable.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medical applications", "target_page_ids": [ 32549, 218873, 363559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 16 ], [ 391, 404 ], [ 462, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also first phase I clinical trial of gene electrotransfer in patients with metastatic melanoma was reported. Electroporation mediated delivery of a plasmid coding gene for interleukin-12 (pIL-12) was performed and safety, tolerability and therapeutic effect were monitored. Study concluded, that gene electrotransfer with pIL-12 is safe and well tolerated. In addition partial or complete response was observed also in distant non treated metastases, suggesting the systemic treatment effect. Based on these results they are already planning to move to Phase II clinical study. There are currently several ongoing clinical studies of gene electrotransfer, where safety, tolerability and effectiveness of immunization with DNA vaccine, which is administered by the electric pulses is monitored.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medical applications", "target_page_ids": [ 1941972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the method is not systemic, but strictly local one, it is still the most efficient non-viral strategy for gene delivery.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medical applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A recent technique called non-thermal irreversible electroporation (N-TIRE) has proven successful in treating many different types of tumors and other unwanted tissue. This procedure is done using small electrodes (about 1mm in diameter), placed either inside or surrounding the target tissue to apply short, repetitive bursts of electricity at a predetermined voltage and frequency. These bursts of electricity increase the resting transmembrane potential (TMP), so that nanopores form in the plasma membrane. When the electricity applied to the tissue is above the electric field threshold of the target tissue, the cells become permanently permeable from the formation of nanopores. As a result, the cells are unable to repair the damage and die due to a loss of homeostasis. N-TIRE is unique to other tumor ablation techniques in that it does not create thermal damage to the tissue around it.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medical applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Contrastingly, reversible electroporation occurs when the electricity applied with the electrodes is below the electric field threshold of the target tissue. Because the electricity applied is below the cells' threshold, it allows the cells to repair their phospholipid bilayer and continue on with their normal cell functions. Reversible electroporation is typically done with treatments that involve getting a drug or gene (or other molecule that is not normally permeable to the cell membrane) into the cell. Not all tissue has the same electric field threshold; therefore careful calculations need to be made prior to a treatment to ensure safety and efficacy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medical applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One major advantage of using N-TIRE is that, when done correctly according to careful calculations, it only affects the target tissue. Proteins, the extracellular matrix, and critical structures such as blood vessels and nerves are all unaffected and left healthy by this treatment. This allows for a quicker recovery, and facilitates a more rapid replacement of dead tumor cells with healthy cells.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medical applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Before doing the procedure, scientists must carefully calculate exactly what needs to be done and treat each patient on an individual case-by-case basis. To do this, imaging technology such as CT scans and MRI's are commonly used to create a 3D image of the tumor. From this information, they can approximate the volume of the tumor and decide on the best course of action including the insertion site of electrodes, the angle they are inserted in, the voltage needed, and more, using software technology. Often, a CT machine will be used to help with the placement of electrodes during the procedure, particularly when the electrodes are being used to treat tumors in the brain.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medical applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The entire procedure is very quick, typically taking about five minutes. The success rate of these procedures is high and is very promising for future treatment in humans. One disadvantage to using N-TIRE is that the electricity delivered from the electrodes can stimulate muscle cells to contract, which could have lethal consequences depending on the situation. Therefore, a paralytic agent must be used when performing the procedure. The paralytic agents that have been used in such research are successful; however, there is always some risk, albeit slight, when using anesthetics.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medical applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A more recent technique has been developed called high-frequency irreversible electroporation (H-FIRE). This technique uses electrodes to apply bipolar bursts of electricity at a high frequency, as opposed to unipolar bursts of electricity at a low frequency. This type of procedure has the same tumor ablation success as N-TIRE. However, it has one distinct advantage, H-FIRE does not cause muscle contraction in the patient and therefore there is no need for a paralytic agent. Furthermore, H-FIRE has been demonstrated to produce more predictable ablations due to the lesser difference in the electrical properties of tissues at higher frequencies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medical applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Electroporation can also be used to help deliver drugs or genes into the cell by applying short and intense electric pulses that transiently permeabilize cell membrane, thus allowing transport of molecules otherwise not transported through a cellular membrane. This procedure is referred to as electrochemotherapy when the molecules to be transported are chemotherapeutic agents or gene electrotransfer when the molecule to be transported is DNA. Scientists from Karolinska Institutet and the University of Oxford use electroporation of exosomes to deliver siRNAs, antisense oligonucleotides, chemotherapeutic agents and proteins specifically to neurons after inject them systemically (in blood). Because these exosomes are able to cross the blood brain barrier, this protocol could solve the problem of poor delivery of medications to the central nervous system, and potentially treat Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and brain cancer, among other conditions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medical applications", "target_page_ids": [ 15081764, 39619, 216908, 31797, 9577500, 84936, 18914017, 22228064, 37284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 294, 313 ], [ 382, 402 ], [ 463, 484 ], [ 493, 513 ], [ 537, 545 ], [ 742, 761 ], [ 886, 905 ], [ 907, 926 ], [ 932, 944 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bacterial transformation is generally the easiest way to make large amounts of a particular protein needed for biotechnology purposes or in medicine. Since gene electrotransfer is very simple, rapid and highly effective technique it first became very convenient replacement for other transformation procedures.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medical applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recent research has shown that shock waves could be used for pre-treating the cell membrane prior to electroporation. This synergistic strategy has shown to reduce external voltage requirement and create larger pores. Also application of shock waves allow scope to target desired membrane site. This procedure allows to control the size of the pore.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Medical applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Electroporation allows cellular introduction of large highly charged molecules such as DNA which would never passively diffuse across the hydrophobic bilayer core. This phenomenon indicates that the mechanism is the creation of nm-scale water-filled holes in the membrane. Electropores were optically imaged in lipid bilayer models like droplet interface bilayers and giant unilamellar vesicles, while addition of cytoskeletal proteins such as actin networks to the giant unilamellar vesicles seem to prevent the formation of visible electropores. Experimental evidences for actin networks in regulating the cell membrane permeability has also emerged. Although electroporation and dielectric breakdown both result from application of an electric field, the mechanisms involved are fundamentally different. In dielectric breakdown the barrier material is ionized, creating a conductive pathway. The material alteration is thus chemical in nature. In contrast, during electroporation the lipid molecules are not chemically altered but simply shift position, opening up a pore which acts as the conductive pathway through the bilayer as it is filled with water.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physical mechanism", "target_page_ids": [ 7955, 158011, 853826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 90 ], [ 150, 157 ], [ 682, 702 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electroporation is a dynamic phenomenon that depends on the local transmembrane voltage at each point on the cell membrane. It is generally accepted that for a given pulse duration and shape, a specific transmembrane voltage threshold exists for the manifestation of the electroporation phenomenon (from 0.5V to 1V). This leads to the definition of an electric field magnitude threshold for electroporation (Eth). That is, only the cells within areas where E≧Eth are electroporated. If a second threshold (Eir) is reached or surpassed, electroporation will compromise the viability of the cells, i.e., irreversible electroporation (IRE).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physical mechanism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Electroporation is a multi-step process with several distinct phases. First, a short electrical pulse must be applied. Typical parameters would be 300–400mV for 1ms across the membrane (note- the voltages used in cell experiments are typically much larger because they are being applied across large distances to the bulk solution so the resulting field across the actual membrane is only a small fraction of the applied bias). Upon application of this potential the membrane charges like a capacitor through the migration of ions from the surrounding solution. Once the critical field is achieved there is a rapid localized rearrangement in lipid morphology. The resulting structure is believed to be a \"pre-pore\" since it is not electrically conductive but leads rapidly to the creation of a conductive pore. Evidence for the existence of such pre-pores comes mostly from the \"flickering\" of pores, which suggests a transition between conductive and insulating states. It has been suggested that these pre-pores are small (~3Å) hydrophobic defects. If this theory is correct, then the transition to a conductive state could be explained by a rearrangement at the pore edge, in which the lipid heads fold over to create a hydrophilic interface. Finally, these conductive pores can either heal, resealing the bilayer or expand, eventually rupturing it. The resultant fate depends on whether the critical defect size was exceeded which in turn depends on the applied field, local mechanical stress and bilayer edge energy.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physical mechanism", "target_page_ids": [ 4932111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 491, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Application of electric pulses of sufficient strength to the cell causes an increase in the trans-membrane potential difference, which provokes the membrane destabilization. Cell membrane permeability is increased and otherwise nonpermeant molecules enter the cell.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physical mechanism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although the mechanisms of gene electrotransfer are not yet fully understood, it was shown that the introduction of DNA only occurs in the part of the membrane facing the cathode and that several steps are needed for successful transfection: electrophoretic migration of DNA towards the cell, DNA insertion into the membrane, translocation across the membrane, migration of DNA towards the nucleus, transfer of DNA across the nuclear envelope and finally gene expression. There are a number of factors that can influence the efficiency of gene electrotransfer, such as: temperature, parameters of electric pulses, DNA concentration, electroporation buffer used, cell size and the ability of cells to express transfected genes. In in vivo gene electrotransfer, DNA diffusion through extracellular matrix, properties of tissue and overall tissue conductivity are also crucial.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physical mechanism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1960s it was known that by applying an external electric field, a large membrane potential at the two pole of a cell can be created. In the 1970s it was discovered that when a membrane potential reached a critical level, the membrane would break down and that it could recover. By the 1980s, this opening was being used to introduce various materials/molecules into the cells.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Biotechnology", "Microbiology", "Molecular_biology", "Gene_delivery", "Laboratory_techniques" ]

[ "electropermeabilization" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Frederick James Prinze (born Frederick Karl Pruetzel; June 22, 1954 – January 29, 1977) was an American stand-up comedian and actor. Prinze was the star of the NBC-TV sitcom Chico and the Man from 1974 until his suicide in 1977. Prinze was the father of actor Freddie Prinze Jr.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21780, 68305, 458428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 163 ], [ 174, 191 ], [ 260, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prinze was born Frederick Karl Pruetzel (German spelling: Prützel) at Saint Clare's Hospital in Manhattan, New York City, the son of Edward Karl Pruetzel and Maria de Gracia Pruetzel (née Graniela y Ramirez). His mother was a Puerto Rican Catholic and his father was a German Lutheran immigrant who had arrived in the U.S. as a youth in 1934. Prinze was raised in a mixed neighborhood in Washington Heights, New York City. When Prinze was a small child, his mother enrolled him in ballet classes to deal with a weight problem. Without telling his parents, Prinze successfully auditioned for the LaGuardia High School of Performing Arts, where he was introduced to drama and continued ballet — and where he discovered his gift for comedy while entertaining crowds in the boys' restroom. He dropped out of school in his senior year to become a stand-up comedian.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 38091545, 45470, 606848, 23371382, 182694, 49733, 205098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 92 ], [ 96, 105 ], [ 239, 247 ], [ 276, 284 ], [ 388, 406 ], [ 481, 487 ], [ 595, 635 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prinze worked at several comedy clubs in New York City, including The Improv and Catch a Rising Star, where he introduced himself to audiences as a \"Hunga-rican\" (part Hungarian, part Puerto Rican). Although his mother was in fact Puerto Rican, his father was a German immigrant with no Hungarian ancestry. Prinze's son, Freddie Prinze Jr., has stated that his father was half German/half Puerto Rican many times. This is also verified by census records as well as Prützel/Pruetzel family accounts. For the sake of his budding comedic career, he legally changed his surname to \"Prinze\". He chose this name because, according to his friend David Brenner, Prinze originally wanted to be known as the king of comedy, but since Alan King already had that last name and sobriquet, he would be the prince of comedy instead. During 1973, Prinze made his first television appearance on one of the last episodes of Jack Paar Tonite. In December 1973, his biggest break came with an appearance on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. Prinze was the first young comedian to be asked to have a sit-down chat with Carson on his first appearance. Prinze appeared on and guest-hosted The Tonight Show on several other occasions. He also appeared on The Midnight Special to perform his comic routine.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 103075, 923391, 1328883, 2423093, 619437, 977396, 270737, 2805979, 2568317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ], [ 66, 76 ], [ 81, 100 ], [ 639, 652 ], [ 724, 733 ], [ 765, 774 ], [ 906, 915 ], [ 987, 1026 ], [ 1238, 1258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From September 1974 until his death in January 1977, Prinze starred as Francisco \"Chico\" Rodriguez in the NBC TV series Chico and the Man with Jack Albertson. The show was an instant hit. Prinze made several appearances on The Dean Martin Celebrity Roasts, most notably the roasts for Sammy Davis Jr. and Muhammad Ali. In 1975, he released a comedy album that was taped live at Mister Kelly's in Chicago titled Looking Good—his catch phrase from Chico and the Man. In 1976, he starred in a made-for-TV movie, The Million Dollar Rip-Off. Prinze had a little-known talent for singing, examples of which could be heard in the background of the title song of the Tony Orlando and Dawn album To Be With You, in his appearances on their variety show, and on rare occasions on his own sitcom. About four months before his death, Prinze had signed a five-year deal with NBC worth $6 million.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 21780, 68305, 68308, 32122222, 194551, 63747, 18601671, 52406609, 758638, 20913980, 21780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 109 ], [ 120, 137 ], [ 143, 157 ], [ 223, 254 ], [ 285, 300 ], [ 305, 317 ], [ 378, 392 ], [ 509, 535 ], [ 659, 680 ], [ 778, 784 ], [ 862, 865 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On October 13, 1975, Prinze married Katherine (Kathy) Elaine (Barber) Cochran, with whom he had one child, son Freddie Prinze Jr., who was born March 8, 1976. Prinze was arrested for driving under the influence of Quaaludes on November 16, 1976. A few weeks later his wife filed for divorce. Prinze had been romantically linked to actress Pam Grier after they met in 1973. Grier recalls their relationship in chapter nineteen of her memoir, My Life in Three Acts. After his break-up with Grier, Prinze dated actress Lonette McKee for a time during 1976. Prinze was very close friends with singer Tony Orlando; Orlando appeared on Chico and the Man, and Prinze appeared on Orlando's variety show. As he started to make more money, Prinze took martial arts lessons from Robert Wall, a student of Bruce Lee, who appeared in Enter the Dragon and Return of the Dragon. Soon after, Wall became godfather to Prinze's newborn son.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 458428, 511428, 159594, 1046324, 2022024, 850631, 19501, 2962370, 37313, 10193, 1047835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 129 ], [ 183, 210 ], [ 214, 223 ], [ 339, 348 ], [ 516, 529 ], [ 596, 608 ], [ 742, 754 ], [ 768, 779 ], [ 794, 803 ], [ 821, 837 ], [ 842, 862 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prinze suffered from depression, which deepened in the weeks after his wife filed for divorce. On the night of January 28, 1977, after talking on the telephone with his estranged wife, Prinze received a visit from his business manager, Marvin \"Dusty\" Snyder. While Snyder was visiting him, Prinze put a gun to his head and shot himself. He had purchased this gun in the presence of Jimmie \"JJ\" Walker and Alan Bursky, although it was long rumored that Bursky gave him the gun. Prinze was rushed to the UCLA Medical Center and placed on life support following emergency surgery. His family removed him from life support, and he died at 1 p.m. on January 29.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 960928, 27169389, 261763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 382, 400 ], [ 502, 521 ], [ 536, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prinze had a history of playing Russian roulette to frighten his friends for his amusement, though he made farewell phone calls to numerous family members and friends on the night of his death and left a note stating that he had decided to take his life. In 1977, the death was ruled a suicide. However, in a 1983 civil case brought by his mother, wife and son against Crown Life Insurance Company, the jury found that his death was medication-induced and accidental, which enabled the family to collect $200,000 in life insurance. This followed a $1,000,000 out-of-court settlement with his psychiatrist and doctor to end their malpractice suit for allowing him access to a gun and over-prescribing him Quaaludes (as a tranquilizer).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 37072, 159594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 48 ], [ 704, 712 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prinze is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in the Hollywood Hills of Los Angeles, near his father, Edward Karl Pruetzel. His son, Freddie Prinze Jr., who was less than one year old when his father died, did not speak publicly about his father's death until he discussed it in the documentary Misery Loves Comedy (2015), directed by Kevin Pollak.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 180420, 871371, 458428, 524332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 47 ], [ 55, 70 ], [ 135, 153 ], [ 337, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prinze's mother wrote a book about her son, The Freddie Prinze Story (1978).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Can You Hear the Laughter? The Story of Freddie Prinze (September 1979) is a TV biopic.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 58117115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prinze's life and death were a focal point of one of the storylines in the movie Fame (1980), set in Prinze's alma mater, the LaGuardia High School of Performing Arts.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 639629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prinze received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on December 14, 2004, honoring his contribution to the television industry. Actor and comedian George Lopez has acknowledged that he paid for Prinze's star.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 105776, 620458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 53 ], [ 149, 161 ] ] } ]

[ "1954_births", "1977_deaths", "American_people_of_Puerto_Rican_descent", "American_stand-up_comedians", "American_male_television_actors", "Hispanic_and_Latino_American_male_actors", "American_people_of_German_descent", "People_from_Washington_Heights,_Manhattan", "Male_actors_from_New_York_City", "Burials_at_Forest_Lawn_Memorial_Park_(Hollywood_Hills)", "20th-century_American_male_actors", "Fiorello_H._LaGuardia_High_School_alumni", "20th-century_American_comedians", "American_male_comedians", "Comedians_from_New_York_City", "Suicides_by_firearm_in_New_York_City" ]

[ "Freddie Prinze, Sr.", "Freddie James Prinze", "Frederick James Prinze" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Shiraz (; ) is the fifth-most-populous city of Iran and the capital of its Fars Province, which has been historically known as Pars () and Persis. As of the 2016 national census, the population of the city was 1,565,572 people, and its built-up area with Sadra was home to almost 1,800,000 inhabitants. A census in 2021 showed an increase in the city's population to 1,995,500 people. The city is located in southwestern Iran on the () seasonal river. It has a moderate climate and has been a regional trade center for over a thousand years. Shiraz is one of the oldest cities of ancient Iran.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17288411, 14653, 448049, 49924135, 862986, 47161320, 36042664, 64213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 44 ], [ 48, 52 ], [ 76, 89 ], [ 128, 132 ], [ 140, 146 ], [ 256, 261 ], [ 409, 426 ], [ 582, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest reference to the city, as Tiraziš, is on Elamite clay tablets dated to 2000 BCE. The modern city was restored or founded by the Arab Umayyad Caliphate in 693 CE and grew prominent under the successive Iranian Saffarid and Buyid dynasties in the 9th and 10th–11th centuries, respectively. In the 13th century, Shiraz became a leading center of the arts and letters, due to the encouragement of its ruler and the presence of many Persian scholars and artists. It was the capital of Iran during the Zand dynasty from 1750 until 1800. Two famous poets of Iran, Hafez and Saadi, are from Shiraz, whose tombs are located on the north side of the current city boundaries.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 206481, 2185, 49855, 19180442, 505013, 577287, 24607, 1036235, 204260, 7270459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 58 ], [ 141, 145 ], [ 146, 163 ], [ 214, 221 ], [ 222, 230 ], [ 235, 240 ], [ 441, 448 ], [ 509, 521 ], [ 570, 575 ], [ 580, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shiraz is known as the city of poets, literature, and flowers. It is also considered by many Iranians to be the city of gardens due to the presence of many gardens and fruit trees that can be seen throughout the city, such as Eram Garden. Shiraz has historically had major Jewish and Christian communities. The crafts of Shiraz consist of inlaid mosaic work of triangular design; silverware; pile carpet-weaving and weaving of kilim, called and in the villages and among the tribes. Dominant industries in the city include the production of cement, sugar, fertilizers, textile products, wood products, metalwork, and rugs. Shiraz also has a major oil refinery and is a major centre for Iran's electronic industries: 53 percent of Iran's electronic investment has been centred in Shiraz. The city is home to Iran's first solar powerplant. Recently, Shiraz's first wind turbine has been installed above Mount Babakuhi near the city.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 462477, 462477, 5662398, 7773244, 400285, 61309, 12556890, 1094884, 881388, 28205267, 55218819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 36 ], [ 38, 48 ], [ 226, 237 ], [ 273, 279 ], [ 284, 293 ], [ 346, 352 ], [ 392, 403 ], [ 427, 432 ], [ 619, 623 ], [ 643, 661 ], [ 903, 917 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest reference to the city is on Elamite clay tablets dated to 2000 BCE, found in June 1970, while digging to make a kiln for a brick factory in the south western corner of the city. The tablets written in ancient Elamite name a city called Tiraziš. Phonetically, this is interpreted as /tiračis/ or /ćiračis/. This name became Old Persian /širājiš/; through regular sound change comes the modern Persian name Shirāz. The name Shiraz also appears on clay sealings found at a 2nd-century CE Sassanid ruin, east of the city. By some of the native writers, the name Shiraz has derived from a son of Tahmuras, the third Shāh (King) of the world according to Ferdowsi's Shāhnāma.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 206481, 496416, 5876413, 5194377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 45 ], [ 222, 229 ], [ 498, 506 ], [ 604, 612 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though, there is no definitive record of its existence prior to the late 7th century CE, few archaeological finds dating from 1933 and beyond indicate that the site or vicinity of Shiraz was likely settled in the pre-Islamic era as early as the 6th century BCE. A number of Sasanian-era remains have been discovered around the city, including reliefs at Barm-e Delak to the east and Guyim to the northwest, and ruins of Sasanian fortresses at Qasr-e Abu Nasr to the east and Fahandezh. The latter is identified with the fortress of Shahmobad mentioned as being in Shiraz by the 10th-century geographical work, Hudud al-'alam. The names \"Tirrazish\" and \"Shirrazish\" were found on Elamite tablets in Persepolis, while Sasanian and early Islamic-era clay seals found at Qasr-e-Abu Nasr mention the name \"Shiraz\" alongside the name of the Sasanian administrative district of the area, Ardashir-Khwarrah. According to the diplomat and academic John Limbert, this indicates that the name \"Shiraz\" is traced back to the Elamite \"Shirrazish\" and that both refer to a settlement that existed at the site of Qasr-e-Abu Nasr. This settlement prospered between the 6th and 8th-centuries CE and was possibly the administrative center for the Shiraz plain until the modern city of Shiraz was founded. Nonetheless, the lack of references to Shiraz in early Persian sources suggests the city could not have been more than a way-station in the plain in which it lays.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5876413, 40243336, 41874208, 43433660, 2007549, 206481, 92016, 6488746, 5501696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 274, 282 ], [ 354, 366 ], [ 383, 388 ], [ 443, 458 ], [ 610, 624 ], [ 679, 683 ], [ 698, 708 ], [ 881, 898 ], [ 939, 951 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The present city of Shiraz was founded or restored in 693 by Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi, the brother of the Umayyad viceroy of the eastern half of the caliphate, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, or the latter's kinsman Muhammad ibn Qasim. The Arab Muslim army had conquered the wider region of Fars, where the site of Shiraz is located, in several expeditions launched from their garrison town of Basra between 640 and 653, and specifically captured the immediate area around Shiraz early on, in 641. This area did not possess any cities, though there were a number of forts which were forced to pay tribute to the Arabs. The Sasanians held firm in Istakhr, their capital in Fars, until the Arabs captured it in a heavy battle in 653, during which the plain of Shiraz had been utilized as an Arab campground. Because of Istakhr's deep association with the Sasanian Empire and the Zoroastrian religion, the Arabs sought to establish in nearby Shiraz a rival cultural and administrative center. Thus, during its initial founding in 693, the city was planned to be much larger than Isfahan. However, the initial ambitions were not realized and Shiraz remained a \"provincial backwater\" in the shadow of Istakhr until at least the late 9th century, according to Limbert. This is partly attributed to the reticence of the largely Zoroastrian population of Fars to inhabit the Islamic Arab city. As the population gradually shifted to Islam from Zoroastrianism and Istakhr concurrently declined, Shiraz grew into the practical center of Fars.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 51368391, 49855, 804036, 433740, 433738, 448049, 57580, 3152491, 34533, 2185, 223149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 90 ], [ 111, 118 ], [ 154, 163 ], [ 165, 184 ], [ 210, 228 ], [ 285, 289 ], [ 388, 393 ], [ 640, 647 ], [ 871, 882 ], [ 897, 902 ], [ 1070, 1077 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Muslim traditional sources, Shiraz was used as a hideout by three of the brothers of the Shia Muslim imam Ali al-Ridha following the latter's death in 817/18 and later by one of the brothers' sons, Ali ibn Hamza ibn Musa, until he was found and executed by the Abbasid authorities in circa 835. As Abbasid authority waned during this period, regional dynasties emerged with considerable autonomy. In the late 9th century, the Iranian Muslim Saffarid dynasty under Ya'qub ibn al-Layth made Shiraz the capital of their autonomous state, which encompassed most of modern-day Iran. In 894, Ya'qub's brother and successor, Amr, founded the city's first congregational mosque, today known as the Atigh Jame' Mosque.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26961, 430172, 49856, 505013, 1884936, 6000325, 3569823, 12968050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 113 ], [ 119, 131 ], [ 274, 281 ], [ 454, 470 ], [ 477, 496 ], [ 631, 634 ], [ 661, 682 ], [ 703, 721 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Iranian Buyid dynasty under Imad al-Dawla Ali ibn Buya ousted the Saffarids in 933 and his nephew and successor, 'Adud al-Dawla Fana Khusraw, took over and ruled Fars between 949 and 983, and added Iraq, the seat of the Abbasid Caliphate, to his Shiraz-based domains in 977; the Abbasids thenceforth became a puppet state of the Shiraz-based dynasty. Shiraz developed into the largest and most prosperous city of Fars and an important economic and cultural center of the caliphate. Adud al-Dawla had a large library, a hospital and several mosques, bazaars, caravanserais, palaces and gardens built in the city, while south of it he erected a fortified camp for his troops, known as Kard Fana Khusraw, in 974. One of the congregational mosques built by Adud al-Dawla has survived until the present day. Two Zoroastrian fire temples also existed in Shiraz, catering to the Persians who had not converted to Islam. One of Adud al-Dawla's palaces stretched out for nearly three miles and consisted of 360 rooms.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 577287, 2874059, 3582672, 556904, 562136, 1801361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 25 ], [ 32, 58 ], [ 117, 144 ], [ 553, 559 ], [ 562, 574 ], [ 823, 834 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under the Buyids, Shiraz was divided into twelve quarters and had eight gates. It owed its economic prosperity to the booming agricultural trade of Fars. The city largely consumed the agricultural products of the province, including grapes, linen, wool, cotton, collyrium, rose, violet and palm-blossom water. It was also a market for rug weavers and painters to sell their pricey products, a testament to the residents' wealth. At the time, wine, grains, gold and silver were exported from the Farsi port cities of Siraf and Najairam. Adud al-Dawla patronized scientific, medical and Islamic religious research in Shiraz.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5527171, 8388522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 262, 271 ], [ 516, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city was spared destruction by the invading Mongols, when its local ruler offered tributes and submission to Genghis Khan. Shiraz was again spared by Tamerlane, when in 1382 the local monarch, Shah Shoja agreed to submit to the invader. In the 13th century, Shiraz became a leading center of the arts and letters, thanks to the encouragement of its ruler and the presence of many Persian scholars and artists. For this reason the city was named by classical geographers Dar al-'Elm, the House of Knowledge. Among the Iranian poets, mystics and philosophers born in Shiraz were the poets Sa'di and Hafiz, the mystic Ruzbehan, and the philosopher Mulla Sadra. Thus Shiraz has been nicknamed \"The Athens of Iran\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 240146, 17414699, 25439083, 7270459, 204260, 3176836, 1425360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 55 ], [ 113, 125 ], [ 154, 163 ], [ 591, 596 ], [ 601, 606 ], [ 619, 627 ], [ 649, 660 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As early as the 11th century, several hundred thousand people inhabited Shiraz. In the 14th century Shiraz had sixty thousand inhabitants. During the 16th century it had a population of 200,000 people, which by the mid-18th century had decreased to only 55,000.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1504, Shiraz was captured by the forces of Ismail I, the founder of the Safavid dynasty. Throughout the Safavid empire (1501–1722) Shiraz remained a provincial capital and Emam Qoli Khan, the governor of Fars under Shah Abbas I, constructed many palaces and ornate buildings in the same style as those built during the same period in Isfahan, the capital of the Empire. After the fall of the Safavids, Shiraz suffered a period of decline, worsened by the raids of the Afghans and the rebellion of its governor against Nader Shah; the latter sent troops to suppress the revolt. The city was besieged for many months and eventually sacked. At the time of Nader Shah's murder in 1747, most of the historical buildings of the city were damaged or ruined, and its population fell to 50,000, one-quarter of that during the 16th century.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 544668, 181786, 38455500, 9447384, 299824, 223149, 36973, 23386500, 23386500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 54 ], [ 75, 90 ], [ 107, 121 ], [ 175, 189 ], [ 218, 230 ], [ 337, 344 ], [ 471, 478 ], [ 521, 531 ], [ 656, 666 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shiraz soon returned to prosperity under the rule of Karim Khan Zand, who made it his capital in 1762. Employing more than 12,000 workers, he constructed a royal district with a fortress, many administrative buildings, a mosque, and one of the finest covered bazaars in Iran. He had a moat built around the city, constructed an irrigation and drainage system, and rebuilt the city walls. However, Karim Khan's heirs failed to secure his gains. When Agha Mohammad Khan, the founder of the Qajar dynasty, eventually came to power, he wreaked his revenge on Shiraz by destroying the city's fortifications and moving the national capital to Tehran. Although lowered to the rank of a provincial capital, Shiraz maintained a level of prosperity as a result of the continuing importance of the trade route to the Persian Gulf. Its governorship was a royal prerogative throughout the Qajar dynasty. Many of the famous gardens, buildings and residences built during this time contribute to the city's present skyline.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1004460, 701191, 609535, 57654, 609535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 68 ], [ 449, 467 ], [ 488, 501 ], [ 637, 643 ], [ 876, 889 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shiraz is the birthplace of the co-founder of the Baháʼí Faith, the Báb (Siyyid 'Ali-Muhammad, 1819–1850). In this city, on the evening of 22 May 1844, he first declared his mission as the bearer of a new divine revelation. For this reason Shiraz is a holy city for Baháʼís, and the city, particularly the house of the Báb, was identified as a place of pilgrimage. Due to the hostile climate towards Baháʼís in Iran, the house has been the target of repeated attacks; the house was destroyed in 1979, to be paved over two years later and made into a public square.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4251, 28361417, 3454821, 3384707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 62 ], [ 68, 71 ], [ 353, 363 ], [ 376, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1910, a pogrom of the Jewish quarter started after false rumours that the Jews had ritually murdered a Muslim girl. In the course of the riots, 12 Jews were murdered and about 50 were injured, and the 6,000 Jews of Shiraz were robbed of all their possessions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 140704, 7904645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 54, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Pahlavi dynasty, Shiraz became the center of attention again. Many important landmarks like Tombs of Poets' such as Sa'di and Hafiz, were constructed and presented to the public.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 338883, 7270459, 204260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ], [ 127, 132 ], [ 137, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lacking any great industrial, religious or strategic importance, Shiraz became an administrative center, although its population has nevertheless grown considerably since the 1979 revolution.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The city's municipality and other related institutions have initiated restoration and reconstruction projects.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some of the most recent projects have been the complete restoration of the Arg of Karim Khan and of the Vakil Bath, as well as a comprehensive plan for the preservation of the old city quarters. Other noteworthy initiatives include the total renovation of the Qur'an Gate and the mausoleum of the poet Khwaju Kermani, both located in the Allah-u-Akbar Gorge, as well as the restoration and expansion of the mausoleum of the famous Shiraz-born poets Hafiz and Saadi.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5662293, 7093219, 3177811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 92 ], [ 260, 271 ], [ 302, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several different construction projects are currently underway that will modernize the city's infrastructure.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After the Iranian Revolution, Shiraz was re-established as the capital of Iranian Art and Culture among the people. Shiraz is known as the capital of Persian Art, Culture and Literature. However, the current government has tried to re-brand the city as \"Sevomin haram-e ahle beit\" meaning \"Third home of Saints\" referring to the Shahcheragh shrine and some other holy places in the city.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 347268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shiraz is located in the south of Iran and the northwest of Kerman Province. It is built in a green plain at the foot of the Zagros Mountains above sea level. Shiraz is south of Tehran.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 14653, 448069, 499291, 10397282, 57654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 38 ], [ 60, 75 ], [ 125, 141 ], [ 143, 158 ], [ 180, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A seasonal river, Dry River, flows through the northern part of the city and on into Maharloo Lake. As of 1920, the area had a large forest of oak trees.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 12972997, 39696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 98 ], [ 143, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shiraz contains a considerable number of gardens. Due to population growth in the city, many of these gardens may be lost to give way to new developments. Although some measures have been taken by the Municipality to preserve these gardens, many illegal developments still endanger them.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Shiraz's climate has distinct seasons, and is overall classed as a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSk), though it is only a little short of a hot semi-arid climate (BSh) or a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa). Summers are hot, with a July average high of . Winters are cool, with average low temperatures below freezing in December and January. Around of rain falls each year, almost entirely in the winter months, though in some cases as much as this has fallen in a single month (as in January 1965 and December 2004), whilst in the year from July 1965 to June 1966 as little as fell. The wettest year has been 1955/1956 with as much as , though since 1959 the highest has been around in each of 1995/1996 and 2004/2005. Due to Shiraz' high elevation and low latitude, the UV index is extremely high during summer which is further exacerbated by the high frequency of sunshine.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Climate", "target_page_ids": [ 569881, 484254, 349628, 484254, 29392, 34061, 1871740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 89 ], [ 91, 120 ], [ 198, 230 ], [ 232, 261 ], [ 268, 274 ], [ 315, 321 ], [ 836, 844 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite being in a relatively dry climate, extreme weather is not a rare occasion. On 25 March 2019, flash floods from heavy rains has resulted in 19 deaths and over 200 injuries.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Climate", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The highest record temperature was on 3 July 2022 and the lowest record temperature was on 5 January 1973.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Climate", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Shiraz is the economic center of southern Iran. The second half of the 19th century witnessed certain economic developments that greatly changed the economy of Shiraz. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 allowed the extensive import into southern Iran of inexpensive European factory-made goods, either directly from Europe or via India. Farmers in unprecedented numbers began planting cash crops such as opium poppy, tobacco, and cotton. Many of these export crops passed through Shiraz on their way to the Persian Gulf. Iranian long-distance merchants from Fars developed marketing networks for these commodities, establishing trading houses in Bombay, Calcutta, Port Said, Istanbul and even Hong Kong.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Shiraz's economic base is in its provincial products, which include grapes, citrus fruits, cotton and rice. Industries such as cement production, sugar, fertilizers, textile products, wood products, metalwork and rugs dominate. Shirāz also has a major oil refinery and is also a major center for Iran's electronic industries. 53% of Iran's electronic investment has been centered in Shiraz.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Agriculture has always been a major part of the economy in and around Shiraz. This is partially due to a relative abundance of water compared to the surrounding deserts. Shirāz is famous for its carpet production and flowers as well. Viticulture has a long history in the region, and Shirazi wine used to be produced here. Shiraz is also an Iranian center for IT, communication, electronic industry, and transportation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 513591, 89358, 36674345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 234, 245 ], [ 284, 296 ], [ 360, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Shiraz Special Economic Zone or the SEEZ was established in 2000 with the purpose of boosting manufacturing in electronics and communications.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Shiraz is a major shopping destination in Iran and the Middle East, with more than 25 malls and 10 bazaars.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 14653, 19323, 556904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 46 ], [ 55, 66 ], [ 99, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Persian Gulf Complex, located at the north end of the city, is the largest mall in the world in terms of the number of shops.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 32203980, 235723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ], [ 71, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Vakil Bazaar, one of the oldest bazaars in the world, is located in the old city centre of Shiraz. Featuring courtyards, caravansarais, and bath houses, its shops sell different types of spices, Persian rugs, copper handicrafts and antiques.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 7743331, 556904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 36, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", Shiraz has a population of 1,700,665 the majority of whom are Persian. Most of the population of Shiraz are Muslims. Shiraz also was home to a 20,000-strong Jewish community, although most emigrated to the United States and Israel in the latter half of the 20th century. Along with Tehran and Isfahan, Shiraz is one of the handful of Iranian cities with a sizable Jewish population and more than one active synagogue.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Demography", "target_page_ids": [ 1694940, 9282173, 57654, 223149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 175 ], [ 226, 232 ], [ 284, 290 ], [ 295, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shiraz also has a significant Baháʼí Faith population, the largest in the country after Tehran.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Demography", "target_page_ids": [ 4251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are currently two functioning churches in Shiraz, one Armenian, the other, Anglican.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Demography", "target_page_ids": [ 229447, 1214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 68 ], [ 81, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shiraz is known as the city of poets, gardens, wine, nightingales and flowers. The crafts of Shiraz consist of inlaid mosaic work of triangular design; silver-ware; carpet-weaving, and the making of the rugs called gilim (Shiraz Kilim) and \"jajim\" in the villages and among the tribes.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 77288, 1094884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 64 ], [ 215, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The garden is an important part of Iranian culture. There are many old gardens in Shiraz such as the Eram garden and the Afif abad garden. According to some people, Shiraz \"disputes with Xeres [or Jerez] in Spain the honour of being the birthplace of sherry.\" Shirazi wine originates from the city; however, under the current Islamic regime, liquor cannot be consumed except by religious minorities.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 5662398, 386244, 160246, 89358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 112 ], [ 187, 192 ], [ 251, 257 ], [ 260, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shiraz is proud of being mother land of Hafiz Shirazi, Shiraz is a center for Iranian culture and has produced a number of famous poets. Saadi, a 12th- and 13th-century poet was born in Shiraz. He left his native town at a young age for Baghdad to study Arabic literature and Islamic sciences at Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad. When he reappeared in his native Shiraz he was an elderly man. Shiraz, under Atabak Abubakr Sa'd ibn Zangy (1231–1260) was enjoying an era of relative tranquility. Saadi was not only welcomed to the city but he was highly respected by the ruler and enumerated among the greats of the province. He seems to have spent the rest of his life in Shiraz. Hafiz, another famous poet and mystic was also born in Shiraz. A number of scientists also originate from Shiraz. Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, a 13th-century astronomer, mathematician, physician, physicist and scientist was from Shiraz. In his The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens, he also discussed the possibility of heliocentrism.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 204260, 7270459, 4492, 462469, 267542, 9053650, 2014775, 244588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 53 ], [ 137, 142 ], [ 237, 244 ], [ 254, 271 ], [ 276, 292 ], [ 296, 319 ], [ 784, 806 ], [ 1011, 1024 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city is one of the key tourism sites in Iran, its cultural heritage is of global importance. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The tombs of Hafiz, Saadi, and Khaju e Kermani (whose tomb is inside a mountain above the city's old Qur'an Gate). Other lesser known tombs are that of Shah Shoja' (the Mozafarid emir of Persia, and patron of Hafiz), and the Haft Tanan mausoleum, where seven Sufi mystics are buried. The Tomb of Baba Kuhi sits atop a mountain overlooking the city, and the tomb of Karim Khan Zand is at the Pars Museum of Shiraz.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 22575191, 7270459, 3177811, 7093219, 63653125, 1755093, 28246, 55218819, 1004460, 14930848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 19 ], [ 21, 26 ], [ 32, 47 ], [ 102, 113 ], [ 153, 163 ], [ 170, 179 ], [ 260, 264 ], [ 297, 306 ], [ 366, 376 ], [ 392, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The oldest mosque is Atigh Jame' Mosque, which is one of the older mosques of Iran, followed by Vakil Mosque and Nasir al-Mulk mosque. The Vakil Mosque is situated west of the famous Vakil Bazaar. It covers an area of and was built in 1187 (AH) during the Zand Dynasty. On the two sides of the entrance gate there are magnificent tile-works and arches. The left and right corridors of the entrance gate are connected to the main room.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 12968050, 23853265, 4845624, 7743331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 40 ], [ 97, 109 ], [ 114, 134 ], [ 184, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The citadel of Arg of Karim Khan sits adjacent to the Vakil Bazaar and Vakil Bath at the city's central district. The most famous of houses are Zinat-ol-Moluk House and Gahavam's House, both in the old quarters of the city.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 5662293, 7743331, 12972803, 4859140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 33 ], [ 55, 67 ], [ 72, 82 ], [ 170, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Qur'an Gate is the entrance to Shiraz. It is located near the gorge of Allah-o-Akbar and is flanked by the Baba Kuhi and Chehel Maqam mountains. The gateway once contained two hand-written Qur’āns by Sultan Ibrahim Bin Shahrukh Gurekani in an upper room, which have now been moved to the Pars Museum.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 7093219, 22309202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ], [ 205, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Eram Garden (Bagh-e Eram) in Shiraz is a striking location for visitors with a variety of plants as well as a historic mansion. Although the exact date of the construction of the garden is not clear, historical evidence suggests it was constructed during the Seljuk Dynasty on the orders of the celebrated Seljuk monarch Sanjar. Other historical Persian gardens are Afifabad Garden and The Museum of Weapons, Delgosha Garden and Jahan Nama Garden.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 5662398, 1463084, 4859822, 39342344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ], [ 351, 365 ], [ 371, 412 ], [ 414, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margoon Waterfall is located in the Fars Province of Iran near the city of Sepidan. Its name means in Persian \"snake like\".", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 1385996, 448049, 14653, 25009226, 11600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 37, 50 ], [ 54, 58 ], [ 76, 83 ], [ 103, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shapur cave is located in the Zagros Mountains, in southern Iran, about from the ancient city of Bishapur. This cave is near Kazerun in Chogan valley, which was the site of polo (Persian čōgān چُوگان), in the Sasanian period.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 18566918, 499291, 14653, 1734510, 2922105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 31, 47 ], [ 61, 65 ], [ 99, 107 ], [ 127, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sangtarashan cave is located in the Jahrom, in southern Iran, it is the largest handmade cave in the world. It has several corridors, columns and openings.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 63271741, 1266707, 14653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 37, 43 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Palace of Ardashir, also known as the Atash-kadeh, is a castle located on the slopes of the mountain on which Dezh Dokhtar is situated. Built in AD 224 by King Ardashir I of the Sassanian Empire, it is located north of the ancient city of Gor, i.e. the old city of Piruz-Apad in Pars, in ancient Persia (Iran).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 1487895, 1474957, 841099, 5876413, 1475014, 448049, 30927438, 14653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 111, 123 ], [ 161, 171 ], [ 179, 195 ], [ 267, 277 ], [ 281, 285 ], [ 298, 304 ], [ 306, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pooladkaf is a ski resort in the south of Iran. It opened in 2002. In spite of its low latitude, it receives adequate snow due to its high elevation (usually of snow in February). The skiing season starts in December and lasts to the end of March, or in some years April.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 37124711, 179821, 14653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 16, 26 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Sarvestan Palace is a Sassanid-era building in the Iranian city of Sarvestan, some southeast from the city of Shiraz. The palace was built in the 5th century AD, and was either a gubernatorial residence or a Zoroastrian fire temple.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 26408453, 5876413, 14653, 24114863, 34533, 1801361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 21 ], [ 27, 35 ], [ 56, 60 ], [ 72, 81 ], [ 214, 225 ], [ 226, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Qal'eh Dokhtar, is a castle made by Ardashir I, in present-day Fars, Iran, in 209 AD. It is located on a mountain slope near the Firouzabad-Kavar road.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 1474957, 841099, 448049, 14653, 1475014, 25009287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 37, 47 ], [ 64, 68 ], [ 70, 74 ], [ 130, 140 ], [ 141, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Maharloo Lake. Maharloo is a seasonal salt lake about an hour away from Shiraz, with a dominant pink hue because of the amount of red tide in it; however, the strength of the color differs in various times of the year. It is also known as the pink lake.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Tourism", "target_page_ids": [ 12972997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of neighborhoods in Shiraz:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Zargari", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abivardi", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Farhang Shahr", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Qasrodasht", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Koshan", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kuye Zahra", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ma'ali Abad", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Molla Sadra", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shahcheragh", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Riyasati Avval", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Riyasati Dovvom", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shahrak-e-Golestan", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [ 41874224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shahrak-e-Sadra", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tachara", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Zerehi", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kolbeh Saadi", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Podonak", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Payegah", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Eram", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bagh-e Nari (Narvan)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Siahatgar BLVD", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abiari Ave", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Artesh square (Army Square)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bridgestone", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Babakuhi", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kuye Jamaran(siman)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Baskul Nader", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Talkhedash", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kaftarak ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sare Dozak", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chamran", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sange Siah", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Amir Kabir Blvd", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Modares ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dinakan ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Darvazeh Kazeron ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Darvaze Isfahan", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bagh Safa", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Atlasi ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Derki", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " See also: Saadi Street", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Neighborhoods", "target_page_ids": [ 34102191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shiraz is home to a vibrant academic community. The Shiraz University of Medical Sciences was the first university in Shiraz and was founded in 1946. Much older is the august Madrasa-e-Khan, or Khan Theological School, with about 600 students; its tile-covered buildings date from 1627.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Higher education", "target_page_ids": [ 3984077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today Shiraz University is the largest university in the province, and one of Iran's best academic centers. Other major universities in or nearby Shiraz are the Islamic Azad University of Shiraz, Shiraz University of Technology, and Shiraz University of Applied Science and Technology.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Higher education", "target_page_ids": [ 1398287, 35748661, 5740806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 23 ], [ 161, 194 ], [ 196, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Shiraz Regional Library of Science and Technology is the largest provincial library serving the public.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Higher education", "target_page_ids": [ 26925603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Virtual University of Shiraz is one of the sub colleges of Shiraz University.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Higher education", "target_page_ids": [ 1398287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shiraz International Airport serves as the largest airport in the southern region of Iran. After undergoing renovation and redevelopment work in 2005, Shiraz Airport was identified as the second-most-reliable and -modern airport in Iran (after Imam Khomeini International Airport of Tehran) in terms of flight safety including electronic and navigation control systems of its flight tower.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 2661918, 14653, 716542, 57654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ], [ 85, 89 ], [ 244, 279 ], [ 283, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A metro system started in Shiraz in 2001 by the Shiraz Urban Railway Organization which contains six lines. The length of the first Line are , the length of the second line will be The length of the third line will be . 21 stations were built in route one.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 13629970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first three lines, when completed, will have 32 stations below ground, six above, and one special station connected to the railway station. The first line was started in October 2014 between Shahid Dastgheib (airport) Metro Station and Ehsan stations. A single ticket costs 10000 rials, with trains operating every 15 minutes. Line 1 is extended from the airport To Ehsan Square (northern part).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 51716364, 44124481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 142 ], [ 240, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shiraz has 71 bus lines. Iran's third Bus Rapid Transit opened in Shiraz in 2009 with two lines, and a further two planned to open in 2010. Service is free on 5 May, the day of the city.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Shiraz is connected with the rest of Iran's railway network. The trains arrive and leave from Shiraz railway station, Iran's largest railway station according to surface area. It has passenger trains, operating six days per week to Isfahan, Tehran and Mashad.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 4008048, 51716364, 223149, 57654, 406512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 59 ], [ 94, 116 ], [ 232, 239 ], [ 241, 247 ], [ 252, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are 700,000 cars in the city of Shiraz.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Road 63", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 25046115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Road 93", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 26707660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Football is the most popular sport in Shiraz and the city has many teams in this sport. The most notable of these teams is Bargh Shiraz who are one of the oldest teams in Iran, Bargh was once a regular member of the Persian Gulf Pro League; however, financial issues and poor management have led them dropping to League 3 where they currently play. Shiraz's other major football team is Fajr Sepasi who also played in the Persian Gulf Pro League; however, now they play in the second tier Azadegan League. Shiraz is host to a number of smaller and lesser known teams as well, such as Kara Shiraz, New Bargh and Qashaei who all play in League 2.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 10568, 2606607, 603834, 7188874, 12302792, 603834, 2621090, 47765463, 51543714, 51836651, 7087855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 123, 135 ], [ 216, 239 ], [ 313, 321 ], [ 387, 398 ], [ 422, 445 ], [ 489, 504 ], [ 584, 595 ], [ 597, 606 ], [ 611, 618 ], [ 635, 643 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main sporting venue in Shiraz is Hafezieh Stadium which can hold up to 20,000 people. The stadium is the venue for many of the cities football matches and has occasionally hosted the Iran national football team. Shiraz is also home to another stadium, Pars Stadium, which was completed in 2017, and can host up to 50,000 spectators.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 4523075, 272865, 22578496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 53 ], [ 187, 214 ], [ 256, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Absh Khatun, 13th-century ruler", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 31698017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Karim Khan, the ruler and de facto Shah of Iran from 1760 until 1779, made Shiraz his capital", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 1004460, 64648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Valerie Jarrett, senior advisor to United States President Barack Obama, born in Shiraz to African-American parents.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 17400273, 24113, 534366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 36, 59 ], [ 60, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kamran Bagheri Lankarani was Iran's Minister of Health and Medical Education", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 4704555, 14653, 24234168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 30, 34 ], [ 37, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jimmy Delshad, 67th and 70th Mayor of Beverly Hills", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 10199739, 2134094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 30, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi lived during the Fatimid Caliphate and was considered one of the most learned scholars of that time, known as an author of Islamic books, a poet, and scientist.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 7769870, 56176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 47, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mulla Sadra, Islamic philosopher, theologian who led the Iranian cultural renaissance in the 17th century", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 1425360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Siyyid 'Alí Muḥammad Shírází, the founder of Bábism, and one of three central figures of the Baháʼí Faith", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 28361417, 55494, 4251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 46, 52 ], [ 94, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, 13th-century Iranian poet and scholar", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 2014775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sibawayh, was an influential linguist and grammarian of the Arabic language", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 909813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Firouz Naderi, Scientist and currently the Director for Solar System Exploration at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 2808339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gholam A. Peyman inventor of LASIK", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 31256890, 417929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 30, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ali Asghar Khodadoust, Professor of Ophthalmology, originator of the Khodadoust line method", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 42609454, 56153, 25973688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 37, 50 ], [ 70, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " M. Hashem Pesaran, Most famous Iranian Economist, Emeritus Professor of Economics at University of Cambridge", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 4984984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Farshid Delshad, linguist and translator", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 42486718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reza Negarestani, philosopher and writer", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 35183000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saadi, poet of the medieval period", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 7270459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hafez, poet", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 204260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shahriyar Mandanipour, writer", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 9857753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Simin Daneshvar, novelist and author", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 3083742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mehdi Hamidi Shirazi, contemporary poet", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 18517275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fereidoon Tavallali, contemporary poet and intellectual", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 27534560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abdolali Dastgheib, literary critic writer", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 55551686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shirazeh Houshiary, artist, born in Shiraz in 1955, lives in London", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 6972591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arsi Nami award-winning singer and songwriter", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 27125983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ebrahim Golestan, writer and filmmaker", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 2415486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tooji, singer, model and television host; represented Norway in the Eurovision Song Contest 2012 in Baku, Azerbaijan.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 34595691, 21241, 22805462, 4566, 746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 55, 61 ], [ 69, 97 ], [ 101, 105 ], [ 107, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bahar Pars, actress.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 49121515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mohammad Namazi, philanthropist & founder of the Namazi hospital in Shiraz. This later became the catalyst for the establishment of Shiraz University of Medical Sciences in 1955; one of the country's top medical schools", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 4773215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mohammad Bahmanbeigi, activist, founding father of instructions for tribes in Iran", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 22586080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Omid Norouzi, Iranian wrestler, world and Olympic champion", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 33074995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abbas Dowran, Skillful phantom and fighter jet pilot who died during the Iran–Iraq War", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Famous people", "target_page_ids": [ 6402833, 14889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 74, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shiraz is twinned with:", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 1155299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chongqing, China", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 171752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dushanbe, Tajikistan", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 56658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nanjing, China", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 21791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nicosia, Cyprus", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 57064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pécs, Hungary", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 211931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Weimar, Germany", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 47198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1853 Shiraz earthquake - killed at least 9,000 people", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 69214750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shiraz Arts Festival", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25349701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shirazi salad – originated from and is named after Shiraz", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 46221264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 360° VR panorama gallery of Shiraz", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Shiraz", "Cities_in_Fars_Province" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Syrah (), also known as Shiraz, is a dark-skinned grape variety grown throughout the world and used primarily to produce red wine. In 1999, Syrah was found to be the offspring of two obscure grapes from southeastern France, Dureza and Mondeuse Blanche. Syrah should not be confused with Petite Sirah, a cross of Syrah with Peloursin dating from 1880.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 450096, 904269, 3398365, 15760185, 15759483, 555070, 12384496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 63 ], [ 121, 129 ], [ 216, 222 ], [ 224, 230 ], [ 235, 251 ], [ 287, 299 ], [ 323, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The style and flavor profile of wines made from Syrah are influenced by the climate where the grapes are grown. In moderate climates (such as the northern Rhone Valley and parts of the Walla Walla AVA in Washington State), they tend to produce medium to full-bodied wines with medium-plus to high levels of tannins and notes of blackberry, mint and black pepper.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5999, 906659, 6509444, 5871244, 14001249, 19696317, 18955, 150116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 83 ], [ 155, 167 ], [ 185, 200 ], [ 204, 220 ], [ 244, 265 ], [ 307, 314 ], [ 340, 344 ], [ 349, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In hot climates (such as Crete, and the Barossa Valley and McLaren Vale regions of Australia), Syrah is more consistently full-bodied with softer tannin, jammier fruit and spice notes of licorice, anise and earthy leather.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6591, 176243, 1426476, 3959588, 249116, 68674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 30 ], [ 40, 54 ], [ 59, 71 ], [ 83, 92 ], [ 187, 195 ], [ 197, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many regions the acidity and tannin levels of Syrah allow the wines produced to have favorable aging potential.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19600890, 20185928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 27 ], [ 98, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syrah is used as a single varietal or as a blend. Following several years of strong planting, Syrah was estimated in 2004 to be the world's 7th most grown grape at .", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 679361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It can be found throughout the globe from France to New World wine regions such as: Chile, South Africa, the Hawke's Bay, Waiheke, New Zealand, California and Washington.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1046870, 521306, 4111898, 143774, 582597, 3974835, 14660227, 13015878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 66 ], [ 84, 89 ], [ 91, 103 ], [ 109, 120 ], [ 122, 129 ], [ 131, 142 ], [ 144, 154 ], [ 159, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It can also be found in several Australian wine regions such as: Barossa, Heathcote, Coonawarra, Hunter Valley, Margaret River, Adelaide Hills, Clare Valley and McLaren Vale.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 176243, 10160058, 979580, 29159120, 24250834, 1476672, 44392153, 1426476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 72 ], [ 74, 83 ], [ 85, 95 ], [ 97, 110 ], [ 112, 126 ], [ 128, 142 ], [ 144, 156 ], [ 161, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syrah has a long documented history in the Rhône region of southeastern France, but it was not known if it had originated in that region.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 80790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1998, a study conducted by Carole Meredith's research group in the Department of Viticulture and Enology at University of California, Davis used DNA typing and extensive grape reference material from the viticultural research station in Montpellier, France to conclude that Syrah was the offspring of the grape varieties Dureza (father) and Mondeuse blanche (mother)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1865604, 6129607, 31924, 310782, 19435596, 15760185, 15759483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 45 ], [ 70, 107 ], [ 111, 142 ], [ 148, 158 ], [ 203, 251 ], [ 324, 330 ], [ 344, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dureza, a dark-skinned grape variety from the Ardèche region in France, has all but disappeared from the vineyards, and the preservation of such varieties is a speciality of Montpellier. Mondeuse blanche is a white grape variety cultivated in the Savoy region, and is still found in small amounts in that region's vineyards today.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 90510, 73369, 27885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 53 ], [ 174, 185 ], [ 247, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both varieties are somewhat obscure today, and have never achieved anything near Syrah's fame or popularity, and there is no record of them ever having been cultivated at long distances from their present homes. Thus, both of Syrah's parents come from a limited area in southeastern France, close to northern Rhône. Based on these findings, the researchers have concluded Syrah originated from northern Rhône.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The DNA typing leaves no room for doubt in this matter, and the numerous other hypotheses of the grape's origin which have been forwarded during the years all completely lack support in the form of documentary evidence or ampelographic investigations, be it by methods of classical botany or DNA.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1106293, 4183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 222, 235 ], [ 282, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Instead, they seem to have been based primarily or solely on the name or synonyms of the variety. Varying orthography for grape names render dubious any name-based evidence of origins. Nevertheless, origins such as Syracuse or the famous Iranian city of Shiraz have been proposed while the genomic studies had yet to be done.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22209, 28441, 39622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 117 ], [ 215, 223 ], [ 254, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The parentage information, however, does not reveal how old the grape variety is, i.e., when the pollination of a Mondeuse blanche vine by Dureza took place, leading to the original Syrah seed plant. In the year AD 77, Pliny the Elder wrote in his Naturalis Historia about the wines of Vienne (which today would be called Côte-Rôtie), where the Allobroges made famous and prized wine from a dark-skinned grape variety that had not existed some 50 years earlier, in Virgil's age.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 44920, 74215, 536695, 1126751, 478168, 32359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 219, 234 ], [ 248, 266 ], [ 286, 292 ], [ 322, 332 ], [ 345, 355 ], [ 465, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pliny called the vines of this wine Allobrogica, and it has been speculated that it could be today's Syrah. However, the description of the wine would also fit, for example, Dureza, and Pliny's observation that vines of Allobrogica were resistant to cold is not entirely consistent with Syrah.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is called Syrah in its country of origin, France, as well as in the rest of Europe, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, New Zealand and South Africa. The name \"Shiraz\" became popular for this grape variety in Australia, where it has long been established as the most grown dark-skinned variety. In Australia, it was also commonly called Hermitage up to the late 1980s, but since that name is also a French Protected Designation of Origin, this naming practice caused a problem in some export markets and was dropped.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5843419, 9239, 18951905, 5489, 31843, 4913064, 17416221, 4689264, 548758, 67867254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 51 ], [ 79, 85 ], [ 87, 96 ], [ 98, 103 ], [ 105, 112 ], [ 114, 125 ], [ 130, 142 ], [ 203, 212 ], [ 331, 340 ], [ 400, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The grape's many other synonyms are used in various parts of the world, including Antourenein noir, Balsamina, Candive, Entournerein, Hignin noir, Marsanne noir, Schiras, Sirac, Syra, Syrac, Serine, and Sereine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Legends of Syrah's origins come from one of its homonyms, Shiraz. Because Shiraz, capital of the Persian Empire (modern-day Iran), produced the well-known Shirazi wine, legends claim the Syrah grape originated in Shiraz and then was brought to Rhône. At least two significantly different versions of the myth are reported, giving different accounts of how the variety is supposed to have been brought from Shiraz to Rhône and differing up to 1,800 years in dating this event. In one version, the Phocaeans could have brought Syrah/Shiraz to their colony around Marseilles (then known as Massilia), which was founded around 600 BC by the Greeks. The grape would then later have made its way to northern Rhône, which was never colonized by the Phocaeans. No documentary evidence exists to back up this legend, and it also requires the variety to later vanish from the Marseilles region without leaving any trace.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39622, 39622, 14653, 89358, 888831, 40888948, 40888948, 42056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 64 ], [ 74, 80 ], [ 124, 128 ], [ 155, 167 ], [ 496, 505 ], [ 561, 571 ], [ 587, 595 ], [ 637, 643 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The legend connecting Syrah with the city of Shiraz in Iran may, however, be of French origin. James Busby wrote in Journal of a recent visit to the principal vineyards of Spain and France that the 1826 book Œnologie Française \"stated that, according to the tradition of the neighbourhood, the plant [Scyras] was originally brought from Shiraz in Persia, by one of the hermits of the mountain\" called Gaspare de Stérimberg.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 277406, 39622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 106 ], [ 337, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another proposed etymology links it with the Proto-Celtic word *serra, \"billhook,\" presumably because the billhook was used in pruning.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1950372, 2636486, 471376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 57 ], [ 72, 80 ], [ 127, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the name \"Shiraz\" has been used primarily in Australia in modern times, while the earliest Australian documents use the spelling \"Scyras\", it has been speculated (among others by Jancis Robinson) to be in fact a so-called \"strinization\" of Syrah's name via Scyras. However, while the names \"Shiraz\" and \"Hermitage\" gradually seem to have replaced \"Scyras\" in Australia from the mid-19th century, the spelling \"Shiraz\" has also been documented in British sources back to at least the 1830s. So while the name or spelling \"Shiraz\" may be an effect of the English language on a French name, there is no evidence that it actually originated in Australia, although it was definitely the Australian usage and the Australian wines that made the use of this name popular.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2654838, 541162, 8569916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 201 ], [ 230, 242 ], [ 560, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another legend of the grape variety's origin, based on the name Syrah, is that it was brought from Syracuse by the legions of Roman Emperor Probus sometime after AD 280. This legend also lacks documentary evidence and is inconsistent with ampelographic findings.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 28441, 74635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 107 ], [ 140, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The wines that made Syrah famous were those from Hermitage, the hill above the town Tain-l'Hermitage in northern Rhône, where an hermitage (chapel) was built on the top, and where De Stérimberg is supposed to have settled as a hermit after his crusades. Hermitage wines have for centuries had a reputation for being powerful and excellent. While Hermitage was quite famous in the 18th and 19th centuries, and attracted interest from foreign oenophiles, such as Bordeaux enthusiast Thomas Jefferson, it lost ground and foreign attention in the first half of the 20th century.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12131837, 12096816, 172024, 271054, 3060222, 2166602, 29922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 100 ], [ 129, 138 ], [ 140, 146 ], [ 227, 233 ], [ 441, 450 ], [ 461, 469 ], [ 481, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 18th and the first half of the 19th centuries, most Hermitage wine that left France did so as a blending component in Bordeaux wines. In an era when \"clarets\" were less powerful than today, and before appellation rules, red wines from warmer regions would be used for improvement (or adulteration, depending on the point of view) of Bordeaux wines. While Spanish and Algerian wines are also known to have been used for this purpose, top Bordeaux châteaux would use Hermitage to improve their wines, especially in weaker vintages.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2166602, 1616827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 163 ], [ 291, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1831, the Scotsman James Busby, often called \"the Father of Australian viticulture\", made a trip back to Europe to collect cuttings from vines (primarily from France and Spain) for introduction to Australia. One of the varieties collected by him was Syrah, although Busby used the two spellings \"Scyras\" and \"Ciras\". The cuttings were planted in the Sydney Botanical Gardens, and in Hunter Region, and in 1839 brought from Sydney to South Australia. By the 1860s, Syrah was established as an important variety in Australia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 277406, 41145205, 26667, 1803839, 506021, 26716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 33 ], [ 126, 134 ], [ 173, 178 ], [ 353, 377 ], [ 386, 399 ], [ 436, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syrah continues to be the main grape of the northern Rhône and is associated with classic wines such as Hermitage, Cornas and Côte-Rôtie. In the southern Rhône, it is used as a blending grape in such wines as Châteauneuf-du-Pape, Gigondas and Côtes du Rhône, where Grenache usually makes up the bulk of the blend. Although its best incarnations will age for decades, less-extracted styles may be enjoyed young for their lively red and blueberry characters and smooth tannin structure. Syrah has been widely used as a blending grape in the red wines of many countries due to its fleshy fruit mid-palate, balancing the weaknesses of other varieties and resulting in a \"complete\" wine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 548758, 1126774, 1126751, 906661, 1126890, 1126907, 628171, 20185928, 19696317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 113 ], [ 115, 121 ], [ 126, 136 ], [ 209, 228 ], [ 230, 238 ], [ 243, 257 ], [ 265, 273 ], [ 350, 353 ], [ 467, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the 1970s and even more from the 1990s, Syrah has enjoyed increased popularity, and plantings of the variety have expanded significantly in both old and new locations. In the early 2000s, it broke into the top 10 of varieties planted worldwide for the first time.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The name \"Shiraz\", from Shiraz in Iran, was historically applied to a wine unrelated to contemporary Shiraz wines and was made from a grape or grapes entirely different from the Syrah that has been proven to originate in southeastern France.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Shiraz wines", "target_page_ids": [ 39622, 14653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 30 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Smaller amounts of Syrah are also used in the production of other wine styles, such as rosé wine, fortified wine in Port wine style, and sparkling red wine. While Australian sparkling Shiraz traditionally have had some sweetness, a number of Australian winemakers also make a full-bodied sparkling dry Shiraz, which contains the complexity and sometimes earthy notes that are normally found in still wine.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Shiraz wines", "target_page_ids": [ 1039412, 10998, 153990, 41126784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 96 ], [ 98, 112 ], [ 116, 125 ], [ 174, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to their concentrated flavours and high tannin content, many premium Syrah wines are at their best after some considerable bottle aging. In exceptional cases, this may be 15 years or longer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Shiraz wines", "target_page_ids": [ 8599683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syrah has one of the highest recommended wine serving temperatures at 18°C (65°F).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Shiraz wines", "target_page_ids": [ 19719473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wines made from Syrah are often powerfully flavoured and full-bodied. The variety produces wines with a wide range of flavor notes, depending on the climate and soils where it is grown, as well as other viticultural practices chosen. Aroma characters can range from violets to berries (usually dark as opposed to red), chocolate, and black pepper. No one aroma can be called typical though blackberry, coffee and pepper are often noticed. With time in the bottle these primary notes are moderated and then supplemented with earthy or savory tertiary notes such as leather and truffle. Secondary flavor and aroma notes are those associated with several things, generally winemakers' practices (such as oak barrel and yeast treatment).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Shiraz wines", "target_page_ids": [ 513591, 748887, 36029170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 215 ], [ 701, 711 ], [ 716, 721 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "C13-Norisoprenoids such as derivatives, such as and , are found in Shiraz leaves.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Shiraz wines", "target_page_ids": [ 214242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Syrah-dominated appellations (AOCs) of northern Rhône have, like most other French appellations and regions, no tradition of varietal labeling of their wines. Indeed, such practices are generally disallowed under AOC rules, and only the AOC name (such as Cote-Rotie, Crozes-Hermitage or Hermitage) appears on the label. Varietal labeling of Syrah/Shiraz wines is therefore a practice that has emerged in the New World, primarily in Australia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Shiraz wines", "target_page_ids": [ 1217686, 679361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 32 ], [ 129, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To confuse matters, in northern Rhône, different clones of genuine Syrah are referred to as Petite Syrah (small Syrah) or Gros Syrah (large Syrah) depending on the size of their berries, with Petite Syrah being considered the superior version, giving wines higher in phenolics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Shiraz wines", "target_page_ids": [ 19696317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 267, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a general rule, most Australian and South African wines are labeled \"Shiraz\", and most European wines (from such regions where varietal labeling is practiced) are labeled \"Syrah\". In other countries, practices vary and winemakers (or wine marketers) sometimes choose either \"Syrah\" or \"Shiraz\" to signify a stylistic difference in the wine they have made. \"Syrah\"-labelled wines are sometimes thought to be more similar to classic Northern Rhône reds; presumably more elegant, tannic, smoke-flavoured and restrained with respect to their fruit component. \"Shiraz\"-labelled wines, on the other hand, would then be more similar to archetypical Australian or other New World examples, presumably made from riper berries, more fruit-driven, higher in alcohol, less obviously tannic, peppery rather than smokey, usually more easily approached when young, and possibly slightly sweetish in impression. It must, however, be realized that this rule of thumb is unevenly applied.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Shiraz wines", "target_page_ids": [ 25539883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 706, 719 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syrah is a variety that during the last few decades has been imported for cultivation in several countries. It is primarily grown in warmer regions. Worldwide plantations of Syrah have increased considerably in the late 1990s and early 2000s, and both \"Syrah\"-labelled and \"Shiraz\"-labelled wines are on the increase.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is grown in many wine producing regions around the world, with concentrations in Australia, The Rhone Valley in France, and the US. It is often used as a blending grape in Spain and Italy as well. It is also planted in Portugal, which favor making varietal Syrah wine, and not only blending with other types.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 37584, 679361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 42 ], [ 251, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Italy, Syrah is grown in Tuscany (i.e. Cortona DOC), Lazio (Pontine Agro), and Apulia (Syrah Tarantino IGT). Also a DOC Sirah Piedmont exists. The region though which has made one of the best uses of Syrah, by blending it with Nero d'Avola grapes, is Sicily.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 14448498, 7489552, 14167757, 1672552, 27619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 35 ], [ 106, 109 ], [ 129, 137 ], [ 230, 242 ], [ 254, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syrah, as it is known in France, is grown throughout the Rhône valley. The wines that are made from it vary greatly, even over small changes in the location of the vines. The differences in the soil quality as well as the changes in the slope of the terrain tend to produce different styles of wine. Ranging from the mineral and tannic nature of Hermitage, to fruity and perfumed in the case of Côte-Rôtie.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 906659, 1126751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 69 ], [ 395, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syrah is also a key component to many blends. It may be used to add structure and color to Grenache in southern Rhône blends, including Côtes-du-Rhône and Châteauneuf-du-Pape. Syrah is also the only red grape used in the wines of the northern Rhône.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 628171, 1126907, 906661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 99 ], [ 136, 150 ], [ 155, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1968, there existed only of Syrah vineyards in France, primarily in the traditional appellations of northern Rhône, which at that time had not received much attention in the wine world for several decades, and the vineyards of which were not planted to full capacity. After the wines of northern Rhône were \"rediscovered\" by wine writers in the 1970s, plantings expanded considerably. This trend received an extra boost in the 1980s and 1990s, when influential wine writer Robert M. Parker Jr. awarded high scores, up to the \"perfect\" score of 100 points, to wines of some Rhône producers. The popularity of Australian Shiraz on the export market may also have played a role. In 1988, total French plantings stood at , and the 1999 viticultural survey found of Syrah vineyards. France thus has the world's largest plantations of Syrah.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 244433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 477, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While previously unused parts of the northern Rhône vineyards have been planted with Syrah as part of the expansion, the major part of the new French Syrah plantations are located in southern Rhône (which covers a much larger vineyard area than the northern part) and Languedoc-Roussillon. While southern Rhône produces relatively few wines where Syrah is in the majority, the proportion of Syrah in the blended wines of this region has been on the rise. Languedoc-Roussillon uses Syrah to produce both Southern Rhône-like blends with Grenache, Australian-style blends with Cabernet Sauvignon, and varietal Syrah.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 4510981, 628171, 37591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 268, 288 ], [ 535, 543 ], [ 574, 592 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syrah vines in France often suffer from a form of dieback characterised by the leaves turning red in late summer, deep cracks developing in the stem above the graft, and the premature death of the vine. The syndrome was first observed in 1990s in the Gard and Hérault departments of Southern of France, but is now widespread. It is believed to be caused by mismatch between the rootstock and scion rather than an infection by a fungus or a virus.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 14080493, 90566, 84383, 38523, 739493, 2613688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 164 ], [ 251, 255 ], [ 260, 267 ], [ 268, 279 ], [ 283, 301 ], [ 378, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Spain there was an increase in the area cultivated in Syrah grapes from in 1990 to in 2009. It is grown primarily in Castilla-La Mancha, with lesser amounts in Aragon and Catalonia. As of 2015 it was the seventh most grown red grape in Spain, with accounting for 4% of the red grape total.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 73205, 39443, 14324886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 140 ], [ 165, 171 ], [ 176, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Syrah grape was introduced into Switzerland in 1926 and in 2009 was the 6th most common red wine grape in Switzerland (181 hectares). Mostly grown in Valais, along the upper Rhône valley above Lake Geneva, it produces \"unexpectedly concentrated wine from mature vines\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 198789, 168985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 160 ], [ 197, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syrah plantations in Argentina increased from less than in 1990 to in 2002. Syrah has occasionally been used as a blending component with Argentina's signature dark-skinned grape Malbec to provide an \"Argentinian take\" on the Australian Cabernet-Shiraz blend.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 18951905, 224570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 30 ], [ 181, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Syrah grape was introduced into Australia in 1832 by James Busby, an immigrant who brought vine clippings from Europe with him, and it is almost invariably called \"Shiraz\". Today it is Australia's most popular red grape, but has not always been in such favour; in the 1970s, white wine was so popular that growers were ripping out unprofitable Shiraz and Grenache vineyards, even those with old vines. In the Barossa Valley, the world's oldest continually producing commercial vineyard is believed to be the Shiraz vines at Turkey Flat in Tanunda that were originally planted in 1847.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 277406, 1865577, 25800172, 7239349, 1449601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 68 ], [ 395, 403 ], [ 413, 427 ], [ 528, 539 ], [ 543, 550 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many factors, including the success of brands like Lindemans (part of Treasury Wine Estates) and Jacob's Creek in the UK, as well as Rosemount in the US and UK, were responsible for a dramatic expansion of plantings during the 1980s and 1990s; a similar trajectory occurred in California. However, the biggest factor in this expansion during the 1990s was a steady increase in exports due to the historically low value of the Australian dollar.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 31627994, 30861318, 9436773, 81215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 91 ], [ 97, 110 ], [ 133, 142 ], [ 426, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2005–2006 growing season, total Shiraz plantations in Australia stood at , of which were old enough to be productive. These vines yielded a total of 422,430 tonnes of Shiraz grapes for wine production. This made Shiraz the most planted variety in Australia and Australia the world's second largest Syrah/Shiraz grower, after France.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Victorian regions include Heathcote, roughly 1.5 hours north of Melbourne. Cooler climate regions such as Western Australia's Margaret River produce Shiraz with marginally less alcohol content and often in a more traditional French style.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 1567340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A well-known example of the Shiraz grape in Australian viticulture is the Penfolds \"Grange\". This wine was created by winemaker Max Schubert in 1951 and has a reputation for aging well. The Penfolds Grange is predominantly Shiraz but often includes a small quantity of Cabernet Sauvignon. It is usually a multi-regional blend of quality South Australian Shiraz, with the Barossa Valley playing an important role, and matured in new American Oak. Other well-known Australian Shiraz wines include the Henschke \"Hill of Grace\" and the Penfolds \"RWT\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 5138868, 1132434, 5336949, 24649502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 82 ], [ 83, 91 ], [ 128, 140 ], [ 499, 507 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Recently, Australian Shiraz producers have started to add up to 4% Viognier to their Shiraz to add apricot tones to the wine's nose and palate. With such a small percentage added, the producer wasn't obliged to declare the blend on the label. In the past 5 years, however, it's becoming increasingly fashionable to label the wine \"Shiraz Viognier\" as Viognier gains consumer acceptance in the marketplace. The practise of blending Viognier with Syrah has actually been common for years in the Northern Rhône Valley region of Cote-Rotie.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 627977, 627977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 75 ], [ 431, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Shiraz\" is also the S in \"GSM\" (Grenache-Shiraz-Mourvèdre), which is common Australian designation for a Châteneuf-du-Pape-like blend.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "South African plantations have expanded significantly, from 1% of the vineyard area in 1995 to 9.7% in 2007 making up a total area under cultivation of . In South Africa, the variety is predominately known as \"Shiraz\", but the designation \"Syrah\" is used for \"Rhône-style\" wines. Some see this variety as the \"great hope\" for South African wines.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 4111898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, wine produced from the grape is normally called by its French name, \"Syrah\". However, in cases where winemakers choose to follow a New World style, similar to Penfolds Grange, they may choose to label their wines as \"Shiraz\". Under American wine laws, either name may appear on the label. Syrah first appeared as a wine grape in California in the 1970s, where it was planted by a group of viticulturists who called themselves \"Rhône rangers\". Although most plantings of the grape are in California, there are increasing amounts of it being grown in Washington state. Syrah makes up a significant percentage of wine produced in several Washington AVAs such as the Naches Heights AVA and the Walla Walla AVA. Syrah is increasingly being grown and produced in Oregon. Syrah is also found in small regions in Ohio.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 1132434, 35310240, 6509444, 6426696, 14438783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 196 ], [ 686, 704 ], [ 713, 728 ], [ 780, 786 ], [ 829, 833 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "California Syrahs, much like those in France, vary a great deal based on the climate and terroir that they inhabit. In exceptionally warm regions, such as parts of Napa, the wine is often blended with other Rhône varieties. Other appellations, primarily mountainous ones, tend to produce varietal-based wines that can stand on their own. Syrah was introduced into Washington state in 1986 by Red Willow Vineyard through their partnership with Woodinville, Washington-based Columbia Winery and Master of Wine David Lake. Expanding at a significant rate, it is used to produce single-varietial wines as well as being blended with grapes such as Grenache, Cinsault, and Viognier.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 896092, 36152137, 138037, 10428000, 1497712, 19148344, 628171, 554748, 627977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 96 ], [ 392, 411 ], [ 443, 466 ], [ 473, 488 ], [ 493, 507 ], [ 508, 518 ], [ 643, 651 ], [ 653, 661 ], [ 667, 675 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Around 2005, there were of Syrah in Chile.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Syrah in different countries", "target_page_ids": [ 5489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Durif, or Petite Sirah, is a descendant of Syrah and Peloursin. It was propagated by and named after Dr. Francois Durif. Durif is a cross breed between the lesser known Peloursin and Syrah. Regions such as Rutherglen have achieved international regard for their Durif. This varietal is similar to Shiraz but is even more full-bodied and tannic because of the smaller, thicker-skinned grapes used. Petite Sirah is widely planted in California, where it is popular as a varietal (for example, by Bogle Vineyards), and especially blended with Zinfandel, which results in a rich, bold and fruity wine.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Durif", "target_page_ids": [ 555070, 12384496, 265202, 56915100, 242590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 53, 62 ], [ 206, 216 ], [ 494, 509 ], [ 540, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Synonyms for Syrah include Antourenein noir, Candive, Entournerein, Hermitage, Hignin noir, Marsanne noir, Shiraz, Sira, Sirac, Sirah, Syra, and Syrac.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Synonyms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " International variety", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22433278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Syrah Wine Grape History, Character and Growing Areas (USA)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The origins of shiraz – revealed! - By Jeni Port, Winestate Magazine", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Red_wine_grape_varieties" ]

[ "Shiraz grape", "Shiraz" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Symbiosis (from Greek , , \"living together\", from , , \"together\", and , bíōsis, \"living\") is any type of a close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms, be it mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasitic. The organisms, each termed a symbiont, must be of different species. In 1879, Heinrich Anton de Bary defined it as \"the living together of unlike organisms\". The term was subject to a century-long debate about whether it should specifically denote mutualism, as in lichens. Biologists have now abandoned that restriction.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 148363, 240244, 19653842, 51483, 72660, 43937, 21780446, 51526, 172396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 21 ], [ 127, 149 ], [ 172, 192 ], [ 200, 211 ], [ 213, 227 ], [ 232, 241 ], [ 303, 310 ], [ 321, 343 ], [ 508, 514 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Symbiosis can be obligatory, which means that one or more of the symbionts depend on each other for survival, or facultative (optional), when they can generally live independently.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Symbiosis is also classified by physical attachment. When symbionts form a single body it is called conjunctive symbiosis, while all other arrangements are called disjunctive symbiosis. When one organism lives on the surface of another, such as head lice on humans, it is called ectosymbiosis; when one partner lives inside the tissues of another, such as Symbiodinium within coral, it is termed endosymbiosis.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 243916, 72668, 11375187, 47700, 9677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 255 ], [ 280, 293 ], [ 357, 369 ], [ 377, 382 ], [ 397, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Based on its biological usage, the term \"symbiosis\" can also be applied to mutually beneficial business relationships.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The definition of symbiosis was a matter of debate for 130 years. In 1877, Albert Bernhard Frank used the term symbiosis to describe the mutualistic relationship in lichens. In 1878, the German mycologist Heinrich Anton de Bary defined it as \"the living together of unlike organisms\". The definition has varied among scientists, with some advocating that it should only refer to persistent mutualisms, while others thought it should apply to all persistent biological interactions (in other words, to mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism, but excluding brief interactions such as predation). In the 21st century, the latter has become the definition widely accepted by biologists.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 32703981, 172396, 20874, 51526, 51483, 72660, 43937, 57559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 96 ], [ 165, 171 ], [ 194, 204 ], [ 205, 227 ], [ 390, 399 ], [ 512, 524 ], [ 530, 540 ], [ 583, 592 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1949, Edward Haskell proposed an integrative approach with a classification of \"co-actions\", later adopted by biologists as \"interactions\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 2198195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Relationships can be obligate, meaning that one or both of the symbionts entirely depend on each other for survival. For example, in lichens, which consist of fungal and photosynthetic symbionts, the fungal partners cannot live on their own. The algal or cyanobacterial symbionts in lichens, such as Trentepohlia, can generally live independently, and their part of the relationship is therefore described as facultative (optional), or non-obligate.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 172396, 13133503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 139 ], [ 300, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Endosymbiosis is any symbiotic relationship in which one symbiont lives within the tissues of the other, either within the cells or extracellularly. Examples include diverse microbiomes: rhizobia, nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in root nodules on legume roots; actinomycetes, nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Frankia, which live in alder root nodules; single-celled algae inside reef-building corals; and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10%–15% of insects.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Physical interaction", "target_page_ids": [ 9677, 45515504, 273244, 21989, 1028836, 305286, 1451056, 1451387, 1383, 633, 47700, 9677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 174, 184 ], [ 187, 195 ], [ 197, 221 ], [ 235, 247 ], [ 251, 257 ], [ 265, 277 ], [ 313, 320 ], [ 336, 341 ], [ 370, 375 ], [ 397, 402 ], [ 419, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ectosymbiosis is any symbiotic relationship in which the symbiont lives on the body surface of the host, including the inner surface of the digestive tract or the ducts of exocrine glands. Examples of this include ectoparasites such as lice; commensal ectosymbionts such as the barnacles, which attach themselves to the jaw of baleen whales; and mutualist ectosymbionts such as cleaner fish.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Physical interaction", "target_page_ids": [ 72668, 214053, 165423, 72672, 43937, 58288, 72660, 159512, 231030, 11267683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 99, 103 ], [ 140, 149 ], [ 172, 186 ], [ 214, 227 ], [ 236, 240 ], [ 242, 251 ], [ 278, 287 ], [ 327, 340 ], [ 378, 390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Competition can be defined as an interaction between organisms or species, in which the fitness of one is lowered by the presence of another. Limited supply of at least one resource (such as food, water, and territory) used by both usually facilitates this type of interaction, although the competition may also exist over other 'amenities', such as females for reproduction (in the case of male organisms of the same species).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Physical interaction", "target_page_ids": [ 19653842, 187849, 1473750, 10646, 33306, 501364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 61 ], [ 88, 95 ], [ 142, 149 ], [ 191, 195 ], [ 197, 202 ], [ 208, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mutualism or interspecies reciprocal altruism is a long-term relationship between individuals of different species where both individuals benefit. Mutualistic relationships may be either obligate for both species, obligate for one but facultative for the other, or facultative for both.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mutualism", "target_page_ids": [ 44189, 21780446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 45 ], [ 107, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A large percentage of herbivores have mutualistic gut flora to help them digest plant matter, which is more difficult to digest than animal prey. This gut flora is made up of cellulose-digesting protozoans or bacteria living in the herbivores' intestines. Coral reefs are the result of mutualism between coral organisms and various types of algae which live inside them. Most land plants and land ecosystems rely on mutualism between the plants, which fix carbon from the air, and mycorrhyzal fungi, which help in extracting water and minerals from the ground.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mutualism", "target_page_ids": [ 44568, 3135637, 19179023, 47700, 719534, 59358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 32 ], [ 50, 59 ], [ 195, 205 ], [ 256, 261 ], [ 452, 455 ], [ 481, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An example of mutualism is the relationship between the ocellaris clownfish that dwell among the tentacles of Ritteri sea anemones. The territorial fish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protect the clownfish from its predators. A special mucus on the clownfish protects it from the stinging tentacles.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mutualism", "target_page_ids": [ 2516321, 585415, 1213172, 212818, 635484, 57559, 501188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 75 ], [ 97, 105 ], [ 110, 129 ], [ 187, 193 ], [ 216, 224 ], [ 281, 289 ], [ 302, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A further example is the goby, a fish which sometimes lives together with a shrimp. The shrimp digs and cleans up a burrow in the sand in which both the shrimp and the goby fish live. The shrimp is almost blind, leaving it vulnerable to predators when outside its burrow. In case of danger, the goby touches the shrimp with its tail to warn it. When that happens both the shrimp and goby quickly retreat into the burrow. Different species of gobies (Elacatinus spp.) also clean up ectoparasites in other fish, possibly another kind of mutualism.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mutualism", "target_page_ids": [ 58261265, 52138, 13424509, 34694334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 29 ], [ 76, 82 ], [ 450, 460 ], [ 472, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A facultative symbiosis is seen in encrusting bryozoans and hermit crabs. The bryozoan colony (Acanthodesia commensale) develops a cirumrotatory growth and offers the crab (Pseudopagurus granulimanus) a helicospiral-tubular extension of its living chamber that initially was situated within a gastropod shell.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mutualism", "target_page_ids": [ 3416, 275334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 55 ], [ 60, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many types of tropical and sub-tropical ants have evolved very complex relationships with certain tree species.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mutualism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In endosymbiosis, the host cell lacks some of the nutrients which the endosymbiont provides. As a result, the host favors endosymbiont's growth processes within itself by producing some specialized cells. These cells affect the genetic composition of the host in order to regulate the increasing population of the endosymbionts and ensure that these genetic changes are passed onto the offspring via vertical transmission (heredity).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mutualism", "target_page_ids": [ 9677, 61689551, 13457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 82 ], [ 400, 421 ], [ 423, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A spectacular example of obligate mutualism is the relationship between the siboglinid tube worms and symbiotic bacteria that live at hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. The worm has no digestive tract and is wholly reliant on its internal symbionts for nutrition. The bacteria oxidize either hydrogen sulfide or methane, which the host supplies to them. These worms were discovered in the late 1980s at the hydrothermal vents near the Galapagos Islands and have since been found at deep-sea hydrothermal vents and cold seeps in all of the world's oceans.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mutualism", "target_page_ids": [ 43138, 25274323, 9028799, 354588, 400223, 3749918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 86 ], [ 87, 96 ], [ 112, 120 ], [ 134, 152 ], [ 157, 166 ], [ 482, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the endosymbiont adapts to the host's lifestyle, the endosymbiont changes dramatically. There is a drastic reduction in its genome size, as many genes are lost during the process of metabolism, and DNA repair and recombination, while important genes participating in the DNA-to-RNA transcription, protein translation and DNA/RNA replication are retained. The decrease in genome size is due to loss of protein coding genes and not due to lessening of inter-genic regions or open reading frame (ORF) size. Species that are naturally evolving and contain reduced sizes of genes can be accounted for an increased number of noticeable differences between them, thereby leading to changes in their evolutionary rates. When endosymbiotic bacteria related with insects are passed on to the offspring strictly via vertical genetic transmission, intracellular bacteria go across many hurdles during the process, resulting in the decrease in effective population sizes, as compared to the free-living bacteria. The incapability of the endosymbiotic bacteria to reinstate their wild type phenotype via a recombination process is called Muller's ratchet phenomenon. Muller's ratchet phenomenon, together with less effective population sizes, leads to an accretion of deleterious mutations in the non-essential genes of the intracellular bacteria. This can be due to lack of selection mechanisms prevailing in the relatively \"rich\" host environment.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mutualism", "target_page_ids": [ 12388, 20374, 7955, 167544, 262401, 1174560, 24543, 356200, 19702, 21147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 133 ], [ 185, 195 ], [ 201, 204 ], [ 285, 298 ], [ 308, 319 ], [ 476, 494 ], [ 1079, 1088 ], [ 1127, 1143 ], [ 1269, 1277 ], [ 1364, 1373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commensalism describes a relationship between two living organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped. It is derived from the English word commensal, used of human social interaction. It derives from a medieval Latin word meaning sharing food, formed from com- (with) and mensa (table).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commensalism", "target_page_ids": [ 1967785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commensal relationships may involve one organism using another for transportation (phoresy) or for housing (inquilinism), or it may also involve one organism using something another created, after its death (metabiosis). Examples of metabiosis are hermit crabs using gastropod shells to protect their bodies, and spiders building their webs on plants.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commensalism", "target_page_ids": [ 30869733, 3087357, 72660, 275334, 179252, 19828134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 90 ], [ 108, 119 ], [ 208, 218 ], [ 248, 259 ], [ 267, 276 ], [ 344, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a parasitic relationship, the parasite benefits while the host is harmed. Parasitism takes many forms, from endoparasites that live within the host's body to ectoparasites and parasitic castrators that live on its surface and micropredators like mosquitoes that visit intermittently. Parasitism is an extremely successful mode of life; about 40% of all animal species are parasites, and the average mammal species is host to 4 nematodes, 2 cestodes, and 2 trematodes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parasitism", "target_page_ids": [ 43937, 43937, 43937, 25158956, 43937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 27 ], [ 111, 124 ], [ 161, 174 ], [ 179, 198 ], [ 229, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mimicry is a form of symbiosis in which a species adopts distinct characteristics of another species to alter its relationship dynamic with the species being mimicked, to its own advantage. Among the many types of mimicry are Batesian and Müllerian, the first involving one-sided exploitation, the second providing mutual benefit. Batesian mimicry is an exploitative three-party interaction where one species, the mimic, has evolved to mimic another, the model, to deceive a third, the dupe. In terms of signalling theory, the mimic and model have evolved to send a signal; the dupe has evolved to receive it from the model. This is to the advantage of the mimic but to the detriment of both the model, whose protective signals are effectively weakened, and of the dupe, which is deprived of an edible prey. For example, a wasp is a strongly-defended model, which signals with its conspicuous black and yellow coloration that it is an unprofitable prey to predators such as birds which hunt by sight; many hoverflies are Batesian mimics of wasps, and any bird that avoids these hoverflies is a dupe. In contrast, Müllerian mimicry is mutually beneficial as all participants are both models and mimics. For example, different species of bumblebee mimic each other, with similar warning coloration in combinations of black, white, red, and yellow, and all of them benefit from the relationship.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mimicry", "target_page_ids": [ 865462, 38919300, 1318175, 2355420, 197112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 331, 347 ], [ 465, 472 ], [ 504, 521 ], [ 1113, 1130 ], [ 1236, 1245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amensalism is a non-symbiotic, asymmetric interaction where one species is harmed or killed by the other, and one is unaffected by the other. There are two types of amensalism, competition and antagonism (or antibiosis). Competition is where a larger or stronger organism deprives a smaller or weaker one of a resource. Antagonism occurs when one organism is damaged or killed by another through a chemical secretion. An example of competition is a sapling growing under the shadow of a mature tree. The mature tree can rob the sapling of necessary sunlight and, if the mature tree is very large, it can take up rainwater and deplete soil nutrients. Throughout the process, the mature tree is unaffected by the sapling. Indeed, if the sapling dies, the mature tree gains nutrients from the decaying sapling. An example of antagonism is Juglans nigra (black walnut), secreting juglone, a substance which destroys many herbaceous plants within its root zone.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Amensalism", "target_page_ids": [ 5494777, 18955875, 1115575, 3118602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 203 ], [ 528, 535 ], [ 836, 849 ], [ 876, 883 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amensalism is often used to describe strongly asymmetrical competitive interactions, such as between the Spanish ibex and weevils of the genus Timarcha which feed upon the same type of shrub. Whilst the presence of the weevil has almost no influence on food availability, the presence of ibex has an enormous detrimental effect on weevil numbers, as they consume significant quantities of plant matter and incidentally ingest the weevils upon it.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Amensalism", "target_page_ids": [ 2636299, 339399, 4782440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 117 ], [ 122, 128 ], [ 143, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cleaning symbiosis is an association between individuals of two species, where one (the cleaner) removes and eats parasites and other materials from the surface of the other (the client). It is putatively mutually beneficial, but biologists have long debated whether it is mutual selfishness, or simply exploitative. Cleaning symbiosis is well known among marine fish, where some small species of cleaner fish, notably wrasses but also species in other genera, are specialised to feed almost exclusively by cleaning larger fish and other marine animals.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Cleaning symbiosis", "target_page_ids": [ 34694334, 11267683, 331824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 397, 409 ], [ 419, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Symbiosis is increasingly recognized as an important selective force behind evolution; many species have a long history of interdependent co-evolution.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Co-evolution and the Hologenome Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 190835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although symbiosis was once discounted as an anecdotal evolutionary phenomenon, evidence is now overwhelming that obligate or facultative associations among microorganisms and between microorganisms and multicellular hosts had crucial consequences in many landmark events in evolution and in the generation of phenotypic diversity and complex phenotypes able to colonise new environments.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Co-evolution and the Hologenome Theory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Evolution originated from changes in development where variations within species are selected for or against because of the symbionts involved. The Hologenome theory relates to the holobiont and symbionts genome together as a whole. Microbes live everywhere in and on every multicellular organism. Many organisms rely on their symbionts in order to develop properly, this is known as co-development. In cases of co-development the symbionts send signals to their host which determine developmental processes. Co-development is commonly seen in both arthropods and vertebrates.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Co-evolution and the Hologenome Theory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One hypothesis for the origin of the nucleus in eukaryotes (plants, animals, fungi, and protists) is that it developed from a symbiogenesis between bacteria and archaea. It is hypothesized that the symbiosis originated when ancient archaea, similar to modern methanogenic archaea, invaded and lived within bacteria similar to modern myxobacteria, eventually forming the early nucleus. This theory is analogous to the accepted theory for the origin of eukaryotic mitochondria and chloroplasts, which are thought to have developed from a similar endosymbiotic relationship between proto-eukaryotes and aerobic bacteria. Evidence for this includes the fact that mitochondria and chloroplasts divide independently of the cell, and that these organelles have their own genome.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Co-evolution and the Hologenome Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 24536543, 19178886, 60426, 19588, 6355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 58 ], [ 88, 96 ], [ 126, 139 ], [ 659, 671 ], [ 676, 687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The biologist Lynn Margulis, famous for her work on endosymbiosis, contended that symbiosis is a major driving force behind evolution. She considered Darwin's notion of evolution, driven by competition, to be incomplete and claimed that evolution is strongly based on co-operation, interaction, and mutual dependence among organisms. According to Margulis and her son Dorion Sagan, \"Life did not take over the globe by combat, but by networking.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Co-evolution and the Hologenome Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 45473, 9677, 9236, 8145410, 4839105, 201087, 39626, 1868039, 18393, 9228, 23210314, 34327569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 27 ], [ 52, 65 ], [ 124, 133 ], [ 150, 158 ], [ 268, 280 ], [ 282, 293 ], [ 299, 316 ], [ 368, 380 ], [ 383, 387 ], [ 410, 415 ], [ 419, 425 ], [ 434, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "About 80% of vascular plants worldwide form symbiotic relationships with fungi, in particular in arbuscular mycorrhizas.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Co-evolution and the Hologenome Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 66966, 1372958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ], [ 97, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flowering plants and the animals that pollinate them have co-evolved. Many plants that are pollinated by insects (in entomophily), bats, or birds (in ornithophily) have highly specialized flowers modified to promote pollination by a specific pollinator that is correspondingly adapted. The first flowering plants in the fossil record had relatively simple flowers. Adaptive speciation quickly gave rise to many diverse groups of plants, and, at the same time, corresponding speciation occurred in certain insect groups. Some groups of plants developed nectar and large sticky pollen, while insects evolved more specialized morphologies to access and collect these rich food sources. In some taxa of plants and insects, the relationship has become dependent, where the plant species can only be pollinated by one species of insect.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Co-evolution and the Hologenome Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 18967, 233609, 23366462, 2390680, 23538713, 3410, 4992611, 29000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 38, 47 ], [ 105, 111 ], [ 117, 128 ], [ 131, 134 ], [ 140, 144 ], [ 150, 162 ], [ 374, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The acacia ant (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) is an obligate plant ant that protects at least five species of \"Acacia\" (Vachellia) from preying insects and from other plants competing for sunlight, and the tree provides nourishment and shelter for the ant and its larvae.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Co-evolution and the Hologenome Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 25877790, 23661523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 115, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Seed dispersal is the movement, spread or transport of seeds away from the parent plant. Plants have limited mobility and rely upon a variety of dispersal vectors to transport their propagules, including both abiotic vectors such as the wind and living (biotic) vectors like birds. In order to attract animals, these plants evolved a set of morphological characters such as fruit colour, mass, and persistence correlated to particular seed dispersal agents. For example, plants may evolve conspicuous fruit colours to attract avian frugivores, and birds may learn to associate such colours with a food resource.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Co-evolution and the Hologenome Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 37694, 23665572, 1665285, 9632, 10843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 59 ], [ 145, 161 ], [ 209, 216 ], [ 254, 260 ], [ 374, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a sense derived from its biological meaning, \"symbiosis\" can also refer to mutually beneficial business relationships, for example where a manufacturer of products for sale ensures that its distributors are adequately stocked with supplies to meet anticipated demand.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Business relationships", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "TED-Education video – Symbiosis: a surprising tale of species cooperation", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Symbiosis", "Ecology" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Cymbeline , also known as The Tragedie of Cymbeline or Cymbeline, King of Britain, is a play by William Shakespeare set in Ancient Britain () and based on legends that formed part of the Matter of Britain concerning the early Celtic British King Cunobeline. Although it is listed as a tragedy in the First Folio, modern critics often classify Cymbeline as a romance or even a comedy. Like Othello and The Winter's Tale, it deals with the themes of innocence and jealousy. While the precise date of composition remains unknown, the play was certainly produced as early as 1611.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32897, 1299531, 275301, 506922, 599456, 39630, 308767, 22460, 85378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 115 ], [ 123, 138 ], [ 187, 204 ], [ 246, 256 ], [ 300, 311 ], [ 358, 365 ], [ 376, 382 ], [ 389, 396 ], [ 401, 418 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Britain", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cymbeline – Modelled on the historical King of Britain, Cunobeline, and father to Imogen", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 506922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Queen – Cymbeline's second wife and mother to Cloten", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Imogen/Innogen – Cymbeline's daughter by a former queen, later disguised as the page Fidele", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 2374207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Posthumus Leonatus – Innogen's husband, adopted as an orphan and raised in Cymbeline's family", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cloten – Queen's son by a former husband and step-brother to Imogen", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Belarius – banished lord living under the name Morgan, who abducted King Cymbeline's infant sons in retaliation for his banishment", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Guiderius – Cymbeline's son, kidnapped in childhood by Belarius and raised as his son Polydore", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 2680813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arvirargus – Cymbeline's son, kidnapped in childhood by Belarius and raised as his son Cadwal", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 768191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pisanio – Posthumus's servant, loyal to both Posthumus and Imogen", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cornelius – court physician", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Helen – lady attending Imogen", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two Lords attending Cloten", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two Gentlemen", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two Captains", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two Jailers", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Rome", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Philario – Posthumus's host in Rome", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Iachimo/Giacomo – a Roman lord and friend of Philario", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " French Gentleman", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dutch Gentleman", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Spanish Gentleman", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Caius Lucius – Roman ambassador and later general", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two Roman senators", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 16685964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roman tribunes", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 30594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roman captain", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Philharmonus – soothsayer", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Apparitions", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jupiter – King of the gods in Roman mythology", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 40255, 28957716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 31, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sicilius Leonatus – Posthumus's father", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Posthumus's mother", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Posthumus's two brothers", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cymbeline, the Roman Empire's vassal king of Britain, once had two sons, Guiderius and Arvirargus, but they were stolen 20 years earlier as infants by an exiled traitor named Belarius. Cymbeline discovers that his only child left, his daughter Imogen (or Innogen), has secretly married her lover Posthumus Leonatus, a member of Cymbeline's court. The lovers have exchanged jewellery as tokens: Imogen with a bracelet, and Posthumus with a ring. Cymbeline dismisses the marriage and banishes Posthumus since Imogen — as Cymbeline's only child — must produce a fully royal-blooded heir to succeed to the British throne. In the meantime, Cymbeline's Queen is conspiring to have Cloten (her cloddish and arrogant son by an earlier marriage) married to Imogen to secure her bloodline. The Queen is also plotting to murder both Imogen and Cymbeline, procuring what she believes to be deadly poison from the court doctor. The doctor, Cornelius, is suspicious and switches the poison for a harmless sleeping potion. The Queen passes the \"poison\" along to Pisanio, Posthumus and Imogen's loving servant — the latter is led to believe it is a medicinal drug. No longer able to be with her banished Posthumus, Imogen secludes herself in her chambers, away from Cloten's aggressive advances.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Summary", "target_page_ids": [ 25507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Posthumus must now live in Italy, where he meets Iachimo (or Giacomo), who challenges the prideful Posthumus to a bet that he, Iachimo, can seduce Imogen, whom Posthumus has praised for her chastity, and then bring Posthumus proof of Imogen's adultery. If Iachimo wins, he will get Posthumus's token ring. If Posthumus wins, not only must Iachimo pay him but also fight Posthumus in a duel with swords. Iachimo heads to Britain where he aggressively attempts to seduce the faithful Imogen, who sends him packing. Iachimo then hides in a chest in Imogen's bedchamber and, when the princess falls asleep, emerges to steal Posthumus's bracelet from her. He also takes note of the room, as well as the mole on Imogen's partly naked body, to be able to present false evidence to Posthumus that he has seduced his bride. Returning to Italy, Iachimo convinces Posthumus that he has successfully seduced Imogen. In his wrath, Posthumus sends two letters to Britain: one to Imogen, telling her to meet him at Milford Haven, on the Welsh coast; the other to the servant Pisanio, ordering him to murder Imogen at the Haven. However, Pisanio refuses to kill Imogen and reveals to her Posthumus's plot. He has Imogen disguise herself as a boy and continue to Milford Haven to seek employment. He also gives her the Queen's \"poison\", believing it will alleviate her psychological distress. In the guise of a boy, Imogen adopts the name \"Fidele\", meaning \"faithful\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Summary", "target_page_ids": [ 634847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1000, 1013 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Back at Cymbeline's court, Cymbeline refuses to pay his British tribute to the Roman ambassador Caius Lucius, and Lucius warns Cymbeline of the Roman Emperor's forthcoming wrath, which will amount to an invasion of Britain by Roman troops. Meanwhile, Cloten learns of the \"meeting\" between Imogen and Posthumus at Milford Haven. Dressing himself enviously in Posthumus's clothes, he decides to go to Wales to kill Posthumus, and then rape, abduct, and marry Imogen. Imogen has now been travelling as Fidele through the Welsh mountains, her health in decline as she comes to a cave: the home of Belarius, along with his \"sons\" Polydore and Cadwal, whom he raised into great hunters. These two young men are in fact the British princes Guiderius and Arviragus, who themselves do not realise their own origin. The men discover Fidele, and, instantly captivated by a strange affinity for \"him\", become fast friends. Outside the cave, Guiderius is met by Cloten, who throws insults, leading to a sword fight during which Guiderius beheads Cloten. Meanwhile, Imogen's fragile state worsens and she takes the \"poison\" as a hopeful medicine; when the men re-enter, they find her \"dead.\" They mourn and, after placing Cloten's body beside hers, briefly depart to prepare for the double burial. Imogen awakes to find the headless body, and believes it to be Posthumus because the body is wearing Posthumus's clothes. Lucius' Roman soldiers have just arrived in Britain and, as the army moves through Wales, Lucius discovers the devastated Fidele, who pretends to be a loyal servant grieving for his killed master; Lucius, moved by this faithfulness, enlists Fidele as a pageboy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Summary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The treacherous Queen is now wasting away due to the disappearance of her son Cloten. Meanwhile, despairing of his life, the guilt-ridden Posthumus enlists in the Roman forces as they begin their invasion of Britain. Belarius, Guiderius, Arviragus, and Posthumus all help rescue Cymbeline from the Roman onslaught; the king does not yet recognise these four, yet takes notice of them as they go on to fight bravely and even capture the Roman commanders, Lucius and Iachimo, thus winning the day. Posthumus, allowing himself to be captured, as well as Fidele, are imprisoned alongside the true Romans, all of whom await execution. In jail, Posthumus sleeps, while the ghosts of his dead family appear to complain to Jupiter of his grim fate. Jupiter himself then appears in thunder and glory to assure the others that destiny will grant happiness to Posthumus and Britain.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Summary", "target_page_ids": [ 40255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 715, 722 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cornelius arrives in the court to announce that the Queen has died suddenly, and that on her deathbed she unrepentantly confessed to villainous schemes against her husband and his throne. Both troubled and relieved at this news, Cymbeline prepares to execute his new prisoners, but pauses when he sees Fidele, whom he finds both beautiful and somehow familiar. Fidele has noticed Posthumus's ring on Iachimo's finger and abruptly demands to know from where the jewel came. A remorseful Iachimo tells of his bet, and how he could not seduce Imogen, yet tricked Posthumus into thinking he had. Posthumus then comes forward to confirm Iachimo's story, revealing his identity and acknowledging his wrongfulness in desiring Imogen killed. Ecstatic, Imogen throws herself at Posthumus, who still takes her for a boy and knocks her down. Pisanio then rushes forward to explain that Fidele is Imogen in disguise; Imogen still suspects that Pisanio conspired with the Queen to give her the poison. Pisanio sincerely claims innocence, and Cornelius reveals how the poison was a non-fatal potion all along. Insisting that his betrayal years ago was a set-up, Belarius makes his own happy confession, revealing Guiderius and Arviragus as Cymbeline's own two long-lost sons. With her brothers restored to their place in the line of inheritance, Imogen is now free to marry Posthumus. An elated Cymbeline pardons Belarius and the Roman prisoners, including Lucius and Iachimo. Lucius calls forth his soothsayer to decipher a prophecy of recent events, which ensures happiness for all. Blaming his manipulative Queen for his refusal to pay earlier, Cymbeline now agrees to pay the tribute to the Roman Emperor as a gesture of peace between Britain and Rome, and he invites everyone to a great feast.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Summary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cymbeline is grounded in the story of the historical British king Cunobeline, which was originally recorded in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae, but which Shakespeare likely found in the 1587 edition of Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles. Shakespeare based the setting of the play and the character Cymbeline on what he found in Holinshed's chronicles, but the plot and subplots of the play are derived from other sources. The subplot of Posthumus and Iachimo's wager derives from story II.9 of Giovanni Boccaccio's The Decameron and the anonymously authored Frederyke of Jennen. These share similar characters and wager terms, and both feature Iachimo's equivalent hiding in a chest in order to gather proof in Imogen's room. Iachimo's description of Imogen's room as proof of her infidelity derives from The Decameron, and Pisanio's reluctance to kill Imogen and his use of her bloody clothes to convince Posthumus of her death derive from Frederyke of Jennen. In both sources, the equivalent to Posthumus's bracelet is stolen jewellery that the wife later recognises while cross-dressed. Shakespeare also drew inspiration for Cymbeline from a play called The Rare Triumphs of Love and Fortune, first performed in 1582. There are many parallels between the characters of the two plays, including a king's daughter who falls for a man of unknown birth who grew up in the king's court. The subplot of Belarius and the lost princes was inspired by the story of Bomelio, an exiled nobleman in The Rare Triumphs who is later revealed to be the protagonist's father.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 506922, 56355, 690194, 15422988, 12957, 19816731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 76 ], [ 111, 131 ], [ 134, 159 ], [ 227, 249 ], [ 507, 525 ], [ 528, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first recorded production of Cymbeline, as noted by Simon Forman, was in April 1611. It was first published in the First Folio in 1623. When Cymbeline was actually written cannot be precisely dated.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Date and text", "target_page_ids": [ 2058523, 599456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 68 ], [ 119, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Yale edition suggests a collaborator had a hand in the authorship, and some scenes (e.g., Act III scene 7 and Act V scene 2) may strike the reader as particularly un-Shakespearean when compared with others. The play shares notable similarities in language, situation, and plot with Beaumont and Fletcher's tragicomedy Philaster, or Love Lies a-Bleeding (). Both plays concern themselves with a princess who, after disobeying her father in order to marry a lowly lover, is wrongly accused of infidelity and thus ordered to be murdered, before escaping and having her faithfulness proven. Furthermore, both were written for the same theatre company and audience. Some scholars believe this supports a dating of approximately 1609, though it is not clear which play preceded the other.The editors of the Oxford and Norton Shakespeare believe the name of Imogen is a misprint for Innogen—they draw several comparisons between Cymbeline and Much Ado About Nothing, in early editions of which a ghost character named Innogen was supposed to be Leonato's wife (Posthumus being also known as \"Leonatus\", the Latin form of the Italian name in the other play). Stanley Wells and Michael Dobson point out that Holinshed's Chronicles, which Shakespeare used as a source, mention an Innogen and that Forman's eyewitness account of the April 1611 performance refers to \"Innogen\" throughout. In spite of these arguments, most editions of the play have continued to use the name Imogen. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Date and text", "target_page_ids": [ 772063, 10547094, 8781048, 6264140, 8781048, 2795004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 286, 307 ], [ 322, 356 ], [ 940, 962 ], [ 993, 1008 ], [ 1042, 1049 ], [ 1155, 1168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Milford Haven is not known to have been used during the period (early 1st century AD) in which Cymbeline is set, and it is not known why Shakespeare used it in the play. Robert Nye noted that it was the closest seaport to Shakespeare's home town of Stratford-upon-Avon: \"But if you marched due west from Stratford, looking neither to left nor to right, with the idea of running away to sea in your young head, then Milford Haven is the port you'd reach,\" a walk of about , about six days' journey, that the young Shakespeare might well have taken, or at least dreamed of taking. Marisa R. Cull notes its possible symbolism as the landing site of Henry Tudor, when he invaded England via Milford on 7 August 1485 on his way to deposing Richard III and establishing the Tudor dynasty. It may also reflect English anxiety about the loyalty of the Welsh and the possibility of future invasions at Milford.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Date and text", "target_page_ids": [ 7795493, 58882, 14186, 26284, 31278, 2030193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 180 ], [ 249, 268 ], [ 646, 657 ], [ 735, 746 ], [ 768, 781 ], [ 844, 849 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cymbeline was one of Shakespeare's more popular plays during the eighteenth century, though critics including Samuel Johnson took issue with its complex plot:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticism and interpretation", "target_page_ids": [ 48594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Hazlitt and John Keats, however, numbered it among their favourite plays.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticism and interpretation", "target_page_ids": [ 161961, 16455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 20, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the early twentieth century, the play had lost favour. Lytton Strachey found it \"difficult to resist the conclusion that [Shakespeare] was getting bored himself. Bored with people, bored with real life, bored with drama, bored, in fact, with everything except poetry and poetical dreams.\" Harley Granville-Barker had similar views, saying that the play shows that Shakespeare was becoming a \"wearied artist\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticism and interpretation", "target_page_ids": [ 144482, 1203880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 73 ], [ 292, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some have argued that the play parodies its own content. Harold Bloom says \"Cymbeline, in my judgment, is partly a Shakespearean self-parody; many of his prior plays and characters are mocked by it.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticism and interpretation", "target_page_ids": [ 26255613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similarities between Cymbeline and historical accounts of the Roman Emperor Augustus have prompted critics to interpret the play as Shakespeare voicing support for the political motions of James I, who considered himself the \"British Augustus.\" His political manoeuvres to unite Scotland with England and Wales as an empire mirror Augustus' Pax Romana. The play reinforces the Jacobean idea that Britain is the successor to the civilised virtue of ancient Rome, portraying the parochialism and isolationism of Cloten and the Queen as villainous. Other critics have resisted the idea that Cymbeline endorses James I's ideas about national identity, pointing to several characters' conflicted constructions of their geographic identities. For example, although Guiderius and Arviragus are the sons of Cymbeline, a British king raised in Rome, they grew up in a Welsh cave. The brothers lament their isolation from society, a quality associated with barbarousness, but Belarius, their adoptive father, retorts that this has spared them from corrupting influences of the supposedly civilised British court.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticism and interpretation", "target_page_ids": [ 1273, 269055, 44441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 84 ], [ 189, 196 ], [ 341, 351 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Iachimo's invasion of Imogen's bedchamber reflects concern that Britain was being maligned by Italian influence. As noted by Peter A. Parolin, Cymbeline’s scenes ostensibly set in ancient Rome are in fact anachronistic portrayals of sixteenth-century Italy, which was characterised by contemporary British authors as a place where vice, debauchery, and treachery had supplanted the virtue of ancient Rome. Though Cymbeline concludes with a peace forged between Britain and Rome, Iachimo's corruption of Posthumus and metaphorical rape of Imogen demonstrate fears that Britain's political union with other cultures might expose Britons to harmful foreign influences.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticism and interpretation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scholars have emphasised that the play attributes great political significance to Imogen's virginity and chastity. There is some debate as to whether Imogen and Posthumus's marriage is legitimate. Imogen has historically been played and received as an ideal, chaste woman maintaining qualities applauded in a patriarchal structure; however, critics argue that Imogen's actions contradict these social definitions through her defiance of her father and her cross-dressing. Yet critics including Tracey Miller-Tomlinson have emphasised the ways in which the play upholds patriarchal ideology, including in the final scene, with its panoply of male victors. Whilst Imogen and Posthumus's marriage at first upholds heterosexual norms, their separation and final reunion leave open non-heterosexual possibilities, initially exposed by Imogen's cross-dressing as Fidele. Miller-Tomlinson points out the falseness of their social significance as a \"perfect example\" of a public \"heterosexual marriage\", considering that their private relations turn out to be \"homosocial, homoerotic, and hermaphroditic.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticism and interpretation", "target_page_ids": [ 7366, 23266996, 14084, 1471660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 113 ], [ 309, 320 ], [ 711, 723 ], [ 1065, 1075 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Queer theory has gained traction in scholarship on Cymbeline, building upon the work of Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick and Judith Butler. Scholarship on this topic has emphasised the play's Ovidian allusions and exploration of non-normative gender/sexuality – achieved through separation from traditional society into what Valerie Traub terms \"green worlds.\" Amongst the most obvious and frequently cited examples of this non-normative dimension of the play is the prominence of homoeroticism, as seen in Guiderius and Arviragus's semi-sexual fascination with the disguised Imogen/Fidele. In addition to homoerotic and homosocial elements, the subjects of hermaphroditism and paternity/maternity also feature prominently in queer interpretations of Cymbeline. Janet Adelman set the tone for the intersection of paternity and hermaphroditism in arguing that Cymbeline's lines, \"oh, what am I, / A mother to the birth of three? Ne’er mother / Rejoiced deliverance more\", amount a \"parthenogenesis fantasy\". According to Adelman and Tracey Miller-Tomlinson, in taking sole credit for the creation of his children Cymbeline acts a hermaphrodite who transforms a maternal function into a patriarchal strategy by regaining control of his male heirs and daughter, Imogen. Imogen's own experience with gender fluidity and cross-dressing has largely been interpreted through a patriarchal lens. Unlike other Shakespearean agents of onstage gender fluidity – Portia, Rosalind, Viola and Julia – Imogen is not afforded empowerment upon her transformation into Fidele. Instead, Imogen's power is inherited from her father and based upon the prospect of reproduction.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticism and interpretation", "target_page_ids": [ 148979, 609068, 148809, 37802, 18611260, 32710616, 5700, 7093532, 19726414, 22203213, 310992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 88, 109 ], [ 114, 127 ], [ 181, 188 ], [ 647, 662 ], [ 751, 764 ], [ 1305, 1319 ], [ 1440, 1446 ], [ 1448, 1456 ], [ 1458, 1463 ], [ 1468, 1473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the 1611 performance mentioned by Simon Forman, there is no record of production until 1634, when the play was revived at court for Charles I and Henrietta Maria. The Caroline production was noted as being \"well likte by the kinge.\" In 1728 John Rich staged the play with his company at Lincoln's Inn Fields, with emphasis placed on the spectacle of the production rather than the text of the play. Theophilus Cibber revived Shakespeare's text in 1744 with a performance at the Haymarket. There is evidence that Cibber put on another performance in 1746, and another in 1758.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 7426, 20949403, 7541904, 1029932, 715341, 973878, 318986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 147 ], [ 152, 167 ], [ 173, 181 ], [ 247, 256 ], [ 293, 313 ], [ 405, 422 ], [ 484, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1761, David Garrick edited a new version of the text. It is recognized as being close to the original Shakespeare, although there are several differences. Changes included the shortening of Imogen's burial scene and the entire fifth act, including the removal of Posthumus's dream. Garrick's text was first performed in November of that year, starring Garrick himself as Posthumus. Several scholars have indicated that Garrick's Posthumus was much liked. Valerie Wayne notes that Garrick's changes made the play more nationalistic, representing a trend in perception of Cymbeline during that period. Garrick's version of Cymbeline would prove popular; it was staged a number of times over the next few decades.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 164237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late eighteenth century, Cymbeline was performed in Jamaica.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 15660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The play entered the Romantic era with John Philip Kemble's company in 1801. Kemble's productions made use of lavish spectacle and scenery; one critic noted that during the bedroom scene, the bed was so large that Iachimo all but needed a ladder to view Imogen in her sleep. Kemble added a dance to Cloten's comic wooing of Imogen. In 1827, his brother Charles mounted an antiquarian production at Covent Garden; it featured costumes designed after the descriptions of the ancient British by such writers as Julius Caesar and Diodorus Siculus.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 376573, 376554, 277882, 15924, 99425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 57 ], [ 353, 360 ], [ 398, 411 ], [ 508, 521 ], [ 526, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Charles Macready mounted the play several times between 1837 and 1842. At the Theatre Royal, Marylebone, an epicene production was staged with Mary Warner, Fanny Vining, Anna Cora Mowatt, and Edward Loomis Davenport.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 375408, 24324929, 1069085, 52704336, 9640377, 1631085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 101, 111 ], [ 116, 123 ], [ 164, 176 ], [ 178, 194 ], [ 200, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1859, Cymbeline was first performed in Sri Lanka. In the late nineteenth century, the play was produced several times in India.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 26750, 14533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 51 ], [ 124, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1864, as part of the celebrations of Shakespeare's birth, Samuel Phelps performed the title role at Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. Helena Faucit returned to the stage for this performance.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 1990658, 1503073, 1516211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 74 ], [ 103, 128 ], [ 130, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The play was also one of Ellen Terry's last performances with Henry Irving at the Lyceum in 1896. Terry's performance was widely praised, though Irving was judged an indifferent Iachimo. Like Garrick, Irving removed the dream of Posthumus; he also curtailed Iachimo's remorse and attempted to render Cloten's character consistent. A review in the Athenaeum compared this trimmed version to pastoral comedies such as As You Like It. The set design, overseen by Lawrence Alma-Tadema, was lavish and advertised as historically accurate, though the reviewer for the time complained of such anachronisms as gold crowns and printed books as props.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 213396, 331075, 2492291, 1559153, 204406, 23454544, 28765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ], [ 62, 74 ], [ 82, 88 ], [ 347, 356 ], [ 390, 398 ], [ 416, 430 ], [ 460, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similarly lavish but less successful was Margaret Mather's production in New York in 1897. The sets and publicity cost $40,000, but Mather was judged too emotional and undisciplined to succeed in a fairly cerebral role.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 4317618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Barry Jackson staged a modern dress production for the Birmingham Rep in 1923, two years before his influential modern dress Hamlet. Walter Nugent Monck brought his Maddermarket Theatre production to Stratford in 1946, inaugurating the post-war tradition of the play.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 9173010, 16487457, 30864998, 13554, 1728627, 10161437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 23, 35 ], [ 55, 69 ], [ 125, 131 ], [ 133, 152 ], [ 165, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "London saw two productions in the 1956 season. Michael Benthall directed the less successful production, at The Old Vic. The set design by Audrey Cruddas was notably minimal, with only a few essential props. She relied instead on a variety of lighting effects to reinforce mood; actors seemed to come out of darkness and return to darkness. Barbara Jefford was criticised as too cold and formal for Imogen; Leon Gluckman played Posthumus, Derek Godfrey Iachimo, and Derek Francis Cymbeline. Following Victorian practice, Benthall drastically shortened the last act.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 16390015, 589824, 9163293, 8129812, 25090722, 2518462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 63 ], [ 108, 119 ], [ 139, 153 ], [ 341, 356 ], [ 439, 452 ], [ 466, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By contrast, Peter Hall's production at the Shakespeare Memorial presented nearly the entire play, including the long-neglected dream scene (although a golden eagle designed for Jupiter turned out too heavy for the stage machinery and was not used). Hall presented the play as a distant fairy tale, with stylised performances. The production received favourable reviews, both for Hall's conception and, especially, for Peggy Ashcroft's Imogen. Richard Johnson played Posthumus, and Robert Harris Cymbeline. Iachimo was played by Geoffrey Keen, whose father Malcolm had played Iachimo with Ashcroft at the Old Vic in 1932.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 461787, 353955, 541421, 3752631, 2640072, 3143931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 23 ], [ 44, 64 ], [ 419, 433 ], [ 444, 459 ], [ 529, 542 ], [ 557, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hall's approach attempted to unify the play's diversity by means of a fairy-tale topos. The next major Royal Shakespeare Company production, in 1962, went in the opposite direction. Working on a set draped with heavy white sheets, director William Gaskill employed Brechtian alienation effects, to mixed critical reviews. The acting, however, was widely praised. Vanessa Redgrave as Imogen was often compared favourably to Ashcroft; Eric Porter was a success as Iachimo, as was Clive Swift as Cloten. Patrick Allen was Posthumus, and Tom Fleming played the title role.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 429955, 167785, 9830987, 24956001, 1220813, 63741, 1899433, 868882, 1270304, 12166107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 86 ], [ 103, 128 ], [ 240, 255 ], [ 265, 274 ], [ 275, 292 ], [ 363, 379 ], [ 433, 444 ], [ 478, 489 ], [ 501, 514 ], [ 534, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A decade later, John Barton's 1974 production for the RSC (with assistance from Clifford Williams) featured Sebastian Shaw in the title role, Tim Pigott-Smith as Posthumus, Ian Richardson as Iachimo, and Susan Fleetwood as Imogen. Charles Keating was Cloten. As with contemporary productions of Pericles, this one used a narrator (Cornelius) to signal changes in mood and treatment to the audience. Robert Speaight disliked the set design, which he called too minimal, but he approved the acting.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 13539796, 2569869, 398165, 2501690, 965995, 2912706, 704546, 1485137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 27 ], [ 80, 97 ], [ 108, 122 ], [ 142, 158 ], [ 173, 187 ], [ 204, 219 ], [ 231, 246 ], [ 399, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1980, David Jones revived the play for the RSC; the production was in general a disappointment, although Judi Dench as Imogen received reviews that rivalled Ashcroft's. Ben Kingsley played Iachimo; Roger Rees was Posthumus. In 1987, Bill Alexander directed the play in The Other Place (later transferring to the Pit in London's Barbican Centre) with Harriet Walter playing Imogen, David Bradley as Cymbeline and Nicholas Farrell as Posthumus.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 85432, 168480, 1135580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 118 ], [ 172, 184 ], [ 201, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the Stratford Festival, the play was directed in 1970 by Jean Gascon and in 1987 by Robin Phillips. The latter production, which was marked by much-approved scenic complexity, featured Colm Feore as Iachimo, and Martha Burns as Imogen. The play was again at Stratford in 2004, directed by David Latham. A large medieval tapestry unified the fairly simple stage design and underscored Latham's fairy-tale inspired direction.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 343056, 1996940, 10002475, 663991, 6027048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 25 ], [ 60, 71 ], [ 87, 101 ], [ 188, 198 ], [ 215, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1994, Ajay Chowdhury directed an Anglo-Indian production of Cymbeline at the Rented Space Theatre Company. Set in India under British rule, the play features Iachimo, played by Rohan Kenworthy, as a British soldier and Imogen, played by Uzma Hameed, as an Indian princess.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 710050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the new Globe Theatre in 2001, a cast of six (including Abigail Thaw, Mark Rylance, and Richard Hope) used extensive doubling for the play. The cast wore identical costumes even when in disguise, allowing for particular comic effects related to doubling (as when Cloten attempts to disguise himself as Posthumus.)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 199185, 15422547, 2227406, 4216546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 24 ], [ 59, 71 ], [ 73, 85 ], [ 91, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There have been some well-received theatrical productions including the Public Theater's 1998 production in New York City, directed by Andrei Șerban. Cymbeline was also performed at the Cambridge Arts Theatre in October 2007 in a production directed by Sir Trevor Nunn, and in November 2007 at the Chicago Shakespeare Theatre. The play was included in the 2013 repertory season of the Oregon Shakespeare Festival.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 1218943, 8636402, 18918368, 2138238, 689551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 86 ], [ 135, 148 ], [ 186, 208 ], [ 298, 325 ], [ 385, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2004 and 2014, the Hudson Shakespeare Company of New Jersey produced two distinct versions of the play. The 2004 production, directed by Jon Ciccarelli, embraced the fairy tale aspect of the story and produced a colourful version with wicked step-mothers, feisty princesses and a campy Iachimo. The 2014 version, directed by Rachel Alt, went in a completely opposite direction and placed the action on ranch in the American Old West. The Queen was a southern belle married to a rancher, with Imogen as a high society girl in love with the cowhand Posthumous.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 43433025, 252507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 48 ], [ 427, 435 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a 2007 Cheek by Jowl production, Tom Hiddleston doubled as Posthumus and Cloten.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 9650668, 15003874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 36, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2011, the Shakespeare Theatre Company of Washington, DC, presented a version of the play that emphasised its fable and folklore elements, set as a tale within a tale, as told to a child.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2012, Antoni Cimolino directed a production at the Stratford Festival that steered into the fairy-tale elements of the text.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 14997743, 343056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 54, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also in 2012 the South Sudan Theatre Company staged Cymbeline in Juba Arabic for the Shakespeare's Globe \"Globe to Globe\" festival. It was translated by Derik Uya Alfred and directed by Joseph Abuk. Connections between the content of the play and South Sudan's own political struggle have been drawn by the production's producers, as well as some scholars. Overall, the production was well received by audiences and critics. Critic Matt Truman gave the production four out of five stars, saying \"The world's youngest nation seems delighted to be here and, played with this much heart, even Shakespeare's most rambling romance becomes irresistible.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 32350676, 3684463, 2116548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 28 ], [ 65, 76 ], [ 85, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2013, Samir Bhamra directed the play for Phizzical Productions with six actors playing multiple parts for a UK national tour. The cast included Sophie Khan Levy as Innojaan, Adam Youssefbeygi, Tony Hasnath, Liz Jadav and Robby Khela. The production was set in the souks of Dubai and the Bollywood film industry during the 1990s communal riots and received acclaim from reviewers and academics alike.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 46235976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also in 2013, a folk musical adaptation of Cymbeline was performed at the First Folio Theatre in Oak Brook, Illinois. The setting was the American South during the Civil War, with Cymbeline as a man of high status who avoids military service. The play was performed outdoors and was accompanied by traditional Appalachian folk songs.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 10623, 20572, 17549679, 179553, 863, 85023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 20 ], [ 21, 28 ], [ 74, 93 ], [ 138, 152 ], [ 164, 173 ], [ 310, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, at Shakespeare's Globe in the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse, a production was directed by Sam Yates where the role of Innogen was played by Emily Barber and Jonjo O'Neill as Posthumus. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 2116548, 41952850, 63536242, 4892468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 31 ], [ 93, 102 ], [ 143, 155 ], [ 160, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016, Melly Still directed Cymbeline at the Royal Shakespeare Company. This version of the play was performed at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre before moving to the Barbican in late 2016. The performance featured Bethan Cullinane as Innogen and Gillian Bevan as Cymbeline.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performance history", "target_page_ids": [ 17345716, 167785, 353955, 26536263, 12630090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 20 ], [ 47, 72 ], [ 120, 145 ], [ 167, 175 ], [ 247, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The play was adapted by Thomas d'Urfey as The Injured Princess, or, the Fatal Wager; this version was produced at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, presumably by the united King's Company and Duke's Company, in 1682. The play changes some names and details, and adds a subplot, typical of the Restoration, in which a virtuous waiting-woman escapes the traps laid by Cloten. D'Urfey also changes Pisanio's character so that he at once believes in Imogen's (Eugenia, in D'Urfey's play) guilt. For his part, D'Urfey's Posthumus is ready to accept that his wife might have been untrue, as she is young and beautiful. Some details of this alteration survived in productions at least until the middle of the century.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 744464, 1503073, 5318845, 14049180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 38 ], [ 118, 143 ], [ 170, 184 ], [ 189, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Hawkins revised the play again in 1759. His was among the last of the heavy revisions designed to bring the play in line with classical unities. He cut the Queen, reduced the action to two places (the court and a forest in Wales). The dirge \"With fairest flowers...\" was set to music by Thomas Arne.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 30740, 162051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 151 ], [ 295, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nearer the end of the century, Henry Brooke wrote an adaptation which was apparently never staged. His version eliminates the brothers altogether as part of a notable enhancement of Posthumus's role in the play.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 931697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George Bernard Shaw, who criticised the play perhaps more harshly than he did any of Shakespeare's other works, took aim at what he saw as the defects of the final act in his 1937 Cymbeline Refinished; as early as 1896, he had complained about the absurdities of the play to Ellen Terry, then preparing to act Imogen. He called it \"stagey trash of the lowest melodramatic order\". He later changed his view, saying it was \"one of the finest of Shakespeare's later plays\", but he remained convinced that it \"goes to pieces in the final act\". Accordingly, in Cymbeline Refinished he rewrote the last act, cutting many of the numerous revelations and expositions, while also making Imogen a much more assertive figure in line with his feminist views.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 12855, 45334928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 180, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There have been a number of radio adaptations of Cymbeline between the 1930s and the 2000s. The BBC broadcast productions of Cymbeline in the United Kingdom in 1934, 1951, 1957, 1986, 1996, and 2006. NBC broadcast a production of the play in the United States in 1938. In October 1951 the BBC aired a production of George Bernard Shaw's Cymbeline Refinished, as well as Shaw's foreword to the play.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 19344654, 31717, 21780, 3434750, 12855, 45334928, 12855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 99 ], [ 142, 156 ], [ 200, 203 ], [ 246, 259 ], [ 315, 334 ], [ 337, 357 ], [ 370, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lucius J. Henderson directed the first screen adaptation of Cymbeline in 1913. The film was produced by the Thanhouser Company and starred Florence La Badie as Imogen, James Cruze as Posthumus, William Garwood as Iachimo, William Russell as Cymbeline, and Jean Darnell as the Queen.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 7299619, 477291, 184469, 2374207, 4366769, 7238665, 7509725, 7257543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 108, 126 ], [ 139, 156 ], [ 160, 166 ], [ 168, 179 ], [ 194, 209 ], [ 222, 237 ], [ 256, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1937 the BBC broadcast several scenes of André van Gyseghem's production of the play, which opened 16 November the same year, on television. The scenes that comprised the broadcast were pulled exclusively from Acts I and II of the play, and included the 'trunk scene' from Act II Scene 2. In 1956 the BBC produced a similar television program, this time airing scenes from Michael Benthall's theatrical production, which opened 11 September 1956. Like the 1937 program, the 1956 broadcast ran for roughly half an hour and presented several scenes from Cymbeline, including the trunk scene.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 19344654, 21140901, 19344654, 16390015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 15 ], [ 44, 62 ], [ 305, 308 ], [ 377, 393 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1968 Jerzy Jarocki directed an adaptation of the play for Polish television, starring Wiktor Sadecki as Cymbeline and Ewa Lassek as Imogen.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 44181965, 22936, 2374207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 21 ], [ 61, 67 ], [ 135, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elijah Moshinsky directed the BBC Television Shakespeare adaptation in 1982, ignoring the ancient British period setting in favour of a more timeless and snow-laden atmosphere inspired by Rembrandt and his contemporary Dutch painters. Richard Johnson, Claire Bloom, Helen Mirren, and Robert Lindsay play Cymbeline, his Queen, Imogen, and Iachimo, respectively, with Michael Pennington as Posthumus.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 37624600, 187709, 4254144, 241517, 3752631, 913123, 230698, 980033, 1384093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 30, 56 ], [ 188, 197 ], [ 206, 233 ], [ 235, 250 ], [ 252, 264 ], [ 266, 278 ], [ 284, 298 ], [ 366, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, Ethan Hawke and director Michael Almereyda, who previously collaborated on the 2000 film Hamlet, re-teamed for the film Cymbeline, in which Hawke plays Iachimo. The film is set in the context of urban gang warfare. Ed Harris takes the title role. Penn Badgley plays the orphan Posthumus; Milla Jovovich plays the role of the Queen; Anton Yelchin is Cloten; and Dakota Johnson plays the role of Imogen.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 164120, 4737756, 101408, 40182930, 171606, 6109485, 159547, 1034732, 7000810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 20 ], [ 34, 51 ], [ 98, 104 ], [ 129, 138 ], [ 224, 233 ], [ 256, 268 ], [ 297, 311 ], [ 341, 354 ], [ 370, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to operatic adaptations only incidental music was composed. The first operatic adaption seems to be composed by Edmond Missa in 1894, under the title \"Dinah\"; American composer Christopher Berg composed another one, of which scenes were performed in 2009.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Stage adaptions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Beethoven’s one opera Fidelio, the loyal wife Leonore, disguising herself as a man, takes on the name Fidelio, as a probable reference to Imogen’s cross-dressing as Fidele.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 38475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 'Song' from Act II, Scene 3 (Hark, hark! the lark) was set to music by Franz Schubert in 1826.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 48892826, 44888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 54 ], [ 75, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Perhaps the most famous verses in the play come from the funeral song of Act IV, Scene 2, which begins:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fear no more the heat o' the sun,", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nor the furious winter's rages;", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thou thy worldly task hast done,", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Home art gone, and ta'en thy wages:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Golden lads and girls all must,", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As chimney-sweepers, come to dust.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first two lines are quoted by Virginia Woolf in Mrs. Dalloway by the two main characters Clarissa and Septimus Smith. The lines, which turn Mrs. Dalloway's thoughts to the trauma of the First World War, are at once an elegiac dirge and a profoundly dignified declaration of endurance. The song provides a major organisational motif for the novel. The final couplet also appears in the Anton Myrer novel, The Last Convertible.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 32742, 220272, 4764461, 11763520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 48 ], [ 52, 65 ], [ 190, 205 ], [ 389, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The last two lines appear to have inspired T. S. Eliot in \"Lines to a Yorkshire Terrier\" (in Five-Finger Exercises). He writes:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 30273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pollicle dogs and cats all must", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jellicle cats and dogs all must", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Like undertakers, come to dust.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The song was set to music by Roger Quilter as \"Fear No More the Heat o' the Sun,\" No. 1 of Five Shakespeare Songs, Op. 23 (1921). It was also set by Gerald Finzi as part of his song cycle on texts by Shakespeare Let Us Garlands Bring (1942). The text is sung by Cleo Laine to music by John Dankworth on her 1964 album Shakespeare and All That Jazz.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 1524141, 141653, 308097, 46526811, 514448, 1135819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 42 ], [ 149, 161 ], [ 177, 187 ], [ 212, 233 ], [ 262, 272 ], [ 285, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the end of Stephen Sondheim's The Frogs, William Shakespeare is competing against George Bernard Shaw for the title of best playwright, deciding which of them is to be brought back from the dead in order to improve the world. Shakespeare sings the funeral song of Act IV, Scene 2, when asked about his view of death (the song is titled \"Fear No More\").", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 29268, 3558994, 12855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 30 ], [ 33, 42 ], [ 85, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Fear no more the heat of the sun\" is the line that Winnie and her husband are trying to remember in Samuel Beckett's Happy Days as they sit exposed to the elements.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 361217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Epilogue of the novel Appointment with Death by Agatha Christie, the first four lines of the verse are quoted by the character Ginevra Boynton as she reflects on the life of her deceased mother Mrs Boynton.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 2201832, 984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 51 ], [ 55, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In The Scent of Water (1963) by Elizabeth Goudge, the central character, Mary Lindsay, feels struck by lightning when she realises she has fallen in love with Paul Randall, an author and Royal Air Force pilot, blinded in the last days of World War II, and married. \"Fear no more the lightning-flash\", Mary suddenly thinks, along with the rest of that stanza, ending \"All lovers young, all lovers must /Consign to thee, and come to dust\", knowing she must hide her love, and recognising that, already fifty, she is growing old (Chapter IX, Part 1, p 164).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cymbeline, 2014 film", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40182930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pino-Saavedra, Yolando, Kurt Ranke, Italo Calvino, J. M. Synge, Violet Paget, Alan Bruford, Peter Christian Asbjørnsen, and Jørgen Moe. \"Cymbeline.\" In Shakespeare and the Folktale: An Anthology of Stories, edited by ARTESE CHARLOTTE, 241-99. PRINCETON; OXFORD: Princeton University Press, 2019. doi:10.2307/j.ctvg25434.11.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cymbeline – Searchable, modernized text at Internet Shakespeare Editions.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 30730915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cymbeline – Texts, supplementary materials, and resources at Internet Shakespeare Editions.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 30730915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cymbeline – from Project Gutenberg", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 23301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 35 ] ] } ]

[ "English_Renaissance_plays", "Shakespearean_comedies", "Fiction_set_in_Roman_Britain", "British_traditional_history", "1611_plays", "British_plays_adapted_into_films", "Uxoricide_in_fiction", "Plays_set_in_the_1st_century", "Tragicomedy_plays" ]

[ "The Tragedy of Cymbeline", "Tragedy of Cymbeline", "Cymbeline King of Britaine" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The late romances, often simply called the romances, are a grouping of William Shakespeare's last plays, comprising Pericles, Prince of Tyre; Cymbeline; The Winter's Tale; and The Tempest. The Two Noble Kinsmen, of which Shakespeare was co-author, is sometimes also included in the grouping. The term \"romances\" was first used for these late works in Edward Dowden's Shakespeare: A Critical Study of His Mind and Art (1875). Later writers have generally been content to adopt Dowden's term.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32897, 308766, 39628, 85378, 23487767, 437323, 405486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 90 ], [ 116, 140 ], [ 142, 151 ], [ 153, 170 ], [ 176, 187 ], [ 189, 210 ], [ 352, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shakespeare's plays cannot be precisely dated, but it is generally agreed that these comedies followed a series of tragedies including Othello, King Lear and Macbeth. Shakespeare wrote tragedies because their productions were financially successful, but he returned to comedy towards the end of his career, mixing it with tragic and mystical elements. Shakespeare's late romances were also influenced by the development of tragicomedy and the extreme elaboration of the courtly masque as staged by Ben Jonson and Inigo Jones. The subjects and style of these plays were also influenced by the preference of the monarch, by Shakespeare's ageing company and by their more upper class audiences.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22460, 55721, 18866, 104952, 74909, 48261, 165453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 142 ], [ 144, 153 ], [ 158, 165 ], [ 423, 434 ], [ 478, 484 ], [ 498, 508 ], [ 513, 524 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The romances call for spectacular effects to be shown onstage, including storms at sea, opulent interior and exterior scenery, dream settings and the illusion of time passing. Scholars have argued that the late plays deal with faith and redemption, and are variations on themes of rewarding virtue over vice.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Shakespeare's late romances are:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pericles, Prince of Tyre, ca. 1603–08", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plays", "target_page_ids": [ 308766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cymbeline, ca. 1608–10", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plays", "target_page_ids": [ 39628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Winter's Tale, ca. 1609–11", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plays", "target_page_ids": [ 85378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Tempest, ca. 1603–11", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plays", "target_page_ids": [ 23487767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Two Noble Kinsmen, ca. 1612–14 (co-written with John Fletcher)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plays", "target_page_ids": [ 437323, 1444920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 53, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sources: F E Halliday (1964), A L Rowse (1978) and Stanley Wells (1986)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plays", "target_page_ids": [ 14120747, 189576, 2795004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 21 ], [ 30, 39 ], [ 51, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Norton Shakespeare describes Henry VIII (ca. 1612–13) as being characteristic of the late romances, but still considers it one of the histories, as does Rowse.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Plays", "target_page_ids": [ 597118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The category of Shakespearean romance arises from a desire among critics for the late plays to be recognised as a more complex kind of comedy; the labels of romance and tragicomedy are preferred by the majority of modern critics and editors. In the First Folio of 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, its editors, listed The Tempest and The Winter's Tale as comedies, and Cymbeline as a tragedy. Pericles did not appear in it at all. In 1875, when Dowden argued that Shakespeare's late comedies should be called \"romances\", he did so because they resemble late medieval and early modern \"romances\", a genre in which stories were set across the immensity of space and time. The romances have grand plot points which are combined with humour, dramatic action and internal struggles. They also feature broader characters, larger spectacles and a different handling of the themes of appearance and reality. The late romances differed from early Shakespearean comedies by relying on grand themes, rather than specific moments. The romances are Shakespearean tragedies that end happily, instead of a moment of danger that moves rapidly to a solution. They also focus on the relationships between father and daughter.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Labelling and structure", "target_page_ids": [ 599456, 599440, 599443, 68899744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 260 ], [ 270, 283 ], [ 288, 301 ], [ 590, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The final plays share some common traits:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Defining characteristics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tragic or potentially tragic elements at the beginning of the play that are then resolved by the end, such as Leontes's jealousy in The Winter's Tale, or the shipwreck and drownings in The Tempest;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Defining characteristics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Older men are more prominently featured;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Defining characteristics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Young lovers are a part of each play, but are not central to the plot;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Defining characteristics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A redemptive plotline with a happy ending reuniting long-separated family members;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Defining characteristics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magic and other fantastical elements;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Defining characteristics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The presence of pre-Christian, masque-like figures, like Jupiter in Cymbeline and the goddesses whom Prospero summons in The Tempest;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Defining characteristics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A mixture of \"courtly\" and \"pastoral\" scenes (such as the gentry and the island residents in The Tempest and the pastoral and courtly contrasts of The Winter's Tale).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Defining characteristics", "target_page_ids": [ 204406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shakespeare's romances were also influenced by two major developments in theatre in the early years of the seventeenth century. The first was the innovation of tragicomedy initiated by John Fletcher and developed in the early Beaumont and Fletcher collaborations. Tragicomedies made a pretence at \"grave stuff\" but invariably provided a happy ending with light entertainment. Shakespeare's romances are more sharply tragicomic than his comedies: threats of death and scenes of suffering are more acute. Encounters with the supernatural are also more direct and emphatic. The other influence was the extreme elaboration of the courtly masque being stage in the same period by Ben Jonson and Inigo Jones. Key scenes in the late romances are closely related to court masques: They embrace the visual magnificence but also the shallowness of such a display.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Tragicomic influence", "target_page_ids": [ 104952, 1444920, 772063, 74909, 48261, 165453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 171 ], [ 185, 198 ], [ 226, 247 ], [ 634, 640 ], [ 675, 685 ], [ 690, 701 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The popular drama during the Renaissance was subject to external influences, specifically what the ruler wanted to see. Elizabeth I enjoyed watching what the people liked, which were the tragedies. Elizabeth reigned until her death in 1603. James I succeeded her, and he preferred the romances.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10128, 269055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 131 ], [ 241, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shakespeare's health was impaired, and he died about five years after The Tempest, the last play he wrote by himself. The shift indicates that he was giving up composition. He retired to Stratford following completion of his final play. The scholar Catherine Alexander has suggested that the plays were not specifically autobiographical in respect of Shakespeare's advancing old age, but reflected the fact that the actors themselves were older. The King's Men occupied a second playhouse, the Blackfriars, which had been out of use for several years. The playhouse had been shut down because of objections by local residents, but was reopened during the second half of 1608. In the interim the actors had aged, and Shakespeare adjusted the age of his characters.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The King's Men were allowed to change their name from the Lord Chamberlain's Men in 1603, when James I came to the throne. They would put on as many as two new plays a week. Many plays had only a few performances, and there was no director: actors were expected to know fairly standard blocking patterns.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 620845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Audiences at the Blackfriars were generally upper class, as the cost of admission was so high that the lower classes were unlikely to attend many performances. Because of the sophistication of the audience, the romances leaned more toward aesthetics and culture.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The romances create a challenge for directors, as they require spectacular effects to be shown onstage. For Pericles, in 1854, Samuel Phelps created the effect of a storm by using rowers manning oars to carry Pericles from one location to another while a panorama moved behind them to create the illusion of travel. Cymbeline often offers two different directions for staging: grand and simple. In the spring of 1896, Henry Irving staged the play at the Lyceum Theatre, London with elaborate Celtic sets for Cymbeline's palace gardens and interior rooms, a Roman banqueting hall for Posthumus's visit to Rome, a handsomely decorated bedchamber for Imogen, and a spectacular dream setting for the descent of Jupiter. Ben Greet at The Old Vic in 1918, on the other hand, chose a simple, Elizabethan approach. The Winter's Tale poses the challenges of time passing and a bear pursuing Antigonus off stage. In 1976, Trevor Nunn and John Barton cast John Nettles as both Time and the bear. At Stratford-upon-Avon in 1986, Terry Hands used a bearskin rug, which rose off the ground to chase Antigonus off.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performances", "target_page_ids": [ 1990658, 331075, 2492291, 6044331, 589824, 224508, 13539796, 974116, 353955, 5192678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 140 ], [ 418, 430 ], [ 454, 468 ], [ 716, 725 ], [ 729, 740 ], [ 912, 923 ], [ 928, 939 ], [ 945, 957 ], [ 988, 1007 ], [ 1017, 1028 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Tempest opens with a scene inspired by the shipwreck of The Sea Venture in 1609. This scene has allowed for different stagings, from William Charles Macready in 1842 at Covent Garden featuring a huge sea vessel, fully rigged and manned, to Robert Falls's production at the Goodman Theatre in 1987, where the scene was set on a cruiseship, with tourist passengers in deck chairs or playing shuffleboard until disaster struck.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Performances", "target_page_ids": [ 375408, 277882, 2460041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 161 ], [ 173, 186 ], [ 277, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of the shift in style, as well as Shakespeare's physical state, there has been much debate about why the late plays were written as they were. Dowden created a biographical view that suggested that Shakespeare was suffering from depression when he wrote his tragedies, and had worked his way out of it to create the romances. SirEdmund Chambers suggested that he suffered a breakdown while writing Timon of Athens, and the romances reflect a kind of psychological convalescence. Clifford Leech viewed the romances as infected with a kind of fantastical puritanism that came from Shakespeare's personal revulsion from sex. D G James believed that Shakespeare ran out of poetic energy as he got older. Raphael Lyne comments that it is impossible to show that Shakespeare managed his career to this extent, and there is no pressing need to consider these works as anything other than coincidentally \"late\". There is a belief among some scholars that the late plays deal with faith and redemption, and are variations on themes of rewarding virtue over vice.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 4505660, 30308105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 334, 352 ], [ 487, 501 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "G. Wilson Knight was among those critics to argue that the late romances embody, together with the high tragedies or even above them, Shakespeare's greatest achievement. Harold Bloom says of The Winter's Tale that in it Shakespeare returns to his full talent and genius with full force.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 1222545, 26255613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 170, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A film version of Cymbeline was released in 2014, starring Milla Jovovich, Ethan Hawke, Penn Badgley, John Leguizamo and Ed Harris.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Film adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 40182930, 159547, 164120, 6109485, 23830110, 171606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 14 ], [ 59, 73 ], [ 75, 86 ], [ 88, 100 ], [ 102, 116 ], [ 121, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Tempest has been adapted most often. A silent film version was made in 1908. Later adaptations include, Yellow Sky (1948) – set in the wild west, with Gregory Peck and Anne Baxter; Forbidden Planet (1956) – a science fiction classic set in outer space; Derek Jarman's 1979 version relocated to a crumbling mansion off the Scottish coast; Tempest (1982) – set on a Greek isle, with John Cassavetes, Molly Ringwald, Gena Rowlands and Susan Sarandon; Prospero's Books (1991) starring John Gielgud – which is not so much an adaptation as a reading of the play, combining film, dance, opera, and animation; and a 2010 version with Prospero recast as Prospera, played by Helen Mirren.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Film adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 6554432, 77491, 187081, 54999, 155304, 11595645, 8905485, 273777, 84934, 225494, 68323, 1608822, 167961, 20475363, 230698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 118 ], [ 155, 167 ], [ 172, 183 ], [ 185, 201 ], [ 257, 269 ], [ 272, 284 ], [ 342, 349 ], [ 385, 400 ], [ 402, 416 ], [ 418, 431 ], [ 436, 450 ], [ 452, 468 ], [ 485, 497 ], [ 612, 624 ], [ 669, 681 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shakespearean problem play", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 605810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Literary Romance in a larger context is a genre related to Comedy", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 20914042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 66 ] ] } ]

[ "Romance_(genre)", "William_Shakespeare" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Alpine skiing at the 2002 Winter Olympics consisted of ten events held February 10–23 in the United States near Salt Lake City, Utah. The downhill, super-G, and combined events were held at Snowbasin, the giant slaloms at Park City, and the slaloms at adjacent Deer Valley.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39576, 38678, 3434750, 53837, 31716, 218183, 382407, 4149460, 2253934, 344836, 5680177, 8508, 748238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 21, 41 ], [ 93, 106 ], [ 112, 126 ], [ 128, 132 ], [ 138, 146 ], [ 148, 155 ], [ 161, 169 ], [ 190, 199 ], [ 205, 217 ], [ 222, 231 ], [ 241, 247 ], [ 261, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fifty nations competed in the alpine skiing events at Salt Lake City.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medal table", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Snowbasin hosted the downhill, super-G, and combined events; the giant slaloms were at Park City and the slaloms at adjacent Deer Valley", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Course information", "target_page_ids": [ 2253934, 218183, 382407, 4149460, 344836, 5680177, 8508, 748238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 21, 29 ], [ 31, 38 ], [ 44, 52 ], [ 65, 77 ], [ 87, 96 ], [ 105, 111 ], [ 125, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alpine skiing at the 2002 Winter Paralympics", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19875340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "FIS-Ski.com – alpine skiing – 2002 Winter Olympics – Salt Lake City, Utah, USA", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "de.wikipedia.org – Olympische Winterspiele 2002 – Ski Alpin – ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Official Results Book – Alpine skiing", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Alpine_skiing_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "2002_Winter_Olympics_events", "Alpine_skiing_at_the_Winter_Olympics", "2002_in_alpine_skiing", "Alpine_skiing_competitions_in_the_United_States", "Skiing_in_Utah" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The cross-country skiing events at the 2002 Winter Olympics were marred by drug problems. The winners of three races were disqualified after blood tests showed that three skiers had overly high red blood cell counts indicating the use of darbepoetin, a drug used to treat anemia. At the time, the drug was not specifically listed in the International Olympic Committee's (IOC) list of banned substances, but the Olympic rules generally prohibit doping of any kind, in accordance with its charter. After two years and several lawsuits in Olympic and Swiss courts, the skiers in question (Johann Mühlegg of Spain, and Larissa Lazutina and Olga Danilova of Russia) were stripped of all their medals from the 2002 Games.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 44298710, 38678, 40592, 83537, 15147, 860860, 40591, 2822201, 3400075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ], [ 39, 59 ], [ 239, 250 ], [ 273, 279 ], [ 339, 370 ], [ 447, 453 ], [ 589, 603 ], [ 618, 634 ], [ 639, 652 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "See the external links below for the official IOC press releases containing detailed information of the doping cases and their resolution, including initial, intermediate, and final amended results. This article gives the final medalists as decided on by the IOC in early 2004.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Forty-four nations competed in the cross-country skiing events at Salt Lake City.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medal summary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cross-country skiing at the 2002 Winter Paralympics", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19888788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Official Results Book – Cross-country skiing", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "IOC Announces Annulment of the Results of Larissa Lazutina from the 2002 Salt Lake City Olympic Winter Games and Amends Results Accordingly IOC press release, 29 June 2003", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "IOC Executive Board disqualifies Muehlegg and Danilova from the Salt Lake City Games IOC press release, 28 February 2004", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Cross-country_skiing_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Cross-country_skiing_at_the_Winter_Olympics", "2002_Winter_Olympics_events", "2002_in_cross-country_skiing", "Cross-country_skiing_competitions_in_the_United_States" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "All figure skating events in 2002 Winter Olympics were held at the Salt Lake Ice Center.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11152, 38678, 8054629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 29, 49 ], [ 67, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medals awarded Thursday, February 14, 2002", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Yagudin received 5.9s and 6.0s for his free skating after World Champion Plushenko had made several errors in both the short program and the free skating.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Referee:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sally-Anne Stapleford", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 9875505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Assistant Referee:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Junko Hiramatsu", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 12686265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Judges:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wendy Langton", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Merja Kosonen", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Janet Allen", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nicolae Bellu", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Yuri Kliushnikov", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Volker Waldeck", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Penchev", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mieko Fujimori", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Evgenia Bogdanova", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jarmila Portová (substitute)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Medals awarded Thursday, February 21, 2002", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hughes, fourth after the short program, skated a clean free skating with seven triple jumps, including two triple-triple combinations. Kwan led after the short program but slipped to third after two jumping errors. Sasha Cohen finished fourth, after a fall on the back end of a triple lutz-triple toe combination. Slutskaya became only the second Russian to medal in the ladies' event at the Olympics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 1040267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 215, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hughes and Slutskaya finished with tie scores, Hughes winning the gold medal on a tiebreaker for having won the free skating. 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Allegations of bribery were leveled against many ice-skating judges, leading to the arrest of known criminal Alimzhan Tokhtakhounov in Italy (at the request of the United States). He was released by the Italian officials.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 371785, 372329, 6851487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 179 ], [ 184, 199 ], [ 520, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Judges from Russia, the People's Republic of China, Poland, Ukraine, and France placed the Russians first; judges from the United States, Canada, Germany, and Japan gave the nod to the Canadians. The International Skating Union announced a day after the competition that it would conduct an \"internal assessment\" into the judging decision. 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It was the first gold in Olympic figure skating for France since 1932.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first compulsory dance was the Quickstep. The second was Blues.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 57928574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Referee:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Gorshkov", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [ 3840072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Assistant Referee:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ann Shaw", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Judges (CD1):", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Eugenia Gasiorowska", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Irina Nechkina", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], 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Yuri Balkov", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Halina Gordon-Potorak", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Katalin Alpern (substitute)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thirty-one nations competed in the figure skating events at Salt Lake City.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Results", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2002 Winter Olympics - Icecalc results page", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Official Results Book – Figure skating", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Figure_skating_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "2002_Winter_Olympics_events", "Figure_skating_at_the_Olympic_Games", "2002_in_figure_skating", "International_figure_skating_competitions_hosted_by_the_United_States" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Four freestyle skiing events were held at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, at the venue in Deer Valley. There were both men's and women's competition in both aerials and moguls events. In moguls, the athletes ski down a slope littered with moguls (bumps), attempting to get down in as fast a time as possible while also attempting to get points for technique and their two aerial jumps during the course. The aerials events consisted of two jumps, which were judged by air, form and landing.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40057, 38678, 53837, 748238, 6759160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 21 ], [ 46, 66 ], [ 70, 84 ], [ 102, 113 ], [ 201, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Twenty-one nations competed in the freestyle skiing events at Salt Lake City.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Participating NOCs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Freestyle Skiing History: Olympics 1988-2002 ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Results Book – Freestyle skiing", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Freestyle_skiing_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "2002_in_freestyle_skiing", "2002_Winter_Olympics_events", "Freestyle_skiing_at_the_Winter_Olympics" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Luge competition at the 2002 Winter Olympic Games was held at Utah Olympic Park in Park City. Three events were staged, taking place from 10 to 14 February.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37779, 38678, 9766792, 151252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ], [ 28, 53 ], [ 66, 83 ], [ 87, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Twenty-five nations competed in the luge events at Salt Lake City.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medal summary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Results Book – Luge", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Luge_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Luge_at_the_Winter_Olympics", "2002_Winter_Olympics_events", "2002_in_luge" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Nordic combined at the 2002 Winter Olympics, consisted of three events held over ten days, from 9 February to 22 February. The ski jumping part took place in Park City, while the cross-country part took place in Soldier Hollow. This was the first Winter Olympics to have two individual Nordic Combined events: the 7.5km individual normal hill (sprint) and the 15km individual large hill (individual).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40055, 38678, 151252, 1674234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 23, 43 ], [ 158, 167 ], [ 212, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fourteen nations participated in Nordic Combined at the Salt Lake Games.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Participating NOCs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Official Results Book – Nordic combined", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Nordic_combined_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "2002_Winter_Olympics_events", "Nordic_combined_at_the_Winter_Olympics", "2002_in_Nordic_combined", "Nordic_combined_competitions_in_the_United_States", "Men's_events_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": " For the long track speed skating events, see Speed skating at the 2002 Winter Olympics", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 989619, 39645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 33 ], [ 46, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Short track speed skating at the 2002 Winter Olympics was held from 13 to 23 February. Eight events were contested at Salt Lake Ice Center (normally called Delta Center (now Vivint Arena)). Two new events were added for these games, with the men's and women's 1500 metres making debuts.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40058, 38678, 8054629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 33, 53 ], [ 118, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "China led the medal table with seven, while Evgenia Radanova's two medals for Bulgaria were their first in the sport.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medal summary", "target_page_ids": [ 4077925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two world records and fifteen Olympic records were set in Salt Lake City.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Twenty-six nations competed in the short track events at Salt Lake City. Belarus, the Czech Republic, Hong Kong, Israel, Romania and Slovakia made their short track debuts.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Participating NOCs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Short_track_speed_skating_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "2002_Winter_Olympics_events", "Short_track_speed_skating_at_the_Winter_Olympics", "2002_in_short_track_speed_skating" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Ski jumping at the 2002 Winter Olympics, consisted of three events held from 10 February to 13 February, taking place at Park City.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40056, 38678, 151252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 19, 39 ], [ 121, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Switzerland topped the medal table, with two gold medals from Simon Amman. The bronze medal won by Slovenia in the team event was the country's first in the sport.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medal summary", "target_page_ids": [ 382182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Twenty-two nations participated in ski jumping at the Salt Lake Games. Estonia and Kyrgyzstan made their Olympic ski jumping debuts.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Participating NOCs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Official Results Book – Ski jumping", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Ski_jumping_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "2002_Winter_Olympics_events", "Ski_jumping_at_the_Winter_Olympics", "2002_in_ski_jumping", "Ski_jumping_competitions_in_the_United_States" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The 2002 Winter Olympic Games Snowboarding competition consisted of men's and women's Halfpipe and Parallel Giant Slalom events. The snowboarding competition took place at Park City, over a five-day period.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38678, 38957, 297972, 344836, 151252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ], [ 30, 42 ], [ 86, 94 ], [ 99, 120 ], [ 172, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nineteen nations competed in the snowboarding events at Salt Lake City.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Participating NOCs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Official Results Book – Snowboarding", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Snowboarding_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "2002_Winter_Olympics_events", "Snowboarding_at_the_Winter_Olympics", "2002_in_snowboarding" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Speed skating at the 2002 Winter Olympics was held over fourteen days, from 9 to 23 February. Ten events were contested at the Utah Olympic Oval.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28028, 38678, 4248353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 21, 41 ], [ 127, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Salt Lake City's high altitude was a major contributing factor to the speed of the Utah Olympic Oval's ice, as new Olympic records were set in all ten events, and new World records in eight.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [ 53837, 4248353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 83, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Twenty-three nations competed in the speed skating events at Salt Lake City.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Participating NOCs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Official Results Book – Speed skating", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Speed_skating_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "2002_Winter_Olympics_events", "Speed_skating_at_the_Winter_Olympics", "International_speed_skating_competitions_hosted_by_the_United_States" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Three bobsleigh events were competed at the 2002 Winter Olympics, at Utah Olympic Park. The competition took place between February 16 and February 23, 2002.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39693, 38678, 9766792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 15 ], [ 44, 64 ], [ 69, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For the first time since 1932, Olympic bobsleigh added a new event, with the first ever women's competition, won by Jill Bakken and Vonetta Flowers of the United States.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3900910, 4068163, 4105919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 29 ], [ 116, 127 ], [ 133, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The competitions comprised four heats. Teams raced in the first and third heats in the order of the draw. The second heat was raced in order of ranking after the first heat, and the fourth heat is raced in order of the ranking after the first three heats. Total time for the four heats determined the final rank.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thirty-four nations competed in the bobsleigh events at Salt Lake City.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Participating NOCs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Bobsleigh_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Bobsleigh_at_the_Winter_Olympics", "2002_Winter_Olympics_events", "2002_in_bobsleigh", "Bobsleigh_in_the_United_States" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "New England Digital Corporation (1976–1993) was founded in Norwich, Vermont, and relocated to White River Junction, Vermont. It was best known for its signature product, the Synclavier Synthesizer System, which evolved into the Synclavier Digital Audio System or \"Tapeless Studio.\" The company sold an FM digital synthesizer/16-bit polyphonic synthesizer and magnetic disk-based non-linear 16-bit digital recording product, referred to as the \"Post-Pro.\" ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39687, 137472, 39668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 75 ], [ 94, 123 ], [ 174, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Synclavier was developed as the \"Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer\" by Dartmouth College Professors Jon Appleton and Frederick J. Hooven, in association with NED co-founders Sydney A. Alonso and Cameron W. Jones. The Synclavier would become the pioneering prototype hardware and software system for all digital non-linear synthesis, polyphonic sampling, magnetic (hard-disk) recording and sequencing systems technology that is commonplace in all music and sound effects/design today.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The instrument's development picked up speed in late 1978/early 1979, when master synthesist, sound designer, and musical arranger, Denny Jaeger, began working with NED to help create system upgrades, advanced capabilities, and unique sounds that were tailored to fit the needs of the product for the commercial music industry. The second generation's user interface panel and overall music design features of the original Synclavier (that would become Synclavier II) were substantially driven and designed by Denny Jaeger. His relentless attention to detail and unparalleled understanding of synthesis, audio recording, and technology provided tremendous product/market insight to the original founding hardware and software engineering team of Alonso and Jones. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In November 1979, immediately following the arrival of Denny Jaeger, Alonso hired Brad Naples as the company's Business Manager. Working in tandem, Jaeger and Naples were the main drivers of the marketing and sales/business development efforts of the company. However, all four individuals—Alonso, Jones, Jaeger, and Naples—worked as a collaborative team, which was quite unique and unparalleled at the time. NED unveiled the newly improved Synclavier II at the AES show in May 1980, where it became an instant hit.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 441, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1981 New England Digital pioneered the recording of digital audio to hard disk with the introduction of their Sample-To-Disk option. Their software module known as SFM (Signal File Manager) was popular among the academic world for research and analysis of audio. The SFM also found use in the US Military for the analysis of submarine sounds.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The company continued to refine the Synclavier II, with Jaeger leading more musician-friendly, technological improvements, and Naples evolving to become the company's President/CEO (1983–1993) to assist Alonso and Jones, who were substantially expanding the hardware and software team. Musicians such as New York City-based multi-instrumentalist Kashif were involved in the creative development of Synclavier.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 15296394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 346, 352 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It became one of the most advanced electronic synthesis and recording tools of the day. Early adopters included:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10791746, 2417230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 55 ], [ 60, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John McLaughlin", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 328281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pat Metheny", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 289997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michael Jackson, particularly on his 1982 album Thriller.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14995351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Denny Jaeger and Michel Rubini, the first to use the Synclavier to score a major motion picture (The Hunger, with David Bowie, released through MGM in April, 1983) and to score the first network TV series (The Powers of Matthew Starr, from Paramount Television, released September, 1982).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28905560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Laurie Anderson, whose 1984 album \"Mister Heartbreak\" includes visual depictions of Synclavier sound waves in the liner notes", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 140973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frank Zappa, who composed his 1986 Grammy-winning album Jazz from Hell on the instrument. He continued to use it on his studio albums until his death in 1993, culminating in the posthumous release of his magnum opus Civilization, Phaze III (by Zappa's estimation, 70% of this two-hour work is exclusively Synclavier.)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10672, 1596521, 839542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 57, 71 ], [ 218, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Producer Mike Thorne, who used the Synclavier to shape the sound of the 80s producing bands such as Siouxsie and The Banshees, Soft Cell, Marc Almond, and Bronski Beat", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40372991, 29511, 173989, 287868, 4071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ], [ 101, 126 ], [ 128, 137 ], [ 139, 150 ], [ 156, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Record label founder Daniel Miller (Mute Records). It found use on most Depeche Mode albums in which band member Alan Wilder was involved.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sting", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 83312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Genesis", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 52546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Cars", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 170472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Herbie Hancock", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sean Callery", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2628578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eddie Jobson", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 430056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The system was nearly as famous for where it was not used, as it was for the list of premier studios in which it was: the extremely sophisticated synthesizer enjoyed the distinction of being banned from many famous concert halls, out of fear that it would make the musicians themselves obsolete. A notable exception being the massive, 55 minute Dialogue for Synclavier and Orchestra by American Composer Frank Proto, commissioned and performed by the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra in 1986. Bringing together the full forces of a contemporary orchestra with a fully decked out Synclavier in a live performance, it displayed what can be achieved, combining both seemingly incompatible disciplines, by a composer with intimate knowledge of not only the available orchestral and electronic forces, but with the compositional skills to take advantage of both, without resorting to gimmicky devices frequently found in attempts to wed the two. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18137134, 413339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 404, 415 ], [ 451, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mature Synclavier was a modular, component-based system that included facilities for FM-based synthesis, digital sampling, hard-disk recording, and sophisticated computer-based sound editing. By the late 1980s, complete Synclavier systems were selling for upwards of $200,000, to famous musicians such as Sting, Michael Jackson and Stevie Wonder, and to major studios the world over. The Synclavier was also employed by experimental musicians, such as John McLaughlin, Kraftwerk, Laurie Anderson, Frank Zappa, Kashif and Peter Buffett who used it extensively in their music. It is still used to this day in major movies for sound design, along with TV, Commercials and Music composition and production.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11569, 317597, 231704, 83312, 14995351, 147687, 328281, 16797, 140973, 10672, 15296394, 3457634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 107 ], [ 109, 125 ], [ 127, 146 ], [ 310, 315 ], [ 317, 332 ], [ 337, 350 ], [ 458, 473 ], [ 475, 484 ], [ 486, 501 ], [ 503, 514 ], [ 516, 522 ], [ 527, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Synclavier became a victim of the early 1990s economic downturn, the high prices (due in part to high specs, failure to diversify, and high executive salaries) and the rapidly increasing capabilities of personal computers, MIDI-enabled synthesizers and low-cost digital samplers. In the span of two years, the company saw enormous sales evaporate, and in 1992 they closed their doors forever. Parts of the company were purchased by Fostex, which used the technical knowledge base of staff to build several hard-disk recording systems in the 1990s (like Fostex Foundation 2000 and 2000re), and AirWorks Media, a Canadian company who used portions of code in their TuneBuilder product line. Simultaneously, a group of ex-employees and product owners collaborated to form The Synclavier Company, primarily as a maintenance organization for existing customers, but with an eye to adapting Synclavier software for stand-alone personal computer use, while in Europe the previously profitable, but now motherless, NED Europe is run by ex-head of European operations, Steve Hills. , it was still trading in London, England, as Synclavier Europe.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18457137, 19996, 10791746, 317597, 6300717, 10366483, 25779141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 224 ], [ 227, 231 ], [ 240, 251 ], [ 266, 281 ], [ 438, 444 ], [ 559, 581 ], [ 669, 680 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1998, under the company Demas, NED co-founder Cameron W. Jones (original and current owner of the Synclavier trademark and software) collaborated with ex-employee Brian S. George (owner of Demas, the company that purchased all of NED's hardware and technical assets) and original co-founding partner Sydney Alonso to develop an emulator designed to run Synclavier software for Apple Computer's Macintosh computer systems and hardware designed to share the core processing with the later generation of Apple G3 computers giving enhanced features and greater speed to the system.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 856, 19006979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 380, 396 ], [ 397, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dialogue for Synclavier and Orchestra", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Synclavier Web Site", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rauner Library at Dartmouth College", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "New England Digital", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Synthesizer_manufacturing_companies_of_the_United_States", "Companies_based_in_Vermont", "White_River_Junction,_Vermont", "Manufacturing_companies_established_in_1976" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "OCaml ( , formerly Objective Caml) is a general-purpose, multi-paradigm programming language which extends the Caml dialect of ML with object-oriented features. OCaml was created in 1996 by Xavier Leroy, Jérôme Vouillon, Damien Doligez, Didier Rémy, Ascánder Suárez, and others.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 891926, 189897, 2362118, 20607, 27471338, 1623543, 3126051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 55 ], [ 57, 92 ], [ 111, 115 ], [ 127, 129 ], [ 135, 150 ], [ 190, 202 ], [ 221, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The OCaml toolchain includes an interactive top-level interpreter, a bytecode compiler, an optimizing native code compiler, a reversible debugger, and a package manager (OPAM). OCaml was initially developed in the context of automated theorem proving, and has an outsize presence in static analysis and formal methods software. Beyond these areas, it has found serious use in systems programming, web development, and financial engineering, among other application domains.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 648580, 59868, 89997, 5739, 20683, 50485, 2546, 28811, 161883, 365264, 611714, 324744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ], [ 54, 65 ], [ 69, 77 ], [ 78, 86 ], [ 102, 113 ], [ 137, 145 ], [ 226, 251 ], [ 284, 299 ], [ 304, 318 ], [ 377, 396 ], [ 398, 413 ], [ 419, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The acronym CAML originally stood for Categorical Abstract Machine Language, but OCaml omits this abstract machine. OCaml is a free and open-source software project managed and principally maintained by the French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation (Inria). In the early 2000s, elements from OCaml were adopted by many languages, notably F# and Scala.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 60492, 1721496, 318413, 239964, 3254510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 114 ], [ 127, 156 ], [ 207, 271 ], [ 361, 363 ], [ 368, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ML-derived languages are best known for their static type systems and type-inferring compilers. OCaml unifies functional, imperative, and object-oriented programming under an ML-like type system. Thus, programmers need not be highly familiar with the pure functional language paradigm to use OCaml.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 20607, 199701, 279690, 10933, 197847, 27471338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 2 ], [ 53, 64 ], [ 70, 84 ], [ 110, 120 ], [ 122, 132 ], [ 138, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By requiring the programmer to work within the constraints of its static type system, OCaml eliminates many of the type-related runtime problems associated with dynamically typed languages. Also, OCaml's type-inferring compiler greatly reduces the need for the manual type annotations that are required in most statically typed languages. For example, the data types of variables and the signatures of functions usually need not be declared explicitly, as they do in languages like Java and C#, because they can be inferred from the operators and other functions that are applied to the variables and other values in the code. Effective use of OCaml's type system can require some sophistication on the part of a programmer, but this discipline is rewarded with reliable, high-performance software. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 598913, 93817, 279693, 15881, 2356196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 135 ], [ 356, 365 ], [ 388, 397 ], [ 482, 486 ], [ 491, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "OCaml is perhaps most distinguished from other languages with origins in academia by its emphasis on performance. Its static type system prevents runtime type mismatches and thus obviates runtime type and safety checks that burden the performance of dynamically typed languages, while still guaranteeing runtime safety, except when array bounds checking is turned off or when some type-unsafe features like serialization are used. These are rare enough that avoiding them is quite possible in practice.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 486833, 28555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 332, 353 ], [ 407, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aside from type-checking overhead, functional programming languages are, in general, challenging to compile to efficient machine language code, due to issues such as the funarg problem. Along with standard loop, register, and instruction optimizations, OCaml's optimizing compiler employs static program analysis methods to optimize value boxing and closure allocation, helping to maximize the performance of the resulting code even if it makes extensive use of functional programming constructs.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 10933, 810385, 40355, 28811, 347585, 62319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 57 ], [ 170, 184 ], [ 238, 251 ], [ 289, 312 ], [ 339, 345 ], [ 350, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Xavier Leroy has stated that \"OCaml delivers at least 50% of the performance of a decent C compiler\", although a direct comparison is impossible. Some functions in the OCaml standard library are implemented with faster algorithms than equivalent functions in the standard libraries of other languages. For example, the implementation of set union in the OCaml standard library in theory is asymptotically faster than the equivalent function in the standard libraries of imperative languages (e.g., C++, Java) because the OCaml implementation exploits the immutability of sets to reuse parts of input sets in the output (see persistent data structure).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1623543, 662889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 624, 649 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "OCaml features a static type system, type inference, parametric polymorphism, tail recursion, pattern matching, first class lexical closures, functors (parametric modules), exception handling, and incremental generational automatic garbage collection.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 5739, 199701, 279690, 3390146, 1110903, 279688, 62319, 509999, 59231, 6734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 23 ], [ 24, 35 ], [ 37, 51 ], [ 53, 76 ], [ 78, 92 ], [ 94, 110 ], [ 132, 140 ], [ 142, 171 ], [ 173, 191 ], [ 222, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "OCaml is notable for extending ML-style type inference to an object system in a general-purpose language. This permits structural subtyping, where object types are compatible if their method signatures are compatible, regardless of their declared inheritance (an unusual feature in statically typed languages).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 4471383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A foreign function interface for linking to C primitives is provided, including language support for efficient numerical arrays in formats compatible with both C and Fortran. OCaml also supports creating libraries of OCaml functions that can be linked to a main program in C, so that an OCaml library can be distributed to C programmers who have no knowledge or installation of OCaml.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 3882763, 18566, 6021, 2052, 11168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 28 ], [ 33, 40 ], [ 44, 45 ], [ 121, 127 ], [ 166, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The OCaml distribution contains:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lexical analysis and parsing tools called ocamllex and ocamlyacc", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 81251, 310015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 22, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Debugger that supports stepping backwards to investigate errors", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 50485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Documentation generator", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 1532119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Profiler – to measure performance", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2310080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Many general-purpose libraries", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 106421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The native code compiler is available for many platforms, including Unix, Microsoft Windows, and Apple macOS. Portability is achieved through native code generation support for major architectures: IA-32, X86-64 (AMD64), Power, RISC-V, ARM, and ARM64.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 21347364, 18890, 856, 20640, 189015, 15046, 244374, 54163450, 43653496, 60558, 40197703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 72 ], [ 74, 91 ], [ 97, 102 ], [ 103, 108 ], [ 149, 164 ], [ 198, 203 ], [ 205, 211 ], [ 221, 226 ], [ 228, 234 ], [ 236, 239 ], [ 245, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "OCaml bytecode and native code programs can be written in a multithreaded style, with preemptive context switching. The garbage collector of the OCaml runtime system (which is the only currently available full implementation of the language) is not designed for concurrency, and symmetric multiprocessing is unsupported. OCaml threads in the same process execute by time sharing only. There are however several libraries for distributed computing such as Functory and ocamlnet/Plasma.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 45303, 50318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 73 ], [ 279, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The OCaml 5.0 release (currently in development as of May 2022) will be the first to support concurrency via effect handlers and multicore parallelism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 677451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 2011, many new tools and libraries have been contributed to the OCaml development environment:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Development tools", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " opam is a package manager for OCaml.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Merlin provides IDE-like functionality for multiple editors, including type throwback, go-to-definition, and auto-completion.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dune is a composable build-system for OCaml.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " OCamlformat is an auto-formatter for OCaml.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "ocaml-lsp-server is a Language Server Protocol for OCaml IDE integration.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development environment", "target_page_ids": [ 53278977, 15305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 46 ], [ 57, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Web sites:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " OCaml.org is the primary site for the language.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " discuss.ocaml.org is an instance of Discourse that serves as the primary discussion site for OCaml.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development environment", "target_page_ids": [ 39177582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alternate compilers for OCaml:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " js_of_ocaml, developed by the Ocsigen team, is an optimizing compiler from OCaml to JavaScript.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development environment", "target_page_ids": [ 9845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " BuckleScript, which also targets JavaScript, with a focus on producing readable, idiomatic JavaScript output.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development environment", "target_page_ids": [ 9845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ocamlcc is a compiler from OCaml to C, to complement the native code compiler for unsupported platforms.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " OCamlJava, developed by INRIA, is a compiler from OCaml to the Java virtual machine (JVM).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development environment", "target_page_ids": [ 16389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " OCaPic, developed by Lip6, is an OCaml compiler for PIC microcontrollers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development environment", "target_page_ids": [ 184588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Snippets of OCaml code are most easily studied by entering them into the top-level REPL. This is an interactive OCaml session that prints the inferred types of resulting or defined expressions. The OCaml top-level is started by simply executing the OCaml program:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [ 2051964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Code can then be entered at the \"#\" prompt. For example, to calculate 1+2*3:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "OCaml infers the type of the expression to be \"int\" (a machine-precision integer) and gives the result \"7\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [ 1613344, 14794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 72 ], [ 73, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following program \"hello.ml\":", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "can be compiled into a bytecode executable:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " $ ocamlc hello.ml -o hello", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "or compiled into an optimized native-code executable:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " $ ocamlopt hello.ml -o hello", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and executed:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first argument to ocamlc, \"hello.ml\", specifies the source file to compile and the \"-o hello\" flag specifies the output file.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lists are one of the fundamental datatypes in OCaml. The following code example defines a recursive function sum that accepts one argument, integers, which is supposed to be a list of integers. Note the keyword which denotes that the function is recursive. The function recursively iterates over the given list of integers and provides a sum of the elements. The match statement has similarities to C's switch element, though it is far more general.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [ 4044867, 6021, 1831479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 99 ], [ 400, 401 ], [ 404, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another way is to use standard fold function that works with lists.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [ 6364389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the anonymous function is simply the application of the + operator, this can be shortened to:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [ 7018181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Furthermore, one can omit the list argument by making use of a partial application:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [ 25717801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "OCaml lends itself to concisely expressing recursive algorithms. The following code example implements an algorithm similar to quicksort that sorts a list in increasing order.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [ 3268249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Or using partial application of the >= operator.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following program calculates the smallest number of people in a room for whom the probability of completely unique birthdays is less than 50% (the birthday problem, where for 1 person the probability is 365/365 (or 100%), for 2 it is 364/365, for 3 it is 364/365 × 363/365, etc.) (answer = 23).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [ 73242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following code defines a Church encoding of natural numbers, with successor (succ) and addition (add). A Church numeral is a higher-order function that accepts a function and a value and applies to exactly times. To convert a Church numeral from a functional value to a string, we pass it a function that prepends the string to its input and the constant string .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [ 2989409, 21474, 244689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 44 ], [ 48, 62 ], [ 130, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A variety of libraries are directly accessible from OCaml. For example, OCaml has a built-in library for arbitrary-precision arithmetic. As the factorial function grows very rapidly, it quickly overflows machine-precision numbers (typically 32- or 64-bits). Thus, factorial is a suitable candidate for arbitrary-precision arithmetic.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [ 600892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In OCaml, the Num module (now superseded by the ZArith module) provides arbitrary-precision arithmetic and can be loaded into a running top-level using:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The factorial function may then be written using the arbitrary-precision numeric operators , and :", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This function can compute much larger factorials, such as 120!:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following program renders a rotating triangle in 2D using OpenGL:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [ 22497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The LablGL bindings to OpenGL are required. The program may then be compiled to bytecode with:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " $ ocamlc -I +lablGL lablglut.cma lablgl.cma simple.ml -o simple", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "or to nativecode with:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " $ ocamlopt -I +lablGL lablglut.cmxa lablgl.cmxa simple.ml -o simple", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "or, more simply, using the ocamlfind build command", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " $ ocamlfind opt simple.ml -package lablgl.glut -linkpkg -o simple", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and run:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " $ ./simple", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Far more sophisticated, high-performance 2D and 3D graphical programs can be developed in OCaml. Thanks to the use of OpenGL and OCaml, the resulting programs can be cross-platform, compiling without any changes on many major platforms.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following code calculates the Fibonacci sequence of a number n inputted. It uses tail recursion and pattern matching.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [ 10918, 1110903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 52 ], [ 85, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Functions may take functions as input and return functions as result. For example, applying twice to a function f yields a function that applies f two times to its argument.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The function twice uses a type variable 'a to indicate that it can be applied to any function f mapping from a type 'a to itself, rather than only to int->int functions. In particular, twice can even be applied to itself.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Code examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "MetaOCaml is a multi-stage programming extension of OCaml enabling incremental compiling of new machine code during runtime. Under some circumstances, significant speedups are possible using multistage programming, because more detailed information about the data to process is available at runtime than at the regular compile time, so the incremental compiler can optimize away many cases of condition checking, etc.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Derived languages", "target_page_ids": [ 39765053, 20683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 38 ], [ 96, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As an example: if at compile time it is known that some power function is needed often, but the value of is known only at runtime, a two-stage power function can be used in MetaOCaml:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Derived languages", "target_page_ids": [ 99491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As soon as is known at runtime, a specialized and very fast power function can be created:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Derived languages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The result is:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Derived languages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The new function is automatically compiled.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Derived languages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " AtomCaml provides a synchronization primitive for atomic (transactional) execution of code.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Derived languages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Emily (2006) is a subset of OCaml 3.08 that uses a design rule verifier to enforce object-capability model security principles.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Derived languages", "target_page_ids": [ 8784464, 539717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 107 ], [ 108, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " F# is a .NET Framework language based on OCaml.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Derived languages", "target_page_ids": [ 239964, 25143203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 3 ], [ 9, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fresh OCaml facilitates manipulating names and binders.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Derived languages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " GCaml adds extensional polymorphism to OCaml, thus allowing overloading and type-safe marshalling.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Derived languages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " JoCaml integrates constructions for developing concurrent and distributed programs.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Derived languages", "target_page_ids": [ 3875069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " OCamlDuce extends OCaml with features such as XML expressions and regular-expression types.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Derived languages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " OCamlP3l is a parallel programming system based on OCaml and the P3L language.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Derived languages", "target_page_ids": [ 145162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " While not truly a separate language, Reason is an alternative OCaml syntax and toolchain for OCaml created at Facebook.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Derived languages", "target_page_ids": [ 60312680, 3206060, 648580, 7529378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 44 ], [ 69, 75 ], [ 80, 89 ], [ 111, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 0install, a multi-platform package manager.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 743009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Coccinelle, a utility for transforming the source code of C programs.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 31592209, 2799283, 27661, 6021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 27, 39 ], [ 44, 55 ], [ 59, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Coq, a formal proof management system.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 581974, 1197184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 8, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " FFTW, a library for computing discrete Fourier transforms. Several C routines have been generated by an OCaml program named .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 2969334, 106421, 8811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 9, 16 ], [ 31, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The web version of Facebook Messenger.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 36250682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flow, a static analyzer created at Facebook that infers and checks static types for JavaScript.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 28811, 7529378, 199701, 9845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 36, 44 ], [ 68, 80 ], [ 85, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Owl Scientific Computing, a dedicated system for scientific and engineering computing.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 65732625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frama-C, a framework for analyzing C programs.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 22628771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " GeneWeb, free and open-source multi-platform genealogy software.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 3589545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Hack programming language compiler, created at Facebook, extending PHP with static types.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 42257880, 24131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 9 ], [ 72, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Haxe programming language compiler.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 5404706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " HOL Light, a formal proof assistant.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 4607542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Infer, a static analyzer created at Facebook for Java, C, C++, and Objective-C, used to detect bugs in iOS and Android apps.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 15881, 72038, 39809523, 16161443, 12610483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 54 ], [ 59, 62 ], [ 68, 79 ], [ 104, 107 ], [ 112, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lexifi Apropos, a system for modeling complex derivatives.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " MirageOS, a unikernel programming framework written in pure OCaml.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 47674773, 47674773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 13, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MLdonkey, a peer-to-peer file sharing application based on the EDonkey network.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 242350, 4279208, 1755283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 13, 38 ], [ 64, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ocsigen, an OCaml web framework.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 2342095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Opa, a free and open-source programming language for web development.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 32976878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " pyre-check, a type checker for Python created at Facebook.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 23862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tezos, a self-amending smart contract platform using XTZ as a native currency.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 61225478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Unison, a file synchronization program to synchronize files between two directories.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 1581616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The reference interpreter for WebAssembly, a low-level bytecode intended for execution inside web browsers.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 47013794, 89997, 33173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 42 ], [ 56, 64 ], [ 95, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Xen Cloud Platform (XCP), a turnkey virtualization solution for the Xen hypervisor.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Software written in OCaml", "target_page_ids": [ 590852, 41827, 18311356, 590852, 1267216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 29, 36 ], [ 37, 51 ], [ 69, 72 ], [ 73, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several dozen companies use OCaml to some degree. Notable examples include:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Users", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bloomberg L.P., which created BuckleScript, an OCaml compiler backend targeting JavaScript.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Users", "target_page_ids": [ 432006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Citrix Systems, which uses OCaml in XenServer (rebranded as Citrix Hypervisor during 2018).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Users", "target_page_ids": [ 309948, 309948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 37, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Facebook, which developed Flow, Hack, Infer, Pfff, and Reason in OCaml.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Users", "target_page_ids": [ 7529378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jane Street Capital, a proprietary trading firm, which adopted OCaml as its preferred language in its early days.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Users", "target_page_ids": [ 43449898, 1489260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 24, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " OCaml manual", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " OCaml Package Manager", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Real World OCaml", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Articles_with_example_code", "Articles_with_example_OCaml_code", "Cross-platform_free_software", "Extensible_syntax_programming_languages", "Free_compilers_and_interpreters", "Functional_languages", "ML_programming_language_family", "Object-oriented_programming_languages", "OCaml_programming_language_family", "OCaml_software", "Pattern_matching_programming_languages", "Programming_languages_created_in_1996", "Statically_typed_programming_languages" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Dissociative identity disorder (DID), previously known as multiple personality disorder (MPD), and colloquially known as split personality disorder, is a mental disorder characterized by the maintenance of at least two distinct and relatively enduring personality states.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19356, 177648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 169 ], [ 252, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The disorder is accompanied by memory gaps more severe than could be explained by ordinary forgetfulness. The personality states alternately show in a person's behavior; however, presentations of the disorder vary. Other conditions that often occur in people with DID include post-traumatic stress disorder, personality disorders (especially borderline and avoidant), depression, substance use disorders, conversion disorder, somatic symptom disorder, eating disorders, obsessive–compulsive disorder, and sleep disorders. Self-harm, non-epileptic seizures, flashbacks with amnesia for content of flashbacks, anxiety disorders, and suicidality are also common.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3510370, 82974, 21378217, 149223, 358490, 8389, 26477290, 880777, 30861480, 56825, 20082214, 46966, 150374, 2559158, 2060821, 57688, 16831059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 42 ], [ 276, 306 ], [ 308, 329 ], [ 342, 352 ], [ 357, 365 ], [ 368, 378 ], [ 380, 403 ], [ 405, 424 ], [ 426, 450 ], [ 452, 468 ], [ 470, 499 ], [ 505, 520 ], [ 522, 531 ], [ 533, 555 ], [ 557, 567 ], [ 608, 625 ], [ 631, 642 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following three subsections give brief overviews of the proposed cause of dissociative identity disorder (DID) and how it is recognized; conventional treatment of DID, and how frequently it occurs; and finally how it is perceived in present western culture. All of the topics are treated in greater detail in later sections.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "DID is associated with overwhelming traumas or abuse during childhood. In about 90% of cases, there is a history of neglect or abuse in childhood, while other cases are linked to experiences of war, or severe medical procedures during childhood. Genetic and biological factors are also believed to play a role.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 1229233, 2955547, 33158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 123 ], [ 127, 145 ], [ 194, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The diagnosis should not be made if the person's condition is better accounted for by substance use disorder, seizures, other mental health problems, imaginative play in children, or religious practices.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 26477290, 27154, 9325864, 25414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 108 ], [ 110, 117 ], [ 150, 161 ], [ 183, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Treatment generally involves supportive care and psychotherapy. The condition usually persists without treatment. It is believed to affect about 1.5% of the general population (based on a small US community sample) and 3% of those admitted to hospitals with mental health issues in Europe and North America. DID is diagnosed about six times more often in women than in men. The number of recorded cases increased significantly in the latter half of the 20th century, along with the number of identities reported by those affected.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 4013678, 24931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 44 ], [ 49, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DID is controversial within both the field of psychiatry and the legal system. Claims of DID been used only rarely to argue criminal insanity in court.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 18973869, 15358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 56 ], [ 124, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is unclear whether increased rates of the disorder are due to better recognition or sociocultural factors such as mass media portrayals. The typical presenting symptoms in different regions of the world may also vary depending on culture, for example alter identities taking the form of possessing spirits, deities, ghosts, or mythical figures in cultures where normative possession states are common. The possession form of dissociative identity disorder is involuntary and distressing, and occurs in a way that violates cultural or religious norms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 19641, 45087159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 127 ], [ 310, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dissociation, the term that underlies dissociative disorders including DID, lacks a precise, empirical, and generally agreed upon definition.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 529089, 2413401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 38, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A large number of diverse experiences have been termed dissociative, ranging from normal failures in attention to the breakdowns in memory processes characterized by the dissociative disorders. It is therefore unknown if there is a commonality between all dissociative experiences, or if the range of mild to severe symptoms is a result of different etiologies and biological structures. Other terms used in the literature, including personality, personality state, identity, ego state, and amnesia, also have no agreed upon definitions. Multiple competing models exist that incorporate some non-dissociative symptoms while excluding dissociative ones.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 68753, 177648, 880112, 21347303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 110 ], [ 434, 445 ], [ 466, 474 ], [ 491, 498 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the lack of consensus regarding terminology in the study of DID, several terms have been proposed. One is ego state (behaviors and experiences possessing permeable boundaries with other such states but united by a common sense of self), while the other term is alters (each of which may have a separate autobiographical memory, independent initiative and a sense of ownership over individual behavior).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 179901, 179901, 21312298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 122 ], [ 268, 274 ], [ 310, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ellert Nijenhuis and colleagues suggest a distinction between personalities responsible for day-to-day functioning (associated with blunted physiological responses and reduced emotional reactivity, referred to as the \"apparently normal part of the personality\" or ANP) and those emerging in survival situations (involving fight-or-flight responses, vivid traumatic memories and strong, painful emotions – the \"emotional part of the personality\" or EP). \"Structural dissociation of the personality\" is used by Otto van der Hart and colleagues to distinguish dissociation they attribute to traumatic or pathological causes, which in turn is divided into primary, secondary and tertiary dissociation. According to this hypothesis, primary dissociation involves one ANP and one EP, while secondary dissociation involves one ANP and at least two EPs and tertiary dissociation, which is unique to DID, is described as having at least two ANPs and at least two EPs. Others have suggested dissociation can be separated into two distinct forms, detachment and compartmentalization, the latter of which, involving a failure to control normally controllable processes or actions, is most evident in DID. Efforts to psychometrically distinguish between normal and pathological dissociation have been made.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definitions", "target_page_ids": [ 3205540, 470843, 3267403, 6235952, 24982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 196 ], [ 322, 346 ], [ 1036, 1046 ], [ 1051, 1071 ], [ 1204, 1220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), symptoms of DID include \"the presence of two or more distinct personality states\" accompanied by the inability to recall personal information beyond what is expected through normal memory issues. Other DSM-5 symptoms include a loss of identity as related to individual distinct personality states, loss of one's subjective experience of the passage of time, and degradation of a sense of self and consciousness. In each individual, the clinical presentation varies and the level of functioning can change from severe impairment to minimal impairment. The symptoms of dissociative amnesia are subsumed under a DID diagnosis, and thus should not be diagnosed separately if DID criteria are met. Individuals with DID may experience distress from both the symptoms of DID (intrusive thoughts or emotions) and the consequences of the accompanying symptoms (dissociation rendering them unable to remember specific information). The majority of patients with DID report childhood sexual or physical abuse, though the accuracy of these reports is controversial. Amnesia between identities may be asymmetrical; identities may or may not be aware of what is known by another. Individuals with DID may be reluctant to discuss symptoms due to associations with abuse, shame, and fear. DID patients may also frequently and intensely experience time disturbances.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 8498, 3510370, 7397019, 526609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 91 ], [ 668, 688 ], [ 1074, 1080 ], [ 1084, 1098 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Around half of people with DID have fewer than 10identities and most have fewer than 100; although as many as 4,500 have been reported. The average number of identities has increased over the past few decades, from two or three to now an average of approximately 16. However, it is unclear whether this is due to an actual increase in identities, or simply that the psychiatric community has become more accepting of a high number of compartmentalized memory components.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The psychiatric history frequently contains multiple previous diagnoses of various disorders and treatment failures. The most common presenting complaint of DID is depression, with headaches being a common neurological symptom. Comorbid disorders can include substance use disorder, eating disorders, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, and personality disorders. A significant percentage of those diagnosed with DID have histories of borderline personality disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Presentations of dissociation in people with schizophrenia differ from those with DID as not being rooted in trauma, and this distinction can be effectively tested, although both conditions share a high rate of dissociative auditory hallucinations. Other disorders that have been found to be comorbid with DID are somatization disorders, major depressive disorder, as well as history of a past suicide attempt, in comparison to those without a DID diagnosis. Individuals diagnosed with DID demonstrate the highest hypnotizability of any clinical population. Although DID has high comorbidity and its development is related to trauma, there exists evidence to suggest that DID merits a separate diagnosis from other conditions like PTSD.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 1067367, 13311819, 840273, 69893, 26477290, 56825, 57688, 4531, 21378217, 149223, 82974, 27790, 8389, 14417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 97, 106 ], [ 164, 174 ], [ 181, 189 ], [ 259, 281 ], [ 283, 298 ], [ 301, 317 ], [ 320, 336 ], [ 342, 363 ], [ 436, 467 ], [ 472, 502 ], [ 556, 569 ], [ 849, 874 ], [ 1025, 1040 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The DSM-IV-TR states that self-harm, impulsivity, and rapid changes in interpersonal relationships \"may warrant a concurrent diagnosis of borderline personality disorder.\" Steven Lynn and colleagues have suggested that the significant overlap between BPD and DID may be a contributing factor to the development of therapy induced DID, in that the suggestion of hidden alters by therapists who propose a diagnosis of DID provides an explanation to patients for the behavioral instability, self-mutilation, unpredictable mood changes and actions they experience. In 1993 a group of researchers reviewed both DID and borderline personality disorder (BPD), concluding that DID was an epiphenomenon of BPD, with no tests or clinical description capable of distinguishing between the two. Their conclusions about the empirical proof of DID were echoed by a second group, who still believed the diagnosis existed, but while the knowledge to date did not justify DID as a separate diagnosis, it also did not disprove its existence. Reviews of medical records and psychological tests indicated that the majority of DID patients could be diagnosed with BPD instead, though about a third could not, suggesting that DID does exist but may be over-diagnosed. Both groups also report higher rates of physical and sexual abuse than the general population, and patients with BPD also score highly on measures of dissociation. Even using strict diagnostic criteria, it can be difficult to distinguish between dissociative disorders and BPD (as well as bipolar disorder and schizophrenia), though the presence of comorbid anxiety disorders may help.}}", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 150374, 14511650, 161744, 149223, 149223, 59604, 1107036, 176855, 4531, 27790, 217631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 35 ], [ 37, 48 ], [ 71, 97 ], [ 138, 169 ], [ 614, 645 ], [ 680, 693 ], [ 1035, 1049 ], [ 1055, 1073 ], [ 1535, 1551 ], [ 1556, 1569 ], [ 1595, 1603 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DID is etiologically complex. Şar et al. state, \"Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is multifactorial in its etiology. Whereas psychosocial etiologies of DID include developmental traumatization and sociocognitive sequelae, biological factors include trauma-generated neurobiological responses. Biologically derived traits and epigenetic mechanisms are also likely to be at play. At this point, no direct examination of genetics has occurred in DID. However, it is likely to exist, given the genetic link to dissociation in general and in relation to childhood adversity in particular.\" Stating that there is \"a lack of understanding regarding the etiopathology of DID\", Blihar adds that \"many researchers and psychiatrists regard DID as the most severe form of a childhood onset post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) because it is virtually impossible to find a DID patient without a history of PTSD. ... There are currently two competing theories regarding the relationship between trauma and dissociation: the trauma-related model and the fantasy-prone model.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The DSM-5 diagnostic manual states that DID is \"associated with overwhelming experiences, traumatic events, and/or abuse during childhood\". Other risk factors reported include childhood neglect, childhood medical procedures, war, terrorism, and childhood prostitution. Dissociative disorders frequently occur after trauma, and the DSM5 places them after the trauma and stressor-related disorders to reflect this close relationship. Disturbed and altered sleep has also been suggested as having a role in dissociative disorders in general and specifically in DID, alterations in environments also largely affecting the DID patient.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 788091, 27834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 106 ], [ 454, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "People diagnosed with DID often report that they have experienced physical or sexual abuse during childhood (although the accuracy of these reports has been disputed); others report overwhelming stress, serious medical illness or other traumatic events during childhood. They also report more historical psychological trauma than those diagnosed with any other mental illness.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 526609, 7397019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 74 ], [ 78, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Severe sexual, physical, or psychological trauma in childhood has been proposed as an explanation for its development; awareness, memories and emotions of harmful actions or events caused by the trauma are removed from consciousness, and alternate personalities or subpersonalities form with differing memories, emotions and behavior. DID is attributed to extremes of stress or disorders of attachment. What may be expressed as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults may become DID when occurring in children, possibly due to their greater use of imagination as a form of coping.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 31595228, 884589, 9325864, 1060279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 368, 374 ], [ 391, 401 ], [ 556, 567 ], [ 581, 587 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Possibly due to developmental changes and a more coherent sense of self past the age of six, the experience of extreme trauma may result in different, though also complex, dissociative symptoms and identity disturbances. A specific relationship between childhood abuse, disorganized attachment, and lack of social support are thought to be a necessary component of DID. Although what role a child's biological capacity to dissociate to an extreme level remains unclear, some evidence indicates a neurobiological impact of developmental stress.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 884589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 270, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Delinking early trauma from the etiology of dissociation has been explicitly rejected by those supporting the early trauma model. However, a 2012 review article supports the hypothesis that current or recent trauma may affect an individual's assessment of the more distant past, changing the experience of the past and resulting in dissociative states. Giesbrecht et al. have suggested there is no actual empirical evidence linking early trauma to dissociation, and instead suggest that problems with neuropsychological functioning, such as increased distractibility in response to certain emotions and contexts, account for dissociative features. A middle position hypothesizes that trauma, in some situations, alters neuronal mechanisms related to memory. Evidence is increasing that dissociative disorders are related both to a trauma history and to \"specific neural mechanisms\". It has also been suggested that there may be a genuine but more modest link between trauma and DID, with early trauma causing increased fantasy-proneness, which may in turn render individuals more vulnerable to socio-cognitive influences surrounding the development of DID. Another suggestion made by Hart indicates that there are triggers in the brain that can be the catalyst for different self-states, and that victims of trauma are more susceptible to these triggers than non-victims of trauma; these triggers are said to be related to DID.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 9545, 288292, 10810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 405, 423 ], [ 501, 531 ], [ 1019, 1026 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paris states that the trauma model of DID increased the appeal of the diagnosis among health care providers, patients and the public as it validated the idea that child abuse had lifelong, serious effects. Paris asserts that there is very little experimental evidence supporting the trauma-dissociation hypothesis, and no research showing that dissociation consistently links to long-term memory disruption.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The prevailing post-traumatic model of dissociation and dissociative disorders is contested. It has been hypothesized that symptoms of DID may be created by therapists using techniques to \"recover\" memories (such as the use of hypnosis to \"access\" alter identities, facilitate age regression or retrieve memories) on suggestible individuals. Referred to as the \"sociocognitive model\" (SCM), it proposes that DID is due to a person consciously or unconsciously behaving in certain ways promoted by cultural stereotypes, with unwitting therapists providing cues through improper therapeutic techniques. This model posits that behavior is enhanced by media portrayals of DID.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 3794257, 14417, 12974527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 206 ], [ 227, 235 ], [ 277, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proponents of the SCM note that the bizarre dissociative symptoms are rarely present before intensive therapy by specialists in the treatment of DID who, through the process of eliciting, conversing with and identifying alters, shape or possibly create the diagnosis. While proponents note that DID is accompanied by genuine suffering and the distressing symptoms, and can be diagnosed reliably using the DSM criteria, they are skeptical of the traumatic etiology suggested by proponents. The characteristics of people diagnosed with DID (hypnotizability, suggestibility, frequent fantasization and mental absorption) contributed to these concerns and those regarding the validity of recovered memories of trauma. Skeptics note that a small subset of doctors are responsible for diagnosing the majority of individuals with DID. Psychologist Nicholas Spanos and others have suggested that in addition to therapy caused cases, DID may be the result of role-playing rather than alternative identities, though others disagree, pointing to a lack of incentive to manufacture or maintain separate identities and point to the claimed histories of abuse. Other arguments that therapy can cause DID, include the lack of children diagnosed with DID, the sudden spike in rates of diagnosis after 1980 (although DID was not a diagnosis until DSM-IV, published in 1994), the absence of evidence of increased rates of child abuse, the appearance of the disorder almost exclusively in individuals undergoing psychotherapy, particularly involving hypnosis, the presences of bizarre alternate identities (such as those claiming to be animals or mythological creatures) and an increase in the number of alternate identities over time (as well as an initial increase in their number as psychotherapy begins in DID-oriented therapy). These various cultural and therapeutic causes occur within a context of pre-existing psychopathology, notably borderline personality disorder, which is commonly comorbid with DID. In addition, presentations can vary across cultures, such as Indian patients who only switch alters after a period of sleep – which is commonly how DID is presented by the media within that country.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 7139661, 26615845, 167008, 14417, 149223, 14533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 841, 856 ], [ 950, 962 ], [ 1260, 1278 ], [ 1531, 1539 ], [ 1924, 1955 ], [ 2055, 2060 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proponents of psychotherapy as a cause of DID state that DID is strongly linked to (possibly suggestive) psychotherapy, often involving recovered memories (memories that the person previously had amnesia for) or false memories, and that such therapy could cause additional identities. Such memories could be used to make an allegation of child sexual abuse. There is little agreement between those who see therapy as a cause and trauma as a cause. Supporters of therapy as a cause of DID suggest that a small number of clinicians diagnosing a disproportionate number of cases would provide evidence for their position though it has also been claimed that higher rates of diagnosis in specific countries like the United States may be due to greater awareness of DID. Lower rates in other countries may be due to artificially low recognition of the diagnosis. However, false memory syndrome per se is not regarded by mental health experts as a valid diagnosis, and has been described as \"a non-psychological term originated by a private foundation whose stated purpose is to support accused parents,\" and critics argue that the concept has no empirical support, and further describe the False Memory Syndrome Foundation as an advocacy group that has distorted and misrepresented memory research.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 509678, 14983819, 18721790, 4631183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 154 ], [ 212, 226 ], [ 338, 356 ], [ 1185, 1217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rarity of DID diagnosis in children is cited as a reason to doubt the validity of DID, and proponents of both etiologies believe that the discovery of DID in a child who had never undergone treatment would critically undermine the SCM. Conversely, if children are found to develop DID only after undergoing treatment it would challenge the traumagenic model. , approximately 250 cases of DID in children have been identified, though the data does not offer unequivocal support for either theory. While children have been diagnosed with DID before therapy, several were presented to clinicians by parents who were themselves diagnosed with DID; others were influenced by the appearance of DID in popular culture or due to a diagnosis of psychosis due to hearing voices – a symptom also found in DID. No studies have looked for children with DID in the general population, and the single study that attempted to look for children with DID not already in therapy did so by examining siblings of those already in therapy for DID. An analysis of diagnosis of children reported in scientific publications, 44 case studies of single patients were found to be evenly distributed (i.e., each case study was reported by a different author) but in articles regarding groups of patients, four researchers were responsible for the majority of the reports.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The initial theoretical description of DID was that dissociative symptoms were a means of coping with extreme stress (particularly childhood sexual and physical abuse), but this belief has been challenged by the data of multiple research studies. Proponents of the traumagenic hypothesis claim the high correlation of child sexual and physical abuse reported by adults with DID corroborates the link between trauma and DID. However, the DID–maltreatment link has been questioned for several reasons. The studies reporting the links often rely on self-report rather than independent corroborations, and these results may be worsened by selection and referral bias. Most studies of trauma and dissociation are cross-sectional rather than longitudinal, which means researchers can not attribute causation, and studies avoiding recall bias have failed to corroborate such a causal link. In addition, studies rarely control for the many Comorbid disorders, or family maladjustment (which is itself highly correlated with DID). The popular association of DID with childhood abuse is relatively recent, occurring only after the publication of Sybil in 1973. Most previous examples of \"multiples\" such as Chris Costner Sizemore, whose life was depicted in the book and film The Three Faces of Eve, disclosed no history of child abuse.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 1060279, 157057, 394392, 1557627, 1557623, 39834, 1360950, 1640288, 1490692, 696438, 2810990, 193845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 96 ], [ 303, 314 ], [ 635, 644 ], [ 708, 723 ], [ 736, 748 ], [ 792, 801 ], [ 824, 835 ], [ 911, 922 ], [ 955, 975 ], [ 1136, 1141 ], [ 1197, 1219 ], [ 1266, 1288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite research on DID including structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography, single-photon emission computed tomography, event-related potential, and electroencephalography, no convergent neuroimaging findings have been identified regarding DID, making it difficult to hypothesize a biological basis for DID. In addition, many of the studies that do exist were performed from an explicitly trauma-based position, and did not consider the possibility of therapy as a cause of DID. There is no research to date regarding the neuroimaging and introduction of false memories in DID patients, though there is evidence of changes in visual parameters and support for amnesia between alters. DID patients also appear to show deficiencies in tests of conscious control of attention and memorization (which also showed signs of compartmentalization for implicit memory between alters but no such compartmentalization for verbal memory) and increased and persistent vigilance and startle responses to sound. DID patients may also demonstrate altered neuroanatomy. Experimental tests of memory suggest that patients with DID may have improved memory for certain tasks, which has been used to criticize the hypothesis that DID is a means of forgetting or suppressing memory. Patients also show experimental evidence of being more fantasy-prone, which in turn is related to a tendency to over-report false memories of painful events.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pathophysiology", "target_page_ids": [ 19446, 24032, 291499, 614230, 21402632, 3557219, 21312324, 26346988, 2183007, 337196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 86 ], [ 88, 116 ], [ 118, 160 ], [ 162, 185 ], [ 191, 213 ], [ 229, 241 ], [ 885, 900 ], [ 953, 966 ], [ 1011, 1027 ], [ 1081, 1093 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fifth, revised edition of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) diagnoses DID according to the diagnostic criteria found under code 300.14 (dissociative disorders). DID is often initially misdiagnosed because clinicians receive little training about dissociative disorders or DID, and often use standard diagnostic interviews that do not include questions about trauma, dissociation or post-traumatic symptoms. This contributes to difficulties diagnosing the disorder and clinician bias.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 160911, 8498, 11973479, 2413401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 66 ], [ 69, 122 ], [ 194, 230 ], [ 317, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DID is rarely diagnosed in children, despite the average age of appearance of the first alter being three years old. The criteria require that an individual be recurrently controlled by two or more discrete identities or personality states, accompanied by memory lapses for important information that is not caused by alcohol, drugs or medications and other medical conditions such as complex partial seizures. In children the symptoms must not be better explained by \"imaginary playmates or other fantasy play\". Diagnosis is normally performed by a clinically trained mental health professional such as a psychiatrist or psychologist through clinical evaluation, interviews with family and friends, and consideration of other ancillary material. Specially designed interviews (such as the SCID-D) and personality assessment tools may be used in the evaluation as well. Since most of the symptoms depend on self-report and are not concrete and observable, there is a degree of subjectivity in making the diagnosis. People are often disinclined to seek treatment, especially since their symptoms may not be taken seriously; thus dissociative disorders have been referred to as \"diseases of hiddenness\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 880112, 24984, 21347303, 2954690, 25004, 72132, 10962251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 217 ], [ 221, 232 ], [ 256, 269 ], [ 385, 408 ], [ 606, 618 ], [ 622, 634 ], [ 790, 796 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The diagnosis has been criticized by supporters of therapy as a cause or the sociocognitive hypothesis as they believe it is a culture-bound and often health care induced condition. The social cues involved in diagnosis may be instrumental in shaping patient behavior or attribution, such that symptoms within one context may be linked to DID, while in another time or place the diagnosis could have been something other than DID. Other researchers disagree and argue that the existence of the condition and its inclusion in the DSM is supported by multiple lines of reliable evidence, with diagnostic criteria allowing it to be clearly discriminated from conditions it is often mistaken for (schizophrenia, borderline personality disorder, and seizure disorder). That a large proportion of cases are diagnosed by specific health care providers, and that symptoms have been created in nonclinical research subjects given appropriate cueing has been suggested as evidence that a small number of clinicians who specialize in DID are responsible for the creation of alters through therapy. The condition may be under-diagnosed due to skepticism and lack of awareness from mental health professionals, made difficult due to the lack of specific and reliable criteria for diagnosing DID as well as a lack of prevalence rates due to the failure to examine systematically selected and representative populations.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 2305178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "People with DID are diagnosed with five to seven comorbid disorders on average – much higher than other mental illnesses.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Due to overlapping symptoms, the differential diagnosis includes schizophrenia, normal and rapid-cycling bipolar disorder, epilepsy, borderline personality disorder, and autism spectrum disorder. Delusions or auditory hallucinations can be mistaken for speech by other personalities. Persistence and consistency of identities and behavior, amnesia, measures of dissociation or hypnotizability and reports from family members or other associates indicating a history of such changes can help distinguish DID from other conditions. A diagnosis of DID takes precedence over any other dissociative disorders. Distinguishing DID from malingering is a concern when financial or legal gains are an issue, and factitious disorder may also be considered if the person has a history of help or attention-seeking. Individuals who state that their symptoms are due to external spirits or entities entering their bodies are generally diagnosed with dissociative disorder not otherwise specified rather than DID due to the lack of identities or personality states. Most individuals who enter an emergency department and are unaware of their names are generally in a psychotic state. Although auditory hallucinations are common in DID, complex visual hallucinations may also occur. Those with DID generally have adequate reality testing; they may have positive Schneiderian symptoms of schizophrenia but lack the negative symptoms. They perceive any voices heard as coming from inside their heads (patients with schizophrenia experience them as external). In addition, individuals with psychosis are much less susceptible to hypnosis than those with DID. Difficulties in differential diagnosis are increased in children.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 27790, 4531, 10511, 149223, 29113700, 274455, 953810, 33953369, 177163, 373282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 78 ], [ 105, 121 ], [ 123, 131 ], [ 133, 164 ], [ 170, 194 ], [ 629, 640 ], [ 702, 721 ], [ 936, 981 ], [ 1081, 1101 ], [ 1346, 1384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DID must be distinguished from, or determined if comorbid with, a variety of disorders including mood disorders, psychosis, anxiety disorders, PTSD, personality disorders, cognitive disorders, neurological disorders, epilepsy, somatoform disorder, factitious disorder, malingering, other dissociative disorders, and trance states. An additional aspect of the controversy of diagnosis is that there are many forms of dissociation and memory lapses, which can be common in both stressful and nonstressful situations and can be attributed to much less controversial diagnoses. Individuals faking or mimicking DID due to factitious disorder will typically exaggerate symptoms (particularly when observed), lie, blame bad behavior on symptoms and often show little distress regarding their apparent diagnosis. In contrast, genuine people with DID typically exhibit confusion, distress and shame regarding their symptoms and history.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 52316, 24514, 57688, 21378217, 1432945, 19572333, 10511, 30861480, 953810, 274455, 28867511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 110 ], [ 113, 122 ], [ 124, 140 ], [ 149, 170 ], [ 172, 190 ], [ 193, 214 ], [ 217, 225 ], [ 227, 246 ], [ 248, 267 ], [ 269, 280 ], [ 316, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A relationship between DID and borderline personality disorder has been posited, with various clinicians noting overlap between symptoms and behaviors and it has been suggested that some cases of DID may arise \"from a substrate of borderline traits\". Reviews of DID patients and their medical records concluded that the majority of those diagnosed with DID would also meet the criteria for either borderline personality disorder or more generally borderline personality.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 1107036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 285, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The DSM-5 elaborates on cultural background as an influence for some presentations of DID.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "DID is among the most controversial of the dissociative disorders and among the most controversial disorders found in the DSM-5. The primary dispute is between those who believe DID is caused by traumatic stresses forcing the mind to split into multiple identities, each with a separate set of memories, and the belief that the symptoms of DID are produced artificially by certain psychotherapeutic practices or patients playing a role they believe appropriate for a person with DID. The debate between the two positions is characterized by intense disagreement. Research into this hypothesis has been characterized by poor methodology. Psychiatrist Joel Paris notes that the idea that a personality is capable of splitting into independent alters is an unproven assertion that is at odds with research in cognitive psychology.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 36749205, 24008546, 24931, 21073209, 26833, 5961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 264 ], [ 357, 369 ], [ 381, 398 ], [ 582, 592 ], [ 624, 635 ], [ 806, 826 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some believe that DID is caused by health care, i.e. symptoms of DID are created by therapists themselves via hypnosis. This belief also implies that those with DID are more susceptible to manipulation by hypnosis and suggestion than others. The iatrogenic model also sometimes states that treatment for DID is harmful. According to Brand, Loewenstein and Spiegel, \"[t]he claims that DID treatment is harmful are based on anecdotal cases, opinion pieces, reports of damage that are not substantiated in the scientific literature, misrepresentations of the data, and misunderstandings about DID treatment and the phenomenology of DID\". Their claim is evinced by the fact that only 5%–10% of people receiving treatment worsen in their symptoms.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Psychiatrists August Piper and Harold Merskey have challenged the trauma hypothesis, arguing that correlation does not imply causation – the fact that people with DID report childhood trauma does not mean trauma causes DID – and point to the rareness of the diagnosis before 1980 as well as a failure to find DID as an outcome in longitudinal studies of traumatized children. They assert that DID cannot be accurately diagnosed because of vague and unclear diagnostic criteria in the DSM and undefined concepts such as \"personality state\" and \"identities\", and question the evidence for childhood abuse beyond self-reports, the lack of definition of what would indicate a threshold of abuse sufficient to induce DID and the extremely small number of cases of children diagnosed with DID despite an average age of appearance of the first alter of three years. Psychiatrist Colin Ross disagrees with Piper and Merskey's conclusion that DID cannot be accurately diagnosed, pointing to internal consistency between different structured dissociative disorder interviews (including the Dissociative Experiences Scale, Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule and Structured Clinical Interview for Dissociative Disorders) that are in the internal validity range of widely accepted mental illnesses such as schizophrenia and major depressive disorder. In his opinion, Piper and Merskey are setting the standard of proof higher than they are for other diagnoses. He also asserts that Piper and Merskey have cherry-picked data and not incorporated all relevant scientific literature available, such as independent corroborating evidence of trauma.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 39834, 1557623, 20952706, 8389, 329277, 406618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 134 ], [ 330, 350 ], [ 1080, 1110 ], [ 1318, 1343 ], [ 1499, 1512 ], [ 1552, 1573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A study in 2018 revealed that the phenomena of pathological dissociation (including identity alteration) had been portrayed in the ancient Chinese medicine literature, suggesting that pathological dissociation is a cross-cultural condition.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Perhaps due to their perceived rarity, the dissociative disorders (including DID) were not initially included in the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID), which is designed to make psychiatric diagnoses more rigorous and reliable. Instead, shortly after the publication of the initial SCID a freestanding protocol for dissociative disorders (SCID-D) was published. This interview takes about 30 to 90 minutes depending on the subject's experiences. An alternative diagnostic instrument, the Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule, also exists but the SCID-D is generally considered superior. The Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule (DDIS) is a highly structured interview that discriminates among various DSM-IV diagnoses. The DDIS can usually be administered in 30–45 minutes.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Screening", "target_page_ids": [ 10962251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other questionnaires include the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES), Perceptual Alterations Scale, Questionnaire on Experiences of Dissociation, Dissociation Questionnaire, and the Mini-SCIDD. All are strongly intercorrelated and except the Mini-SCIDD, all incorporate absorption, a normal part of personality involving narrowing or broadening of attention. The DES is a simple, quick, and validated questionnaire that has been widely used to screen for dissociative symptoms, with variations for children and adolescents. Tests such as the DES provide a quick method of screening subjects so that the more time-consuming structured clinical interview can be used in the group with high DES scores. Depending on where the cutoff is set, people who would subsequently be diagnosed can be missed. An early recommended cutoff was 15–20. The reliability of the DES in non-clinical samples has been questioned.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Screening", "target_page_ids": [ 20952706, 564387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 63 ], [ 271, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Treatment aims to increase integrated functioning. The International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation has published guidelines for phase-oriented treatment in adults as well as children and adolescents that are widely used in the field of DID treatment. The guidelines state that \"a desirable treatment outcome is a workable form of integration or harmony among alternate identities\". Some experts in treating people with DID use the techniques recommended in the 2011 treatment guidelines. The empirical research includes the longitudinal TOP DD treatment study, which found that patients showed \"statistically significant reductions in dissociation, PTSD, distress, depression, hospitalisations, suicide attempts, self-harm, dangerous behaviours, drug use and physical pain\" and improved overall functioning. Treatment effects have been studied for over thirty years, with some studies having a follow-up of ten years. Adult and child treatment guidelines exist that suggest a three-phased approach, and are based on expert consensus. Highly experienced therapists have few patients that achieve a unified identity.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [ 34428331, 9545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 117 ], [ 511, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Common treatment methods include an eclectic mix of psychotherapy techniques, including cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), insight-oriented therapy, dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT), hypnotherapy and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [ 24931, 5750, 23797395, 445724, 14459, 1121222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 65 ], [ 88, 116 ], [ 124, 148 ], [ 150, 180 ], [ 188, 200 ], [ 205, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medications can be used for comorbid disorders or targeted symptom relief, for example antidepressants or treatments to improve sleep. Some behavior therapists initially use behavioral treatments such as only responding to a single identity, and then use more traditional therapy once a consistent response is established. Brief treatment due to managed care may be difficult, as individuals diagnosed with DID may have unusual difficulties in trusting a therapist and take a prolonged period to form a comfortable therapeutic alliance. Regular contact (at least weekly) is recommended, and treatment generally lasts years – not weeks or months. Sleep hygiene has been suggested as a treatment option, but has not been tested. In general there are very few clinical trials on the treatment of DID, none of which were randomized controlled trials.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [ 57762, 217631, 2388, 1892408, 1183870, 8409824, 1268981, 241717, 163180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 28, 36 ], [ 87, 101 ], [ 140, 159 ], [ 346, 358 ], [ 515, 535 ], [ 646, 659 ], [ 757, 771 ], [ 817, 844 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Therapy for DID is generally phase oriented. Different alters may appear based on their greater ability to deal with specific situational stresses or threats. While some patients may initially present with a large number of alters, this number may reduce during treatment – though it is considered important for the therapist to become familiar with at least the more prominent personality states as the \"host\" personality may not be the \"true\" identity of the patient. Specific alters may react negatively to therapy, fearing the therapist's goal is to eliminate the alter (particularly those associated with illegal or violent activities). A more realistic and appropriate goal of treatment is to integrate adaptive responses to abuse, injury or other threats into the overall personality structure. There is debate over issues such as whether exposure therapy (reliving traumatic memories, also known as abreaction), engagement with alters and physical contact during therapy are appropriate and there are clinical opinions both for and against each option with little high-quality evidence for any position.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [ 9819241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 846, 862 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brandt et al., commenting on the lack of empirical studies of treatment effectiveness, conducted a survey of 36 clinicians expert in treating dissociative disorder (DD) who recommended a three-stage treatment. They agreed that skill building in the first stage is important so the patient can learn to handle high risk, potentially dangerous behavior, as well as emotional regulation, interpersonal effectiveness and other practical behaviors. In addition, they recommended \"trauma-based cognitive therapy\" to reduce cognitive distortions related to trauma; they also recommended that the therapist deal with the dissociated identities early in treatment. In the middle stage, they recommended graded exposure techniques, along with appropriate interventions as needed. The treatment in the last stage was more individualized; few with DD became integrated into one identity.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first phase of therapy focuses on symptoms and relieving the distressing aspects of the condition, ensuring the safety of the individual, improving the patient's capacity to form and maintain healthy relationships, and improving general daily life functioning. Comorbid disorders such as substance use disorder and eating disorders are addressed in this phase of treatment. The second phase focuses on stepwise exposure to traumatic memories and prevention of re-dissociation. The final phase focuses on reconnecting the identities of disparate alters into a single functioning identity with all its memories and experiences intact.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [ 26477290, 56825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 292, 314 ], [ 319, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A study was conducted to develop an \"expertise-based prognostic model for the treatment of complex post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and dissociative identity disorder (DID)\". Researchers constructed a two-stage survey and factor analyses performed on the survey elements found 51 factors common to complex PTSD and DID. The authors concluded from their findings: \"The model is supportive of the current phase-oriented treatment model, emphasizing the strengthening of the therapeutic relationship and the patient's resources in the initial stabilization phase. Further research is needed to test the model's statistical and clinical validity.\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [ 3518068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 303, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Little is known about prognosis of untreated DID. It rarely, if ever, goes away without treatment, but symptoms may resolve from time to time or wax and wane spontaneously. Patients with mainly dissociative and post-traumatic symptoms face a better prognosis than those with comorbid disorders or those still in contact with abusers, and the latter groups often face lengthier and more difficult treatment. Suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and self-harm also may occur. Duration of treatment can vary depending on patient goals, which can range from merely improving inter-alter communication and cooperation, to reducing inter-alter amnesia, to integration of all alters, but generally takes years.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Prognosis", "target_page_ids": [ 3762294, 26809587, 150374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 407, 424 ], [ 426, 441 ], [ 448, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the American Psychiatric Association, the 12-month prevalence of DID among adults in the US is 1.5%, with similar prevalence between women and men. Population prevalence estimates have been described to widely vary, with some estimates of DID in inpatient settings suggesting 1-9.6%.\" Reported rates in the community vary from 1% to 3% with higher rates among psychiatric patients. As of 2017, evidence suggested a prevalence of DID of 2–5% among psychiatric inpatients, 2–3% among outpatients, and 1% in the general population, with rates reported as high as 16.4% for teenagers in psychiatric outpatient services. Dissociative disorders in general have a prevalence of 12.0%–13.8% for psychiatric outpatients.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Epidemiology", "target_page_ids": [ 2413401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 629, 650 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2012, DID was diagnosed 5 to 9 times more common in women than men during young adulthood, although this may have been due to selection bias as men meeting DID diagnostic criteria were suspected to end up in the criminal justice system rather than hospitals. In children, rates among men and women are approximately the same (5:4). DID diagnoses are extremely rare in children; much of the research on childhood DID occurred in the 1980s and 1990s and does not address ongoing controversies surrounding the diagnosis. DID occurs more commonly in young adults and declines in prevalence with age.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Epidemiology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is a poor awareness of DID in the clinical settings and the general public. Poor clinical education (or lack thereof) for DID and other dissociative disorders has been described in literature: \"most clinicians have been taught (or assume) that DID is a rare disorder with a florid, dramatic presentation.\" Symptoms in patients are often not easily visible, which complicates diagnosis. DID has a high correlation with, and has been described as a form of, complex post-traumatic stress disorder. There is a significant overlap of symptoms between borderline personality disorder and DID, although symptoms are understood to originate from different underlying causes.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Epidemiology", "target_page_ids": [ 3518068, 149223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 462, 500 ], [ 553, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rates of diagnosed DID were increasing in the late 20th century, reaching a peak of diagnoses at approximately 40,000 cases by the end of the 20th century, up from less than 200 diagnoses before 1970. Initially DID along with the rest of the dissociative disorders were considered the rarest of psychological conditions, diagnosed in less than 100 by 1944, with only one further case reported in the next two decades. In the late 1970s and '80s, the number of diagnoses rose sharply. An estimate from the 1980s placed the incidence at 0.01%. Accompanying this rise was an increase in the number of alters, rising from only the primary and one alter personality in most cases, to an average of 13 in the mid-1980s (the increase in both number of cases and number of alters within each case are both factors in professional skepticism regarding the diagnosis). Others explain the increase as being due to the use of inappropriate therapeutic techniques in highly suggestible individuals, though this is itself controversial while proponents of DID claim the increase in incidence is due to increased recognition of and ability to recognize the disorder. Figures from psychiatric populations (inpatients and outpatients) show a wide diversity from different countries.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Epidemiology", "target_page_ids": [ 2413401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 242, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A 1996 essay suggested three possible causes for the sudden increase of DID diagnoses, among which the author suspects the first being most likely:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Epidemiology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The result of therapist suggestions to suggestible people, much as Charcot's hysterics acted in accordance with his expectations.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Epidemiology", "target_page_ids": [ 932831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Psychiatrists' past failure to recognize dissociation being redressed by new training and knowledge.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Epidemiology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dissociative phenomena are actually increasing, but this increase only represents a new form of an old and protean entity: \"hysteria\".", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Epidemiology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dissociative disorders were excluded from the Epidemiological Catchment Area Project.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Epidemiology", "target_page_ids": [ 4998418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DID is considered a controversial diagnosis and condition, with much of the literature on DID still being generated and published in North America, to the extent that it was once regarded as a phenomenon confined to that continent though research has appeared discussing the appearance of DID in other countries and cultures. Although the condition has been described in non-English speaking nations and non-Western cultures, these reports all occur in English-language journals authored by international researchers who cite Western scientific literature and are therefore not isolated from Western influences. Etzel Cardena and David Gleaves believed the over-representation of DID in North America was the result of increased awareness and training about the condition which had formerly been missing.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Epidemiology", "target_page_ids": [ 21607395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 612, 625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 19th century, \"dédoublement\", or \"double consciousness\", the historical precursor to DID, was frequently described as a state of sleepwalking, with scholars hypothesizing that the patients were switching between a normal consciousness and a \"somnambulistic state\".", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 249357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An intense interest in spiritualism, parapsychology and hypnosis continued throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, running in parallel with John Locke's views that there was an association of ideas requiring the coexistence of feelings with awareness of the feelings. Hypnosis, which was pioneered in the late 18th century by Franz Mesmer and Armand-Marie Jacques de Chastenet, Marques de Puységur, challenged Locke's association of ideas. Hypnotists reported what they thought were second personalities emerging during hypnosis and wondered how two minds could coexist.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 200732, 23754, 14417, 16143, 2228016, 14417, 11803, 6405203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 35 ], [ 37, 51 ], [ 56, 64 ], [ 146, 156 ], [ 183, 203 ], [ 274, 282 ], [ 332, 344 ], [ 349, 403 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 19th century, there were a number of reported cases of multiple personalities which Rieber estimated would be close to 100. Epilepsy was seen as a factor in some cases, and discussion of this connection continues into the present era.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the late 19th century, there was a general acceptance that emotionally traumatic experiences could cause long-term disorders which might display a variety of symptoms. These conversion disorders were found to occur in even the most resilient individuals, but with profound effect in someone with emotional instability like Louis Vivet (1863–?), who had a traumatic experience as a 17-year-old when he encountered a viper. Vivet was the subject of countless medical papers and became the most studied case of dissociation in the 19th century.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 880777, 43086977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 177, 196 ], [ 326, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1880 and 1920, various international medical conferences devoted time to sessions on dissociation. It was in this climate that Jean-Martin Charcot introduced his ideas of the impact of nervous shocks as a cause for a variety of neurological conditions. One of Charcot's students, Pierre Janet, took these ideas and went on to develop his own theories of dissociation. One of the first individuals diagnosed with multiple personalities to be scientifically studied was Clara Norton Fowler, under the pseudonym Christine Beauchamp; American neurologist Morton Prince studied Fowler between 1898 and 1904, describing her case study in his 1906 monograph, Dissociation of a Personality.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 932831, 2547331, 40594, 37571278, 21226, 2401788, 304471, 653841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 154 ], [ 288, 300 ], [ 507, 516 ], [ 517, 536 ], [ 547, 558 ], [ 559, 572 ], [ 626, 636 ], [ 649, 658 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 20th century, interest in dissociation and multiple personalities waned for several reasons. After Charcot's death in 1893, many of his so-called hysterical patients were exposed as frauds, and Janet's association with Charcot tarnished his theories of dissociation. Sigmund Freud recanted his earlier emphasis on dissociation and childhood trauma.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 280, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1908, Eugen Bleuler introduced the term \"schizophrenia\" to represent a revised disease concept for Emil Kraepelin's dementia praecox. Whereas Kraepelin's natural disease entity was anchored in the metaphor of progressive deterioration and mental weakness and defect, Bleuler offered a reinterpretation based on dissociation or \"splitting\" (Spaltung) and widely broadened the inclusion criteria for the diagnosis. A review of the Index medicus from 1903 through 1978 showed a dramatic decline in the number of reports of multiple personality after the diagnosis of schizophrenia became popular, especially in the United States. The rise of the broad diagnostic category of dementia praecox has also been posited in the disappearance of \"hysteria\" (the usual diagnostic designation for cases of multiple personalities) by 1910. A number of factors helped create a large climate of skepticism and disbelief; paralleling the increased suspicion of DID was the decline of interest in dissociation as a laboratory and clinical phenomenon.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 276370, 9059, 7494550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ], [ 119, 135 ], [ 432, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Starting in about 1927, there was a large increase in the number of reported cases of schizophrenia, which was matched by an equally large decrease in the number of multiple personality reports. With the rise of a uniquely American reframing of dementia praecox/schizophrenia as a functional disorder or \"reaction\" to psychobiological stressors – a theory first put forth by Adolf Meyer in 1906—many trauma-induced conditions associated with dissociation, including \"shell shock\" or \"war neuroses\" during World WarI, were subsumed under these diagnoses. It was argued in the 1980s that DID patients were often misdiagnosed with schizophrenia.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2452836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 375, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The public, however, was exposed to psychological ideas which took their interest. Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, Robert Louis Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, and many short stories by Edgar Allan Poe, had a formidable impact.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 27885687, 18580673, 26444, 42829172, 28296, 9549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 95 ], [ 98, 110 ], [ 112, 134 ], [ 137, 174 ], [ 185, 198 ], [ 202, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1957, with the publication of the bestselling book The Three Faces of Eve by psychiatrists Corbett H. Thigpen and Hervey M. Cleckley, based on a case study of their patient Chris Costner Sizemore, and the subsequent popular movie of the same name, the American public's interest in multiple personality was revived. More cases of dissociative identity disorder were diagnosed in the following years. The cause of the sudden increase of cases is indefinite, but it may be attributed to the increased awareness, which revealed previously undiagnosed cases or new cases may have been induced by the influence of the media on the behavior of individuals and the judgement of therapists. During the 1970s an initially small number of clinicians campaigned to have it considered a legitimate diagnosis.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6834597, 2436541, 304471, 2810990, 193845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 112 ], [ 117, 135 ], [ 148, 158 ], [ 176, 198 ], [ 227, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The DSM-II used the term hysterical neurosis, dissociative type. It described the possible occurrence of alterations in the patient's state of consciousness or identity, and included the symptoms of \"amnesia, somnambulism, fugue, and multiple personality\". The DSM-III grouped the diagnosis with the other four major dissociative disorders using the term \"multiple personality disorder\". The DSM-IV made more changes to DID than any other dissociative disorder, and renamed it DID. The name was changed for two reasons: First, the change emphasizes the main problem is not a multitude of personalities, but rather a lack of a single, unified identity and an emphasis on \"the identities as centers of information processing\". Second, the term \"personality\" is used to refer to \"characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, moods, and behaviors of the whole individual\", while for a patient with DID, the switches between identities and behavior patterns is the personality. It is for this reason the DSM-IV-TR referred to \"distinct identities or personality states\" instead of personalities. The diagnostic criteria also changed to indicate that while the patient may name and personalize alters, they lack independent, objective existence. The changes also included the addition of amnesia as a symptom, which was not included in the DSM-III-R because despite being a core symptom of the condition, patients may experience \"amnesia for the amnesia\" and fail to report it. Amnesia was replaced when it became clear that the risk of false negative diagnoses was low because amnesia was central to DID.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2413401, 8498, 5657877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 317, 339 ], [ 392, 398 ], [ 1533, 1547 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ICD-10 places the diagnosis in the category of \"dissociative disorders\", within the subcategory of \"other dissociative (conversion) disorders\", but continues to list the condition as multiple personality disorder.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13745451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The DSM-IV-TR criteria for DID have been criticized for failing to capture the clinical complexity of DID, lacking usefulness in diagnosing individuals with DID (for instance, by focusing on the two least frequent and most subtle symptoms of DID) producing a high rate of false negatives and an excessive number of DDNOS diagnoses, for excluding possession (seen as a cross-cultural form of DID), and for including only two \"core\" symptoms of DID (amnesia and self-alteration) while failing to discuss hallucinations, trance-like states, somatoform, depersonalization, and derealization symptoms. Arguments have been made for allowing diagnosis through the presence of some, but not all of the characteristics of DID rather than the current exclusive focus on the two least common and noticeable features. The DSM-IV-TR criteria have also been criticized for being tautological, using imprecise and undefined language and for the use of instruments that give a false sense of validity and empirical certainty to the diagnosis.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5657877, 45936, 30861480, 354031, 19333411, 4495335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 272, 287 ], [ 346, 356 ], [ 538, 548 ], [ 550, 567 ], [ 573, 586 ], [ 866, 878 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The DSM-5 updated the definition of DID in 2013, summarizing the changes as:", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11973479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1968 and 1980, the term that was used for dissociative identity disorder was \"Hysterical neurosis, dissociative type\". The APA wrote in the second edition of the DSM: \"In the dissociative type, alterations may occur in the patient's state of consciousness or in his identity, to produce such symptoms as amnesia, somnambulism, fugue, and multiple personality.\" The number of cases sharply increased in the late 1970s and throughout the 80s, and the first scholarly monographs on the topic appeared in 1986.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 653841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 473, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1974, the highly influential book Sybil was published, and later made into a miniseries in 1976 and again in 2007. Describing what Robert Rieber called \"the third most famous of multiple personality cases,\" it presented a detailed discussion of the problems of treatment of \"Sybil Isabel Dorsett\", a pseudonym for Shirley Ardell Mason.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 696438, 350712, 983692, 11689743, 40594, 4003535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 42 ], [ 80, 90 ], [ 94, 98 ], [ 103, 116 ], [ 303, 312 ], [ 317, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though the book and subsequent films helped popularize the diagnosis and trigger an epidemic of the diagnosis, later analysis of the case suggested different interpretations, ranging from Mason's problems having been caused by the therapeutic methods used by her psychiatrist, C.B. Wilbur, or an inadvertent hoax due in part to the lucrative publishing rights, though this conclusion has itself been challenged.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4014946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 277, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "David Spiegel, a Stanford psychiatrist whose father treated Shirley Ardell Mason on occasion, says that his father described Mason as \"a brilliant hysteric. He felt that Wilbur tended to pressure her to exaggerate on the dissociation she already had.\" As media attention on DID increased, so too did the controversy surrounding the diagnosis.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With the publication of the DSM-III, which omitted the terms \"hysteria\" and \"neurosis\" (and thus the former categories for dissociative disorders), dissociative diagnoses became \"orphans\" with their own categories with dissociative identity disorder appearing as \"multiple personality disorder\".", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the opinion of McGill University psychiatrist Joel Paris, this inadvertently legitimized them by forcing textbooks, which mimicked the structure of the DSM, to include a separate chapter on them and resulted in an increase in diagnosis of dissociative conditions. Once a rarely occurring spontaneous phenomenon (research in 1944 showed only 76cases), the diagnosis became \"an artifact of bad (or naïve) psychotherapy\" as patients capable of dissociating were accidentally encouraged to express their symptoms by \"overly fascinated\" therapists.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7954643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a 1986 book chapter (later reprinted in another volume), philosopher of science Ian Hacking focused on multiple personality disorder as an example of \"making up people\" through the untoward effects on individuals of the \"dynamic nominalism\" in medicine and psychiatry. With the invention of new terms entire new categories of \"natural kinds\" of people are assumed to be created, and those thus diagnosed respond by re-creating their identity in light of the new cultural, medical, scientific, political and moral expectations. Hacking argued that the process of \"making up people\" is historically contingent, hence it is not surprising to find the rise, fall, and resurrection of such categories over time. Hacking revisited his concept of \"making up people\" in a 2006.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 322956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Interpersonality amnesia\" was removed as a diagnostic feature from the DSM III in 1987, which may have contributed to the increasing frequency of the diagnosis. There were 200reported cases of DID as of 1980, and 20,000 from 1980 to 1990. Joan Acocella reports that 40,000 cases were diagnosed from 1985 to 1995. Scientific publications regarding DID peaked in the mid-1990s then rapidly declined.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1700031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 240, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were several contributing factors to the rapid decline of reports of multiple personality disorder/dissociative identity disorder. One was the discontinuation in December 1997 of Dissociation: Progress in the Dissociative Disorders, the journal of The International Society for the Study of Multiple Personality and Dissociation. The society and its journal were perceived as uncritical sources of legitimacy for the extraordinary claims of the existence of intergenerational satanic cults responsible for a \"hidden holocaust\" of Satanic ritual abuse that was linked to the rise of MPD reports. In an effort to distance itself from the increasing skepticism regarding the clinical validity of MPD, the organization dropped \"multiple personality\" from its official name in 1993, and then in 1997 changed its name again to the International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 80402, 34428331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 536, 556 ], [ 831, 893 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1994, the fourth edition of the DSM replaced the criteria again and changed the name of the condition from \"multiple personality disorder\" to the current \"dissociative identity disorder\" to emphasize the importance of changes to consciousness and identity rather than personality. The inclusion of interpersonality amnesia helped to distinguish DID from dissociative disorder not otherwise specified (DDNOS), but the condition retains an inherent subjectivity due to difficulty in defining terms such as personality, identity, ego-state, and even amnesia. The ICD-10 classified DID as a \"Dissociative [conversion] disorder\" and used the name \"multiple personality disorder\" with the classification number of F44.81. In the ICD-11, the World Health Organization have classified DID under the name \"dissociative identity disorder\" (code6B64), and most cases formerly diagnosed as DDNOS are classified as \"partial dissociative identity disorder\" (code6B65).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 33953369, 21347303, 13745451, 24223219, 33583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 357, 402 ], [ 550, 557 ], [ 563, 569 ], [ 726, 732 ], [ 738, 763 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A 2006 study compared scholarly research and publications on DID and dissociative amnesia to other mental health conditions, such as anorexia nervosa, alcohol use disorder, and schizophrenia from 1984 to 2003. The results were found to be unusually distributed, with a very low level of publications in the 1980s followed by a significant rise that peaked in the mid-1990s and subsequently rapidly declined in the decade following. Compared to 25 other diagnosis, the mid-1990s \"bubble\" of publications regarding DID was unique. In the opinion of the authors of the review, the publication results suggest a period of \"fashion\" that waned, and that the two diagnoses \"[did] not command widespread scientific acceptance.\"", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3510370, 26534334, 2965, 27790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 89 ], [ 133, 149 ], [ 151, 171 ], [ 177, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The public's long fascination with DID has led to a number of different books and films, with many representations described as increasing stigma by perpetuating the myth that people with mental illness are usually dangerous. Movies about DID have been also criticized for poor representation of both DID and its treatment, including \"greatly overrepresenting\" the role of hypnosis in therapy, showing a significantly smaller number of personalities than many people with DID have, and misrepresenting people with DID as having flamboyant and obvious personalities. Some movies are parodies and ridicule DID, for instance Me, Myself & Irene, which also incorrectly states that DID is schizophrenia. In some stories DID is used as a plot device, e.g. in Fight Club, and in whodunnit stories like Secret Window.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1145800, 27790, 1009041, 69923, 518928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 622, 640 ], [ 684, 697 ], [ 753, 763 ], [ 772, 781 ], [ 795, 808 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "United States of Tara was reported to be the first US television series with DID as its focus, and a professional commentary on each episode was published by the International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation. More recently, the award winning Korean TV series Kill Me, Heal Me () featured a wealthy young man with seven personalities, one of whom falls in love with the beautiful psychiatry resident who tries to help him.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 15038191, 34428331, 44733830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 162, 224 ], [ 276, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most people with DID are believed to downplay or minimize their symptoms rather than seeking fame, often due to fear of the effects of stigma, or shame. Therapists may discourage them from media work due to concerns that they may feel exploited or traumatized, for example as a result of demonstrating switching between personality states to entertain others.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, a number of people with DID have publicly spoken about their experiences, including comedian and talk show host Roseanne Barr, who interviewed Truddi Chase, author of When Rabbit Howls; Chris Costner Sizemore, the subject of The Three Faces of Eve, Cameron West, author of My life as a multiple, and NFL player Herschel Walker, author of Breaking Free: My life with dissociative identity disorder.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 93791, 559292, 2810990, 193845, 8156307, 21211, 635876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 134 ], [ 152, 164 ], [ 195, 217 ], [ 234, 256 ], [ 282, 304 ], [ 310, 313 ], [ 321, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In The Three Faces of Eve (1957) hypnosis is used to identify a childhood trauma which then allows her to merge from three identities into just one. However, Sizemore's own books I'm Eve and A Mind of My Own revealed that this did not last; she later attempted suicide, sought further treatment, and actually had twenty-two personalities rather than three. Sizemore re-entered therapy and by 1974 had achieved a lasting recovery. The Lives of Truddi Chase portrays many of the 92personalities Chase described in her book When Rabbit Howls, and is unusual in breaking away from the typical ending of integrating into one. Frankie & Alice (2010), starring Halle Berry; and the TV mini-series Sybil were also based on real people with DID. In popular culture dissociative identity disorder is often confused with schizophrenia, and some movies advertised as representing dissociative identity disorder may be more representative of psychosis or schizophrenia, for example Psycho (1960).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 20122638, 13717, 27790, 24514, 27790, 23880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 622, 637 ], [ 655, 666 ], [ 811, 824 ], [ 930, 939 ], [ 943, 956 ], [ 970, 976 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his book The C.I.A. Doctors: Human Rights Violations by American Psychiatrists, psychiatrist Colin A. Ross states that based on documents obtained through freedom of information legislation, a psychiatrist linked to Project MKULTRA reported being able to deliberately induce dissociative identity disorder using a variety of aversive or abusive techniques, creating a Manchurian Candidate for military purposes.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 39393328, 163152, 42043, 5062888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 109 ], [ 158, 192 ], [ 219, 234 ], [ 371, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A DID community exists on social media, including YouTube and TikTok. However, numerous high-profile members of this community have been criticized for faking their condition for views, or for portraying the disorder lightheartedly. Conversely, psychologist Naomi Torres-Mackie, head of research at The Mental Health Coalition, has stated \"All of a sudden, all of my adolescent patients think that they have this, and they don't ... Folks start attaching clinical meaning and feeling like, 'I should be diagnosed with this. I need medication for this', when actually a lot of these experiences are normative and don't need to be pathologized or treated.\"", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 5897742, 3524766, 56822861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 38 ], [ 50, 57 ], [ 62, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the USA Network television production Mr. Robot, the protagonist Elliot Alderson is shown to have signs of DID and schizophrenia.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 77826, 44801986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ], [ 41, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In M. Night Shyamalan's Unbreakable superhero film series (specifically the second film, Split), one character is diagnosed with DID, and that some of the personalities have super-human powers. Some advocates believe that the film is a negative portrayal.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 73631, 55825336, 48764126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 21 ], [ 24, 35 ], [ 89, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Marvel Comics, the character of Moon Knight is shown to have DID. In the TV series Moon Knight based on the comic book character, protagonist Marc Spector is depicted with DID; the website for the National Alliance on Mental Illness appears in the series' end credits. Another Marvel character, Legion, has DID in the comics, although he has schizophrenia in the TV show version.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 20966, 880508, 61593083, 68898424, 535786, 553633, 48325627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 16 ], [ 35, 46 ], [ 86, 97 ], [ 145, 157 ], [ 200, 235 ], [ 298, 304 ], [ 366, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "People with dissociative identity disorder may be involved in legal cases as a witness, defendant, or as the victim/injured party. In the United States dissociative identity disorder has previously been found to meet the Frye test as a generally accepted medical condition, and the newer Daubert standard. Within legal circles, DID has been described as one of the most disputed psychiatric diagnoses and forensic assessments are needed. For defendants whose defense states they have a diagnosis of DID, courts must distinguish between those who genuinely have DID and those who are malingering to avoid responsibility, as shown in the fictional book and film Primal Fear. Expert witnesses are typically used to assess defendants in such cases, although some of the standard assessments like the MMPI-2 were not developed for people with a trauma history and the validity scales may incorrectly suggest malingering. The Multiscale Dissociation Inventory (Briere, 2002) is well suited to assessing malingering and dissociative disorders, unlike the self-report Dissociative Experiences Scale. In DID, evidence about the altered states of consciousness, actions of alter identities and episodes of amnesia may be excluded from a court if they not considered relevant, although different countries and regions have different laws. A diagnosis of DID may be used to claim a defense of not guilty by reason of insanity, but this very rarely succeeds, or of diminished capacity, which may reduce the length of a sentence. DID may also affect competency to stand trial. A not guilty by reason of insanity plea was first used successfully in an American court in 1978, in the State of Ohio v. Milligan case. However, a DID diagnosis is not automatically considered a justification for an insanity verdict, and since Milligan the few cases claiming insanity have largely been unsuccessful.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 6804702, 1141965, 475037, 274455, 446184, 15358, 707501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 230 ], [ 288, 304 ], [ 405, 425 ], [ 583, 594 ], [ 796, 802 ], [ 1381, 1413 ], [ 1668, 1693 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DID may be present in witnesses or victims of crime. In Australia in 2019 a woman with DID planned to testify against her abusive father, with prosecutors speculating one or several of her alters might separately testify, and be legally acknowledged as separate individuals. The father plead guilty before the women could take the stand.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 4689264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the context of neurodiversity, the experience of dissociative identities has been called multiplicity and has led to advocacy for the recognition of 'positive plurality' and the use of plural pronouns such as \"we\" and \"our\". Liz Fong-Jones states those with this condition might have fear in regard to \"coming out\" about their DID, as it could put them in a vulnerable position.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1073739, 36749205, 69972350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 32 ], [ 92, 104 ], [ 228, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In particular, advocates have challenged the necessity of integration. Timothy Baynes argues that alters have full moral status, just as their host does. He states that as integration may entail the (involuntary) elimination of such an entity, forcing people to undergo it as a therapeutic treatment is 'seriously immoral'.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A DID (or Dissociative Identities) Awareness Day takes place on March 5 annually, and a multicolored awareness ribbon is used, based on the idea of a \"crazy quilt\".", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Dissociative_disorders", "Memory_disorders", "Wikipedia_medicine_articles_ready_to_translate" ]

[ "DID", "MPD", "multiple personality", "multiple personality disorder" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, (19 June 1820) was an English naturalist, botanist, and patron of the natural sciences.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 166380, 4183, 38890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 72 ], [ 74, 82 ], [ 102, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banks made his name on the 1766 natural-history expedition to Newfoundland and Labrador. He took part in Captain James Cook's first great voyage (1768–1771), visiting Brazil, Tahiti, and after 6 months in New Zealand, Australia, returning to immediate fame. He held the position of president of the Royal Society for over 41 years. He advised King George III on the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and by sending botanists around the world to collect plants, he made Kew the world's leading botanical garden. He is credited for bringing 30,000 plant specimens home with him; amongst them, he was the first European to document 1,400.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 31642145, 21980, 15630, 11249942, 3383, 65153, 4913064, 4689264, 496064, 42029, 26304, 40390498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 58 ], [ 62, 87 ], [ 113, 123 ], [ 126, 144 ], [ 167, 173 ], [ 175, 181 ], [ 205, 216 ], [ 218, 227 ], [ 299, 312 ], [ 343, 358 ], [ 366, 392 ], [ 439, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banks advocated British settlement in New South Wales and the colonisation of Australia, as well as the establishment of Botany Bay as a place for the reception of convicts, and advised the British government on all Australian matters. He is credited with introducing the eucalyptus, acacia, and the genus named after him, Banksia, to the Western world. Around 80 species of plants bear his name. He was the leading founder of the African Association and a member of the Society of Dilettanti, which helped to establish the Royal Academy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1275854, 21654, 4689264, 2496566, 241953, 49871, 2959226, 38493, 39683, 21208200, 10331411, 2232849, 161778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 34 ], [ 38, 53 ], [ 78, 87 ], [ 121, 131 ], [ 151, 172 ], [ 272, 282 ], [ 284, 290 ], [ 300, 305 ], [ 323, 330 ], [ 339, 352 ], [ 431, 450 ], [ 471, 492 ], [ 524, 537 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banks was born in Argyll Street, Soho, London, the son of William Banks, a wealthy Lincolnshire country squire and member of the House of Commons, and his wife Sarah, daughter of William Bate. He was baptised at St James's Church, Piccadilly, on 20 February 1743, Old Style. He had a younger sister, Sarah Sophia Banks, born in 1744.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 55375819, 39616, 17867, 35272324, 53295, 676591, 24913960, 1700370, 888602, 5346209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 31 ], [ 33, 37 ], [ 39, 45 ], [ 58, 71 ], [ 83, 95 ], [ 104, 110 ], [ 129, 145 ], [ 212, 241 ], [ 264, 273 ], [ 300, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banks was educated at Harrow School from the age of nine and then at Eton College from 1756; the boys with whom he attended the school included his future shipmate Constantine Phipps.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 188956, 53228, 386416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ], [ 69, 81 ], [ 164, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a boy, Banks enjoyed exploring the Lincolnshire countryside and developed a keen interest in nature, history, and botany. When he was 17, he was inoculated with smallpox, but he became ill and did not return to school. In late 1760, he was enrolled as a gentleman-commoner at the University of Oxford. At Oxford, he matriculated at Christ Church, where his studies were largely focussed on natural history rather than the classical curriculum. Determined to receive botanical instruction, he paid the Cambridge botanist Israel Lyons to deliver a series of lectures at Oxford in 1764.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 16829895, 39159182, 31797, 369917, 128325, 25978572, 14726536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 172 ], [ 257, 275 ], [ 283, 303 ], [ 319, 331 ], [ 335, 348 ], [ 504, 513 ], [ 523, 535 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banks left Oxford for Chelsea in December 1763. He continued to attend the university until 1764, but left that year without taking a degree. His father had died in 1761, so when Banks reached the age of 21, he inherited the large estate of Revesby Abbey, in Lincolnshire, becoming the local squire and magistrate, and dividing his time between Lincolnshire and London. From his mother's house in Chelsea, he kept up his interest in science by attending the Chelsea Physic Garden of the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries and the British Museum, where he met Daniel Solander. He began to make friends among the scientific men of his day and to correspond with Carl Linnaeus, whom he came to know through Solander. As Banks's influence increased, he became an adviser to King George III and urged the monarch to support voyages of discovery to new lands, hoping to indulge his own interest in botany. He became a Freemason sometime before 1769.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 310113, 7320117, 306902, 369573, 369370, 4675, 386287, 5233, 42029, 11227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 29 ], [ 241, 254 ], [ 303, 313 ], [ 458, 479 ], [ 487, 521 ], [ 530, 544 ], [ 559, 574 ], [ 660, 673 ], [ 770, 785 ], [ 913, 922 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1766, Banks was elected to the Royal Society, and in the same year, at 23, he went with Phipps aboard the frigate to Newfoundland and Labrador with a view to studying their natural history. He made his name by publishing the first Linnean descriptions of the plants and animals of Newfoundland and Labrador. Banks also documented 34 species of birds, including the great auk, which became extinct in 1844. On 7 May, he noted a large number of \"penguins\" swimming around the ship on the Grand Banks, and a specimen he collected in Chateau Bay, Labrador, was later identified as the great auk.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Newfoundland and Labrador", "target_page_ids": [ 17539, 12552, 345394, 25339572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 235, 242 ], [ 369, 378 ], [ 490, 501 ], [ 534, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banks was appointed to a joint Royal Navy/Royal Society scientific expedition to the South Pacific Ocean on HMS Endeavour, 1768–1771. This was the first of James Cook's voyages of discovery in that region. Banks funded eight others to join him: the Swedish naturalist Daniel Solander, the Finnish naturalist Herman Spöring (who also served as Banks' personal secretary and as a draughtsman), artists Sydney Parkinson and Alexander Buchan, and four servants from his estate: James Roberts, Peter Briscoe, Thomas Richmond, and George Dorlton. In 1771, he was travelling with James Cook and docked in Simon's Town in what is now South Africa. There, he met Christoffel Brand and a friendship started. He was the godfather of Brand's grandson Christoffel Brand.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Endeavour voyage", "target_page_ids": [ 26061, 183655, 5058739, 166380, 386287, 7002935, 1218539, 24433062, 1955600, 58725898, 11304603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 41 ], [ 108, 121 ], [ 249, 256 ], [ 257, 267 ], [ 268, 283 ], [ 308, 322 ], [ 400, 416 ], [ 421, 437 ], [ 598, 610 ], [ 654, 671 ], [ 739, 756 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The voyage went to Brazil, where Banks made the first scientific description of a now common garden plant, Bougainvillea (named after Cook's French counterpart, Louis Antoine de Bougainville), and to other parts of South America. The voyage then progressed to Tahiti (where the transit of Venus was observed, the overt purpose of the mission), then to New Zealand.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Endeavour voyage", "target_page_ids": [ 3383, 652517, 254389, 65153, 632331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 25 ], [ 107, 120 ], [ 161, 190 ], [ 260, 266 ], [ 278, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From there, it proceeded to the east coast of Australia, where Cook mapped the coastline and made landfall at Botany Bay, then at Round Hill (23-25 May 1770), which is now known as Seventeen Seventy and at Endeavour River (near modern Cooktown) in Queensland, where they spent almost seven weeks ashore while the ship was repaired after becoming holed on the Great Barrier Reef. While they were in Australia, Banks, Daniel Solander, and Finnish botanist Dr Herman Spöring Jr. made the first major collection of Australian flora, describing many species new to science. Almost 800 specimens were illustrated by the artist Sydney Parkinson and appear in Banks' Florilegium, finally published in 35 volumes between 1980 and 1990. Notable also was that during the period when the Endeavour was being repaired, Banks observed a kangaroo, first recorded as \"kanguru\" on 12 July 1770 in an entry in his diary.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Endeavour voyage", "target_page_ids": [ 2072779, 1976300, 24875518, 59051, 70983, 7002935, 1218539, 6627621, 17064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 198 ], [ 206, 221 ], [ 235, 243 ], [ 248, 258 ], [ 359, 377 ], [ 457, 475 ], [ 621, 637 ], [ 652, 670 ], [ 823, 831 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banks arrived back in England on 12 July 1771 and immediately became famous. He intended to go with Cook on his second voyage, which began on 13 May 1772, but difficulties arose about Banks' scientific requirements on board Cook's new ship, HMS Resolution. The Admiralty regarded Banks' demands as unacceptable and without prior warning, withdrew his permission to sail. Banks immediately arranged an alternative expedition, and in July 1772, Daniel Solander and he visited the Isle of Wight, the Hebrides, Iceland, and the Orkney Islands, aboard Sir Lawrence. In Iceland, they ascended Mt. Hekla and visited the Great Geyser, and were the first scientific visitors to Staffa in the Inner Hebrides. They returned to London in November, with many botanical specimens, via Edinburgh, where Banks and Solander were interviewed by James Boswell. In 1773, he toured south Wales in the company of artist Paul Sandby. When he settled in London, he began work on his Florilegium. He kept in touch with most of the scientists of his time, was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1773, and added a fresh interest when he was elected to the Dilettante Society in 1774. He was afterwards secretary of this society from 1778 to 1797. On 30 November 1778, he was elected president of the Royal Society, a position he was to hold with great distinction for over 41 years.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Return home", "target_page_ids": [ 33390054, 291043, 15102, 14531, 22645, 113726, 305241, 158049, 62363, 746429, 210815, 649168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 125 ], [ 241, 255 ], [ 478, 491 ], [ 507, 514 ], [ 524, 538 ], [ 587, 596 ], [ 613, 625 ], [ 669, 675 ], [ 827, 840 ], [ 898, 909 ], [ 1066, 1099 ], [ 1290, 1320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 1779, Banks married Dorothea Hugessen, daughter of W. W. Hugessen, and settled in a large house at 32 Soho Square. It continued to be his London residence for the remainder of his life. There, he welcomed the scientists, students, and authors of his period, and many distinguished foreign visitors. His sister Sarah Sophia Banks lived in the house with Banks and his wife. He had as librarian and curator of his collections Solander, Jonas Carlsson Dryander, and Robert Brown in succession.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Return home", "target_page_ids": [ 1440690, 5346209, 386315, 333483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 122 ], [ 319, 337 ], [ 443, 466 ], [ 472, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also in 1779, Banks took a lease on an estate called Spring Grove, the former residence of Elisha Biscoe (1705–1776), which he eventually bought outright from Biscoe's son, also Elisha, in 1808. The picture shows the house in 1815. Its 34 acres ran along the northern side of the London Road, Isleworth, and contained a natural spring, which was an important attraction to him. Banks spent much time and effort on this secondary home. He steadily created a renowned botanical masterpiece on the estate, achieved primarily with many of the great variety of foreign plants he had collected on his extensive travels around the world, particularly to Australia and the South Seas. The surrounding district became known as Spring Grove.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Return home", "target_page_ids": [ 34367976, 94126, 20274499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 184 ], [ 293, 302 ], [ 718, 730 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The house was substantially extended and rebuilt by later owners and is now part of West Thames College.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Return home", "target_page_ids": [ 5601528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banks was made a baronet in 1781, three years after being elected president of the Royal Society. During much of this time, he was an informal adviser to King George III on the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, a position that was formalised in 1797. Banks dispatched explorers and botanists to many parts of the world, and through these efforts, Kew Gardens became arguably the pre-eminent botanical gardens in the world, with many species being introduced to Europe through them and through Chelsea Physic Garden and their head gardener John Fairbairn. He directly fostered several famous voyages, including that of George Vancouver to the northeastern Pacific (Pacific Northwest), and William Bligh's voyages (one entailing the infamous mutiny on the Bounty) to transplant breadfruit from the South Pacific to the Caribbean islands. Banks was also a major financial supporter of William Smith in his decade-long efforts to create a geological map of England, the first geological map of an entire country. He also chose Allan Cunningham for voyages to Brazil and the north and northwest coasts of Australia to collect specimens.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Return home", "target_page_ids": [ 79912, 69427, 369573, 12867, 78147, 33900, 69406, 54146, 93553, 270052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 24 ], [ 385, 401 ], [ 487, 508 ], [ 612, 628 ], [ 658, 675 ], [ 682, 695 ], [ 734, 754 ], [ 770, 780 ], [ 876, 889 ], [ 1017, 1033 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banks's own time in Australia, however, led to his interest in the British colonisation of that continent. He was to be the greatest proponent of settlement in New South Wales. A genus of the Proteaceae was named in his honour as Banksia. In 1779, Banks, giving evidence before a committee of the House of Commons, had stated that in his opinion the place most eligible for the reception of convicts \"was Botany Bay, on the coast of New Holland\", on the general grounds that, \"it was not to be doubted that a Tract of Land such as New Holland, which was larger than the whole of Europe, would furnish Matter of advantageous Return\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Colonisation of New South Wales", "target_page_ids": [ 45775, 5713772, 39683, 3808294, 1937465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 87 ], [ 192, 202 ], [ 230, 237 ], [ 391, 399 ], [ 433, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Banks remained uninvolved in these colonies in a hands on manner, he was, nonetheless, the general adviser to the government on all Australian matters for twenty years. He arranged that a large number of useful trees and plants should be sent out in the supply ship , which was unfortunately wrecked, as well as other ships; many of these were supplied by Hugh Ronalds from his nursery in Brentford. Every vessel that came from New South Wales brought plants or animals or geological and other specimens to Banks. He was continually called on for help in developing the agriculture and trade of the colony, and his influence was used in connection with the sending out of early free settlers, one of whom, a young gardener George Suttor, later wrote a memoir of Banks. The three earliest governors of the colony, Arthur Phillip, John Hunter, and Philip Gidley King, were in continual correspondence with him. Banks produced a significant body of papers, including one of the earliest Aboriginal Australian words lists compiled by a European. Bligh was also appointed governor of New South Wales on Banks's recommendation. Banks followed the explorations of Matthew Flinders, George Bass, and Lieutenant James Grant, and among his paid helpers were George Caley, Robert Brown, and Allan Cunningham.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Colonisation of New South Wales", "target_page_ids": [ 55015246, 93899, 8933985, 2563, 297682, 297832, 21654, 7722108, 318185, 453775, 896197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 365, 377 ], [ 398, 407 ], [ 732, 745 ], [ 822, 836 ], [ 838, 849 ], [ 855, 873 ], [ 1088, 1103 ], [ 1166, 1182 ], [ 1184, 1195 ], [ 1212, 1223 ], [ 1257, 1269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, Banks backed William Bligh to be installed as the new governor of New South Wales and to crack down on the New South Wales Corps (or Rum Corps), which made a fortune on the trading of rum. This brought him in direct confrontation with post-Rum Rebellion de facto leaders such as John Macarthur and George Johnston. This backing led to the Rum Rebellion in Sydney, whereby the governor was overthrown by the two men. This became an embarrassment for Sir Joseph Banks, also, because years earlier, he campaigned that John Macarthur not be granted 10,000 acres of land near Sydney in the cow pastures, which was later granted by Lord Camden. The next governor, Lachlan Macquarie, was asked to arrest Macarthur and Johnston, only to realise that they had left Sydney for London to defend themselves. He was humiliated that Macarthur and Johnston were acquitted from all charges in London and both later returned to Sydney.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Colonisation of New South Wales", "target_page_ids": [ 33900, 556712, 1701995, 5942024, 52741, 323691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ], [ 116, 137 ], [ 288, 302 ], [ 307, 322 ], [ 348, 361 ], [ 667, 684 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banks met the young Alexander von Humboldt in 1790, when Banks was already the president of the Royal Society. Before Humboldt and his scientific travel companion and collaborator Aimé Bonpland left for what became a five-year journal of exploration and discovery, Humboldt requested a British passport for Bonpland, should the two encounter British warships. On their travels, Humboldt arranged for specimens be sent to Banks, should they be seized by the British. Banks and Humboldt remained in touch until Banks's death, aiding Humboldt by mobilising his wide network of scientific contacts to forward information to the great German scientist. Both men believed in the internationalism of science.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 70631, 398762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 42 ], [ 180, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banks was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1787 and a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1788. Among other activities, Banks found time to serve as a trustee of the British Museum for 42 years. He was high sheriff of Lincolnshire in 1794.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 283120, 391882, 8543741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 64 ], [ 110, 147 ], [ 263, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He worked with Sir George Staunton in producing the official account of the British mission to the Chinese Imperial court. This diplomatic and trade mission was headed by George, Earl Macartney. Although the Macartney Embassy returned to London without obtaining any concession from China, the mission could have been termed a success because it brought back detailed observations. This multivolume work was taken chiefly from the papers of Lord Macartney and from the papers of Sir Erasmus Gower, who was commander of the expedition. Banks was responsible for selecting and arranging engraving of the illustrations in this official record.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 2353773, 69123, 327148, 7769337, 3847031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 34 ], [ 99, 121 ], [ 171, 193 ], [ 208, 225 ], [ 483, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banks was invested as a Knight of the Order of the Bath (KB) on 1 July 1795, which became Knight Grand Cross (GCB) when the order was restructured in 1815.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 311455, 838255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 55 ], [ 90, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banks was a large landowner and activist encloser, drainer and ‘improver’ in Fens at Revesby.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 150379, 32292412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 81 ], [ 85, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banks's health began to fail early in the 19th century and he suffered from gout every winter. After 1805, he practically lost the use of his legs and had to be wheeled to his meetings in a chair, but his mind remained as vigorous as ever. He had been a member of the Society of Antiquaries nearly all his life, and he developed an interest in archaeology in his later years. In 1807, William Kerr named the Lady Banks climbing rose after Banks's wife. Banks was made an honorary founding member of the Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh in 1808. In 1809, he became associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands. In 1809, his friend Alexander Henry dedicated his travel book to him. In May 1820, he forwarded his resignation as president of the Royal Society, but withdrew it at the request of the council. In 1819, Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen on his First Russian Antarctic Expedition, briefly stopped in England and met Joseph Banks. Banks had sailed with James Cook 50 years earlier and supplied the Russians with books and charts for their expedition. He died on 19 June 1820 in Spring Grove House, Isleworth, London, and was buried at St Leonard's Church, Heston. Lady Banks survived him, but they had no children.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 55584, 366356, 20073055, 14932159, 9602, 392098, 183931, 562598, 40880361, 15630, 57282976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 80 ], [ 268, 290 ], [ 385, 397 ], [ 504, 537 ], [ 541, 550 ], [ 604, 638 ], [ 660, 675 ], [ 843, 877 ], [ 885, 919 ], [ 992, 1002 ], [ 1174, 1201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banks was a major supporter of the internationalist nature of science, being actively involved both in keeping open the lines of communication with continental scientists during the Napoleonic Wars, and in introducing the British people to the wonders of the wider world. He was honoured with many place names in the South Pacific: Banks Peninsula on the South Island, New Zealand; the Banks Islands in modern-day Vanuatu; the Banks Strait between Tasmania and the Furneaux Islands; Banks Island in the Northwest Territories, Canada; and the Sir Joseph Banks Group in South Australia.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 45420, 162116, 62049, 2062111, 32443, 29944, 864709, 70745, 21186, 33372313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 197 ], [ 332, 347 ], [ 355, 367 ], [ 386, 399 ], [ 414, 421 ], [ 448, 456 ], [ 465, 481 ], [ 483, 495 ], [ 503, 524 ], [ 542, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Canberra suburb of Banks, the electoral Division of Banks, and the Sydney suburbs of Bankstown, Banksia, and Banksmeadow are all named after him, as is the northern headland of Botany Bay, Cape Banks.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 51983, 2644686, 1077814, 556655, 2687517, 2687510, 2496566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 23, 28 ], [ 44, 61 ], [ 89, 98 ], [ 100, 107 ], [ 113, 124 ], [ 181, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An image of Banks was featured on the paper $5 Australian banknote from its introduction in 1967 before it was replaced by the later polymer currency.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 9274856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1986, Banks was honoured by his portrait being depicted on a postage stamp issued by Australia Post.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 622402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Lincoln, England, the Sir Joseph Banks Conservatory was constructed in 1989 at The Lawn, Lincoln; its tropical hot house had numerous plants related to Banks's voyages, with samples from across the world, including Australia. The conservatory was moved to Woodside Wildlife Park in 2016 and has been named 'Endeavour'. A plaque was installed in Lincoln Cathedral in his honour. In Boston, Lincolnshire, Banks was recorder for the town. His portrait, painted in 1814 by Thomas Phillips, was commissioned by the Corporation of Boston, as a tribute to one whose 'judicious and active exertions improved and enriched this borough and neighbourhood'. It cost them 100 guineas. The portrait is now hanging in the Council Chamber of the Guildhall Museum.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 17880, 10795114, 11830641, 86996, 71899, 65194, 220639, 1123886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ], [ 25, 54 ], [ 82, 99 ], [ 114, 123 ], [ 349, 366 ], [ 385, 405 ], [ 473, 488 ], [ 734, 750 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Sir Joseph Banks Centre is located in Horncastle, Lincolnshire, housed in a Grade II listed building, which was recently restored by the Heritage Trust of Lincolnshire to celebrate Banks' life. Horncastle is located a few miles from Banks' Revesby estate and the naturalist was the town's lord of the manor. The centre is located on Bridge Street. It boasts research facilities, historic links to Australia, and a garden in which rare plants can be viewed and purchased. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 374501, 202009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 66 ], [ 89, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Situated in the Sydney suburb of Revesby, Sir Joseph Banks High School is a NSW government school named after Banks.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 2061309, 1211428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 40 ], [ 76, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 2011 Chelsea Flower Show, an exhibition garden celebrated the historic link between Banks and the botanical discoveries of flora and fauna on his journey through South America, Tahiti, New Zealand, and eventually Australia on Captain Cook's ship Endeavour. The competition garden was the entry of Melbourne's Royal Botanic Gardens with an Australian theme. It was based on the metaphorical journey of water through the continent, related to the award-winning Australian Garden at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Cranbourne. The design won a gold medal.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 230704, 1422830, 5983249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 31 ], [ 304, 337 ], [ 491, 524 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1911, London County Council marked Banks' house at 32 Soho Square with a blue plaque. This was replaced in 1938 with a rectangular stone plaque commemorating Banks and botanists David Don and Robert Brown and meetings of the Linnean Society.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 353838, 310649, 1238324, 333483, 333488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 30 ], [ 76, 87 ], [ 181, 190 ], [ 195, 207 ], [ 228, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banks appears in the historical novel Mutiny on the Bounty, by Charles Nordhoff and James Norman Hall. He appears briefly as a contact with British naval intelligence in the historical novel Post Captain, from the Aubrey–Maturin series by Patrick O'Brian. He is also featured in Elizabeth Gilbert's 2013 best-selling novel, The Signature of All Things, and is a major character in Martin Davies' 2005 novel The Conjuror's Bird.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 44524, 42869633, 765920, 657119, 582124, 101984, 6774400, 51249947, 14011359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 58 ], [ 63, 79 ], [ 84, 101 ], [ 191, 203 ], [ 214, 235 ], [ 239, 254 ], [ 279, 296 ], [ 324, 351 ], [ 407, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A secondary school opened in Perth, Western Australia in 2015 named Joseph Banks Secondary College.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 24355, 66284630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 34 ], [ 68, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his Endeavour journal, Banks recorded 30 years of his life. Letters, invoices, maps, regalia, and watercolour drawings have now been digitised on the State Library of NSW website. This rich research and educational tool accesses 8800 high-quality digital images.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Online archive", "target_page_ids": [ 1470520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " European and American voyages of scientific exploration", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31642145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Notable Freemasons", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1103839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Australia", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sutro Library, a branch of the California State Library. Sir Joseph Banks Collection, 1770-1812.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 3705800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "State Library of New South Wales. Papers of Sir Joseph Banks and The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks, 1768–1771", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1470520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Library of Australia (NLA). Papers of Sir Joseph Banks", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 796059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Royal Geographical Society of South Australia Journal of a voyage to Newfoundland and Labrador commencing 7 April and ending 17 November 1766", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 30269209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Notebooks containing vocabularies of Tahitian languages and observations collected by Banks are held by SOAS Special Collections. Digitised items from the collection are available to view online here.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cameron, H. C. (1952) Sir Joseph Banks, K.B., P.R.S.; the Autocrat of the Philosophers, Batchworth Press.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carter, H. B. (1964) His Majesty's Spanish Flock: Sir Joseph Banks and the Merinos of , University of Sydney.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Carter, Harold Burnell (1988) Sir Joseph Banks, 1743–1820 London: British Museum of Natural History ;", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 310411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dawson, W. R. (ed) (1958) The Banks Letters, University of London.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Durt, Tania (2007) \"Joseph Banks\", pp.173–181 in The Great Naturalists, edited by Robert Huxley. London: Thames & Hudson with the Natural History Museum.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fara, Patricia (2004) Sex, Botany & Empire: The Story Of Carl Linnaeus And Joseph Banks. New York: Columbia University Press ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gascoigne, John (1994) Joseph Banks and the English Enlightenment: Useful Knowledge and Polite Culture Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gascoigne, John (1998) Science in the Service of Empire: Joseph Banks, The British State and the Uses of Science in the Age of Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", Volume I, Volume II-III", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kryza, Frank T. (207) The Race to Timbuktu: In Search of Africa's City of Gold. New York: HarperCollins ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lysaght, A. M. (1971). Joseph Banks in Newfoundland and Labrador, 1766; his diary, manuscripts, and collections. Faber and Faber, London. ;", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mackaness, G. (1936) Sir Joseph Banks. His Relations with Australia, University of Sydney", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Maiden, J. H. (1909) Sir Joseph Banks: The “Father of Australia”.  Kegan Paul.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " O'Brian, Patrick 1993 Joseph Banks: A Life. London: David R. Godine, 1993. , reprinted by University of Chicago Press, 1997 ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 101984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ——— 1987 Sir Joseph Banks London: Harvill Press. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Smith, Edward (1911) Life of Sir Joseph Banks: With Some Notices of his Friends and Contemporaries.  John Lane.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Duncan, A. (1821) A Short Account of the Life of the Right Honourable Sir Joseph Banks, University of Edinburgh.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gilbert, L. (1962) Botanical Investigation of Eastern Seaboard Australia, 1788–1810, B.A. thesis, University of New England, Australia.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 37367905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Novels based on a mix of historical fact and conjecture about Banks' early life include:", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Davies, Martin (2005) The Conjurer's Bird New York: Shaye Areheart/Random House. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 5722410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Journal of the Right Hon. Sir Joseph Banks during Captain Cook's first voyage in H.M.S. Endeavour in 1768–71 to Terra del Fuego, Otahite, New Zealand, Australia, the Dutch East Indies, etc. Joseph Banks and J. D. Hooker. Macmillan, 1896.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Correspondence concerning Iceland: written to Sir Joseph Banks, 1772–1818, from the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lovell, Jennifer. \"A Bath Butterfly Botany and Eighteenth Century Sexual Politics.\" National Library of Australia News 15.7 (April 2005).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sir Joseph Banks Society. \"Archive of Joseph Banks related material\"", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " British Museum: Bronze portrait bust of Sir Joseph Banks by Anne Seymour Damer (1814)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " BBC: Historic figures; BBC Radio 4: Science at Sea", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 72758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Papers of Sir Joseph Banks – State Library of New South Wales", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 1470520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Bligh's letters to Sir Joseph Banks concerning the first Breadfruit Expedition", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sir Joseph Banks papers (MS 58). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "English_botanists", "English_explorers", "English_naturalists", "1743_births", "1820_deaths", "Alumni_of_Christ_Church,_Oxford", "Baronets_in_the_Baronetage_of_Great_Britain", "Botanical_collectors_active_in_Australia", "Botanists_active_in_New_Zealand", "Botanists_active_in_North_America", "Botanists_active_in_South_America", "Botanists_active_in_the_Pacific", "English_explorers_of_the_Pacific", "Explorers_of_Australia", "Freemasons_of_the_Premier_Grand_Lodge_of_England", "Fellows_of_the_American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences", "Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society", "Presidents_of_the_Royal_Society", "Fellows_of_the_Society_of_Antiquaries_of_London", "High_Sheriffs_of_Lincolnshire", "Royal_Botanic_Gardens,_Kew", "Soho_Square", "Trustees_of_the_British_Museum", "Knights_Grand_Cross_of_the_Order_of_the_Bath", "Members_of_the_Royal_Netherlands_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences", "Members_of_the_Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences", "People_educated_at_Eton_College", "People_educated_at_Harrow_School", "18th-century_British_botanists", "18th-century_English_people", "18th-century_explorers", "People_from_East_Lindsey_District", "James_Cook", "People_from_Soho", "Members_of_the_American_Philosophical_Society", "Members_of_the_Göttingen_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities" ]

[ "Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet", "Sir Joseph Banks", "Banks", "Sir Joseph Banks, 1st and last Bt.", "Rt. Hon. Sir Joseph Banks, 1st and last Bt.", "Joseph, Sir Banks", "J. Banks" ]

[ { "plaintext": "John Galsworthy (; 14 August 1867 – 31 January 1933) was an English novelist and playwright. Notable works include The Forsyte Saga (1906–1921) and its sequels, A Modern Comedy and End of the Chapter. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1932.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 60215, 23385442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 132 ], [ 213, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galsworthy was born at what is now known as Galsworthy House (then called Parkhurst) on Kingston Hill in Surrey, England, the son of John and Blanche Bailey (née Bartleet) Galsworthy. His family was prosperous and well established, with a large property in Kingston upon Thames that is now the site of three schools: Marymount International School, Rokeby Preparatory School, and Holy Cross Preparatory School. He attended Harrow and New College, Oxford. He took a Second in Law (Jurisprudentia) at Oxford in 1889, then trained as a barrister and was called to the bar in 1890. However, he was not keen to begin practising law and instead travelled abroad to look after the family's shipping business. During these travels, he met Joseph Conrad in 1893, then the first mate of a sailing-ship moored in the harbour of Adelaide, Australia, and the two future novelists became close friends. In 1895 Galsworthy began an affair with Ada Nemesis Pearson Cooper (1864–1956), the wife of his cousin Major Arthur Galsworthy. After her divorce ten years later, they were married on 23 September 1905 and stayed together until his death in 1933. Before their marriage, they often stayed clandestinely in a farmhouse called Wingstone in the village of Manaton on Dartmoor, Devon. In 1908 Galsworthy took a long lease on part of the building, and it was their regular second home until 1923.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 941056, 48189, 9316, 16876, 17021548, 16883562, 38730939, 188956, 128354, 235221, 15823, 1148, 4689264, 70552650, 934810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 101 ], [ 105, 111 ], [ 113, 120 ], [ 257, 277 ], [ 317, 347 ], [ 349, 374 ], [ 380, 409 ], [ 423, 429 ], [ 434, 453 ], [ 552, 569 ], [ 732, 745 ], [ 818, 826 ], [ 828, 837 ], [ 930, 956 ], [ 1242, 1249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the Four Winds, a collection of short stories, was Galsworthy's first published work in 1897. These and several subsequent works were published under the pen name of John Sinjohn, and it was not until The Island Pharisees (1904) that he began publishing under his own name, probably owing to the recent death of his father. His first full-length novel, Jocelyn, was published in an edition of 750 under the name of John Sinjohn—he later refused to have it republished. His first play, The Silver Box (1906),—in which the theft of a prostitute's purse by a rich 'young man of good family' is placed beside the theft of a silver cigarette case from the rich man's father's house by 'a poor devil', with very different repercussions, though justice was clearly done in each case—became a success, and he followed it up with The Man of Property (1906), the first book of a Forsyte trilogy. Although he continued writing both plays and novels, it was as a playwright that he was mainly appreciated at the time. Along with those of other writers of the period, such as George Bernard Shaw, his plays addressed the class system and other social issues, two of the best known being Strife (1909) and The Skin Game (1920).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 46043, 50062444, 12855, 29174, 49018687, 10573723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 167 ], [ 490, 504 ], [ 1068, 1087 ], [ 1113, 1125 ], [ 1179, 1185 ], [ 1197, 1210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He is now far better known for his novels, particularly The Forsyte Saga, his trilogy about the eponymous family and connected lives. These books, as with many of his other works, deal with social class, and upper-middle class lives in particular. Although sympathetic to his characters, he highlights their insular, snobbish, and acquisitive attitudes and their suffocating moral codes. He is viewed as one of the first writers of the Edwardian era who challenged some of the ideals of society depicted in the preceding literature of Victorian England. The depiction of a woman in an unhappy marriage furnishes another recurring theme in his work. The character of Irene in The Forsyte Saga is drawn from Ada Pearson, though her previous marriage was not as miserable as that of the character. The publishers William Heinemann were responsible for the publication of much of his work.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 60215, 100096, 2243028, 5571856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 72 ], [ 436, 449 ], [ 521, 552 ], [ 810, 827 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1924 he agreed to write a preface free of charge, to secure the publication of The Spanish Farm, the debut novel of family friend R. H. Mottram; the book was duly published by Chatto and Windus to great acclaim.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2646859, 19228844, 800023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 36 ], [ 133, 146 ], [ 179, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Through his writings Galsworthy campaigned for a variety of causes, including prison reform, women's rights, and animal welfare, and also against censorship. Galsworthy was a supporter of British involvement in the First World War. In an article for The Daily News on 31 August 1914 Galsworthy called for war on Germany to protect Belgium. Galsworthy added \"What are we going to do for Belgium — for this most gallant of little countries, ground, because of sheer loyalty, under an iron heel?\" During the First World War he worked in a hospital in France as an orderly, after being passed over for military service, and in 1917 turned down a knighthood, for which he was nominated by Prime Minister David Lloyd George, on the precept that a writer's reward comes simply from writing itself.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 1160233, 174438, 4764461, 8637739, 3343, 1196484, 16897, 46836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 91 ], [ 113, 127 ], [ 215, 230 ], [ 250, 264 ], [ 331, 338 ], [ 563, 570 ], [ 644, 654 ], [ 701, 719 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galsworthy opposed the slaughter of animals and fought for animal rights. He was also a humanitarian and a member of the Humanitarian League. He opposed hunting and supported the League for the Prohibition of Cruel Sports.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 7116046, 175081, 16990622, 544611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 72 ], [ 88, 100 ], [ 121, 140 ], [ 179, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galsworthy was offered a knighthood in 1918, but he refused it. He was erroneously awarded the rank in the published list when his letter declining the honour went astray, but he was never given the accolade, and the honour was later withdrawn.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes and honours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1921 Galsworthy was elected as the first president of the PEN International literary club and was appointed to the Order of Merit in 1929. He was awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize for Literature, having been nominated that same year by Henrik Schück, a member of the Swedish Academy. He was too ill to attend the Nobel Prize presentation ceremony on 10 December 1932, and died seven weeks later. He donated the prize money from the Nobel Prize to PEN International.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 965947, 326833, 5100770, 27013, 965947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 78 ], [ 118, 132 ], [ 234, 247 ], [ 265, 280 ], [ 445, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galsworthy lived for the final seven years of his life at Bury in West Sussex. He died from a brain tumour at his London home, Grove Lodge, Hampstead. In accordance with his will he was cremated at Woking, with his ashes then being scattered over the South Downs from an aeroplane, but there are also memorials to him in Highgate (West) Cemetery and in the cloisters of New College, Oxford, cut by Eric Gill. The popularity of his fiction waned quickly after his death, but the hugely successful black-and-white television adaptation The Forsyte Saga in 1967 renewed interest in his work.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 12786293, 94033, 29794180, 345446, 70188, 83469, 24661578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 62 ], [ 140, 149 ], [ 198, 204 ], [ 251, 262 ], [ 321, 345 ], [ 398, 407 ], [ 534, 550 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of John Galsworthy's letters and papers are held at the University of Birmingham Special Collections.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 209935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, Kingston University opened a new building named in recognition of his local birth. Galsworthy Road in Kingston, the location of Kingston Hospital, is also named for him.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 41137348, 41890784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 28 ], [ 137, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galsworthy's sister Lilian (1864–1924) was married to the German painter and lithographer Georg Sauter from 1894. With the beginning of World War I, Sauter was interned as an enemy alien at Alexandra Palace and later expelled. Their son Rudolf Sauter (1895–1971) was also a painter and graphic artist, who among other things, illustrated the works of his uncle.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 57023374, 4764461, 318620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 102 ], [ 136, 147 ], [ 190, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Forsyte Saga has been filmed several times:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 60215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " That Forsyte Woman (1949), dir. by Compton Bennett, an MGM adaptation in which Errol Flynn played a rare villainous role as Soames.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 14186757, 4154303, 58819, 67030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 36, 51 ], [ 56, 59 ], [ 80, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Forsyte Saga (1967 TV series), directed by James Cellan Jones, David Giles, starring Eric Porter, Nyree Dawn Porter, Kenneth More, and Susan Hampshire, 26 parts.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 24661578, 29407320, 6947017, 1899433, 415936, 400417, 357597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 48, 66 ], [ 68, 79 ], [ 90, 101 ], [ 103, 120 ], [ 122, 134 ], [ 140, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Forsyte Saga (2002 TV series), dir. by Christopher Menaul, starring Gina McKee, Damian Lewis, Rupert Graves, and Corin Redgrave, 13 parts.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 14677076, 32846194, 462169, 483047, 2304582, 1381318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 44, 62 ], [ 73, 83 ], [ 85, 97 ], [ 99, 112 ], [ 118, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The White Monkey was made into a silent film of the same name in 1925, directed by Phil Rosen, and starring Barbara La Marr, Thomas Holding, and Henry Victor.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 57637839, 15057457, 1072980, 34039140, 4121262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 61 ], [ 83, 93 ], [ 108, 123 ], [ 125, 139 ], [ 145, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Skin Game was adapted and directed by Alfred Hitchcock in 1931. It starred C.V. France, Helen Haye, Jill Esmond, Edmund Gwenn, John Longden and Phyllis Konstam.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 10573723, 280976, 808, 20806934, 5150663, 1292595, 779283, 14437073, 14421196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 18, 38 ], [ 42, 58 ], [ 79, 90 ], [ 92, 102 ], [ 104, 115 ], [ 117, 129 ], [ 131, 143 ], [ 148, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Escape was filmed in 1930 and 1948. The latter was directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz, starring Rex Harrison, Peggy Cummins, and William Hartnell. The screenplay was by Philip Dunne.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 39948271, 432511, 99019, 1625856, 51599, 2254962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 63, 83 ], [ 94, 106 ], [ 108, 121 ], [ 127, 143 ], [ 167, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One More River (a film version of Galsworthy's Over the River) was filmed by James Whale in 1934. The film starred Frank Lawton, Colin Clive (one of Whale's most frequently used actors) and Diana Wynyard, and featured Mrs. Patrick Campbell in a rare sound film appearance.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 25079862, 16074, 25363943, 1113161, 177798, 244879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 77, 88 ], [ 115, 127 ], [ 129, 140 ], [ 190, 203 ], [ 218, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The First and the Last, a short play, was adapted as 21 Days, starring Vivien Leigh and Laurence Olivier.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 31153732, 15635606, 32788, 43675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 53, 60 ], [ 71, 83 ], [ 88, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galsworthy's short story The Apple Tree was adapted into a radio play for Orson Welles' Lady Esther Almanac radio series on CBS, first broadcast on 12 January 1942; the play was again produced by Welles for CBS on The Mercury Summer Theatre of 6 September 1946. The 1988 film A Summer Story was also based on The Apple Tree.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 22196, 37653, 28032447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 86 ], [ 124, 127 ], [ 276, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The NBC University Theater aired radio adaptations of his plays Justice on 31 October 1948 and The Patrician on 26 February 1950.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 18574662, 32229550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 64, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mob, adapted by John Foley in 2004 for the BBC Radio World Service.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 37627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Salvation of a Forsyte (The Salvation of Swithin Forsyte) (1900)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " On Forsyte 'Change (1930) (re-published 1986 as \"Uncollected Forsyte\")", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Danaë (1905–06) in Forsytes, Pendyces, and Others (1935)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Man of Property (1906) – first book of The Forsyte Saga (1922)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 60215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Country House,(1907)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Indian Summer of a Forsyte\" (1918) – first interlude of The Forsyte Saga in Five Tales (1918)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In Chancery (1920) – second book of The Forsyte Saga", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Awakening\" (1920) – second interlude of The Forsyte Saga", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " To Let (1921) – third book of The Forsyte Saga", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The White Monkey (1924) – first book of A Modern Comedy (1929)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Silver Spoon (1926) – second book of A Modern Comedy", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"A Silent Wooing\" (1927) – first Interlude of A Modern Comedy", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Passers-By\" (1927) – second Interlude of A Modern Comedy", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Swan Song (1928) – third book of A Modern Comedy", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Maid in Waiting (1931) – first book of End of the Chapter (1934)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Flowering Wilderness (1932) – second book of End of the Chapter", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " One More River (originally Over the River) (1933) – third book of End of the Chapter", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Silver Box, 1906", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 50062444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Strife, 1909", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 49018687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joy, 1909", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Justice, 1910", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 32229550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Little Dream, 1911", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Pigeon, 1912", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Eldest Son, 1912", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 66170424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Fugitive, 1913", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Mob, 1914", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Little Man, 1915", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Bit o' Love, 1915", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Foundations, 1917", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The First and the Last, 1919", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 31153732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Skin Game, 1920", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 10573723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Family Man, 1922", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Loyalties, 1922", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 31153653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Windows, 1922", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Escape, 1926", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 39948271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Punch and Go, 1935", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Quality, 1912,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Inn of Tranquility, 1912,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Addresses in America, 1912", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two Essays on Conrad, 1930", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Manaton Edition, 1923–26 (30 vols.)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Grove Edition, 1927–34 (27 Vols.)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " From the Four Winds, 1897 (as John Sinjohn)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jocelyn, 1898 (as John Sinjohn)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Villa Rubein and Other Stories, 1900 (as John Sinjohn)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Man of Devon, 1901 (as John Sinjohn)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Island Pharisees, 1904", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Commentary, 1908", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fraternity, 1909 ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Justification for the Censorship of Plays, 1909", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Motley, 1910", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Japanese Quince, 1910", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Spirit of Punishment, 1910", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Horses in Mines, 1910", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Patrician, 1911", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Moods, Songs, and Doggerels, 1912", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " For Love of Beasts, 1912", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Treatment of Animals, 1913", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Slaughter of Animals For Food, 1913", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Dark Flower, 1913", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Freelands, 1915", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Sheaf, 1916", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Beyond, 1917", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Five Tales, 1918 (Contents: \"The First and Last\", \"A Stoic\", \"The Apple Tree\", \"The Juryman\", and \"Indian Summer of a Forsyte\" (the first interlude of The Forsyte Saga)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 42436097, 60215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 77 ], [ 152, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saint's Progress, 1919", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tatterdemalion (short stories), 1920", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Captures, 1923", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abracadabra, 1924", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Forest, 1924", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Old English, 1924", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Show, 1925", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Caravan: The Assembled Tales of John Galsworthy, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1925", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Verses New and Old, 1926 (poems)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Castles in Spain, 1927", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bambi, Mar 16, 1928, wrote the foreword to Felix Salten's now famous novel", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 309323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Exiled, 1929", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Roof, 1929", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Soames and the Flag, 1930", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Creation of Character in Literature, 1931 (The Romanes Lecture for 1931).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 1381851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Forty Poems, 1932", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Autobiographical Letters of Galsworthy: A Correspondence with Frank Harris, 1933", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collected Poems, 1934", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Life and Letters, 1935", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Winter Garden, 1935", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Forsytes, Pendyces and Others, 1935", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Selected Short Stories, 1935", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Glimpses and Reflections, 1937", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galsworthy's Letters to Leon Lion, 1968", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Letters from John Galsworthy 1900–1932, 1970", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Digital editions", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " List of Works", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Forsyte Chronicles", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Plays by John Galsworthy on Great War Theatre", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Biographical entries", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Galsworthy at Oxford Dictionary of National Biography", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 232417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Interview with Galsworthy biographer Jeffrey Reznick on \"New Books in History\".", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Galsworthy letters. Available online through Lehigh University's I Remain: A Digital Archive of Letters, Manuscripts, and Ephemera.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Physical collections", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Papers of John Galsworthy at Dartmouth College Library", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

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[ "John Sinjohn" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Pope Benedict XVI (; ; ; born Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger, , on 16 April 1927) is a retired prelate of the Catholic church who served as the head of the church and the sovereign of the Vatican city state from 2005 until his resignation in 2013. Benedict's election as pope occurred in the 2005 papal conclave that followed the death of Pope John Paul II. Benedict chose to be known by the title \"pope emeritus\" upon his resignation.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 185996, 606848, 32408, 38486704, 1678225, 23805, 8799424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 97 ], [ 105, 120 ], [ 183, 201 ], [ 218, 233 ], [ 287, 306 ], [ 334, 351 ], [ 394, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ordained as a priest in 1951 in his native Bavaria, Ratzinger embarked on an academic career and established himself as a highly regarded theologian by the late 1950s. He was appointed a full professor in 1958 at the age of 31. After a long career as a professor of theology at several German universities, he was appointed Archbishop of Munich and Freising and created a cardinal by Pope Paul VI in 1977, an unusual promotion for someone with little pastoral experience. In 1981, he was appointed Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, one of the most important dicasteries of the Roman Curia. From 2002 until his election as pope, he was also Dean of the College of Cardinals. Prior to becoming pope, he was \"a major figure on the Vatican stage for a quarter of a century\"; he had an influence \"second to none when it came to setting church priorities and directions\" as one of John Paul II's closest confidants. He has lived in Rome since 1981.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8655005, 3764, 39753976, 6221, 24028, 99303, 611977, 26538, 294061, 13393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 20 ], [ 43, 50 ], [ 324, 357 ], [ 372, 380 ], [ 384, 396 ], [ 513, 555 ], [ 583, 594 ], [ 602, 613 ], [ 665, 697 ], [ 753, 760 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His prolific writings generally defend traditional Catholic doctrine and values. He was originally a liberal theologian, but adopted conservative views after 1968. During his papacy, Benedict XVI advocated a return to fundamental Christian values to counter the increased secularisation of many Western countries. He views relativism's denial of objective truth, and the denial of moral truths in particular, as the central problem of the 21st century. He taught the importance of both the Catholic Church and an understanding of God's redemptive love. Benedict also revived a number of traditions, including elevating the Tridentine Mass to a more prominent position. He strengthened the relationship between the Catholic Church and art, promoted the use of Latin, and reintroduced traditional papal vestments, for which reason he was called \"the pope of aesthetics\". He has been described as \"the main intellectual force in the Church\" since the mid-1980s.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2528090, 333225, 21208200, 48041, 20785947, 48053, 147842, 16836322, 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 230, 246 ], [ 272, 286 ], [ 295, 312 ], [ 323, 333 ], [ 346, 361 ], [ 381, 393 ], [ 623, 638 ], [ 714, 737 ], [ 759, 764 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 11 February 2013, Benedict unexpectedly announced his resignation in a speech in Latin before the cardinals, citing a \"lack of strength of mind and body\" due to his advanced age. His resignation became effective on 28 February 2013. He is the first pope to resign since Gregory XII in 1415, and the first to do so on his own initiative since Celestine V in 1294. As pope emeritus, Benedict retains the style of His Holiness and continues to dress in the papal colour of white. He was succeeded by Francis on 13 March 2013, and he moved into the newly renovated Mater Ecclesiae Monastery in the Vatican for his retirement on 2 May 2013. In his retirement, Benedict XVI has made occasional public appearances alongside Francis.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38486704, 24242, 24156, 157101, 1410955, 1687680, 38511305, 32408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 197 ], [ 273, 284 ], [ 345, 356 ], [ 405, 410 ], [ 414, 426 ], [ 500, 507 ], [ 564, 589 ], [ 597, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to his native German language, Benedict has some level of proficiency with French, Italian, English, Latin, and Spanish, and can read Ancient Greek and Biblical Hebrew. He is a member of several social science academies, such as the French Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. He plays the piano and has a preference for Mozart and Bach.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 148363, 763213, 763277, 33163, 9906294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 159 ], [ 164, 179 ], [ 252, 295 ], [ 341, 347 ], [ 352, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 4 September 2020, Benedict became the longest-lived person to have held the office of pope, at 93 years, 4 months, 16 days, surpassing Leo XIII, who died in 1903.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 50614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger was born on 16 April, Holy Saturday, 1927, at Schulstraße 11, at 8:30 in the morning in his parents' home in Marktl, Bavaria, Germany. He was baptised the same day. He is the third and youngest child of Joseph Ratzinger Sr., a police officer, and Maria Ratzinger (née Peintner); his grand-uncle was the German priest-politician Georg Ratzinger. His mother's family was originally from South Tyrol (now in Italy). Benedict's elder brother, Georg Ratzinger, was a Catholic priest and was the former director of the Regensburger Domspatzen choir. His sister, Maria Ratzinger, who never married, managed Cardinal Ratzinger's household until her death in 1991.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life: 1927–1951", "target_page_ids": [ 543758, 1814777, 1784262, 169611, 1713763, 1713799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 61 ], [ 229, 249 ], [ 354, 369 ], [ 411, 422 ], [ 465, 480 ], [ 539, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the age of five, Ratzinger was in a group of children who welcomed the visiting Cardinal Archbishop of Munich, Michael von Faulhaber, with flowers. Struck by the cardinal's distinctive garb, he announced later that day that he wanted to be a cardinal. He attended the elementary school in Aschau am Inn, which was renamed in his honour in 2009.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life: 1927–1951", "target_page_ids": [ 1831158, 1604306, 10195866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 112 ], [ 114, 135 ], [ 292, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ratzinger's family, especially his father, bitterly resented the Nazis, and his father's opposition to Nazism resulted in demotions and harassment of the family. Following his 14th birthday in 1941, Ratzinger was conscripted into the Hitler Youth—as membership was required by law for all 14-year-old German boys after March 1939—but was an unenthusiastic member who refused to attend meetings, according to his brother. In 1941, one of Ratzinger's cousins, a 14-year-old boy with Down syndrome, was taken away by the Nazi regime and murdered during the Action T4 campaign of Nazi eugenics. In 1943, while still in seminary, he was drafted into the German anti-aircraft corps as Luftwaffenhelfer. Ratzinger then trained in the German infantry. As the Allied front drew closer to his post in 1945, he deserted back to his family's home in Traunstein after his unit had ceased to exist, just as American troops established a headquarters in the Ratzinger household. As a German soldier, he was interned in a prisoner of war camp, but released a few months later at the end of the war in May 1945.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life: 1927–1951", "target_page_ids": [ 31045316, 198787, 8303, 154125, 5506241, 3548916, 553091, 191537, 25008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 70 ], [ 234, 246 ], [ 481, 494 ], [ 554, 563 ], [ 576, 589 ], [ 679, 695 ], [ 838, 848 ], [ 992, 1000 ], [ 1006, 1021 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ratzinger and his brother Georg entered Saint Michael Seminary in Traunstein in November 1945, later studying at the Ducal Georgianum (Herzogliches Georgianum) of the Ludwig-Maximilian University in Munich. They were both ordained in Freising on 29 June 1951 by Cardinal Michael von Faulhaber of Munich – the same man he had met as a child. Ratzinger recalled: \"at the moment the elderly Archbishop laid his hands on me, a little bird – perhaps a lark – flew up from the altar in the high cathedral and trilled a little joyful song.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life: 1927–1951", "target_page_ids": [ 3894586, 252750, 482364, 1604306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 133 ], [ 167, 195 ], [ 234, 242 ], [ 271, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ratzinger's 1953 dissertation was on St. Augustine and was titled The People and the House of God in Augustine's Doctrine of the Church. His habilitation (which qualified him for a professorship) was on Bonaventure. It was completed in 1957 and he became a professor of Freising College in 1958.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life: 1927–1951", "target_page_ids": [ 2030, 363323, 95429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 50 ], [ 141, 153 ], [ 203, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his early twenties, Ratzinger was deeply influenced by the thought of Italian German Romano Guardini who taught in Munich 1946 to 1951 when Ratzinger was studying in Freising and later at the University of Munich. The intellectual affinity between these two thinkers, who would later become decisive figures for the twentieth-century Church, was preoccupied with rediscovering the essential in Christianity: Guardini wrote his 1938 \"The Essence of Christianity,\" while Ratzinger penned \"Introduction to Christianity\", three decades later in 1968. Guardini inspired many in the Catholic social-democratic tradition, particularly the Communion and Liberation movement in the New Evangelization encouraged under the papacy of Polish Pope John Paul II. Ratzinger wrote an introduction to a 1996 reissue of Guardini's 1954 \"The Lord\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life: 1927–1951", "target_page_ids": [ 2996862, 1392351, 37533069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 103 ], [ 635, 659 ], [ 822, 830 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ratzinger began as a chaplain at the parish St. Martin, Moosach, in Munich in 1951. Ratzinger became a professor at the University of Bonn in 1959, with his inaugural lecture on \"The God of Faith and the God of Philosophy\". In 1963, he moved to the University of Münster. During this period, he participated in the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) and served as a peritus (theological consultant) to Cardinal Frings of Cologne. He was viewed during the time of the council as a reformer, cooperating with theologians like Hans Küng and Edward Schillebeeckx. Ratzinger became an admirer of Karl Rahner, a well-known academic theologian of the Nouvelle Théologie and a proponent of church reform.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Pre-papal career", "target_page_ids": [ 69496863, 89061, 172246, 28134, 5024112, 1711301, 587936, 2013501, 370442, 5954923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 63 ], [ 120, 138 ], [ 249, 270 ], [ 315, 337 ], [ 366, 373 ], [ 402, 428 ], [ 524, 533 ], [ 538, 558 ], [ 591, 602 ], [ 644, 662 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1966, Ratzinger was appointed to a chair in dogmatic theology at the University of Tübingen, where he was a colleague of Hans Küng. In his 1968 book Introduction to Christianity, he wrote that the pope has a duty to hear differing voices within the Church before making a decision, and he downplayed the centrality of the papacy. During this time, he distanced himself from the atmosphere of Tübingen and the Marxist leanings of the student movement of the 1960s that quickly radicalised, in the years 1967 and 1968, culminating in a series of disturbances and riots in April and May 1968. Ratzinger came increasingly to see these and associated developments (such as decreasing respect for authority among his students) as connected to a departure from traditional Catholic teachings. Despite his reformist bent, his views increasingly came to contrast with the liberal ideas gaining currency in theological circles. He was invited by Rev. Theodore Hesburgh to join the theology faculty at the University of Notre Dame, but declined on grounds that his English was not good enough.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Pre-papal career", "target_page_ids": [ 262301, 587936, 34864507, 1904053, 631670, 146269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 94 ], [ 124, 133 ], [ 152, 180 ], [ 412, 419 ], [ 944, 961 ], [ 998, 1022 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some voices, among them Küng, deem this a turn towards conservatism, while Ratzinger himself said in a 1993 interview, \"I see no break in my views as a theologian [over the years]\". Ratzinger continued to defend the work of the Second Vatican Council, including Nostra aetate, the document on respect of other religions, ecumenism and the declaration of the right to freedom of religion. Later, as the Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Ratzinger most clearly spelled out the Catholic Church's position on other religions in the 2000 document Dominus Iesus which also talks about the Catholic way to engage in \"ecumenical dialogue\". During his time at Tübingen University, Ratzinger published articles in the reformist theological journal Concilium, though he increasingly chose less reformist themes than other contributors to the magazine such as Küng and Schillebeeckx.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Pre-papal career", "target_page_ids": [ 42283, 146656, 46006, 6693364, 37348, 5503518, 8043925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 262, 275 ], [ 321, 330 ], [ 367, 386 ], [ 402, 459 ], [ 567, 580 ], [ 635, 645 ], [ 763, 772 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1969, he returned to Bavaria, to the University of Regensburg and co-founded the theological journal Communio, with Hans Urs von Balthasar, Henri de Lubac, Walter Kasper and others, in 1972. Communio, now published in seventeen languages, including German, English and Spanish, has become a prominent journal of contemporary Catholic theological thought. Until his election as pope, he remained one of the journal's most prolific contributors. In 1976, he suggested that the Augsburg Confession might possibly be recognised as a Catholic statement of faith. Several of Benedict's former students became his confidantes, notably Christoph Schönborn, and a number of his former students sometimes meet for discussions. He served as Vice President of the University of Regensburg from 1976 to 1977. On 26 May 1976, he was appointed a Prelate of Honour of His Holiness.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Pre-papal career", "target_page_ids": [ 1789822, 1764563, 1782645, 1769923, 1687936, 23883384, 1547179, 1667764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 64 ], [ 104, 112 ], [ 119, 141 ], [ 143, 157 ], [ 159, 172 ], [ 478, 497 ], [ 631, 650 ], [ 834, 867 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 24 March 1977, Ratzinger was appointed Archbishop of Munich and Freising. He took as his episcopal motto Cooperatores Veritatis (Co-workers of the Truth) from 3 John 8, a choice he comments upon in his autobiographical work, Milestones.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Pre-papal career", "target_page_ids": [ 1831158, 30964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 75 ], [ 162, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the consistory of the following 27 June, he was named Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria Consolatrice al Tiburtino by Pope Paul VI. By the time of the 2005 Conclave, he was one of only 14 remaining cardinals appointed by Paul VI, and one of only three of those under the age of 80. Of these, only he and William Wakefield Baum took part in the conclave.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Pre-papal career", "target_page_ids": [ 33191764, 1694027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 113 ], [ 303, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 25 November 1981, Pope John Paul II, upon the retirement of Franjo Šeper, named Ratzinger as the Prefect of the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, formerly known as the \"Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office\", the historical Roman Inquisition. Consequently, he resigned his post at Munich in early 1982. He was promoted within the College of Cardinals to become Cardinal Bishop of Velletri-Segni in 1993 and was made the college's vice-dean in 1998 and dean in 2002. Just a year after its foundation in 1990 Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger joined", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Pre-papal career", "target_page_ids": [ 2076007, 99303, 99303, 26154, 10342496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 75 ], [ 115, 164 ], [ 216, 227 ], [ 245, 262 ], [ 382, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "the European Academy of Sciences and Arts in Salzburg/Austria in 1991.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Pre-papal career", "target_page_ids": [ 2691841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ratzinger defended and reaffirmed Catholic doctrine, including teaching on topics such as birth control, homosexuality and inter-religious dialogue. The theologian Leonardo Boff, for example, was suspended, while others such as Matthew Fox were censured. Other issues also prompted condemnations or revocations of rights to teach: for instance, some posthumous writings of Jesuit priest Anthony de Mello were the subject of a notification. Ratzinger and the congregation viewed many of them, particularly the later works, as having an element of religious indifferentism (i.e., Christ was \"one master alongside others\"). In particular, Dominus Iesus, published by the congregation in the jubilee year 2000, reaffirmed many recently \"unpopular\" ideas, including the Catholic Church's position that \"salvation is found in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven given to men by which we must be saved.\" The document angered many Protestant churches by claiming that they are not actually churches, but \"ecclesial communities\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Pre-papal career", "target_page_ids": [ 18978770, 1810987, 884135, 16083, 298384, 36347134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 103 ], [ 164, 177 ], [ 228, 239 ], [ 373, 379 ], [ 387, 403 ], [ 426, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ratzinger's 2001 letter De delictis gravioribus clarified the confidentiality of internal church investigations, as defined in the 1962 document Crimen Sollicitationis, into accusations made against priests of certain crimes, including sexual abuse. This became a subject of controversy during the sex abuse cases. For 20 years, Ratzinger had been the man in charge of enforcing the document.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Pre-papal career", "target_page_ids": [ 21652255, 295157, 7397019, 158934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 47 ], [ 145, 167 ], [ 236, 248 ], [ 298, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While bishops hold the secrecy pertained only internally, and did not preclude investigation by civil law enforcement, the letter was often seen as promoting a coverup. Later, as pope, he was accused in a lawsuit of conspiring to cover up the molestation of three boys in Texas, but sought and obtained diplomatic immunity from liability.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Pre-papal career", "target_page_ids": [ 29810, 8921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 272, 277 ], [ 303, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 12 March 1983, Ratzinger, as prefect, notified the lay faithful and the clergy that Archbishop Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục had incurred excommunication latae sententiae for illicit episcopal consecrations without the apostolic mandate. In 1997, when he turned 70, Ratzinger asked Pope John Paul II for permission to leave the Congregation of the Doctrine of Faith and to become an archivist in the Vatican Secret Archives and a librarian in the Vatican Library, but Pope John Paul II refused his assent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Pre-papal career", "target_page_ids": [ 48557, 217788, 10338, 3310537, 3193819, 217115, 518951, 462415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 97 ], [ 98, 125 ], [ 139, 154 ], [ 155, 171 ], [ 176, 183 ], [ 184, 207 ], [ 401, 424 ], [ 448, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict XVI was elected the 265th pope at the age of 78. He is the oldest person to have been elected pope since Pope Clement XII (1730–1740). He served longer as a cardinal before becoming Pope than any Pontiff since Benedict XIII (1724–1730). Benedict and his Polish predecessor John Paul II were the first consecutive non-Italian popes since the seven consecutive Frenchmen of the Avignon Papacy (1309–1378). The last pope named Benedict was Benedict XV, an Italian who reigned from 1914 to 1922, during World War I (1914–1918).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 827717, 61502, 24146, 6221, 24019, 275297, 23805, 38174, 147855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 24 ], [ 29, 39 ], [ 114, 130 ], [ 166, 174 ], [ 219, 232 ], [ 263, 269 ], [ 282, 294 ], [ 385, 399 ], [ 446, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 2 January 2005, Time magazine quoted unnamed Vatican sources as saying that Ratzinger was a front runner to succeed John Paul II should he die or become too ill to continue as pope. On the death of John Paul II, the Financial Times gave the odds of Ratzinger becoming pope as 7–1, the lead position, but close to his rivals on the liberal wing of the church. In April 2005, before his election as pope, he was identified as one of the 100 most influential people in the world by Time. While Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Ratzinger repeatedly stated he would like to retire to his house in the Bavarian village of Pentling near Regensburg and dedicate himself to writing books.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 31600, 136566, 49117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 23 ], [ 219, 234 ], [ 659, 669 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the conclave, \"it was, if not Ratzinger, who? And as they came to know him, the question became, why not Ratzinger?\" On 19 April 2005, he was elected on the second day after four ballots. Cardinal Cormac Murphy-O'Connor described the final vote, \"It's very solemn when you go up one by one to put your vote in the urn and you're looking up at the Last Judgement of Michelangelo. And I still remember vividly the then Cardinal Ratzinger sitting on the edge of his chair.\" Ratzinger had hoped to retire peacefully and said that \"At a certain point, I prayed to God 'please don't do this to me'...Evidently, this time He didn't listen to me.\" Before his first appearance on the balcony of Saint Peter's Basilica, he was announced by Jorge Medina Estévez, Cardinal Protodeacon of the Catholic Church. Cardinal Medina Estévez first addressed the massive crowd as \"dear(est) brothers and sisters\" in Italian, Spanish, French, German and English, with each language receiving cheers from the international crowd, before continuing with the traditional Habemus Papam announcement in Latin.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 827717, 1057462, 73188, 1713067, 2359368, 1802173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 15 ], [ 200, 222 ], [ 689, 711 ], [ 733, 753 ], [ 755, 775 ], [ 1048, 1061 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the balcony, Benedict's first words to the crowd, given in Italian before he gave the traditional Urbi et Orbi blessing in Latin, were:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 1636150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 24 April, he celebrated the Papal Inauguration Mass in St. Peter's Square, during which he was invested with the Pallium and the Ring of the Fisherman. On 7 May, he took possession of his cathedral church, the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 1710891, 894041, 147271, 1680436, 211305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 49 ], [ 58, 76 ], [ 116, 123 ], [ 132, 153 ], [ 213, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ratzinger chose the pontifical name Benedict, which comes from the Latin word meaning \"the blessed\", in honour of both Benedict XV and Saint Benedict of Nursia. Benedict XV was pope during the First World War, during which time he passionately pursued peace between the warring nations. St. Benedict of Nursia was the founder of the Benedictine monasteries (most monasteries of the Middle Ages were of the Benedictine order) and the author of the Rule of Saint Benedict, which is still the most influential writing regarding the monastic life of Western Christianity. The Pope explained his choice of name during his first general audience in St. Peter's Square, on 27 April 2005:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 11919168, 1761066, 147855, 4001, 147855, 4240, 25874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 35 ], [ 36, 44 ], [ 119, 130 ], [ 141, 159 ], [ 161, 172 ], [ 333, 344 ], [ 447, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his inaugural Mass, the previous custom of every cardinal submitting to the Pope was replaced by having twelve people, including cardinals, clergy, religious, a married couple and their child, and newly confirmed people, greet him. (The cardinals had formally sworn their obedience upon his election.) He began using an open-topped papal car, saying that he wanted to be closer to the people. Benedict continued the tradition of his predecessor John Paul II and baptised several infants in the Sistine Chapel at the beginning of each year, on the Feast of the Baptism of the Lord, in his pastoral role as Bishop of Rome.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 217733, 611065, 1293882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 219 ], [ 339, 348 ], [ 554, 586 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 9 May 2005, Benedict XVI began the beatification process for his predecessor, Pope John Paul II. Normally, five years must pass after a person's death before the beatification process can begin. However, in an audience with Benedict, Camillo Ruini, Vicar General of the Diocese of Rome and the official responsible for promoting the cause for canonization of any person who dies within that diocese, cited \"exceptional circumstances\" which suggested that the waiting period could be waived. This happened before, when Pope Paul VI waived the five-year rule and announced beatification processes for two of his predecessors, Pope Pius XII and Pope John XXIII. Benedict XVI followed this precedent when he waived the five-year rule for John Paul II. The decision was announced on 13 May 2005, the Feast of Our Lady of Fátima and the 24th anniversary of the attempt on John Paul II's life. John Paul II often credited Our Lady of Fátima for preserving him on that day. Cardinal Ruini inaugurated the diocesan phase of the cause for beatification in the Lateran Basilica on 28 June 2005.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 233724, 1728551, 1661406, 6097, 23808, 23807, 248866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 51 ], [ 237, 250 ], [ 252, 265 ], [ 336, 358 ], [ 627, 640 ], [ 645, 660 ], [ 807, 825 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first beatification under the new pope was celebrated on 14 May 2005, by José Cardinal Saraiva Martins, Cardinal Prefect of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints. The new Blesseds were Mother Marianne Cope and Mother Ascensión Nicol Goñi. Cardinal Clemens August Graf von Galen was beatified on 9 October 2005. Mariano de la Mata was beatified in November 2006 and Rosa Eluvathingal was beatified 3 December of that year, and Fr. Basil Moreau was beatified September 2007. In October 2008, the following beatifications took place: Celestine of the Mother of God, Giuseppina Nicoli, Hendrina Stenmanns, Maria Rosa Flesch, Marta Anna Wiecka, Michael Sopocko, Petrus Kibe Kasui and 187 Companions, Susana Paz-Castillo Ramírez, and Maria Isbael Salvat Romero.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 1801266, 212587, 1671381, 1905067, 1347829, 8272647, 25024133, 4831285, 49667741, 31699942, 16915557, 17222253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 106 ], [ 132, 169 ], [ 193, 213 ], [ 218, 245 ], [ 256, 285 ], [ 319, 337 ], [ 373, 390 ], [ 438, 450 ], [ 539, 569 ], [ 648, 663 ], [ 665, 701 ], [ 703, 730 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 19 September 2010, during his visit to the United Kingdom, Benedict personally proclaimed the beatification of John Henry Newman.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 28848822, 83895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 60 ], [ 114, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike his predecessor, Benedict XVI delegated the beatification liturgical service to a Cardinal. On 29 September 2005, the Congregation for the Causes of Saints issued a communiqué announcing that henceforth beatifications would be celebrated by a representative of the pope, usually the prefect of that Congregation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During his Pontificate, Benedict XVI canonized 45 people, Benedict XVI celebrated his first canonizations on 23 October 2005 in St. Peter's Square when he canonized Josef Bilczewski, Alberto Hurtado SJ, Zygmunt Gorazdowski, Gaetano Catanoso and Felice da Nicosia. The canonizations were part of a Mass that marked the conclusion of the General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops and the Year of the Eucharist. Benedict XVI canonized Bishop Rafael Guizar y Valencia, Mother Theodore Guerin, Filippo Smaldone and Rosa Venerini on 15 October 2006.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 2978190, 1978484, 8405986, 6212819, 9548509, 34998579, 3410639, 5798040, 1187658, 7461936, 7457064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 181 ], [ 183, 201 ], [ 203, 222 ], [ 224, 240 ], [ 245, 262 ], [ 336, 376 ], [ 385, 406 ], [ 431, 462 ], [ 464, 486 ], [ 488, 504 ], [ 509, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his visit to Brazil in 2007, Benedict XVI presided over the canonization of Frei Galvão on 11 May, while George Preca, founder of the Malta-based M.U.S.E.U.M., Szymon of Lipnica, Charles of Mount Argus and Marie-Eugénie de Jésus were canonized in a ceremony held at the Vatican on 3 June 2007. Preca is the first Maltese saint since the country's conversion to Christianity in 60 A.D. when St. Paul converted the inhabitants. In October 2008, the following canonizations took place: Saint Alphonsa of India, Gaetano Errico, Narcisa de Jesus Martillo Moran and Maria Bernarda Bütler. In April 2009, he canonized Arcangelo Tadini, Bernardo Tolomei, Nuno Álvares Pereira, Geltrude Comensoli, and Caterina Volpicelli. In October of the same year he canonized Jeanne Jugan, Jozef Damian de Veuster, Zygmunt Szczęsny Feliński, Francisco Coll Guitart and Rafael Arnáiz Barón.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 3558057, 6725264, 339996, 11736687, 9675543, 11188092, 313895, 2229320, 16207241, 1857581, 16767403, 23813450, 910426, 144014, 24647268, 24658447, 13020335, 85080, 24566199, 24655578, 24589842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 94 ], [ 112, 124 ], [ 153, 165 ], [ 167, 184 ], [ 186, 208 ], [ 213, 235 ], [ 277, 284 ], [ 490, 504 ], [ 515, 529 ], [ 531, 562 ], [ 567, 588 ], [ 618, 634 ], [ 636, 652 ], [ 654, 674 ], [ 676, 694 ], [ 700, 719 ], [ 762, 774 ], [ 776, 799 ], [ 801, 826 ], [ 828, 850 ], [ 855, 874 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 17 October 2010, Benedict canonized André Bessette, a French-Canadian; Stanislaw Soltys, a 15th-century Polish priest; Italian nuns Giulia Salzano and Camilla Battista da Varano; Spanish nun Candida Maria de Jesus Cipitria y Barriola and the first Australian saint, Mother Mary MacKillop. On 23 October 2011, Benedict XVI canonized three saints: a Spanish nun Bonifacia Rodríguez y Castro, Italian archbishop Guido Maria Conforti and Italian priest Luigi Guanella. In December 2011, Benedict formally recognized the validity of the miracles necessary to proceed with the canonizations of Kateri Tekakwitha, who would be the first Native American saint, Marianne Cope, a nun working with lepers in what is now the state of Hawaii, Giovanni Battista Piamarta, an Italian priest, Jacques Berthieu, a French Jesuit priest and African martyr, Carmen Salles y Barangueras, a Spanish nun and founder of the Sisters of the Immaculate Conception, Peter Calungsod, a lay catechist and martyr from the Philippines, and Anna Schäffer, whose desire to be a missionary was unfulfilled on account of her illness. They were canonized on 21 October 2012.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 214341, 25711015, 26267593, 25958189, 18040909, 2060813, 33315913, 45694575, 19819394, 354671, 1671381, 37398290, 37154369, 37407374, 2537509, 37406879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 53 ], [ 74, 90 ], [ 135, 149 ], [ 154, 180 ], [ 194, 236 ], [ 276, 290 ], [ 363, 391 ], [ 412, 432 ], [ 452, 466 ], [ 591, 608 ], [ 656, 669 ], [ 733, 759 ], [ 780, 796 ], [ 841, 868 ], [ 941, 956 ], [ 1011, 1024 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 7 October 2012, Benedict XVI named Hildegard of Bingen and John of Ávila Doctors of the Church, the 34th and 35th individuals so recognized in the history of Christianity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 13684, 774163, 340345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 57 ], [ 62, 75 ], [ 76, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict made only modest changes to the structure of the Roman Curia. In March 2006, he placed both the Pontifical Council for Pastoral Care of Migrants and Itinerant Peoples and the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace under a single president, Cardinal Renato Martino. When Martino retired in 2009, each council received its own president once again. Also in March 2006, the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue was briefly merged into the Pontifical Council for Culture under Cardinal Paul Poupard. Those Councils maintained their separate officials and staffs while their status and competencies continued unchanged, and in May 2007, Interreligious Dialogue was restored to its separate status again with its own president. In June 2010, Benedict created the Pontifical Council for the Promotion of the New Evangelisation, appointing Archbishop Rino Fisichella its first president. On 16 January 2013, Benedict transferred responsibility for catechesis from the Congregation for the Clergy to the Pontifical Council for Promoting the New Evangelization.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 13993669, 3901501, 1734868, 1702060, 6810984, 1748322, 27897539, 21237649, 3898753, 1859417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 175 ], [ 184, 224 ], [ 260, 274 ], [ 382, 428 ], [ 457, 487 ], [ 503, 515 ], [ 778, 840 ], [ 864, 879 ], [ 961, 971 ], [ 981, 1008 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As pope, one of Benedict XVI's main roles was to teach about the Catholic faith and the solutions to the problems of discerning and living the faith, a role that he could play well as a former head of the Church's Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. The main points of emphasis of his teachings are stated in more detail in Theology of Pope Benedict XVI.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the conclusion of his first homily as pope, Benedict referred to both Jesus Christ and John Paul II. Citing John Paul II's well-known words, \"Do not be afraid! Open wide the doors for Christ!\", Benedict XVI said:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Friendship with Jesus Christ\" is a frequent theme of his preaching. He stressed that on this intimate friendship, \"everything depends.\" He also said: \"We are all called to open ourselves to this friendship with God... speaking to Him as to a friend, the only One who can make the world both good and happy... That is all we have to do is put ourselves at His disposal...is an extremely important message. It is a message that helps to overcome what can be considered the great temptation of our time: the claim, that after the Big Bang, God withdrew from history.\" Thus, in his book Jesus of Nazareth, his main purpose was \"to help foster [in the reader] the growth of a living relationship\" with Jesus Christ.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He took up this theme in his first encyclical Deus caritas est. In his personal explanation and summary of the encyclical, he stated: \"If friendship with God becomes for us something ever more important and decisive, then we will begin to love those whom God loves and who are in need of us. God wants us to be friends of His friends and we can be so, if we are interiorly close to them.\" Thus, he said that prayer is \"urgently needed... It is time to reaffirm the importance of prayer in the face of the activism and the growing secularism of many Christians engaged in charitable work.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 3592645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Continuing what he said in the pre-conclave Mass about what he often referred to as the \"central problem of our faith today\", on 6 June 2005 Benedict also said:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He said that \"a dictatorship of relativism\" was the core challenge facing the church and humanity. At the root of this problem, he said, is Kant's \"self-limitation of reason\". This, he said, is contradictory to the modern acclamation of science whose excellence is based on the power of reason to know the truth. He said that this self-amputation of reason leads to pathologies of religion such as terrorism and pathologies of science such as ecological disasters. Benedict traced the failed revolutions and violent ideologies of the 20th century to a conversion of partial points of view into absolute guides. He said \"Absolutizing what is not absolute but relative is called totalitarianism.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 14631, 1999546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 144 ], [ 443, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In an address to a conference of the Diocese of Rome held at the basilica of St. John Lateran 6 June 2005, Benedict remarked on the issues of same sex marriage and abortion:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 211305, 92656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 93 ], [ 142, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the discussion with secularism and rationalism, one of Benedict's basic ideas can be found in his address on the \"Crisis of Culture\" in the West, a day before Pope John Paul II died, when he referred to Christianity as the Religion of the Logos (the Greek for \"word\", \"reason\", \"meaning\", or \"intelligence\"). He said:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 27113, 63753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 33 ], [ 38, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict also emphasised that \"Only creative reason, which in the crucified God is manifested as love, can really show us the way.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict wrote three encyclicals: Deus caritas est (Latin for \"God is Love\"), Spe Salvi (\"Saved by Hope\"), and Caritas in veritate (\"Love in Truth\"). In his first encyclical, Deus caritas est, he said that a human being, created in the image of God who is love, is able to practice love: to give himself to God and others (agape) by receiving and experiencing God's love in contemplation. This life of love, according to him, is the life of the saints such as Teresa of Calcutta and the Blessed Virgin Mary, and is the direction Christians take when they believe that God loves them in Jesus Christ.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 349189, 3592645, 14463770, 22534156, 159231, 347105, 17424208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ], [ 34, 50 ], [ 78, 87 ], [ 111, 130 ], [ 323, 328 ], [ 460, 478 ], [ 487, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The encyclical contains almost 16,000 words in 42 paragraphs. The first half is said to have been written by Benedict in German, his first language, in the summer of 2005; the second half is derived from uncompleted writings left by his predecessor, Pope John Paul II. The document was signed by Benedict on Christmas Day, 25 December 2005. The encyclical was promulgated a month later in Latin and was translated into English, French, German, Italian, Polish, Portuguese and Spanish. It is the first encyclical to be published since the Vatican decided to assert copyright in the official writings of the pope.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 5278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 564, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict's second encyclical titled Spe Salvi (\"Saved by Hope\"), about the virtue of hope, was released on 30 November 2007. His third encyclical titled Caritas in veritate (\"Love in Truth\" or \"Charity in Truth\"), was signed on 29 June 2009 (the Feast of Sts. Peter and Paul) and released on 7 July 2009. In it, the Pope continued the Church's teachings on social justice. He condemned the prevalent economic system \"where the pernicious effects of sin are evident,\" and called on people to rediscover ethics in business and economic relations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 50020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the time of his resignation, Benedict had completed a draft of a fourth encyclical entitled Lumen fidei (\"The Light of Faith\"), intended to accompany his first two encyclicals to complete a trilogy on the three theological virtues of faith, hope, and love. Benedict's successor, Francis, completed and published Lumen Fidei in June 2013, four months after Benedict's retirement and Francis' succession. Although the encyclical is officially the work of Francis, paragraph 7 of the encyclical explicitly expresses Francis' debt to Benedict: \"These considerations on faith — in continuity with all that the Church's magisterium has pronounced on this theological virtue — are meant to supplement what Benedict XVI had written in his encyclical letters on charity and hope. He himself had almost completed a first draft of an encyclical on faith. For this I am deeply grateful to him, and as his brother in Christ I have taken up his fine work and added a few contributions of my own.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 39839336, 31054, 2808068, 4944254, 245992, 1687680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 106 ], [ 214, 233 ], [ 237, 242 ], [ 244, 248 ], [ 254, 258 ], [ 282, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sacramentum caritatis (The Sacrament of Charity), signed 22 February 2007, was released in Latin, Italian, English, French, German, Portuguese, Spanish and Polish. It was made available in various languages 13 March 2007 in Rome. The English edition from Libera Editrice Vaticana is 158 pages. This apostolic exhortation \"seeks to take up the richness and variety of the reflections and proposals which emerged from the Ordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops\" which was held in 2006.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 10072564, 21986911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 299, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 7 July 2007, Benedict XVI issued the motu proprio Summorum Pontificum, declaring that upon \"the request of the faithful\", celebration of Mass according to the Missal of 1962 (commonly known as the Tridentine Mass), was to be more easily permitted. Stable groups who previously had to petition their bishop to have a Tridentine Mass may now merely request permission from their local priest. While Summorum Pontificum directs that pastors should provide the Tridentine Mass upon the requests of the faithful, it also allows for any qualified priest to offer private celebrations of the Tridentine Mass, to which the faithful may be admitted if they wish. For regularly scheduled public celebrations of the Tridentine Mass, the permission of the priest in charge of the church is required.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 793396, 12087735, 56371, 147842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 52 ], [ 53, 72 ], [ 140, 144 ], [ 162, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In an accompanying letter, the Pope outlined his position concerning questions about the new guidelines. As there were fears that the move would entail a reversal of the Second Vatican Council, Benedict emphasised that the Tridentine Mass would not detract from the council, and that the Mass of Paul VI would still be the norm and priests were not permitted to refuse to say the Mass in that form. He pointed out that use of Tridentine Mass \"was never juridically abrogated and, consequently, in principle, was always permitted.\" The letter also decried \"deformations of the liturgy ... because in many places celebrations were not faithful to the prescriptions of the new Missal\" as the Second Vatican Council was wrongly seen \"as authorising or even requiring creativity\", mentioning his own experience.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 101135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 288, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Pope considered that allowing the Tridentine Mass to those who request it was a means to prevent or heal schism, stating that, on occasions in history, \"not enough was done by the Church's leaders to maintain or regain reconciliation and unity\" and that this \"imposes an obligation on us today: to make every effort to enable for all those who truly desire unity to remain in that unity or to attain it anew.\" Many feel the decree aimed at ending the schism between the Holy See and traditionalist groups such as the Society of Saint Pius X (SSPX). Cardinal Darío Castrillón Hoyos, the president of the Pontifical Commission established for the purpose of facilitating full ecclesial communion of those associated with that Society, stated that the decree \"opened the door for their return\". Bishop Bernard Fellay, superior general of the SSPX, expressed \"deep gratitude to the Sovereign Pontiff for this great spiritual benefit\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 6288753, 13393, 232299, 1688001, 2652407, 1900682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 115 ], [ 474, 482 ], [ 521, 544 ], [ 562, 584 ], [ 607, 735 ], [ 803, 817 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2021, Pope Francis issued the apostolic letter titled Traditionis custodes, which substantially reversed the decision of his immediate predecessor Benedict XVI in Summorum Pontificum and imposed new and broad restrictions on the use of the Traditional Latin Mass. The decision was controversial and widely criticized by conservative Catholics as lacking in charity and an attack on those attached to the liturgical patrimony of the Church.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 6732160, 68250747, 147842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 54 ], [ 62, 82 ], [ 248, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Near the end of June 2007, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith issued a document approved by Benedict XVI \"because some contemporary theological interpretations of Vatican II's ecumenical intent had been 'erroneous or ambiguous' and had prompted confusion and doubt.\" The document has been seen as restating \"key sections of a 2000 text the pope wrote when he was prefect of the congregation, Dominus Iesus.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 28134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict XVI condemned excessive consumerism, especially among youth. He stated in December 2007 that \"[A]dolescents, youths and even children are easy victims of the corruption of love, deceived by unscrupulous adults who, lying to themselves and to them, draw them into the dead-end streets of consumerism.\" In June 2009, he blamed outsourcing for greater availability of consumer goods which lead to downsizing of social security systems.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 170522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Speaking at his weekly audience in St Peter's Square on 7 June 2006, Benedict asserted that Jesus himself had entrusted the leadership of the Church to his apostle Peter. \"Peter's responsibility thus consists of guaranteeing the communion with Christ. Let us pray so that the primacy of Peter, entrusted to poor human beings, may always be exercised in this original sense desired by the Lord, so that it will be increasingly recognised in its true meaning by brothers who are still not in communion with us.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 31665644, 2085073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 169 ], [ 276, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also in 2006, Benedict met Rowan Williams, Archbishop of Canterbury and spiritual head of the Anglican Communion. In their Common Declaration, they highlighted the previous 40 years of dialogue between Catholics and Anglicans while also acknowledging \"serious obstacles to our ecumenical progress\". Benedict also acknowledged the Lutheran church, saying that he has had friends in that denomination.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 70537, 2345, 909, 23371382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 41 ], [ 43, 67 ], [ 94, 112 ], [ 330, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 4 November 2009, in response to a 2007 petition by the Traditional Anglican Church, Benedict issued the apostolic constitution Anglicanorum coetibus, which authorized the creation of \"Personal Ordinariates for Anglicans entering into full communion.\" Between 2011 and 2012, three ordinariates were erected, currently totaling 9090 members, 194 priests, and 94 parishes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 2845319, 1860370, 24765072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 85 ], [ 107, 129 ], [ 130, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Benedict ascended to the Papacy his election was welcomed by the Anti-Defamation League who noted \"his great sensitivity to Jewish history and the Holocaust\". However, his election received a more reserved response from the United Kingdom's Chief Rabbi Jonathan Sacks, who hoped that Benedict would \"continue along the path of Pope John XXIII and Pope John Paul II in working to enhance relations with the Jewish people and the State of Israel.\" The Foreign Minister of Israel also offered more tentative praise, though the Minister believed that \"this Pope, considering his historical experience, will be especially committed to an uncompromising fight against anti-Semitism.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 27243620, 10396793, 1135086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 92 ], [ 152, 161 ], [ 258, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Critics have accused Benedict's papacy of insensitivity towards Judaism. The two most prominent instances were the expansion of the use of the Tridentine Mass and the lifting of the excommunication on four bishops from the Society of St. Pius X (SSPX). In the Good Friday service, the traditional Mass rubrics include a prayer that asks God to lift the veil so they [Jews] may be delivered from their darkness. This prayer has historically been contentious in Judaic-Catholic relations and several groups saw the restoration of the Tridentine Mass as problematic. Among those whose excommunications were lifted was Bishop Richard Williamson, an outspoken historical revisionist sometimes interpreted as a Holocaust denier. The lifting of his excommunication led critics to charge that the Pope was condoning his historical revisionist views.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 232299, 219682, 409978, 13293, 65651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 244 ], [ 513, 563 ], [ 622, 640 ], [ 655, 677 ], [ 705, 721 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict's relations with Islam were strained at times. On 12 September 2006 he delivered a lecture which touched on Islam at the University of Regensburg in Germany. He had served there as a professor of theology before becoming Pope, and his lecture was entitled \"Faith, Reason and the University—Memories and Reflections\". The lecture received much attention from political and religious authorities. Many Islamic politicians and religious leaders registered their protest against what they labelled an insulting mischaracterisation of Islam, although his focus was aimed towards the rationality of religious violence, and its effect on the religion. Muslims were particularly offended by this passage that the Pope quoted in his speech: \"Show me just what Muhammad brought that was new and there you will find things only evil and inhuman, such as his command to spread by the sword the faith he preached.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 191429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 409, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The passage originally appeared in the Dialogue Held with a Certain Persian, the Worthy Mouterizes, in Anakara of Galatia written in 1391 as an expression of the views of the Byzantine emperor Manuel II Paleologus, one of the last Christian rulers before the Fall of Constantinople to the Muslim Ottoman Empire, on such issues as forced conversion, holy war, and the relationship between faith and reason. According to the German text, the Pope's original comment was that the emperor \"addresses his interlocutor in an astoundingly harsh—to us surprisingly harsh—way\" (wendet er sich in erstaunlich schroffer, uns überraschend schroffer Form). Benedict apologised for any offence he had caused and made a point of visiting Turkey, a predominantly Muslim country, and praying in its Blue Mosque. Benedict planned on 5 March 2008, to meet with Muslim scholars and religious leaders autumn 2008 at a Catholic-Muslim seminar in Rome. That meeting, the \"First Meeting of the Catholic-Muslim Forum,\" was held from 4–6 November 2008. On 9 May 2009, Benedict visited the King Hussein Mosque, Amman, Jordan where he was addressed by Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 16972981, 44839, 102674, 22278, 7079135, 725516, 11064, 42446, 343727, 23180691, 45007, 17099689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 184 ], [ 193, 213 ], [ 259, 281 ], [ 296, 310 ], [ 330, 347 ], [ 349, 357 ], [ 388, 393 ], [ 398, 404 ], [ 782, 793 ], [ 970, 991 ], [ 1084, 1089 ], [ 1124, 1149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Dalai Lama congratulated Benedict XVI upon his election, and visited him in October 2006 in the Vatican City. In 2007, China was accused of using its political influence to stop a meeting between the Pope and the Dalai Lama.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 20238168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While visiting Brazil in May 2007, \"the pope sparked controversy by saying that native populations had been 'silently longing' for the Christian faith brought to South America by colonizers.\" The Pope continued, stating that \"the proclamation of Jesus and of his Gospel did not at any point involve an alienation of the pre-Columbus cultures, nor was it the imposition of a foreign culture.\" The then President of Venezuela, Hugo Chávez demanded an apology, and an indigenous organisation in Ecuador issued a response which stated that \"representatives of the Catholic Church of those times, with honourable exceptions, were accomplices, deceivers and beneficiaries of one of the most horrific genocides of all humanity.\" Later, the Pope, speaking Italian, said at a weekly audience that it was \"not possible to forget the suffering and the injustices inflicted by colonizers against the indigenous population, whose fundamental human rights were often trampled\" but made no apology.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 90001, 3329692, 48874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 320, 332 ], [ 401, 423 ], [ 425, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While visiting the United States on 17 April 2008, Benedict met with International Society for Krishna Consciousness representative Radhika Ramana Dasa; a noted Hindu scholar and disciple of Hanumatpreshaka Swami. On behalf of the Hindu American community, Radhika Ramana Dasa presented a gift of an Om symbol to Benedict.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 174201, 17049297, 13677, 228026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 116 ], [ 132, 151 ], [ 161, 166 ], [ 300, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As pontiff, Benedict XVI carried out numerous Apostolic activities including journeys across the world and in the Vatican.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict travelled extensively during the first three years of his papacy. In addition to his travels within Italy, Benedict XVI made two visits to his homeland, Germany, one for World Youth Day and another to visit the towns of his childhood. He also visited Poland and Spain, where he was enthusiastically received. His visit to Turkey, an overwhelmingly Muslim nation, was initially overshadowed by the controversy about a lecture he had given at Regensburg. His visit was met by nationalist and Islamic protesters and was placed under unprecedented security measures. However, the trip went ahead and Benedict made a joint declaration with Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I in an attempt to begin to heal the rift between the Catholic and Orthodox churches.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 546270, 7004399, 61618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 194 ], [ 406, 460 ], [ 644, 678 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, Benedict visited Brazil to address the Bishops' Conference there and canonize Friar Antônio Galvão, an 18th-century Franciscan. In June 2007, Benedict made a personal pilgrimage and pastoral visit to Assisi, the birthplace of St. Francis. In September, Benedict undertook a three-day visit to Austria, during which he joined Vienna's Chief Rabbi, Paul Chaim Eisenberg, in a memorial to the 65,000 Viennese Jews who perished in Nazi death camps. During his stay in Austria, he also celebrated Mass at the Marian shrine Mariazell and visited Heiligenkreuz Abbey.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 64176, 14209431, 81705, 11638, 707573, 2678443, 427803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 135 ], [ 176, 186 ], [ 209, 215 ], [ 235, 246 ], [ 343, 354 ], [ 527, 536 ], [ 549, 568 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 2008, Benedict XVI made his first visit to the United States since becoming pope. He arrived in Washington, DC where he was formally received at the White House and met privately with U.S. President George W. Bush. While in Washington, the pope addressed representatives of US Catholic universities, met with leaders of other world religions, and celebrated Mass at the Washington Nationals' baseball stadium with 47,000 people. The Pope also met privately with victims of sexual abuse by priests. The Pope travelled to New York where he addressed the United Nations General Assembly. Also while in New York, the Pope celebrated Mass at St. Patrick's Cathedral, met with disabled children and their families, and attended an event for Catholic youth, where he addressed some 25,000 young people in attendance. On the final day of the Pope's visit, he visited the World Trade Center site and later celebrated Mass at Yankee Stadium.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 31266604, 33057, 28237619, 3414021, 2252164, 31957, 245236, 67173, 40019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 69 ], [ 158, 169 ], [ 174, 187 ], [ 208, 222 ], [ 401, 417 ], [ 561, 592 ], [ 646, 669 ], [ 872, 895 ], [ 925, 939 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2008, the Pope travelled to Australia to attend World Youth Day 2008 in Sydney. On 19 July, in St. Mary's Cathedral, he made an apology for child sex abuse perpetrated by the clergy in Australia. On 13 September 2008, at an outdoor Paris Mass attended by 250,000 people, Benedict XVI condemned the modern materialism– the world's love of power, possessions and money as a modern-day plague, comparing it to paganism. In 2009, he visited Africa (Cameroon and Angola) for the first time as pope. During his visit, he suggested that altering sexual behavior was the answer to Africa's AIDS crisis, and urged Catholics to reach out and convert believers in sorcery. He visited the Middle East (Jordan, Israel and Palestine) in May 2009.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 2504667, 1431830, 19376, 23340, 48489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 76 ], [ 103, 123 ], [ 313, 324 ], [ 415, 423 ], [ 661, 668 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict's main arena for pastoral activity was the Vatican itself, his Christmas and Easter homilies and Urbi et Orbi are delivered from St Peter's Basilica. The Vatican is also the only regular place where Benedict XVI traveled via motor without the protective bulletproof case common to most popemobiles. Despite the more secure setting, Benedict was victim to security risks several times inside Vatican City. On Wednesday, 6 June 2007 during his General Audience a man leapt across a barrier, evaded guards and nearly mounted the Pope's vehicle, although he was stopped and Benedict seemed to be unaware of the event. On Thursday, 24 December 2009, while Benedict was proceeding to the altar to celebrate Christmas Eve Mass at St Peter's Basilica, a woman later identified as 25-year-old Susanna Maiolo, who holds Italian and Swiss citizenship, jumped the barrier and grabbed the Pope by his vestments and pulled him to the ground. The 82-year-old fell but was assisted to his feet and he continued to proceed towards the altar to celebrate Mass. Roger Etchegaray, 87, the vice-dean of the College of Cardinals, fell also and suffered a hip fracture. Italian police reported that the woman had previously attempted to accost the Pope at the previous Christmas Eve Mass, but was prevented from doing so.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 73188, 25564776, 1467523, 1699838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 732, 751 ], [ 793, 807 ], [ 897, 906 ], [ 1052, 1068 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his homily, Benedict forgave Susanna Maiolo and urged the world to \"wake up\" from selfishness and petty affairs, and find time for God and spiritual matters.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 203222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 17 and 18 April, Benedict made an Apostolic Journey to the Republic of Malta. Following meetings with various dignitaries on his first day on the island, 50,000 people gathered in a drizzle for Papal Mass on the granaries in Floriana. The Pope also met with the Maltese youth at the Valletta Waterfront, where an estimated 10,000 young people turned up to greet him.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 1980717, 361727, 3475521, 57664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 197 ], [ 233, 241 ], [ 270, 277 ], [ 291, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to 2001, the primary responsibility for investigating allegations of sexual abuse and disciplining perpetrators rested with the individual dioceses. In 2001, Ratzinger convinced John Paul II to put the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in charge of all sexual abuse investigations. According to John L. Allen Jr., Ratzinger in the following years \"acquired a familiarity with the contours of the problem that virtually no other figure in the Catholic Church can claim. Driven by that encounter with what he would later refer to as 'filth' in the Church, Ratzinger seems to have undergone something of a 'conversion experience' throughout 2003–04. From that point forward, he and his staff seemed driven by a convert's zeal to clean up the mess.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 3490168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 310, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cardinal Vincent Nichols wrote that in his role as head of the CDF \"[Ratzinger] led important changes made in Church law: the inclusion in canon law of internet offences against children, the extension of child abuse offences to include the sexual abuse of all under 18, the case by case waiving of the statute of limitation and the establishment of a fast-track dismissal from the clerical state for offenders.\" According to Charles J. Scicluna, a former prosecutor handling sexual abuse cases, \"Cardinal Ratzinger displayed great wisdom and firmness in handling those cases, also demonstrating great courage in facing some of the most difficult and thorny cases, sine acceptione personarum [without respect of persons]\". According to Cardinal Christoph Schönborn, Ratzinger \"made entirely clear efforts not to cover things up but to tackle and investigate them. This was not always met with approval in the Vatican\". Ratzinger had pressed John Paul II to investigate Hans Hermann Groër, an Austrian cardinal and friend of John Paul accused of sexual abuse, which resulted in Groër's resignation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 2150281, 37243848, 1547179, 516112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 426, 445 ], [ 745, 764 ], [ 969, 987 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2010, the Pope sent a Pastoral Letter to the Catholic Church in Ireland addressing cases of sexual abuse by Catholic priests of minors, expressing sorrow, and promising changes in the way accusations of abuse were dealt with. Victims' groups claimed the letter failed to clarify if secular law enforcement had priority over canon law confidentiality regarding internal investigation of abuse allegations. The Pope then promised to introduce measures that would \"safeguard young people in the future\" and \"bring to justice\" priests who were responsible for abuse and the next month the Vatican issued guidelines on how existing Church law should be implemented. The guidelines asserted that \"Civil law concerning reporting of crimes... should always be followed.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2022, a report written by German law firm Westpfahl Spilker Wastl and commissioned by the Catholic Church concluded that Cardinal Ratzinger failed to adequately take action against clerics in four cases of alleged abuse while he was Archbishop of Munich and Freising from 1977–1982. The pope emeritus denied the accusations. Benedict corrected his former statement that he had not been at a meeting of the ordinariate of the Archdiocese of Munich and Freising in January 1980, saying he mistakenly told German investigators he was not there. However, the error was \"not done out of bad faith\", but \"the result of an error in the editorial processing\" of his statement. According to Reuters, lawyer Martin Pusch said that \"in a total of four cases, we have come to the conclusion that the then Archbishop Cardinal Ratzinger can be accused of misconduct in cases of sexual abuse.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 1831158, 18998750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 437, 471 ], [ 694, 701 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2022, former Pope Benedict XVI had admitted that errors were made in the treating of sexual abuse cases when he was archbishop of Munich. According to the letter released by the Vatican, he asked forgiveness for any \"grievous fault\" but denied personal wrongdoing. Benedict stated: \"I have had great responsibilities in the Catholic Church. All the greater is my pain for the abuses and the errors that occurred in those different places during the time of my mandate.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One of the cases Ratzinger pursued involved Father Marcial Maciel, a Mexican priest and founder of the Legionaries of Christ who had been accused repeatedly of sexual abuse. Biographer Andrea Tornielli suggested that Cardinal Ratzinger had wanted to take action against Maciel but that John Paul II and other high-ranking officials, including several cardinals and the Pope's influential secretary Stanisław Dziwisz, prevented him from doing so.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 778136, 573493, 454662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 65 ], [ 103, 124 ], [ 398, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Jason Berry, Cardinal Angelo Sodano \"pressured\" Ratzinger, who was \"operating on the assumption that the charges were not justified\", to halt the proceedings against Maciel in 1999. When Maciel was honored by the Pope in 2004, new accusers came forward and Cardinal Ratzinger \"took it on himself to authorize an investigation of Maciel\". After Ratzinger became pope, he began proceedings against Maciel and the Legion of Christ that forced Maciel out of active service in the Church. On 1 May 2010, the Vatican issued a statement denouncing \"the most serious and objectively immoral behavior of Father Maciel, confirmed by incontrovertible witnesses, which amount to true crimes and show a life deprived of scruples and authentic religious feeling.\" Benedict also said he would appoint a special commission to examine the Legionaries' constitution and open an investigation into its lay affiliate Regnum Christi.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 26999672, 393681, 1677803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 24 ], [ 35, 48 ], [ 910, 924 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 2020, the Vatican published a report blaming not only Pope John Paul II, but also Benedict for allowing defrocked former Cardinal Theodore McCarrick to rise in power despite the fact that they both knew of sex abuse allegations against him. Despite the fact that Benedict pressured McCarrick to resign as Archbishop of Washington D.C. in 2006, McCarrick remained very active in ministry throughout Benedict's papacy and even made a very public appearance when he presided over U.S Senator Ted Kennedy's burial service at Arlington National Cemetery in 2009.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 23805, 1000781, 184136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 83 ], [ 142, 160 ], [ 501, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict XVI re-introduced several papal garments which had fallen into disuse. Benedict XVI resumed the use of the traditional red papal shoes, which had been used since Roman times by popes but which had fallen into disuse during the pontificate of Pope John Paul II. Contrary to the initial speculation of the press that the shoes had been made by the Italian fashion house Prada, the Vatican announced that the shoes were provided by the Pope's personal shoemaker.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 1467523, 2086947, 695999, 13393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 49 ], [ 132, 143 ], [ 377, 382 ], [ 388, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On only one occasion, 21 December 2005, the Pope wore the camauro, the traditional red papal hat usually worn in the winter. It had not been seen since the pontificate of Pope John XXIII (1958–1963). On 6 September 2006, the Pope began wearing the red cappello romano (also called a saturno), a wide-brimmed hat for outdoor use. Rarely used by John Paul II, it was more widely worn by his predecessors.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 1722326, 1905611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 65 ], [ 252, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The journalist Charlotte Allen describes Benedict as \"the pope of aesthetics\": \"He has reminded a world that looks increasingly ugly and debased that there is such a thing as the beautiful—whether it's embodied in a sonata or an altarpiece or an embroidered cope or the cut of a cassock—and that earthly beauty ultimately communicates a beauty that is beyond earthly things.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to his election as pope in 2005, Ratzinger had hoped to retire—on account of age-related health problems, a long-held desire to have free time to write, and the retirement age for bishops (75)—and submitted his resignation as Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith three times, but continued at his post in obedience to the wishes of Pope John Paul II. In September 1991, Ratzinger suffered a hemorrhagic stroke, which slightly impaired his eyesight temporarily but which he recovered completely. This was never officially made public—the official news was that Ratzinger had fallen and struck his head against a radiator—but was an open secret known to the conclave that elected him pope.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Following his election in April 2005 there were several rumors about the Pope's health, but none of them were confirmed. Early in his pontificate Benedict XVI predicted a short reign, which led to concerns about his health. In May 2005 the Vatican announced that he had suffered another mild stroke. French Cardinal Philippe Barbarin said that since the first stroke Ratzinger had been suffering from an age-related heart condition, for which he was on medication. In late November 2006 Vatican insiders told the international press that the Pope had had a routine examination of the heart. A few days later an unconfirmed rumor emerged that Benedict had undergone an operation in preparation for an eventual bypass operation, but this rumor was only published by a small left-wing Italian newspaper and was never confirmed by any Vatican insider.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 1701324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 316, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 17 July 2009, Benedict was hospitalized after falling and breaking his right wrist while on vacation in the Alps; his injuries were reported to be minor.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Following the announcement of his resignation, the Vatican revealed that Benedict had been fitted with a pacemaker while he was still a cardinal, before his election as pope in 2005. The battery in the pacemaker had been replaced three months earlier, a routine procedure, but that did not influence his decision.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 80732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2013 it was reported that Benedict has multiple health problems including high blood pressure and reportedly has fallen out of bed more than once, but the Vatican denied any specific illnesses.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 77432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 3 August 2020, his aides disclosed that he has an inflammation of the trigeminal nerve. On 2 December of the same year, Maltese cardinal Mario Grech announced to Vatican News that Benedict has difficulty speaking and that he told the new cardinals after the consistory that \"the Lord has taken away my speech in order to let me appreciate silence\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 311890, 52625323, 32337352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 89 ], [ 140, 151 ], [ 165, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 11 February 2013, the Vatican confirmed that Benedict XVI would resign the papacy on 28 February 2013, as a result of his advanced age, becoming the first pope to resign since Gregory XII in 1415. At the age of 85 years and 318 days on the effective date of his retirement, he was the fourth-oldest person to hold the office of pope. The move was unexpected. In modern times, all popes have held office until death. Benedict was the first pope to resign without external pressure since Celestine V in 1294.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 891337, 24242, 24156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 84 ], [ 179, 190 ], [ 489, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his declaration of 10 February 2013, Benedict XVI resigned as \"Bishop of Rome, Successor of Saint Peter\". In a statement, Benedict cited his deteriorating strength and the physical and mental demands of the papacy; addressing his cardinals in Latin, Benedict gave a brief statement announcing his resignation. He also declared that he would continue to serve the church \"through a life dedicated to prayer\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to a statement from the Vatican, the timing of the resignation was not caused by any specific illness but was to \"avoid that exhausting rush of Easter engagements\". After two weeks of ceremonial farewells, the Pope left office at the appointed time and sede vacante was declared.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 563295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the eve of the first anniversary of Benedict's resignation he wrote to La Stampa to deny speculation he had been forced to step down. \"There isn't the slightest doubt about the validity of my resignation from the Petrine ministry,\" he wrote in a letter to the newspaper. \"The only condition for the validity is the full freedom of the decision. Speculation about its invalidity is simply absurd,\" he wrote.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [ 1810129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In an interview on 28 February 2021, Benedict again repeated the legitimacy of his resignation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Papacy: 2005–2013", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On the morning of 28 February 2013, Benedict met with the full College of Cardinals and in the early afternoon flew by helicopter to the papal summer residence of Castel Gandolfo. He stayed there until refurbishment was completed on his retirement home, the Mater Ecclesiae Monastery in the Vatican Gardens near St Peter's, formerly home to 12 nuns, where he moved on 2 May 2013. To protect it, there is a thick hedge and a fence. It has a garden of more than that overlooks the monastery and is adjacent to the current \"Pope's garden\". A few tens of meters away is the building of Vatican Radio.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [ 38668897, 38511305, 19961252, 1304742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 178 ], [ 258, 283 ], [ 291, 306 ], [ 583, 596 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After his resignation, Benedict XVI retained his papal name rather than reverting to his birth name. He continued to wear the white cassock but without the pellegrina or the fascia. He ceased wearing red papal shoes. Benedict returned his official Fisherman's Ring, which is usually destroyed by Vatican officials on the death of a pope to prevent documents being counterfeited.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [ 36747392, 10859607, 2086947, 1680436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 166 ], [ 174, 180 ], [ 204, 215 ], [ 248, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to a Vatican spokesman, Benedict spent his first day as pope emeritus with Archbishop Georg Gänswein, the Prefect of the Papal Household. In the monastery, the pope emeritus does not live a cloistered life, but studies and writes. He joined his successor several months after his election at the unveiling of a new statue of Saint Michael the Archangel. The inscription on the statue, according to Cardinal Giovanni Lajolo, has the coat of arms of the two popes to symbolize the fact that the statue was commissioned by Benedict XVI, and consecrated by Francis.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [ 185793, 1800378, 3755709, 318621, 665577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 79 ], [ 96, 110 ], [ 116, 146 ], [ 335, 362 ], [ 417, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict XVI made his first public appearance after his resignation at St. Peter's Basilica on 22 February 2014 to attend the first papal consistory of his successor Francis. Benedict XVI, who entered the basilica through a discreet entrance, was seated in a row with several other cardinals. He doffed his zucchetto when Francis came down the nave of St. Peter's Basilica to greet him. He then made an appearance at the canonization mass of Pope John XXIII and Pope John Paul II, greeting the cardinals and Francis.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [ 40953423, 497479, 42596642, 23807, 23805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 148 ], [ 307, 316 ], [ 421, 433 ], [ 442, 457 ], [ 462, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 2014, Benedict XVI celebrated Mass at the Vatican and met with his former doctoral students, an annual tradition he has kept since the 1970s. He attended the beatification of Pope Paul VI in October 2014. Weeks before this, he joined Francis in Saint Peter's Square for an audience with grandparents to honor their importance in society.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [ 43007506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict wrote the text of a speech, delivered by Archbishop Georg Gänswein, on the occasion of the dedication of the Aula Magna at the Pontifical Urbaniana University to the Pope Emeritus, \"a gesture of gratitude for what he has done for the Church as a conciliar expert, with his teaching as professor, as Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith and, finally, the Magisterium.\" The ceremony took place on Tuesday, 21 October 2014 during the opening of the academic year.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [ 7922067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict XVI attended the consistory for new cardinals in February 2015, greeting Francis at the beginning of the celebration. In 2015, Benedict spent the summer at Castel Gandolfo and participated in two public events. \"Pope Francis invited Benedict XVI to spend some time in Castel Gandolfo in the month of July and Benedict accepted\", Fr. Lombardi told journalists on 15 June. Benedict XVI remained there for two weeks. While in Castel Gandolfo, Benedict received two honorary doctorates, given to him by Kraków's Cardinal Stanislaw Dziwisz, John Paul II's longtime aide, from the Pontifical University of John Paul II and the Kraków Academy of Music. In his reception address, Benedict paid homage to his predecessor, John Paul II.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [ 454662, 11770593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 526, 543 ], [ 584, 621 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"Joseph Ratzinger–Benedict XVI Roman Library\" at the Pontifical Teutonic College was announced in April 2015 and was scheduled to open to scholars in November 2015. The library section dedicated to his life and thought is being catalogued. It includes books by or about him and his studies, many donated by Benedict himself.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [ 17524663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict, in August 2015, submitted a handwritten card to act as a testimony to the cause of canonization of Pope John Paul I.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [ 24027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2016, he gave an interview expressing his views on mercy and endorsing Francis's stress on mercy in his pastoral practice. Also that month, a Vatican spokesman stated that Benedict was \"slowly, serenely fading\" in his physical health, although his mental capacity remained \"perfectly lucid\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [ 777042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The pope emeritus was honoured by the Roman Curia and Francis in 2016 at a special audience, honouring the 65th anniversary of his ordination to the priesthood. Benedict, later that year in November, did not attend the consistory for new cardinals, though he did meet with them and Francis at his residence after the consistory had taken place. Following the death of Cardinal Paulo Evaristo Arns in December 2016, Benedict XVI became the last living person appointed Cardinal by Pope Paul VI.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [ 53076894, 4052914, 24028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 123 ], [ 377, 396 ], [ 480, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2017, Benedict received newly created cardinals in his chapel and spoke with each of them in their native language. In July 2017, he sent a message through his private secretary for the funeral of Cardinal Joachim Meisner, who had suddenly died while on vacation in Germany.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [ 1734281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 214, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 2017, images emerged on the Facebook page of the Bishop of Passau Stefan Oster of Benedict with a black eye; the bishop and author Peter Seewald visited the former pope on 26 October since the pair were presenting Benedict with the new book Benedict XVI – The German Pope which the Passau diocese created. The former pope suffered the hematoma earlier after having slipped.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [ 1150129, 70557969, 684811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 77 ], [ 143, 156 ], [ 347, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In late 2019, Benedict collaborated on a book expressing that the Church must maintain its discipline of clerical celibacy, in light of ongoing debate on the issue, though later requested his name to be removed from the book as co-author.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [ 8795944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2020, Benedict visited his dying brother Georg in Germany for the last time. Georg died on 1 July, aged 96.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [ 1713763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict became the longest-lived pope on 4 September 2020 at 93 years, 141 days, surpassing the age of Pope Leo XIII.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [ 50614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2021, Benedict and Francis each received doses of a COVID-19 vaccine. On June 29, 2021, he celebrated his Platinum Jubilee (70th anniversary) as a priest.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [ 63319438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the consistory of 27 August 2022, Francis and the newly created cardinals paid a brief visit to Benedict at Mater Ecclesiae Monastery.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pope Emeritus", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The official style of the former Pope in English is His Holiness Benedict XVI, Supreme Pontiff Emeritus or Pope Emeritus. Less formally he is referred to as Emeritus Pope or Roman Pontifex Emeritus. Moreover, according to the 1983 Code of Canon Law he is also Bishop Emeritus of Rome, retaining the sacred character received at his ordination as a bishop and receiving the title of emeritus of his diocese; although he does not use this style. The pope Emeritus has personally preferred to be simply known as \"Father\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Titles and styles", "target_page_ids": [ 157101, 19127106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 18 ], [ 226, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Pope, his rarely used full title was:His Holiness Benedict XVI, Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Jesus Christ, Successor of the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province, Sovereign of the Vatican City State, Servant of the servants of God.The best-known title, that of \"Pope\", does not appear in the official list of titles, but is commonly used in the titles of documents, and appears, in abbreviated form, in their signatures as \"PP.\" standing for \"Papa\" (\"Pope\").", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Titles and styles", "target_page_ids": [ 1410955, 23056, 1077576, 2257, 31665644, 81677, 185096, 606848, 24672, 4513428, 48557, 336048, 1756503, 451484, 61502, 32408, 642739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 52 ], [ 67, 81 ], [ 83, 104 ], [ 106, 115 ], [ 123, 145 ], [ 147, 154 ], [ 155, 162 ], [ 170, 186 ], [ 188, 195 ], [ 199, 204 ], [ 206, 216 ], [ 221, 233 ], [ 241, 246 ], [ 247, 255 ], [ 257, 266 ], [ 274, 292 ], [ 294, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before 1 March 2006, the list of titles also used to contain that of a \"Patriarch of the West\", which traditionally appeared in that list of titles before \"Primate of Italy\". The title of \"Patriarch of the West\" was first introduced into the papal court in 1870 at the time of the First Vatican Council in the publication Annuario Pontificio and was removed in the 2006 edition. Benedict chose to remove the title at a time when discussions with the Orthodox churches have centered on the issue of papal primacy.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Titles and styles", "target_page_ids": [ 1715449, 11390, 2940988, 718929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 93 ], [ 281, 302 ], [ 322, 341 ], [ 498, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2005, the pope listed several ways to combat the spread of HIV, including chastity, fidelity in marriage and anti-poverty efforts; he also rejected the use of condoms. The alleged Vatican investigation of whether there are any cases when married persons may use condoms to protect against the spread of infections surprised many Catholics in the wake of John Paul II's consistent refusal to consider condom use in response to AIDS. However, the Vatican has since stated that no such change in the Church's teaching can occur. TIME also reported in its edition of 30 April 2006 that the Vatican's position remains what it always has been with Vatican officials \"flatly dismiss[ing] reports that the Vatican is about to release a document that will condone any condom use.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2009, the pope stated:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "I would say that this problem of AIDS cannot be overcome merely with money, necessary though it is. If there is no human dimension, if Africans do not help, the problem cannot be overcome by the distribution of prophylactics: on the contrary, they increase it. The solution must have two elements: firstly, bringing out the human dimension of sexuality, that is to say a spiritual and human renewal that would bring with it a new way of behaving towards others, and secondly, true friendship offered above all to those who are suffering, a willingness to make sacrifices and to practise self-denial, to be alongside the suffering.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In November 2010, in a book-length interview, the pope, using the example of male prostitutes, stated that the use of condoms, with the intention of reducing the risk of HIV infection, may be an indication that the prostitute is intending to reduce the evil connected with his immoral activity. In the same interview, the pope also reiterated the traditional teaching of the Church that condoms are not seen as a \"real or moral solution\" to the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Further, in December 2010, the Congregation of the Doctrine of the Faith explained that the pope's statement did not constitute a legitimization of either contraception or prostitution, which remains gravely immoral.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 2340554, 99303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 445, 462 ], [ 495, 536 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his time as Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (CDF), Benedict XVI made several efforts to tackle the issue of homosexuality within the Church and the wider world. In 1986 the CDF sent a letter to all bishops entitled: On the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons. The letter condemned a liberal interpretation of the earlier CDF document Declaration on Certain Questions Concerning Sexual Ethics, which had led to a \"benign\" attitude \"to the homosexual condition itself\". On the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons clarified that the Church's position on homosexuality was that \"although the particular inclination of the homosexual person is not a sin, it is a more or less strong tendency ordered toward an intrinsic moral evil; and thus the inclination itself must be seen as an objective disorder.\" However the document also condemned homophobic attacks and violence, stating that \"It is deplorable that homosexual persons have been and are the object of violent malice in speech or in action. Such treatment deserves condemnation from the Church's pastors wherever it occurs.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 9894726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1992, he again approved CDF documents declaring that homosexual \"inclination itself must be seen as an objective disorder\" and extended this principle to civil law. \"Sexual orientation\", the document said, was not equivalent to race or ethnicity, and it declared that it was \"not unjust discrimination to take sexual orientation into account.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 22 December 2008, the pope gave an end-of-year message to the Roman Curia in which he talked about gender and the important distinction between men and women. The pope said that the Church viewed the distinction as central to human nature, and \"asks that this order of creation be respected\". The Church, he said, must \"protect man from self-destruction.\" He said \"something like a human ecology\" was needed, adding: \"Rain forests deserve indeed to be protected, but no less so does man\". He attacked gender theories which he described as \"man's attempt at self-emancipation from creation and the Creator.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "LGBT groups such as the Italian Arcigay and German LSVD have announced that they found the pope's comments homophobic. Aurelio Mancuso, head of Arcigay, saying \"A divine programme for men and women is out of line with nature, where the roles are not so clear.\" Canadian author Daniel Gawthrop, in a critical biography, The Trial of Pope Benedict, said that the Pope blamed homosexuality \"for a problem the church had willingly enabled for hundreds of years\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 66936, 20868802, 3775323, 51707825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 32, 39 ], [ 51, 55 ], [ 277, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Father Federico Lombardi, a Vatican spokesman, claimed the pope had not wished specifically to attack people with homosexual inclinations, and had not mentioned gays or lesbians in his text. Father Lombardi insisted that there had been an overreaction to the pope's remarks: \"He was speaking more generally about gender theories which overlook the fundamental difference in creation between men and women and focus instead on cultural conditioning.\" Nevertheless, the remarks were interpreted as a call to save mankind from homosexuals and transsexuals.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 14907170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During a 2012 Christmas speech, the pope made remarks about the present-day interpretation of the notion of gender. He stated that a new philosophy of sexuality, which he rejects, suggests that \"sex is no longer a given element of nature, that man has to accept and personally make sense of: it is a social role that we choose for ourselves\", and \"The words of the creation account: 'male and female he created them' (Gen 1:27) no longer apply\". Although he didn't mention the topic, his words were interpreted by news media as denunciations of same-sex marriage, with some sources adding that Benedict would have called it a threat to world peace similar to abortion and euthanasia. In March 2012, he stated that heterosexual marriages should be defended from \"every possible misrepresentation of their true nature\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 38076, 92656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 114 ], [ 545, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a message released 14 November 2006, during a Vatican press conference for the 2007 annual observance of World Day for Migrants and Refugees, the Pope urged the ratification of international conventions and policies that defend all migrants, including refugees, exiles, evacuees and internally displaced persons. \"The church encourages the ratification of the international legal instruments that aim to defend the rights of migrants, refugees and their families,\" the Pope said. \"Much is already being done for the integration of the families of immigrants, although much still remains to be done.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 45547, 1536572, 427408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 143 ], [ 273, 281 ], [ 286, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict also promoted various UN events, such as World Refugee Day, on which he offered up special prayers for refugees and called for the international community to do more to secure refugees' human rights. He also called on Catholic communities and organizations to offer them concrete help.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 5573494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, it was reported that Benedict was \"praying for migrants and refugees\" from Syria.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 7515849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, Benedict sent a letter at Easter to Catholics in China that could have wide-ranging implications for the church's relationship with China's leadership. The letter provides long-requested guidance to Chinese bishops on how to respond to illicitly ordained bishops, as well as how to strengthen ties with the Patriotic Association and the Communist government.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 516363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 316, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 13 November 2006, Benedict said that the dispute over the North Korea nuclear weapons program should be resolved through negotiations, in his first public comment on the security issue, a news report said. \"The Holy See encourages bilateral or multilateral negotiations, convinced that the solution must be sought through peaceful means and in respect for agreements taken by all sides to obtain the denuclearisation of the Korean Peninsula.\" Benedict was talking to the new Japanese ambassador to the Vatican.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 106424, 16749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 96 ], [ 427, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a 2004 Le Figaro interview, Ratzinger said that Turkey, which is demographically Muslim but governmentally secular by virtue of its state constitution, should seek its future in an association of Muslim nations rather than the European Union, which Ratzinger stated has Christian roots. He said Turkey had always been \"in permanent contrast to Europe and that linking it to Europe would be a mistake\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 80770, 8375903, 191429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ], [ 110, 153 ], [ 199, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later visiting the country to \"reiterate the solidarity between the cultures,\" it was reported that he made a counter-statement backing Turkey's bid to join the EU. Prime Minister of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, said that the Pope told him in their meeting that while the Vatican seeks to stay out of politics it desires Turkey's membership in the EU. However, the Common Declaration of Pope Benedict XVI and Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople implied that support for Turkey's membership in the European Union would be contingent on the establishment of religious freedom in Turkey: \"In every step towards unification, minorities must be protected, with their cultural traditions and the distinguishing features of their religion.\" The Declaration also reiterates Benedict XVI's call for Europe to preserve its Christian roots.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 1283036, 376619, 61618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 163 ], [ 190, 210 ], [ 409, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 2009, he visited Israel. This was the third Papal visit to the Holy Land, the previous ones being made by Pope Paul VI in 1964 and Pope John Paul II in 2000.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict XVI and Prime Minister Nguyễn Tấn Dũng met at the Vatican on 25 January 2007 in a \"new and important step towards establishing diplomatic ties\". The Pope met with President Nguyễn Minh Triết on 11 December 2009. Vatican officials called the meeting \"a significant stage in the progress of bilateral relations with Vietnam.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 1589477, 5725878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 47 ], [ 182, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2009, Benedict XVI published his third encyclical, Caritas in veritate (Charity in truth), setting out the philosophical and moral foundations for human development, individually and collectively, in striving for the common good. This was the last encyclical of Benedict XVI's papacy.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 22534156, 312085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 78 ], [ 225, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Caritas in veritate makes a case for the charitable distribution of wealth in considerable detail and discusses the environment, migration, terrorism, sexual tourism, bioethics, energy and population. The Financial Times reported that Benedict XVI's advocacy for a fairer redistribution of wealth helped set the agenda for the 2009 July G8 summit.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Also included in Charity in Truth is advocacy for tax choice:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 34747393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One possible approach to development aid would be to apply effectively what is known as fiscal subsidiarity, allowing citizens to decide how to allocate a portion of the taxes they pay to the State. Provided it does not degenerate into the promotion of special interests, this can help to stimulate forms of welfare solidarity from below, with obvious benefits in the area of solidarity for development as well.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict XVI called for nuclear disarmament. At the same time, he supported the peaceful use of nuclear energy as a tool for development and the fight against poverty. In his message for the 50th anniversary of the founding of the International Atomic Energy Agency, he confirmed: \"The Holy See, fully approving of the IAEA's goal, has been a member from the organisation's foundation and continues to support its activity.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Positions on morality and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 22165, 22153, 14984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 43 ], [ 96, 110 ], [ 231, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict is known to be deeply interested in classical music, and is an accomplished pianist. His favorite composer is Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, of whose music he said: \"His music is by no means just entertainment; it contains the whole tragedy of human existence.\" Benedict also stated that Mozart's music affected him greatly as a young man and \"deeply penetrated his soul\". Benedict's favorite works of music are Mozart's Clarinet Concerto and Clarinet Quintet. He recorded an album of contemporary classical music in which he sings and recites prayers to the Blessed Virgin Mary. The album was set for release on 30 November 2009.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Interests", "target_page_ids": [ 33163, 915086, 2722366, 73513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 142 ], [ 424, 441 ], [ 446, 462 ], [ 562, 581 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict is also known to be fond of cats. As Cardinal Ratzinger, he was known (according to former neighbours) to look after stray cats in his neighbourhood. A book called Joseph and Chico: A Cat Recounts the Life of Pope Benedict XVI was published in 2007 which told the story of the Pope's life from the feline Chico's perspective. This story was inspired by an orange tabby Pentling cat, which belonged to the family next door. During his trip to Australia for World Youth Day in 2008 the media reported that festival organizers lent the Pope a grey cat called Bella to keep him company during his stay.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Interests", "target_page_ids": [ 895672, 10281787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 136 ], [ 378, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2012, the Vatican announced that Benedict XVI had joined social networking website Twitter, under the handle @Pontifex. His first tweet was made on 12 December and was \"Dear friends, I am pleased to get in touch with you through Twitter. Thank you for your generous response. I bless all of you from my heart.\" On 28 February 2013, the day he retired, the tweets were archived, and @Pontifex read \"Sede Vacante\". Francis took control of the @Pontifex account upon his election.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Interests", "target_page_ids": [ 563295, 1687680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 410, 422 ], [ 425, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1977 Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit of the Republic of Ecuador", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1977 Knight Grand Cross of the Bavarian Order of Merit", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 24099733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1985 Grand Merit Cross with Star and Sash of the Federal Republic of Germany", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 322288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1985 Bayerische Verfassungsmedaille (Bavarian Constitution Medal) in Gold", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 42023359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Order of Minerva at the D'Annunzio University of Chieti–Pescara", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 4946471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Augustin Bea Prize (Rome)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Karl Valentin Order (Munich)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 68310594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 Leopold Kunschak Prize (Vienna)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 39900666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 Georg von Hertling Medal of Kartellverband katholischer deutscher Studentenvereine", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 16032464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 26206547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Literature Prize Capri S. Michele in Anacapri", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 1104395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Premio Internazionale di Cultura Cattolica, Bassano del Grappa", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 826334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1993 literary prize Premio Letterario Basilicata per la Letteratura e Poesia religiosa Spirituale in Potenza (Italy)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1996 Knight of the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 32510638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 Commander of the Legion of Honour (Légion d'honneur) (France)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 160188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 Bailiff Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 76835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2002 Liberal Trieste", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2004 Literature Prize Capri S. Michele in Anacapri", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Honorary doctorates", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1984 University of St. Thomas (St. Paul, Minnesota, USA; Honorary Doctor of Human Letters)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 593223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru (Pontifical Catholic University of Peru)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 1940443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1987 Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 3472640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988 Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski (Catholic University of Lublin, Poland)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 752329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 University of Navarra (Pamplona, Spain)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 1942492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 Libera Università Maria SS Assunta Roma (Maria SS Assunta Free University, Rome) (honorary degree in law)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2000 Uniwersytet Wrocławski (University of Wroclaw, Poland; Honorary Doctor of Theology)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 446706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2005 Universatea Babes-Bolyai in Cluj-Napoca (Babeș-Bolyai University)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 97404, 2912735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 44 ], [ 46, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Honorary citizenships", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1987 Pentling, near Regensburg, location of his main German residence", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 10281787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1997 Marktl, his birthplace", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 1758477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2005 Traunstein, location of the school and the study seminar he attended", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 553091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2006 Altötting, in Bavaria", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 1306471, 3764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 14 ], [ 19, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2006 Regensburg, worked as a full, later as a visiting, professor", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 49117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2006 Aschau am Inn, started school and received Mass for the first time", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 10195866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2007 Tittmoning, where he spent part of his childhood", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 6001619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2008 Brixen, where he holidayed several times as a cardinal and as pope", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 881523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2009 Mariazell, whose sanctuary he visited in 2007 as pope", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 2678443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2009 Introd in the Aosta Valley, where he spent some of his summer holidays in 2005, 2006 and 2009", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 6154440, 301306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 11 ], [ 19, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2010 Romano Canavese, in Piedmont", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 6520379, 25061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 20 ], [ 25, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2010 Lisbon, honoring his visit to the city on 11–12 May 2010", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 18091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2010 Freising, where he studied, was ordained a priest in 1951, where he served from 1954 to 1957 lecturer at the Philosophical and Theological College and worked from 1977 to 1982 as archbishop of Munich and Freising", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 482364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2011 Natz-Schabs in South Tyrol; Benedict's grandmother Maria Tauber Peintner and his great-grandmother Elisabeth Maria Tauber both come from Natz-Schabs", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 6539188, 169611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ], [ 20, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The asteroid 8661 Ratzinger was named in his honor for the role he played in supervising the opening of Vatican archives in 1998 to researchers investigating judicial errors against Galileo and other medieval scientists. The name was proposed by the asteroid's first discoverers, L. D. Schmadel and F. Borngen at Tautenburg.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 16477449, 29688374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 27 ], [ 182, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arms", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Benedict XVI has written 66 books, three encyclicals, and three apostolic exhortations.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Writings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cardinals created by Benedict XVI", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36411457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Papal regalia and insignia – papal attire", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1467523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Three Secrets of Fátima – document on the release of the Third Secret of Fátima", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 868996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Allen, John L.: Cardinal Ratzinger: the Vatican's enforcer of the faith.– New York: Continuum, 2000", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Benedetti, Amedeo: Il linguaggio di Benedetto XVI, al secolo Joseph Ratzinger.– Genova, Erga, 2012", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 36984030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Herrmann, Horst: Benedikt XVI. Der neue Papst aus Deutschland.– Berlin 2005", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nichols OP, Aidan: The Theology of Joseph Ratzinger: An Introductory Study.– Edinburgh; T&T Clark, 1988", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pater Prior Maximilian Heim: Joseph Ratzinger— Kirchliche Existenz und existenzielle Theologie unter dem Anspruch von Lumen gentium (diss.).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Twomey, D. Vincent, S.V.D.: Pope Benedict XVI: The Conscience of Our Age (A Theological Portrait).– San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2007", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 25292332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wagner, Karl: Kardinal Ratzinger: der Erzbischof in München und Freising in Wort und Bild.– München: Pfeiffer, 1977", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Peter Seewald: Benedict XVI: A Life, in two volumes: Volume One: Youth in Nazi Germany to the Second Vatican Council 1927–1965, Volume Two: Professor and Prefect to Pope and Pope Emeritus, 1966 - The Present, translated from the German by Dinah Livingstone, London: Bloomsbury, 2020.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 70557969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joseph Ratzinger (= Benedikt XVI. – autobiographical): Aus meinem Leben. (1927–1977). Stuttgart 1998, .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Kissler: Papst im Widerspruch: Benedikt XVI. und seine Kirche 2005–2013. Pattloch 2013, . ", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Campbell, Paul-Henri: Pope Benedikt XVI. Audio Book. Monarda Publishing House, 2012, .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 33937326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pursell, Brennan, Benedict of Bavaria: An Intimate Portrait of the Pope and His Homeland (Circle Press, 2008). .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Allen, John L. The Rise of Benedict XVI: The Inside Story of How the Pope Was Elected and Where He Will Take the Catholic Church. NY: Doubleday, 2005. .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 3490168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Allen, John L. Pope Benedict XVI: A Biography of Joseph Ratzinger. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005. . This is a reprint of Allen's 2000 book Cardinal Ratzinger: the Vatican's Enforcer of the Faith.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bardazzi, Marco. In the Vineyard of the Lord: The Life, Faith, and Teachings of Joseph Ratzinger, Pope Benedict XVI. New York: Rizzoli International, 2005. ", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tobin, Greg. Holy Father: Pope Benedict XVI: Pontiff for a New Era. Sterling, 2005. .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Weigel, George. God's Choice: Pope Benedict XVI and the Future of the Catholic Church, Harper Collins, 2005. .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1610999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jeanne Perego. Joseph e Chico: Un gatto racconta la vita di Papa Benedetto XVI, EMP, 2007. .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 13575279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Keys of the Kingdom, from John Paul II to Benedict XVI, produced by Vatican Television Center, distributed by HDH Communications, 2006.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 23215867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Profile at the Vatican web site", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Papal Transition 2005 Web Archive from the U.S. Library of Congress", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 18944081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Deus caritas est– encyclical God is Love", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Spe salvi– encyclical In hope we were saved", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Caritas in veritate– encyclical In Charity and Truth", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Pope_Benedict_XVI", "1927_births", "20th-century_German_cardinals", "20th-century_German_Catholic_theologians", "21st-century_popes", "Anti-consumerists", "Augustinian_philosophers", "Cardinal-bishops_of_Ostia", "Cardinals_created_by_Pope_Paul_VI", "Catholic_philosophers", "Christian_writers_about_eschatology", "Commandeurs_of_the_Légion_d'honneur", "Deans_of_the_College_of_Cardinals", "Ecclesiologists", "German_Army_personnel_of_World_War_II", "German_pianists", "German_popes", "German_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II_held_by_the_United_States", "Grand_Crosses_1st_class_of_the_Order_of_Merit_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany", "Hitler_Youth_members", "International_Theological_Commission", "Living_people", "Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich_alumni", "Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich_faculty", "Luftwaffenhelfer", "Members_of_the_Congregation_for_the_Doctrine_of_the_Faith", "Members_of_the_European_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Arts", "Participants_in_the_Second_Vatican_Council", "People_from_Altötting_(district)", "Popes", "Popes_who_abdicated", "Ratzinger_family", "Recipients_of_the_Grand_Decoration_with_Sash_for_Services_to_the_Republic_of_Austria", "Roman_Catholic_archbishops_of_Munich_and_Freising", "Roman_Catholic_writers", "University_of_Bonn_faculty", "University_of_Münster_faculty", "University_of_Regensburg_faculty", "University_of_Tübingen_faculty", "German_Roman_Catholic_archbishops" ]

[ "Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger", "Pope Benedict XVI", "Josef Ratzinger", "Benedetto XVI", "Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI", "Joseph Alois Ratzinger" ]

[ { "plaintext": "John Bunyan (; baptised 30 November 162831 August 1688) was an English writer and Puritan preacher best remembered as the author of the Christian allegory The Pilgrim's Progress, which also became an influential literary model. In addition to The Pilgrim's Progress, Bunyan wrote nearly sixty titles, many of them expanded sermons.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18803164, 24091, 1837, 173974, 203221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 70 ], [ 82, 89 ], [ 146, 154 ], [ 155, 177 ], [ 323, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bunyan came from the village of Elstow, near Bedford. He had some schooling and at the age of sixteen joined the Parliamentary Army during the first stage of the English Civil War. After three years in the army he returned to Elstow and took up the trade of tinker, which he had learned from his father. He became interested in religion after his marriage, attending first the parish church and then joining the Bedford Meeting, a nonconformist group in Bedford, and becoming a preacher. After the restoration of the monarch, when the freedom of nonconformists was curtailed, Bunyan was arrested and spent the next twelve years in jail as he refused to give up preaching. During this time he wrote a spiritual autobiography, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, and began work on his most famous book, The Pilgrim's Progress, which was not published until some years after his release.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7384728, 69772, 181149, 1063738, 9709, 1077795, 149119, 70804, 26973952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 38 ], [ 45, 52 ], [ 113, 131 ], [ 143, 154 ], [ 162, 179 ], [ 259, 265 ], [ 432, 445 ], [ 499, 525 ], [ 726, 765 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bunyan's later years, in spite of another shorter term of imprisonment, were spent in relative comfort as a popular author and preacher, and pastor of the Bedford Meeting. He died aged 59 after falling ill on a journey to London and is buried in Bunhill Fields. The Pilgrim's Progress became one of the most published books in the English language; 1,300 editions having been printed by 1938, 250 years after the author's death.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 167361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bunyan is remembered in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 30 August. Some other churches of the Anglican Communion, such as the Anglican Church of Australia, honour him on the day of his death (31 August).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4476440, 5955, 7163717, 1794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ], [ 28, 45 ], [ 53, 68 ], [ 72, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Bunyan was born in 1628 to Thomas and Margaret Bunyan at Bunyan's End in the parish of Elstow, Bedfordshire. Bunyan's End is about halfway between the hamlet of Harrowden (one mile south-east of Bedford) and Elstow High Street. Bunyan's date of birth is not known, but he was baptised on 30 November 1628, the baptismal entry in the parish register reading \"John the sonne of Thomas Bunnion Jun., the 30 November\". The name Bunyan was spelt in many ways (there are 34 variants in Bedfordshire Record Office) and probably had its origins in the Norman-French name Buignon. There had been Bunyans in Bedfordshire since at least 1199.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 7384728, 7919234, 69772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 98 ], [ 166, 175 ], [ 200, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bunyan's father was a brazier or tinker who travelled around the area mending pots and pans, and his grandfather had been a chapman or small trader. The Bunyans had owned land and properties in Elstow, so Bunyan's origins were not quite as humble as one might assume from his autobiographical work Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners where he wrote that his father's house was \"of that rank that is meanest and most despised in the country\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 26973952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 298, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a child Bunyan learned his father's trade of tinker and was given some schooling but it is not known which school he attended. In Grace Abounding Bunyan recorded few details of his upbringing, but he did note how he picked up the habit of swearing (from his father), suffered from nightmares, and read the popular stories of the day in cheap chap-books. In the summer of 1644 Bunyan lost both his mother and his sister Margaret. That autumn, shortly before or after his sixteenth birthday, Bunyan enlisted in the Parliamentary army when an edict demanded 225 recruits from the town of Bedford. There are few details available about his military service, which took place during the first stage of the English Civil War. A muster roll for the garrison of Newport Pagnell shows him as private \"John Bunnian\". In Grace Abounding, he recounted an incident from this time, as evidence of the grace of God:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1030000, 181149, 9709, 386613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 347, 357 ], [ 518, 536 ], [ 706, 723 ], [ 759, 774 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When I was a Souldier, I, with others, were drawn out to go to such a place to besiege it; But when I was just ready to go, one of the company desired to go in my room, to which, when I had consented, he took my place; and coming to the siege, as he stood Sentinel, he was shot into the head with a Musket bullet and died.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bunyan's army service provided him with a knowledge of military language which he then used in his book The Holy War, and also exposed him to the ideas of the various religious sects and radical groups he came across in Newport Pagnell. The garrison town also gave him opportunities to indulge in the sort of behaviour he would later confess to in Grace Abounding: \"So that until I came to the state of Marriage, I was the very ringleader of all the Youth that kept me company, in all manner of vice and ungodliness\". Bunyan spent nearly three years in the army, leaving in 1647 to return to Elstow and his trade as a tinker. His father had remarried and had more children and Bunyan moved from Bunyan's End to a cottage in Elstow High Street.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 20623146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Within two years of leaving the army, Bunyan married. The name of his wife and the exact date of his marriage are not known, but Bunyan did recall that his wife, a pious young woman, brought with her into the marriage two books that she had inherited from her father: Arthur Dent's Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven and Lewis Bayly's Practice of Piety. He also recalled that, apart from these two books, the newly-weds possessed little: \"not having so much household-stuff as a Dish or a Spoon betwixt us both\". The couple's first daughter, Mary, was born in 1650, and it soon became apparent that she was blind. They would have three more children, Elizabeth, Thomas and John.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 7412624, 5838620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 268, 279 ], [ 316, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By his own account, Bunyan had as a youth enjoyed bell-ringing, dancing and playing games including on Sunday, which was forbidden by the Puritans, who held a particularly high view of Sunday, called the Lord's Day. One Sunday the vicar of Elstow preached a sermon against Sabbath breaking, and Bunyan took this sermon to heart. That afternoon, as he was playing tip-cat (a game in which a small piece of wood is hit with a bat) on Elstow village green, he heard a voice from the heavens \"Wilt thou leave thy sins, and go to Heaven? Or have thy sins, and go to Hell?\" The next few years were a time of intense spiritual conflict for Bunyan as he struggled with his doubts and fears over religion and guilt over what he saw as his state of sin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 24091, 2453490, 2976555, 174721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 146 ], [ 204, 214 ], [ 363, 370 ], [ 439, 452 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During this time Bunyan, whilst on his travels as a tinker, happened to be in Bedford and pass a group of women who were talking about spiritual matters on their doorstep. The women were in fact some of the founding members of the Bedford Free Church or Meeting and Bunyan, who had been attending the parish church of Elstow, was so impressed by their talk that he joined their church. At that time the nonconformist group was meeting in St John's church in Bedford under the leadership of former Royalist army officer John Gifford. At the instigation of other members of the congregation Bunyan began to preach, both in the church and to groups of people in the surrounding countryside. In 1656, having by this time moved his family to St Cuthbert's Street in Bedford, he published his first book, Gospel Truths Opened, which was inspired by a dispute with Ranters and Quakers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 149119, 212952, 4812151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 403, 416 ], [ 858, 865 ], [ 870, 877 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1658 Bunyan's wife died, leaving him with four small children, one of them blind. A year later he married an eighteen-year-old woman named Elizabeth.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The religious tolerance which had allowed Bunyan the freedom to preach became curtailed with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660. The members of the Bedford Meeting were no longer able to meet in St John's church, which they had been sharing with the Anglican congregation. That November, Bunyan was preaching at Lower Samsell, a farm near the village of Harlington, thirteen miles from Bedford, when he was warned that a warrant was out for his arrest. Deciding not to make an escape, he was arrested and brought before the local magistrate Sir Francis Wingate, at Harlington House. Bunyan was arrested under the Conventicle Act of 1593, which made it an offence to attend a religious gathering other than at the parish church with more than five people outside their family. The offence was punishable by 3 months' imprisonment followed by banishment or execution if the person then failed to promise not to re-offend. The Act had been little used, and Bunyan's arrest was probably due in part to concerns that non-conformist religious meetings were being held as a cover for people plotting against the king (although this was not the case with Bunyan's meetings). The Act of Uniformity, which made it compulsory for preachers to be ordained by an Anglican bishop and for the revised Book of Common Prayer to be used in church services, was still two years away, and the Act of Conventicles, which made it illegal to hold religious meetings of five or more people outside the Church of England was not passed until 1664.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 70804, 1214, 2005772, 40393721, 23571268, 241953, 175207, 4953, 174148, 5955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 124 ], [ 255, 263 ], [ 359, 369 ], [ 570, 586 ], [ 618, 633 ], [ 846, 856 ], [ 1176, 1193 ], [ 1291, 1312 ], [ 1378, 1397 ], [ 1483, 1500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The trial of Bunyan took place in January 1661 at the quarter sessions in Bedford, before a group of magistrates under John Kelynge, who would later help to draw up the Act of Uniformity. Bunyan, who had been held in prison since his arrest, was indicted of having \"devilishly and perniciousy abstained from coming to church to hear divine service\" and having held \"several unlawful meetings and conventicles, to the great disturbance and distraction of the good subjects of this kingdom\". He was sentenced to three months imprisonment with transportation to follow if at the end of this time he did not agree to attend the parish church and desist from preaching.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 13353117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Bunyan refused to agree to give up preaching, his period of imprisonment eventually extended to 12 years and brought great hardship to his family. Elizabeth, who made strenuous attempts to obtain his release, had been pregnant when her husband was arrested and she subsequently gave birth prematurely to a still-born child. Left to bring up four step-children, one of whom was blind, she had to rely on the charity of Bunyan's fellow members of the Bedford Meeting and other supporters and on what little her husband could earn in gaol by making shoelaces. But Bunyan remained resolute: \"O I saw in this condition I was a man who was pulling down his house upon the head of his Wife and Children; yet thought I, I must do it, I must do it\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bunyan spent his 12 years' imprisonment in Bedford County Gaol, which stood on the corner of the High Street and Silver Street. There were however occasions when he was allowed out of prison, depending on the gaolers and the mood of the authorities at the time, and he was able to attend the Bedford Meeting and even preach. His daughter Sarah was born during his imprisonment (the other child of his second marriage, Joseph, was born after his release in 1672).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In prison, Bunyan had a copy of the Bible and of John Foxe's Book of Martyrs, as well as writing materials. He also had at times the company of other preachers who had been imprisoned. It was in Bedford Gaol that he wrote Grace Abounding and started work on The Pilgrim's Progress, as well as penning several tracts that may have brought him a little money. In 1671, while still in prison, he was chosen as pastor of the Bedford Meeting. By that time there was a mood of increasing religious toleration in the country and in March 1672 the king issued a declaration of indulgence which suspended penal laws against nonconformists. Thousands of nonconformists were released from prison, amongst them Bunyan and five of his fellow inmates of Bedford Gaol. Bunyan was freed in May 1672 and immediately obtained a licence to preach under the declaration of indulgence.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 298309, 33491820, 175363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 58 ], [ 61, 76 ], [ 554, 579 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following his release from jail in 1672 Bunyan probably did not return to his former occupation of a tinker. Instead, he devoted his time to writing and preaching. He continued as pastor of the Bedford Meeting and traveled over Bedfordshire and adjoining counties on horseback to preach, becoming known affectionately as \"Bishop Bunyan\". His preaching also took him to London, where Lord Mayor Sir John Shorter became a friend and presented him with a silver-mounted walking stick. The Pilgrim's Progress was published in 1678 by Nathaniel Ponder and immediately became popular, though probably making more money for its publisher than for its author.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 40339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 383, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two events marred Bunyan's life during the later 1670s. Firstly he became embroiled in a scandal concerning a young woman called Agnes Beaumont. When going to preach in Gamlingay in 1674 he allowed Beaumont, a member of the Bedford Meeting, to ride pillion on his horse, much to the anger of her father, who then died suddenly. His daughter was initially suspected of poisoning him, though the coroner found he had died of natural causes. In 1676-7 he underwent a second term of imprisonment, probably for refusing to attend the parish church. This second imprisonment lasted six months.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 54014008, 1635597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 143 ], [ 249, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1688, on his way to London, Bunyan made a detour to Reading, Berkshire, to try and resolve a quarrel between a father and son. Continuing to London to the house of his friend, grocer John Strudwick of Snow Hill in the City of London, he was caught in a storm and fell ill with a fever. He died in Strudwick's house on the morning of 31 August 1688 and was buried in the tomb belonging to Strudwick in Bunhill Fields nonconformist burial ground in London.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 43980, 24710984, 167361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 73 ], [ 204, 213 ], [ 404, 418 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bunyan's estate at his death was worth £42 19s 0d (about £5,200 in 2021). His widow Elizabeth died in 1691.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1656, when he published his first work, Some Gospel Truths Opened (a tract against the Ranters and Quakers—who at the time were somewhat indistinguishable), and his death in 1688, Bunyan published 42 titles. A further two works, including his Last Sermon, were published the following year by George Larkin. In 1692 Southwark comb-maker Charles Doe, who was a friend of Bunyan's later years, brought out, with the collaboration of Bunyan's widow, a collection of the author's works, including 12 previously unpublished titles, mostly sermons. Six years later Doe published The Heavenly Footman and finally in 1765 Relation of My Imprisonment was published, giving a total of 58 published titles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 212952, 4812151, 54062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 102 ], [ 107, 114 ], [ 324, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is the allegory The Pilgrim's Progress, written during Bunyan's twelve-year imprisonment although not published until 1678 (six years after his release), that made Bunyan's name as an author with its immediate success. It remains the book for which Bunyan is best remembered. The images Bunyan uses in The Pilgrim's Progress are reflections of images from his own world; the strait gate is a version of the wicket gate at Elstow Abbey church, the Slough of Despond is a reflection of Squitch Fen, a wet and mossy area near his cottage in Harrowden, the Delectable Mountains are an image of the Chiltern Hills surrounding Bedfordshire. Even his characters, like the Evangelist as influenced by John Gifford, are reflections of real people.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 173974, 2405918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 41 ], [ 450, 467 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Further allegorical works were to follow: The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680), Pilgrim's Progress Part II and The Holy War (1682). Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, a spiritual autobiography, was published in 1666, when he was still in jail.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 32959972, 20623146, 26973952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 74 ], [ 114, 126 ], [ 135, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a small obelisk marking his birthplace in a field beside 'Bumpy Lane', which is in between Elstow and Old Harrowden Lane", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1862 a recumbent statue was created to adorn Bunyan's grave; it was restored in 1922.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1874, a bronze statue of John Bunyan, sculpted by Sir Joseph Edgar Boehm, was erected in Bedford. This stands at the south-western corner of St Peter's Green, facing down Bedford's High Street. The site was chosen by Boehm for its significance as a crossroads. Bunyan is depicted expounding the Bible, to an invisible congregation, with a broken fetter representing his imprisonment by his left foot. There are three scenes from \"The Pilgrim's Progress\" on the stone plinth: Christian at the wicket gate; his fight with Apollyon; and losing his burden at the foot of the cross of Jesus. The statue was unveiled by Lady Augusta Stanley, wife of the Dean of Westminster, on Wednesday 10 June 1874. In 1876 the Duke of Bedford gave bronze doors by Frederick Thrupp depicting scenes from The Pilgrim's Progress to the John Bunyan Meeting (the former Bedford Meeting which had been renamed in Bunyan's honour, and now houses the John Bunyan Museum).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 43168622, 634226, 69772, 69772, 959506, 173974, 9331825, 2474, 9255363, 39944562, 17311334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 39 ], [ 57, 75 ], [ 92, 99 ], [ 175, 182 ], [ 351, 357 ], [ 440, 458 ], [ 498, 509 ], [ 526, 534 ], [ 655, 674 ], [ 752, 768 ], [ 931, 949 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is another statue of him in Kingsway, London, and there are memorial windows in Westminster Abbey, Southwark Cathedral and various churches, including Elstow Abbey (the parish church of Elstow) and the Bunyan Meeting Free Church in Bedford.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 43245, 286335, 9469908, 17311334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 103 ], [ 105, 124 ], [ 157, 169 ], [ 208, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bunyan is remembered in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 30 August on 29 August. Some other churches of the Anglican Communion, such as the Anglican Church of Australia, honour him on the day of his death (31 August).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 7163717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bunyan is best remembered for The Pilgrim's Progress, a book which gained immediate popularity. By 1692, four years after the author's death, publisher Charles Doe estimated that 100,000 copies had been printed in England, as well as editions \"in France, Holland, New England and Welch\". By 1938, 250 years after Bunyan's death, more than 1,300 editions of the book had been printed.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the 18th century Bunyan's unpolished style fell out of favour, but his popularity returned with Romanticism, poet Robert Southey writing a lengthy appreciative biography in 1830 to accompany an edition of The Pilgrim's Progress that many critics deem a turning point in Bunyan scholarship. Bunyan's reputation was further enhanced by the evangelical revival and he became a favourite author of the Victorians. The tercentenary of Bunyan's birth, celebrated in 1928, elicited praise from his former adversary, the Church of England. Although popular interest in Bunyan waned during the second half of the twentieth century, academic interest in the writer has increased and Oxford University Press brought out a new edition of his works, beginning in 1976. Authors who have been influenced by Bunyan include C. S. Lewis, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Charles Dickens, Louisa May Alcott and George Bernard Shaw.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 26094, 70509, 32798, 48518, 5813, 21787, 13623, 5884, 18002, 12855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 114 ], [ 121, 135 ], [ 405, 415 ], [ 680, 703 ], [ 814, 825 ], [ 827, 846 ], [ 848, 863 ], [ 865, 880 ], [ 882, 899 ], [ 904, 923 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bunyan's work, in particular The Pilgrim's Progress, has reached a wider audience through stage productions, film, TV, and radio. A stage work by Ralph Vaughan Williams, which the composer styled a Morality, based on The Pilgrim's Progress was first performed at the Royal Opera House in 1951 as part of the Festival of Britain and revived in 2012 by the English National Opera.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 79448, 277882, 66154, 275915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 168 ], [ 268, 285 ], [ 309, 328 ], [ 356, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Bunyan had six children, five of whom are known to have married, of whom four had children. Moot Hall Museum (in Elstow) has a record of John's descendants, down to the nineteenth century but as of September 2013, no verifiable trace of later descendants has been found.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 3875278, 7384728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 106 ], [ 118, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The best collection of Bunyan's writing appears in The Works of John Bunyan, edited by George Offor and published in London in three volumes between 1853 and 1855, containing 61 unique works. A revised edition was published in 1862. The misnamed Complete Works of John Bunyan, edited by John Gulliver and published in one volume by Bradley, Garretson & Co. in 1871, omits 28 works and lacks the biblical references and editorial footnotes present in Offor's collection.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 36606591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among Bunyan's many works:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Few Sighs from Hell, or the Groans of a Damned Soul, 1658", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Discourse Upon the Pharisee and the Publican, 1685", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Holy Life", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Christ a Complete Saviour (The Intercession of Christ And Who Are Privileged in It), 1692", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Come and Welcome to Jesus Christ, 1678", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, 1666", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 26973952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Light for Them that Sit in Darkness", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Praying with the Spirit and with Understanding too, 1663", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Of Antichrist and His Ruin, 1692", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Reprobation Asserted, 1674", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Saved by Grace, 1675", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Seasonal Counsel or Suffering Saints in the Furnace – Advice to Persecuted Christians in Their Trials & Tribulations, 1684", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Solomon's Temple Spiritualized", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Some Gospel Truths Opened, 1656", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Acceptable Sacrifice", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Desire of the Righteous Granted", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Doctrine of the Law and Grace Unfolded, 1659", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Doom and Downfall of the Fruitless Professor (Or The Barren Fig Tree), 1682", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The End of the World, The Resurrection of the Dead and Eternal Judgment, 1665", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Fear of God – What it is, and what is it is not, 1679", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Greatness of the Soul and Unspeakableness of its Loss Thereof, 1683", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Heavenly Footman, 1698", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Holy City or the New Jerusalem, 1665", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Holy War – The Losing and Taking Again of the Town of Man-soul (The Holy War Made by Shaddai upon Diabolus, for the Regaining of the World), 1682", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 20623146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Life and Death of Mr Badman, 1680", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 32959972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Pilgrim's Progress, 1678", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 173974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Strait Gate, Great Difficulty of Going to Heaven, 1676", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Saint's Knowledge of Christ's Love, or The Unsearchable Riches of Christ, 1692", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Water of Life or The Richness and Glory of the Gospel, 1688", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Work of Jesus Christ as an Advocate, 1688", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Works of John Bunyan, edited by George Offor:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rev. Ed.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Biographies of John Bunyan:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Illustrations:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Elstow Moot Hall – A medieval market house in Bunyan's birthplace, now contains a small museum dedicated to his life and works", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7384728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " English Dissenters", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1128563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Holy War – by John Bunyan, 1682, tells the story of the battle for the town of Mansoul", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20623146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Bunyan Museum – Museum dedicated to Bunyan on the same site as his former church", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17311334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"To Be a Pilgrim\" – a poem from The Pilgrim's Progress which became a popular hymn. (\"He that is down needs fear no fall\" is another.)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7506542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Forrest, J. F. and Greaves, R. L. (1982). John Bunyan: A Reference Guide. Boston: GK Hall & Co.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Keeble, Neil (2010), \"John Bunyan's Literary Life\". In Anne Dunan-Page (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Bunyan, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 13–25.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shears, Johnathon (2018). \"Bunyan and the Romantics\". In Michael Davies and W. R. Owens, eds. The Oxford Handbook to John Bunyan. Oxford University Press, 2018.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Bunyan Museum Bedford", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Moot Hall Elstow, a Museum specialising in 17th century life and John Bunyan", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bunyan Round Table, all about the places in and around Bedford linked to John Bunyan", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Bunyan Archive", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Acacia John Bunyan Online Library", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " International John Bunyan Society", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "John_Bunyan", "1628_births", "1688_deaths", "17th-century_Calvinist_and_Reformed_theologians", "17th-century_Christian_clergy", "17th-century_English_novelists", "17th-century_English_Puritans", "17th-century_male_writers", "Anglican_saints", "Baptist_theologians", "Burials_at_Bunhill_Fields", "Calvinist_and_Reformed_writers", "English_Baptist_ministers", "English_Calvinist_and_Reformed_theologians", "English_Christian_religious_leaders", "English_evangelicals", "English_male_novelists", "English_religious_writers", "Christian_novelists", "Epic_poets", "Mythopoeic_writers", "People_from_Bedford", "People_from_the_Borough_of_Bedford", "Persecution_of_Christians" ]

[ "John Bunyan", "Joannes Bunyan" ]

[ { "plaintext": "SN 1604, also known as Kepler's Supernova, Kepler's Nova or Kepler's Star, was a Type Ia supernova that occurred in the Milky Way, in the constellation Ophiuchus. Appearing in 1604, it is the most recent supernova in our galaxy to have been unquestionably observed by the naked eye, occurring no farther than 6 kiloparsecs (20,000 light-years) from Earth. Before the adoption of the current naming system for supernovae, it was named for Johannes Kepler, the German astronomer who described it in De Stella Nova.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3728323, 2589714, 5267, 22472, 27680, 293540, 23335, 23473595, 9228, 27680, 15736, 21281407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 98 ], [ 120, 129 ], [ 138, 151 ], [ 152, 161 ], [ 204, 213 ], [ 272, 281 ], [ 311, 322 ], [ 331, 341 ], [ 349, 354 ], [ 383, 419 ], [ 438, 453 ], [ 497, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Visible to the naked eye, Kepler's Star was brighter at its peak than any other star in the night sky, with an apparent magnitude of −2.5. It was visible during the day for over three weeks. Records of its sighting exist in European, Chinese, Korean, and Arabic sources.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 26808, 997476, 1962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 84 ], [ 92, 101 ], [ 111, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was the second supernova to be observed in a generation (after SN 1572 seen by Tycho Brahe in Cassiopeia). No further supernovae have since been observed with certainty in the Milky Way, though many others outside our galaxy have been seen since S Andromedae in 1885. SN 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud was visible to the naked eye.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 2146163, 30027, 207685, 846432, 28930, 39374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 73 ], [ 82, 93 ], [ 97, 107 ], [ 249, 261 ], [ 271, 279 ], [ 287, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Evidence exists for two Milky Way supernovae whose signals would have reached Earth 1680 and 1870 – Cassiopeia A, and G1.9+0.3 respectively. There is no historical record of either having been detected in those years probably as absorption by interstellar dust made them fainter.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 1996903, 17422860, 2178570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 113 ], [ 119, 127 ], [ 244, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The remnant of Kepler's supernova is considered to be one of the prototypical objects of its kind and is still an object of much study in astronomy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 39666, 50650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ], [ 138, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Astronomers of the time (including Kepler) were concerned with observing the conjunction of Mars and Jupiter, which they saw in terms of an auspicious conjunction, linked in their minds to the Star of Bethlehem. However, cloudy weather prevented Kepler from making any celestial observations. Nevertheless, his fellow astronomers Wilhelm Fabry, Michael Maestlin and Helisaeus Roeslin were able to make observations on 9 October, but did not record the supernova. The first recorded observation in Europe was by Lodovico delle Colombe in northern Italy on 9 October 1604. Kepler was only able to begin his observations on 17 October while working at the imperial court in Prague for Emperor Rudolf II. The supernova was subsequently named after him, even though he was not its first observer, as his observations tracked the object for an entire year. These observations were described in his book De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii (\"On the new star in Ophiuchus's foot\", Prague 1606).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 14640471, 38930, 608115, 1025294, 2624320, 20954488, 54507343, 23844, 26054, 21281407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 96 ], [ 101, 108 ], [ 193, 210 ], [ 330, 343 ], [ 345, 361 ], [ 366, 383 ], [ 511, 533 ], [ 671, 677 ], [ 682, 699 ], [ 898, 932 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1606, Delle Colombe published Discourse of Lodovico delle Colombe in which he shows that the \"Star Newly Appeared in October 1604 is neither a Comet nor a New Star\" and where he defended an Aristotelian view of cosmology after Galileo Galilei had used the occasion of the supernova to challenge the Aristotelian system. The description of Galileo's claims is as follows:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 1692748, 1864889, 29688374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 210 ], [ 214, 223 ], [ 230, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Galileo explained the meaning and relevance of parallax, reported that the nova displayed none, and concluded, as a certainty, that it lay beyond the moon. Here he might have stopped, having dispatched his single arrow. Instead he sketched a theory that ruined the Aristotelian cosmos: the nova very probably consisted of a large quantity of airy material that issued from the earth and shone by reflected sunlight, like Aristotelian comets. Unlike them, however, it could rise beyond the moon. It not only brought change to the heavens, but did so provocatively by importing corruptible earthy elements into the pure quintessence. That raised heaven-shattering possibilities. The interstellar space might be filled with something similar to our atmosphere, as in the physics of the Stoics, to which Tycho had referred in his lengthy account of the nova of 1572. And if the material of the firmament resembled that of bodies here below, a theory of motion built on experience", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 23253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "with objects within our reach might apply also to the celestial regions. “But I am not so bold as to think that things cannot take place differently from the way I have specified.”", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Kepler's De Stella Nova (1606), he criticised Roeslin concerning this supernova. Kepler argued that in his astrological prognostications, Roeslin had picked out just the two comets, the Great Comet of 1556 and 1580. Roeslin responded in 1609 that this was indeed what he had done. When Kepler replied later that year, he simply observed that by including a broader range of data Roeslin could have made a better argument.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 2122, 28345283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 122 ], [ 189, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A dim nebula was discovered in 1941 at the Mount Wilson Observatory with a brightness of 19 mag which is the supernova remnant of SN 1604. Only filaments can be seen in visible light. It is however a strong radio source. Its diameter is 4 arc min. Its distance is not well determined but is between 3 and more than 7 kiloparsecs (10,000 to 23,000 lightyears).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Supernova remnant", "target_page_ids": [ 213583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of supernova remnants", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3362344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of supernovae", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19944144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Supernova Early Warning System", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2630578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Light curves on the Open Supernova Catalog", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Ophiuchus_(constellation)", "Supernova_remnants", "Johannes_Kepler", "1604_in_science", "1604", "Astronomical_objects_discovered_in_1604", "Historical_supernovae" ]

[ "Kepler's Supernova" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Jon Howard Appleton (January 4, 1939 – January 30, 2022) was an American composer, an educator and a pioneer in electro-acoustic music. His earliest compositions in the medium, e.g. \"Chef d'Oeuvre\" and \"Newark Airport Rock\" (1967) attracted attention because they established a new tradition some have called programmatic electronic music. In 1970, he won Guggenheim, Fulbright and American-Scandinavian Foundation fellowships. When he was twenty-eight years old, he joined the faculty of Dartmouth College where he established one of the first electronic music studios in the United States. He remained there intermittently for forty-two years. In the mid-1970s, he left Dartmouth to briefly become the head of Elektronmusikstudion (EMS) (sv) in Stockholm, Sweden. In the late 1970s, together with Sydney Alonso and Cameron Jones, he helped develop the first commercial digital synthesizer called the Synclavier. For a decade he toured around the United States and Europe performing the compositions he composed for this instrument. In the early 1990s, he helped found the Theremin Center for Electronic Music at the Moscow Conservatory of Music. He also taught at Keio University (Mita) in Tokyo, Japan, CCRMA at Stanford University and the University of California Santa Cruz. In his later years, he devoted most of his time to the composition of instrumental and choral music in a quasi-Romantic vein which has largely been performed only in France, Russia and Japan.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 464806, 280626, 9510, 1554430, 333887, 4760052, 8418, 26741, 39648, 39648, 8276, 10791746, 39668, 9239, 17127963, 703217, 376432, 30057, 15573, 23087437, 26977, 31923, 43866, 25916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 134 ], [ 309, 321 ], [ 322, 338 ], [ 356, 366 ], [ 368, 377 ], [ 382, 414 ], [ 489, 506 ], [ 747, 756 ], [ 799, 812 ], [ 817, 830 ], [ 871, 878 ], [ 879, 890 ], [ 902, 912 ], [ 966, 972 ], [ 1074, 1110 ], [ 1118, 1146 ], [ 1166, 1181 ], [ 1192, 1197 ], [ 1199, 1204 ], [ 1206, 1211 ], [ 1215, 1234 ], [ 1243, 1278 ], [ 1367, 1373 ], [ 1391, 1399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Appleton was born in Los Angeles, California, on January 4, 1939, to Jewish parents: Helen Jacobs Appleton (born in Philadelphia, 1908) and Charles Leonard Appleton (born Chaim Epelboim in Kishinev, Bessarabia, July 14, 1900). His mother was employed by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and his father by Twentieth Century Fox film studios. His father left his family the year Appleton was born and he spent his first years in Mrs. Bell's (an orphanage) and with his brother (Michael Charles Appleton, born 1932) at Palomar Military Academy. When he was six years old his mother married Alexander \"Sasha\" Walden (born in Ufa, Russia, in 1897), a double-bass player in the Los Angeles Philharmonic orchestra. He was the greatest musical influence in Appleton's young life seeing that he studied piano, encouraging him to compose music and taking him to multiple concerts. Appleton's parents were true believers in the Soviet Union and active members of the multiple left-wing organizations including the Communist party. In the 1950s both his parents were blacklisted by the House Un-American Activities Committee and lost their jobs. As a child Appleton studied piano with Jacob Gimpel and Theodore Saidenberg but preferred composing his own music rather than playing the works assigned to him (e.g. Chopin, Scarlatti, Prokofiev). However, he developed a deep, lifelong affection for Russian music.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 18110, 25955086, 50585, 56635, 38872, 58819, 170318, 20311, 321112, 25391, 8816, 156261, 26779, 18499, 37008, 21556126, 23758960, 10823, 44656, 27681, 247772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 44 ], [ 69, 75 ], [ 116, 128 ], [ 189, 197 ], [ 199, 209 ], [ 254, 273 ], [ 292, 313 ], [ 511, 527 ], [ 608, 611 ], [ 613, 619 ], [ 633, 644 ], [ 659, 683 ], [ 904, 916 ], [ 952, 961 ], [ 990, 1005 ], [ 1042, 1053 ], [ 1061, 1099 ], [ 1287, 1293 ], [ 1295, 1304 ], [ 1306, 1315 ], [ 1371, 1384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1957 to 1961 Appleton was a student at Reed College in Portland, Oregon. These years shaped his future life: he composed for his fellow students who performed everything he composed, he decided to become a college professor and in 1959 he married his first wife, a fellow student, Georganna Towne. Following his graduation from Reed College, Appleton moved to San Francisco, California, where his first child was born (Jennifer Appleton). Simultaneously he studied composition with Andrew Imbrie at the University of California, Berkeley, collaborated with writer Willard S. Bain (1938–2000) writing musical comedies and was employed at the Macy's department store as an assistant buyer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 25417, 23503, 49728, 2628088, 31922, 57629115, 277872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 56 ], [ 60, 76 ], [ 365, 390 ], [ 487, 500 ], [ 508, 542 ], [ 569, 584 ], [ 646, 652 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1962–1963 Appleton was the music teacher at the Verde Valley School in Sedona, Arizona, where he conducted the choir and orchestra, taught music theory, history and piano lessons.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 14254453, 96622, 43866, 22706, 54783, 10772350, 23034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 70 ], [ 74, 89 ], [ 114, 119 ], [ 124, 133 ], [ 142, 154 ], [ 156, 163 ], [ 168, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1963 to 1966 Appleton was a graduate student at the University of Oregon in Eugene, Oregon, where he studied with Homer Keller, Henri Lazarof, Felix Salzer and Robert Trotter. It was there that he assembled a primitive electronic music studio and composed his first works in this genre. His thesis was an orchestral work, After \"Nude Descending a Staircase\". Most of the instrumental and vocal music he composed at this time used serial technique that he loved to compose. During his years in Eugene he became a lifelong friend of the pianist Gabriel Chodos.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 264573, 9623, 17585776, 12937010, 1209418, 36869711, 9510, 98764, 25115916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 77 ], [ 81, 95 ], [ 119, 131 ], [ 133, 146 ], [ 148, 160 ], [ 165, 179 ], [ 224, 240 ], [ 435, 451 ], [ 548, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1966, on the basis of his early electronic music, he was invited by Vladimir Ussachevsky at Columbia University to study in the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center. He became an advocate for electronic music and became friends with fellow composers Charles Dodge, Emmanuel Ghent and Richard Taruskin.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2403474, 6310, 483787, 12616797, 6284974, 2822690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 91 ], [ 95, 114 ], [ 131, 173 ], [ 259, 272 ], [ 274, 288 ], [ 293, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During 1966–1968 he was hired by Oakland University in Rochester, Michigan, to establish an electronic music studio. When the university officials reneged on their promise, he resigned and accepted a position at Dartmouth College. It was during this year that his son, Jon Jason Appleton was born ( JJ Appleton; born April 19, 1967).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 486279, 118787, 8418, 17321557, 17321557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 51 ], [ 55, 74 ], [ 212, 229 ], [ 269, 287 ], [ 299, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At Dartmouth College Appleton's work in electronic music was generously encouraged by the administration of President John G. Kemeny and by a generous donation from Gerald Bregman '54. The Bregman Electronic Music studio was one of the pioneering studios at American universities and became a center for many visiting composers. Two of these, Lars-Gunnar Bodin (1935, Stockholm, Sweden – 2021) and Jean-Claude Risset (born 1938, LePuy, France) became important colleagues throughout Appleton's life. In 1970 Appleton also was influenced by the work of the \"father\" of computer music, Max V. Mathews and by French composers François Bayle, Beatriz Ferreyra and Michel Redolfi.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 8418, 588721, 3567961, 26741, 626575, 5843419, 479801, 10830827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 118, 132 ], [ 343, 360 ], [ 368, 385 ], [ 398, 416 ], [ 436, 442 ], [ 585, 599 ], [ 624, 638 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was at this time that he initiated the first competition for electronic music that was held for three years at Dartmouth College.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1969 Appleton's first recordings were published (Syntonic Menagerie and Human Music – the latter in collaboration with jazz musician Don Cherry – on the Flying Dutchman label, produced by Bob Thiele.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 26546003, 225245, 19740465, 1944095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 70 ], [ 136, 146 ], [ 156, 171 ], [ 191, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1973 Appleton began his collaboration with engineers Sydney Alonso and Cameron Jones, which led to the creation of the Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer and ultimately the Synclavier. However, it was not until the 1980s that Appleton composed his best works for this digital synthesizer and on which he gave concerts of his own music for the following decade.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 39648, 39668, 8276, 10791746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 151 ], [ 171, 181 ], [ 266, 273 ], [ 274, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His love of Sweden led Appleton to leave Dartmouth College in 1976–1977 and become the director of Elektronmusikstudion, Sweden's national center for electronic music. His difficulty with the Swedish bureaucracy led to his resignation and he returned to Norwich, Vermont, as a partner, for one year, in the newly formed firm New England Digital Corporation that had begun to manufacture the Synclavier. The following year he returned to the faculty of Dartmouth College.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 5058739, 8418, 39687, 39648, 39668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 18 ], [ 41, 58 ], [ 254, 270 ], [ 325, 356 ], [ 391, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was also during this time in his life that Appleton developed a serious interest in the music of Polynesia and Micronesia. He led a group of Dartmouth students to the Kingdom of Tonga and later received a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts to train radio personnel on the Micronesian islands of Chuuk and Pohnpei to record and broadcast their own music.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 20611385, 19231, 30158, 282752, 2311972, 47779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 109 ], [ 114, 124 ], [ 181, 186 ], [ 223, 254 ], [ 310, 315 ], [ 320, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was during this period that Appleton began to compose his best computer music and live-electronic music. Many of his works for this genre were first premiered at the annual festival held by the Groupe de Musique Experimentale de Bourges (France) and at Fylkingen in Stockholm, Sweden.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 5843419, 7967562, 26741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 241, 247 ], [ 256, 265 ], [ 269, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his time in Bourges, Appleton became a founding member of the International Confederation for Electro-Acoustic Music (). His stimulating interaction with composers from many nations led him to believe that a similar organization in the United States might help raise the profile of electro-acoustic music in his own country. In 1984, together with a small group of like-minded composers, Appleton helped establish the Society for Electro-Acoustic Music in the United States (SEAMUS). He ultimately served for a time as president of the society.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 82132, 61781241, 2254384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 26 ], [ 69, 123 ], [ 425, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the summer of 1984 Appleton helped Moses Asch, founder of Folkways Records, release its first recordings of electro-acoustic music. According to Asch's wishes, these recordings have remained in print under the Smithsonian/Folkways auspices.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 30872759, 30870710, 464806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 48 ], [ 61, 77 ], [ 111, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The decade of the 1990s saw Appleton spending increasing amount of time abroad: teaching at Keio University (Mita) in Tokyo, Japan, for three years and frequently visiting Moscow, Russia, where he was inspired by the enthusiasm of young composers. He encouraged the composer/engineer Andre Smirnov to establish the Theremin Center at the Moscow Conservatory of Music. Appleton was first introduced to Russian musicians and artists by the choral conductor/ethnologist Dmitri Pokrovsky (1944–1996) and this began his compositional return to instrumental and choral music, much of it composed for the pianist Julia Turkina and cellist Alexander Zagorinsky. In an essay entitled \"How I Became a Russian Composer\" (2009) Appleton explains his love of Russian music and culture that he believes his stepfather, Alexander Walden, instilled in him.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 376432, 30057, 19004, 17127963, 703217, 26281485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 107 ], [ 118, 130 ], [ 172, 186 ], [ 315, 330 ], [ 338, 366 ], [ 467, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also in this decade Appleton composed two full-length operas for a choir of 1500 children and professional orchestra. The works, HOPI: La naissance de Desert and Le Dernier Voyage de Jean-Gallup de la Perouse, were conducted by Alain Joutard and commissioned by the Delegation Departmental à la Musique et à la Danse of the Conseil General des Alpes-Maritimes in Nice, France.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 22348, 47088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 60 ], [ 363, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Appleton died on January 30, 2022, at his home in Vermont, at the age of 83.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life and death", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apolliana\" (1970)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Chef d'œuvre\" (1967)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Degitaru Ongaku\" (1983)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Dima Dobralsa Domoy\" (1996)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Dr Quisling in Stockholm\" (1971)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Georganna's Fancy\" (1966)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Georganna's Farewell\" (1975)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Homage To Orpheus\" (1969)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Homenaje a Milanés\" (1987)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Human Music\" (1969)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"In Deserto\" (1977)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"In Medias Res\" (1978)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"King's Road #8\" (1970)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Mussems Sång\" (1976)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Newark Airport Rock\" (1969)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Oskuldens Dröm\" (1985)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Otahiti\" (1973)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"San Francisco Airport Rock\" (1996)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Spuyten Duyvil\" (1967)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Stereopticon\" (1972)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Sydsing Camklang\" (1976)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Syntrophia\" (1977)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Times Square Times Ten\" (1969)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"U ha'amata 'atou 'i te himene\" (1996)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Yamanotesen To Ko\" (1997)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Zoetrope\" (1974)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Times Square Times Ten (1969)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Appleton Syntonic Menagerie (Flying Dutchman Records, 1969)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 26546003, 19740465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ], [ 29, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Human Music (with Don Cherry) (1970)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 49391797, 225245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 18, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The World Music Theatre of Jon Appleton (Folkways Records, 1974)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 30870710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer (Folkways, 1976)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [], 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"anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AllMusic album ID mw0001371262.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 697535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Contes de la mémoire (empreintes DIGITALes, IMED 9635, 1996)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wunderbra! (with Achim Treu) (2003)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Syntonic Menagerie 2 (2003)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Russian Music Phoenicia (2009)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 34076091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Scarlatti Doubles/The Couperin Doubles Phoenicia (2013)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 34076091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (see List of Guggenheim Fellowships awarded in 1970).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1649051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CDCM – Vol. 11: ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " CDCM – Vol. 11: ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Jon Appleton — Selected Compositions (1956–2006)\". Digital by Dartmouth Library (DxDL)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 8418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "aaaaaaaaa", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1939_births", "2022_deaths", "20th-century_American_male_musicians", "20th-century_classical_composers", "20th-century_American_composers", "American_classical_composers", "American_male_classical_composers", "American_people_of_Moldovan-Jewish_descent", "Electroacoustic_music_composers", "Dartmouth_College_faculty", "University_of_California,_Berkeley_alumni", "University_of_Oregon_alumni", "Columbia_University_alumni", "Oakland_University_faculty", "Harvard_University_faculty", "Stanford_University_Department_of_Music_faculty", "University_of_California,_Santa_Cruz_faculty", "Reed_College_alumni", "Musicians_from_Los_Angeles" ]

[ "Jon Howard Appleton" ]

[ { "plaintext": "A supernova remnant (SNR) is the structure resulting from the explosion of a star in a supernova. The supernova remnant is bounded by an expanding shock wave, and consists of ejected material expanding from the explosion, and the interstellar material it sweeps up and shocks along the way.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26808, 27680, 146253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 81 ], [ 87, 96 ], [ 148, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are two common routes to a supernova: either a massive star may run out of fuel, ceasing to generate fusion energy in its core, and collapsing inward under the force of its own gravity to form a neutron star or a black hole; or a white dwarf star may accrete material from a companion star until it reaches a critical mass and undergoes a thermonuclear explosion.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21869, 4650, 33501, 1661177, 4380587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 201, 213 ], [ 219, 229 ], [ 236, 247 ], [ 257, 264 ], [ 345, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In either case, the resulting supernova explosion expels much or all of the stellar material with velocities as much as 10% the speed of light (or approximately 30,000km/s). These speeds are highly supersonic, so a strong shock wave forms ahead of the ejecta. That heats the upstream plasma up to temperatures well above millions ofK. The shock continuously slows down over time as it sweeps up the ambient medium, but it can expand over hundreds or thousands of years and over tens of parsecs before its speed falls below the local sound speed.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 61273, 146253, 25916521, 23335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 208 ], [ 222, 232 ], [ 284, 290 ], [ 486, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the best observed young supernova remnants was formed by SN 1987A, a supernova in the Large Magellanic Cloud that was observed in February 1987. Other well-known supernova remnants include the Crab Nebula; Tycho, the remnant of SN 1572, named after Tycho Brahe who recorded the brightness of its original explosion; and Kepler, the remnant of SN 1604, named after Johannes Kepler. The youngest known remnant in our galaxy is G1.9+0.3, discovered in the galactic center.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28930, 39374, 82780, 2146163, 30027, 39663, 15736, 17422860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 72 ], [ 93, 115 ], [ 200, 211 ], [ 235, 242 ], [ 256, 267 ], [ 350, 357 ], [ 371, 386 ], [ 432, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An SNR passes through the following stages as it expands:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Free expansion of the ejecta, until they sweep up their own weight in circumstellar or interstellar medium. This can last tens to a few hundred years depending on the density of the surrounding gas.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stages", "target_page_ids": [ 69453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sweeping up of a shell of shocked circumstellar and interstellar gas. This begins the Sedov-Taylor phase, which can be well modeled by a self-similar analytic solution (see blast wave). Strong X-ray emission traces the strong shock waves and hot shocked gas.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stages", "target_page_ids": [ 6138641, 34197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 184 ], [ 195, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cooling of the shell, to form a thin (<1pc), dense (1to 100million atoms per cubic metre) shell surrounding the hot (few million kelvin) interior. This is the pressure-driven snowplow phase. The shell can be clearly seen in optical emission from recombining ionized hydrogen and ionized oxygen atoms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stages", "target_page_ids": [ 23335, 13255, 22303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 43 ], [ 268, 276 ], [ 289, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cooling of the interior. The dense shell continues to expand from its own momentum. This stage is best seen in the radio emission from neutral hydrogen atoms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Merging with the surrounding interstellar medium. When the supernova remnant slows to the speed of the random velocities in the surrounding medium, after roughly 30,000 years, it will merge into the general turbulent flow, contributing its remaining kinetic energy to the turbulence.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are three types of supernova remnant:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of supernova remnant", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shell-like, such as Cassiopeia A", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of supernova remnant", "target_page_ids": [ 1996903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Composite, in which a shell contains a central pulsar wind nebula, such as G11.2-0.3 or G21.5-0.9.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of supernova remnant", "target_page_ids": [ 1157886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mixed-morphology (also called \"thermal composite\") remnants, in which central thermal X-ray emission is seen, enclosed by a radio shell. The thermal X-rays are primarily from swept-up interstellar material, rather than supernova ejecta. Examples of this class include the SNRs W28 and W44. (Confusingly, W44 additionally contains a pulsar and pulsar wind nebula; so it is simultaneously both a \"classic\" composite and a thermal composite.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of supernova remnant", "target_page_ids": [ 1227284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 333, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Remnants which could only be created by significantly higher ejection energies than a standard supernova are called hypernova remnants, after the high-energy hypernova explosion that is assumed to have created them.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of supernova remnant", "target_page_ids": [ 52880788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Supernova remnants are considered the major source of galactic cosmic rays. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Origin of cosmic rays", "target_page_ids": [ 47687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The connection between cosmic rays and supernovas was first suggested by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky in 1934. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Origin of cosmic rays", "target_page_ids": [ 586649, 630391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 85 ], [ 90, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vitaly Ginzburg and Sergei Syrovatskii in 1964 remarked that if the efficiency of cosmic ray acceleration ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Origin of cosmic rays", "target_page_ids": [ 339208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "in supernova remnants is about 10 percent, the cosmic ray losses of the Milky Way are compensated.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Origin of cosmic rays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This hypothesis is supported by a specific mechanism called \"shock wave acceleration\" based on Enrico Fermi's ideas, which is still under development.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Origin of cosmic rays", "target_page_ids": [ 10264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1949, Fermi proposed a model for the acceleration of cosmic rays through particle collisions with magnetic clouds in the interstellar medium. This process, known as the \"Second Order Fermi Mechanism\", increases particle energy during head-on collisions, resulting in a steady gain in energy. A later model to produce Fermi Acceleration was generated by a powerful shock front moving through space. Particles that repeatedly cross the front of the shock can gain significant increases in energy. This became known as the \"First Order Fermi Mechanism\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Origin of cosmic rays", "target_page_ids": [ 69453, 3035156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 143 ], [ 186, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Supernova remnants can provide the energetic shock fronts required to generate ultra-high energy cosmic rays. Observation of the SN 1006 remnant in the X-ray has shown synchrotron emission consistent with it being a source of cosmic rays. However, for energies higher than about 1018 eV a different mechanism is required as supernova remnants cannot provide sufficient energy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Origin of cosmic rays", "target_page_ids": [ 1501313, 170808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 136 ], [ 168, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is still unclear whether supernova remnants accelerate cosmic rays up to PeV energies. The future telescope CTA will help to answer this question.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Origin of cosmic rays", "target_page_ids": [ 20902228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of All Known Galactic and Extragalactic Supernovae on the Open Supernova Catalog (these are not supernova remnants yet)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Galactic SNR Catalogue (D. A. Green, University of Cambridge)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chandra observations of supernova remnants: catalog, photo album, selected picks", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2MASS images of Supernova Remnants", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " NASA: Introduction to Supernova Remnants", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " NASA's Imagine: Supernova Remnants", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Afterlife of a Supernova on UniverseToday.com", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Supernova remnant on arxiv.org", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Supernova Remnants, SEDS", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "超新星", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Supernova_remnants", "Supernovae", "Nebulae" ]

[ "SNR" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Synclavier is an early digital synthesizer, polyphonic digital sampling system, and music workstation manufactured by New England Digital Corporation of Norwich, Vermont. It was produced in various forms from the late 1970s into the early 1990s. The instrument has been used by prominent musicians.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8247, 24144, 317597, 307119, 39648, 39687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 46 ], [ 48, 58 ], [ 67, 75 ], [ 88, 105 ], [ 122, 153 ], [ 157, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The original design and development of the Synclavier prototype occurred at Dartmouth College with the collaboration of Jon Appleton, Professor of Digital Electronics, Sydney A. Alonso, and Cameron Jones, a software programmer and student at Dartmouth's Thayer School of Engineering.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8418, 39665, 511305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 93 ], [ 120, 132 ], [ 254, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "First released in 1977–78, it proved to be highly influential among both electronic music composers and music producers, including Mike Thorne, an early adopter from the commercial world, due to its versatility, its cutting-edge technology, and distinctive sounds.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9510, 53207, 40372991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 89 ], [ 104, 118 ], [ 131, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The early Synclavier I used FM synthesis, re-licensed from Yamaha, and was sold mostly to universities. The initial models had only a computer and synthesis modules, later models added a musical keyboard and control panel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11569, 308428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 40 ], [ 59, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The system evolved in its next generation of product, the Synclavier II, which was released in early 1980 with the strong influence of music producer Denny Jaeger of Oakland, California. It was originally Jaeger's suggestion that the FM synthesis concept be extended to allow four simultaneous channels or voices of synthesis to be triggered with one key depression to allow the final synthesized sound to have much more harmonic series activity. This change greatly improved the overall sound design of the system and was very noticeable. 16-bit user sampling (originally in mono only) was added as an option in 1982. This model was succeeded by the ABLE Model C computer based PSMT in 1984 and then the Mac-based 3200, 6400 and 9600 models, all of which used the VPK keyboard.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 50548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Synclavier II models used an on/off type keyboard (called the \"ORK\") while later models, labeled simply \"Synclavier\", used a weighted velocity- and pressure-sensitive keyboard (called the \"VPK\") that was licensed from Sequential Circuits and used in their Prophet-T8 synthesizer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1213513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The company evolved the system continuously through the early 1980s to integrate the first 16-bit digital sampling system to magnetic disk, and eventually a 16-bit polyphonic sampling system to memory, as well. The company's product was the only digital sampling system that allowed sample rates to go as high as 100kHz.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 317597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ultimately, the system was referred to as the Synclavier Digital Recording \"Tapeless Studio\" system among many professionals. It was a pioneer system in revolutionizing movie and television sound effects and Foley effects methods of design and production starting at Glen Glenn Sound. Although pricing made it inaccessible for most musicians (a Synclavier could cost anywhere from $25,000 to $200,000), it found widespread use among producers and professional recording studios, competing at times in this market with high-end production systems such as the Fairlight CMI.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 673951, 10743994, 9438196, 234751, 284732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 74 ], [ 208, 213 ], [ 267, 283 ], [ 460, 476 ], [ 558, 571 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the company launched and evolved its technology, there were no off-the-shelf computing systems, integrated software, nor sound cards. Consequently, all of the hardware from the company's main real-time CPU, all input and output cards, analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog cards and its memory cards were developed internally, as well as all of the software. The hardware and software of the company's real-time capability was used in other fields completely remote to music, such as the main Dartmouth College campus computing node computers for one of the USA's first campus-wide computing networks, and in medical data acquisition research projects.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2425273, 28184, 25767, 40367, 92943, 1676808, 1177467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 81 ], [ 126, 136 ], [ 197, 210 ], [ 240, 257 ], [ 262, 279 ], [ 577, 607 ], [ 616, 640 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New England Digital ceased operations in 1993. According to Jones, \"The intellectual property was bought up by a bank—then it was owned by a Canadian company called Airworks—and I bought the intellectual property and the trademark back from a second bank which had foreclosed on it from Airworks.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2019, Jones released an iOS version of the Synclavier dubbed Synclavier Go! using much of the original code base. Jones has also worked with Arturia to bring the Synclavier V software version of the instrument to their V Collection plugin suite.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16161443, 2877872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 30 ], [ 144, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer (1973)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ABLE computer (1975): an early product of New England Digital, was a 16-bit mini-computer on two cards, using a transport-triggered architecture. It used a variant of XPL called Scientific XPL for programming. Early applications of the ABLE were for laboratory automation, data collection, and device control. The commercial version of the Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer, the Synclavier, was built on this processor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [ 20272, 2830935, 902082, 5670694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 90 ], [ 113, 145 ], [ 168, 171 ], [ 251, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The FM/Additive synthesis waveforms are produced by the Synclavier Synthesizer cards (named SS1 through SS5). Each set of these five cards produced 8 mono FM voices (later variants supported stereo). The processor handles sending start-stop-setPitch-setParameter commands to the SS card set(s), as well as handling scanning of the keyboard and control panel. There is little public documentation available on these cards, as their design was the unique asset of the Synclavier. However, their structure was similar to other digital synthesizers of the mid-late 1970s realized in Medium Scale Integration (MSI) hardware, such as the Bell Labs Digital Synthesizer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [ 11569, 2218, 26727390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 7 ], [ 8, 26 ], [ 633, 662 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 1970slate 1980s:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Synclavier I (1977)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hand Operated Processor (HOP box): a troubleshooting tool for the Synclavier system, connected to ABLE computer via \"D01 Front Panel Interface Card\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Synclavier II (1980): 8-bit FM/additive synthesis, 32-track memory recorder, and ORK keyboard. Earlier models were entirely controlled via ORK keyboard with buttons and wheel; a VT100 terminal was subsequently introduced for editing performances. Later models had a VT640 graphic terminal for graphical audio analysis (described below).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [ 11569, 2218, 56207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 31 ], [ 32, 50 ], [ 179, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Original Keyboard (ORK, c.1979): original musical keyboard controller in a wooden chassis, with buttons and silver control wheel on the panel.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sample-to-Disk (STD, c.1982): a first commercial hard disk streaming sampler, with 16-bit sampling at up to 50kHz.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [ 317597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sample-to-Memory (STM): later option to sample sounds and edit them in computer memory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Direct-to-Disk (DTD, c.1984): an early commercial hard disk recording system.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [ 231704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Signal File Manager: a software program operated via VT640 graphic terminal, enabling 'Additive Resynthesis' and complex audio analysis.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [ 249402, 2218, 483924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 76 ], [ 88, 108 ], [ 122, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Digital Guitar Interface", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " SMPTE timecode tracking", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [ 164385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MIDI interface", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [ 19996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Synclavier PSMT (1984): a faster ABLE Model C processor based system, with a new 'Multi-Channel-Distribution' real-time digitally controlled analog signal routing technology, and 16-bit RAM-based stereo sampling subsystem. The monaural FM voice card was doubled up and enabling software panning for stereo output was introduced.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Velocity/Pressure Keyboard (VPK, c.1984): a weighted velocity/after-pressure sensitive musical keyboard controller, was introduced. This had a black piano lacquer finished chassis, a larger display, additional buttons and a silver control wheel.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In late 1980s1993; operated via Macintosh II as terminal.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [ 177113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Synclavier 3200", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Synclavier 6400", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Synclavier 9600", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Synclavier TS (Tapeless Studio): consists of Synclavier and Direct-to-Disk", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Synclavier Post Pro: consists of Direct-to-Disk", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Synclavier Post Pro SD (Sound Design): consists of small Synclavier and Direct-to-Disk", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Models and options", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Laurie Anderson is credited with using the Synclavier on her albums Mister Heartbreak (1984), United States Live (1984) and the 1986 soundtrack album Home of the Brave.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 140973, 2628080, 2719448, 6583794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 69, 86 ], [ 95, 113 ], [ 151, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wally Badarou: used the Synclavier II on Level 42 and solo studio albums, as well as on the 1985 Kiss of the Spider Woman movie additional soundtrack.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 6969158, 188472, 113452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 42, 50 ], [ 98, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tony Banks of Genesis used a Synclavier II (ORK version) on the albums Genesis (1983) and Invisible Touch (1986) and their respective tours, along with solo albums and soundtracks of that period, notably on \"Mama\" and \"Home by the Sea\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 270262, 52546, 1057524, 957647, 3739966, 9494553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 15, 22 ], [ 72, 79 ], [ 91, 106 ], [ 209, 213 ], [ 220, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Christopher Boyes, supervising sound editor/sound designer for the 2009 film Avatar, used the Synclavier for blending or layering different sound effects and matching pitches.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 33801554, 4273140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 78, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joel Chadabe: composer/founder of Electronic Music Foundation. In September 1977 he bought the first Synclavier without musical keyboard (ORK), and wrote custom software to control the Synclavier via various devices.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 33949035, 3728377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 35, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Suzanne Ciani used a Synclavier to design sounds for the Bally Xenon pinball game released in 1980.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 3683614, 31187702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 64, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Church used it on \"Under the Milky Way\" (1988). The way it is arranged gives a sound similar to bagpipes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 564181, 4520971, 3950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 24, 43 ], [ 101, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chick Corea used the Synclavier on various Elektric Band albums from 1986 to 1991 as well as various Elektric Band tours.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 306951, 4643384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 44, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crimson Glory used acoustic drums blended with Synclavier-sampled drums on their 1988 album Transcendence.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 3455296, 6832007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 93, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paul Davis: singer/songwriter, producer at Monarch Sound in Atlanta.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 2194399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Depeche Mode had access to producer Daniel Miller's Synclavier, which was responsible for the character of the sound of the albums Construction Time Again (1983), Some Great Reward (1984) and Black Celebration (1986).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 8533, 12164628, 709178, 925458, 750304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 37, 50 ], [ 132, 155 ], [ 164, 181 ], [ 193, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vince DiCola: used the Synclavier extensively in creating studio albums; also for soundtracks Rocky IV (1985) and The Movie (1986).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 1284254, 104984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 95, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Duran Duran used a Synclavier on the 1984 single \"The Reflex\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 148703, 1819340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 51, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Patrick Gleeson: film score composer. Used the Synclavier to score Apocalypse Now (1979) and The Plague Dogs (1982).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 21378676, 18951054, 2411105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 68, 82 ], [ 94, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lourett Russell Grant used a Synclavier on the 1979 disco hit \"Hot to Trot\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 58929077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paul Hardcastle: composer and musician.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 1004324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robert Henke: composer, musician and software engineer. Often recording under the moniker Monolake, Henke renovated a Synclavier II and used sampled FM from it on various releases.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 24648341, 782165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 91, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michael Hoenig: film scoring work on the Synclavier, including the 1986 action-fantasy film, The Wraith.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 1615368, 1953082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 94, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trevor Horn: used the Synclavier to produce records by Frankie Goes to Hollywood, Yes, and Grace Jones' 1985 album Slave to the Rhythm, among others.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 176078, 11229, 43975, 421292, 6529362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 56, 81 ], [ 83, 86 ], [ 92, 103 ], [ 116, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michael Jackson: particularly on his 1982 album Thriller, programming by Steve Porcaro, Brian Banks, and Anthony Marinelli. The gong sound at the beginning of \"Beat It\" comes courtesy of the Synclavier. The Synclavier was extensively used on Jackson's 1987 album Bad and on its accompanying tour, programmed and played by Christopher Currell. The Synclavier was also used by Andrew Scheps to slice and edit Jackson's beatboxing on his 1995 album HIStory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 14995351, 586836, 3702501, 35850238, 17080248, 586840, 2535814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 49, 57 ], [ 74, 87 ], [ 106, 123 ], [ 161, 168 ], [ 264, 267 ], [ 275, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eddie Jobson: the 1985 album Theme of Secrets was completely made with a Synclavier.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 430056, 6044755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 30, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shane Keister: used in the 1987 American comedy film Ernest Goes to Camp.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 10166268, 2941852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 54, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mark Knopfler: Used on the scores for the films The Princess Bride (1987) and Last Exit to Brooklyn (1989), in which all sounds except guitar (and in the latter case, violins) were produced by the Synclavier. The Synclavier is also heard on the Dire Straits albums Love over Gold (1982, played by Alan Clark), Brothers in Arms (1985, played by Guy Fletcher), and On Every Street (1991).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 199158, 31153, 23276270, 172898, 363119, 4466719, 228985, 3365914, 228989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 49, 67 ], [ 79, 100 ], [ 247, 259 ], [ 267, 281 ], [ 299, 309 ], [ 312, 328 ], [ 346, 358 ], [ 365, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kraftwerk acquired one in the early to mid 1980s and initially used it to re work the material later released as Electric Cafe / Techno Pop, and also on live performances in the 1990s.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 16797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dave Lawson", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 42186557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mannheim Steamroller: used on most of their albums to present.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 582787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John McLaughlin used it on the albums Mahavishnu (1984) and Adventures in Radioland (1987).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 328281, 10848291, 10450822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 39, 49 ], [ 61, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Men Without Hats used on the 1984 album Folk of the 80s (Part III).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 314926, 1010179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 41, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pat Metheny: American jazz guitarist.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 289997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Walter \"Junie\" Morrison: used a Synclavier on his 1984 album, Evacuate Your Seats.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 2389669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mr. Mister: used Synclavier on albums I Wear the Face (1984), Welcome to the Real World (1985), and Go On... (1987).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 351267, 9057554, 3270281, 3275927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 39, 54 ], [ 63, 88 ], [ 101, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Puscifer: the group used Synclavier on their 2020 album Existential Reckoning.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 4619790, 65405565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 57, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Danny Quatrochi used Synclavier on Sting's album The Dream of the Blue Turtles (1985).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 83312, 3670594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 43 ], [ 50, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kashif Saleem, American post-disco and contemporary R&B record producer, multi-instrumentalist, also a creative consultant with the New England Digital Corporation: Bass synthesizer music pioneer and an early Synclavier II avid user who used Synclavier in production, for instance, of his Grammy-nominated instrumental piece \"The Mood\" (1983). His innovating vocalist-related sampling methods (created using Synclavier) are still in use.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 15296394, 39648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 133, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Howard Shore, film score composer: pictured with a Synclavier on the cover of Berklee Today, Fall 1997.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 312451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alan Silvestri: in producing the scores for the 1980s films The Clan of the Cave Bear (1986) and Flight of the Navigator (1986).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 509738, 1462414, 1646067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 61, 86 ], [ 98, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paul Simon: on Simon's 1983 album Hearts and Bones, Tom Coppola is credited for Synclavier for \"When Numbers Get Serious\", \"Think Too Much (b)\", \"Song About the Moon\", and \"Think Too Much (a)\"; and Wells Christie is credited with Synclavier on \"Rene And Georgette Magritte With Their Dog After The War\". On his 1986 album Graceland, Simon is credited under \"Synclavier\" for \"I Know What I Know\" and \"Gumboots\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 50745, 365860, 23711044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 35, 51 ], [ 53, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mark Snow: film and television score composer; Synclavier used on The X-Files (1993–2002).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 3077052, 30304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 67, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " James Stroud: producer who used a Synclavier II on many hit albums he produced.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 21401046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Benny Andersson: his personal studio room is still centred around a Synclavier system — he has four systems. He’s been using it since Chess in 1985.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 3741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tangerine Dream: used a Synclavier on several of their studio albums including Exit in 1981.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 42562, 2969540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 80, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mike Thorne: producer, one of the first musicians to buy a Synclavier; used it on records by Siouxsie and the Banshees, Soft Cell (\"Tainted Love\", 1981), Marc Almond, and Bronski Beat, among others.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 40372991, 29511, 173989, 863626, 287868, 4071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 94, 119 ], [ 121, 130 ], [ 133, 145 ], [ 155, 166 ], [ 172, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pete Townshend: started using the Synclavier on the recording of All the Best Cowboys Have Chinese Eyes (1982).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 154228, 1592422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 66, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Triumph: Rik Emmett used a Synclavier 9600 around the period of Thunder Seven (1984) to Surveillance (1987).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 368205, 369101, 7555077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 65, 78 ], [ 89, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Whodini: Synclavier II was used on albums Escape (1984) and Back in Black (1986).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 1650019, 6664074, 13185945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 43, 49 ], [ 61, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stevie Wonder: used a Synclavier to sample the voices of Clair Huxtable and children in an episode of The Cosby Show.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 147687, 170325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 103, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Neil Young, who used an early Synclavier II on his 1981 album Re·ac·tor, and more extensively on his uncharacteristically electronic Trans (1982).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 87985, 2721558, 2914221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 63, 72 ], [ 134, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frank Zappa: in 1982 one of the first Synclavier owners; 1984's Thing-Fish (underscoring), The Perfect Stranger (1984, underscoring) and Francesco Zappa (1984, solely Synclavier); 1985's Frank Zappa Meets the Mothers of Prevention (sampled sounds); 1986's Grammy-winning album Jazz from Hell (\"St. Etienne\" excepted, solely Synclavier); 1994's Civilization Phaze III completed in 1993 shortly before his death, released posthumously, musical portions composed and recorded exclusively using the Synclavier. Zappa also used the instrument to create the music posthumously released in 2011 on Feeding the Monkies at Ma Maison.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 10672, 1627951, 7582066, 2645109, 1596521, 839542, 33768104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 65, 75 ], [ 139, 154 ], [ 189, 232 ], [ 279, 293 ], [ 346, 368 ], [ 593, 625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marlon Jackson", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Notable users", "target_page_ids": [ 402097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fostex Foundation 2000", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10366483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " WaveFrame AudioFrame", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36409626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"What Makes The Synclavier So Special And Different?\" Steve Hills, Synclavier European Services", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Synclavier Digital's About Page\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Music_workstations", "Samplers_(musical_instrument)", "Digital_synthesizers", "Polyphonic_synthesizers", "Music_sequencers" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne tropical disease caused by the dengue virus. Symptoms typically begin three to fourteen days after infection. These may include a high fever, headache, vomiting, muscle and joint pains, and a characteristic skin itching and skin rash. Recovery generally takes two to seven days. In a small proportion of cases, the disease develops into a more severe dengue hemorrhagic fever, resulting in bleeding, low levels of blood platelets and blood plasma leakage, or into dengue shock syndrome, where dangerously low blood pressure occurs.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21054623, 889672, 927267, 46253, 69893, 8507183, 149467, 380239, 643023, 146315, 515380, 212240, 146311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 32 ], [ 33, 49 ], [ 64, 76 ], [ 168, 173 ], [ 175, 183 ], [ 185, 193 ], [ 195, 201 ], [ 206, 217 ], [ 257, 266 ], [ 423, 431 ], [ 433, 462 ], [ 467, 479 ], [ 526, 556 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dengue is spread by several species of female mosquitoes of the Aedes genus, principally Aedes aegypti. The virus has five serotypes; infection with one type usually gives lifelong immunity to that type, but only short-term immunity to the others. Subsequent infection with a different type increases the risk of severe complications. A number of tests are available to confirm the diagnosis including detecting antibodies to the virus or its RNA.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37789, 348230, 38493, 2236780, 1936485, 298547, 2362, 25758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 54 ], [ 64, 69 ], [ 70, 75 ], [ 89, 102 ], [ 123, 131 ], [ 181, 189 ], [ 412, 422 ], [ 443, 446 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A vaccine for dengue fever has been approved and is commercially available in a number of countries. As of 2018, the vaccine is only recommended in individuals who have been previously infected, or in populations with a high rate of prior infection by age nine. Other methods of prevention include reducing mosquito habitat and limiting exposure to bites. This may be done by getting rid of or covering standing water and wearing clothing that covers much of the body. Treatment of acute dengue is supportive and includes giving fluid either by mouth or intravenously for mild or moderate disease. For more severe cases, blood transfusion may be required. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is recommended instead of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for fever reduction and pain relief in dengue due to an increased risk of bleeding from NSAID use.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 43292838, 178769, 88857, 83406, 22071, 43949, 2246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 26 ], [ 554, 567 ], [ 621, 638 ], [ 656, 667 ], [ 710, 745 ], [ 760, 775 ], [ 780, 791 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest descriptions of an outbreak date from 1779. Its viral cause and spread were understood by the early 20th century. Dengue has become a global problem since the Second World War and is common in more than 120 countries, mainly in Southeast Asia, South Asia and South America. About 390million people are infected per year, about half a million require hospital admission, and approximately 40,000 die. In 2019, a significant increase in the number of cases was seen. Apart from eliminating the mosquitos, work is ongoing for medication targeted directly at the virus. It is classified as a neglected tropical disease.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 937967, 28741, 21566765, 26769, 6090525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 188 ], [ 196, 202 ], [ 241, 255 ], [ 257, 267 ], [ 272, 285 ], [ 601, 627 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Typically, people infected with dengue virus are asymptomatic (80%) or have only mild symptoms such as an uncomplicated fever. Others have more severe illness (5%), and in a small proportion it is life-threatening. The incubation period (time between exposure and onset of symptoms) ranges from 3 to 14 days, but most often it is 4 to 7 days. Therefore, travelers returning from endemic areas are unlikely to have dengue fever if symptoms start more than 14days after arriving home. Children often experience symptoms similar to those of the common cold and gastroenteritis (vomiting and diarrhea) and have a greater risk of severe complications, though initial symptoms are generally mild but include high fever.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 602790, 71560, 92693, 869123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 61 ], [ 219, 236 ], [ 542, 553 ], [ 558, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The characteristic symptoms of dengue are sudden-onset fever, headache (typically located behind the eyes), muscle and joint pains, and a rash. An alternative name for dengue, \"breakbone fever\", comes from the associated muscle and joint pains. The course of infection is divided into three phases: febrile, critical, and recovery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The febrile phase involves high fever, potentially over , and is associated with generalized pain and a headache; this usually lasts two to seven days. Nausea and vomiting may also occur. A rash occurs in 50–80% of those with symptoms in the first or second day of symptoms as flushed skin, or later in the course of illness (days 4–7), as a measles-like rash. A rash described as \"islands of white in a sea of red\" has also been observed. Some petechiae (small red spots that do not disappear when the skin is pressed, which are caused by broken capillaries) can appear at this point, as may some mild bleeding from the mucous membranes of the mouth and nose. The fever itself is classically biphasic or saddleback in nature, breaking and then returning for one or two days.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 532849, 25030772, 1157634, 56512, 69447, 46253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 277, 289 ], [ 342, 354 ], [ 445, 453 ], [ 547, 558 ], [ 621, 636 ], [ 693, 701 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some people, the disease proceeds to a critical phase as fever resolves. During this period, there is leakage of plasma from the blood vessels, typically lasting one to two days. This may result in fluid accumulation in the chest and abdominal cavity as well as depletion of fluid from the circulation and decreased blood supply to vital organs. There may also be organ dysfunction and severe bleeding, typically from the gastrointestinal tract. Shock (dengue shock syndrome) and hemorrhage (dengue hemorrhagic fever) occur in less than 5% of all cases of dengue; however, those who have previously been infected with other serotypes of dengue virus (\"secondary infection\") are at an increased risk. This critical phase, while rare, occurs relatively more commonly in children and young adults.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 67056, 67058, 500892, 1016863, 146315, 69720, 146311, 1936485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 227, 232 ], [ 237, 253 ], [ 265, 304 ], [ 309, 347 ], [ 396, 404 ], [ 425, 447 ], [ 449, 454 ], [ 627, 635 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The recovery phase occurs next, with resorption of the leaked fluid into the bloodstream. This usually lasts two to three days. The improvement is often striking, and can be accompanied with severe itching and a slow heart rate. Another rash may occur with either a maculopapular or a vasculitic appearance, which is followed by peeling of the skin. During this stage, a fluid overload state may occur; if it affects the brain, it may cause a reduced level of consciousness or seizures. A feeling of fatigue may last for weeks in adults.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 424302, 5872, 1664529, 667428, 3419916, 378518, 25833727, 27154, 235562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 202 ], [ 212, 227 ], [ 266, 279 ], [ 285, 295 ], [ 371, 385 ], [ 409, 426 ], [ 443, 473 ], [ 477, 485 ], [ 500, 507 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dengue can occasionally affect several other body systems, either in isolation or along with the classic dengue symptoms. A decreased level of consciousness occurs in 0.5–6% of severe cases, which is attributable either to inflammation of the brain by the virus or indirectly as a result of impairment of vital organs, for example, the liver.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 5780599, 37636, 1105043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 57 ], [ 223, 261 ], [ 336, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other neurological disorders have been reported in the context of dengue, such as transverse myelitis and Guillain–Barré syndrome. Infection of the heart and acute liver failure are among the rarer complications.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 31622, 12800708, 452461, 1226250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 101 ], [ 106, 129 ], [ 131, 153 ], [ 158, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A pregnant woman who develops dengue is at higher risk of miscarriage, low birth weight birth, and premature birth.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 144147, 1973352, 429542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 69 ], [ 71, 87 ], [ 99, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dengue fever virus (DENV) is an RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae; genus Flavivirus. Other members of the same genus include yellow fever virus, West Nile virus, Zika virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kyasanur forest disease virus, and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus. Most are transmitted by arthropods (mosquitos or ticks), and are therefore also referred to as arboviruses (arthropod-borne viruses).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cause", "target_page_ids": [ 26195, 76222, 449450, 34254, 50642063, 11986060, 1571730, 1432191, 1929401, 1929452, 4671688, 19827221, 172273, 461410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 41 ], [ 56, 68 ], [ 76, 86 ], [ 128, 146 ], [ 148, 163 ], [ 165, 175 ], [ 177, 205 ], [ 207, 234 ], [ 236, 265 ], [ 267, 296 ], [ 302, 330 ], [ 356, 365 ], [ 381, 385 ], [ 427, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The dengue virus genome (genetic material) contains about 11,000 nucleotide bases, which code for the three different types of protein molecules (C, prM and E) that form the virus particle and seven other non-structural protein molecules (NS1, NS2a, NS2b, NS3, NS4a, NS4b, NS5) that are found in infected host cells only and are required for replication of the virus. There are five strains of the virus, called serotypes, of which the first four are referred to as DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3 and DENV-4. The fifth type was announced in 2013. The distinctions between the serotypes are based on their antigenicity.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cause", "target_page_ids": [ 12388, 89080, 12385, 19167679, 1936485, 4007999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 23 ], [ 65, 80 ], [ 89, 93 ], [ 174, 188 ], [ 412, 420 ], [ 597, 609 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dengue virus is primarily transmitted by Aedes mosquitos, particularly A. aegypti. These mosquitos usually live between the latitudes of 35°North and 35°South below an elevation of . They typically bite during the early morning and in the evening, but they may bite and thus spread infection at any time of day. Other Aedes species that transmit the disease include A. albopictus, A. polynesiensis and A. scutellaris. Humans are the primary host of the virus, but it also circulates in nonhuman primates. An infection can be acquired via a single bite. A female mosquito that takes a blood meal from a person infected with dengue fever, during the initial 2- to 10-day febrile period, becomes itself infected with the virus in the cells lining its gut. About 8–10 days later, the virus spreads to other tissues including the mosquito's salivary glands and is subsequently released into its saliva. The virus seems to have no detrimental effect on the mosquito, which remains infected for life. Aedes aegypti is particularly involved, as it prefers to lay its eggs in artificial water containers, to live in close proximity to humans, and to feed on people rather than other vertebrates.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cause", "target_page_ids": [ 348230, 2236780, 17616, 1765158, 348202, 30126302, 30126328, 214053, 22984, 207336, 36856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 46 ], [ 71, 81 ], [ 124, 132 ], [ 168, 177 ], [ 366, 379 ], [ 381, 397 ], [ 402, 416 ], [ 441, 445 ], [ 495, 502 ], [ 836, 850 ], [ 1174, 1184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dengue can also be transmitted via infected blood products and through organ donation. In countries such as Singapore, where dengue is endemic, the risk is estimated to be between 1.6 and 6 per 10,000 transfusions. Vertical transmission (from mother to child) during pregnancy or at birth has been reported. Other person-to-person modes of transmission, including sexual transmission, have also been reported, but are very unusual. The genetic variation in dengue viruses is region specific, suggestive that establishment into new territories is relatively infrequent, despite dengue emerging in new regions in recent decades.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cause", "target_page_ids": [ 16466030, 43846, 27318, 88857, 61689551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 58 ], [ 71, 85 ], [ 108, 117 ], [ 201, 213 ], [ 215, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Severe disease is more common in babies and young children, and in contrast to many other infections, it is more common in children who are relatively well nourished. Other risk factors for severe disease include female sex, high body mass index, and viral load. While each serotype can cause the full spectrum of disease, virus strain is a risk factor. Infection with one serotype is thought to produce lifelong immunity to that type, but only short-term protection against the other three. The risk of severe disease from secondary infection increases if someone previously exposed to serotype DENV-1 contracts serotype DENV-2 or DENV-3, or if someone previously exposed to DENV-3 acquires DENV-2. Dengue can be life-threatening in people with chronic diseases such as diabetes and asthma.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cause", "target_page_ids": [ 909227, 4788, 233257, 4421272, 40017873, 44905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 184 ], [ 230, 245 ], [ 251, 261 ], [ 746, 761 ], [ 771, 779 ], [ 784, 790 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Polymorphisms (normal variations) in particular genes have been linked with an increased risk of severe dengue complications. Examples include the genes coding for the proteins TNFα, mannan-binding lectin, CTLA4, TGFβ, DC-SIGN, PLCE1, and particular forms of human leukocyte antigen from gene variations of HLA-B. A common genetic abnormality, especially in Africans, known as glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, appears to increase the risk. Polymorphisms in the genes for the vitamin D receptor and FcγR seem to offer protection against severe disease in secondary dengue infection.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cause", "target_page_ids": [ 498831, 4250553, 240843, 8486333, 2731676, 2901165, 2852768, 14765130, 1911, 302013, 3598587, 382801, 5827808, 3147145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 48, 52 ], [ 177, 181 ], [ 183, 204 ], [ 206, 211 ], [ 213, 217 ], [ 219, 226 ], [ 228, 233 ], [ 250, 255 ], [ 259, 282 ], [ 307, 312 ], [ 377, 421 ], [ 488, 506 ], [ 511, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When a mosquito carrying dengue virus bites a person, the virus enters the skin together with the mosquito's saliva. It binds to and enters white blood cells, and reproduces inside the cells while they move throughout the body. The white blood cells respond by producing several signaling proteins, such as cytokines and interferons, which are responsible for many of the symptoms, such as the fever, the flu-like symptoms, and the severe pains. In severe infection, the virus production inside the body is greatly increased, and many more organs (such as the liver and the bone marrow) can be affected. Fluid from the bloodstream leaks through the wall of small blood vessels into body cavities due to capillary permeability. As a result, less blood circulates in the blood vessels, and the blood pressure becomes so low that it cannot supply sufficient blood to vital organs. Furthermore, dysfunction of the bone marrow due to infection of the stromal cells leads to reduced numbers of platelets, which are necessary for effective blood clotting; this increases the risk of bleeding, the other major complication of dengue fever.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mechanism", "target_page_ids": [ 25164668, 153663, 15120, 17384301, 196130, 7803948, 2412800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 156 ], [ 307, 316 ], [ 321, 332 ], [ 560, 565 ], [ 574, 585 ], [ 703, 725 ], [ 946, 958 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once inside the skin, dengue virus binds to Langerhans cells (a population of dendritic cells in the skin that identifies pathogens). The virus enters the cells through binding between viral proteins and membrane proteins on the Langerhans cell, specifically, the C-type lectins called DC-SIGN, mannose receptor and CLEC5A. DC-SIGN, a non-specific receptor for foreign material on dendritic cells, seems to be the main point of entry. The dendritic cell moves to the nearest lymph node. Meanwhile, the virus genome is translated in membrane-bound vesicles on the cell's endoplasmic reticulum, where the cell's protein synthesis apparatus produces new viral proteins that replicate the viral RNA and begin to form viral particles. Immature virus particles are transported to the Golgi apparatus, the part of the cell where some of the proteins receive necessary sugar chains (glycoproteins). The now mature new viruses are released by exocytosis. They are then able to enter other white blood cells, such as monocytes and macrophages.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mechanism", "target_page_ids": [ 1552139, 148367, 1501977, 168369, 21510154, 10155503, 30201460, 82342, 9775, 12584, 164912, 73614, 454203, 169270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 59 ], [ 78, 92 ], [ 144, 160 ], [ 204, 220 ], [ 264, 277 ], [ 295, 311 ], [ 316, 322 ], [ 475, 485 ], [ 570, 591 ], [ 778, 793 ], [ 875, 887 ], [ 934, 944 ], [ 1007, 1015 ], [ 1021, 1031 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The initial reaction of infected cells is to produce interferon, a cytokine that raises many defenses against viral infection through the innate immune system by augmenting the production of a large group of proteins mediated by the JAK-STAT pathway. Some serotypes of the dengue virus appear to have mechanisms to slow down this process. Interferon also activates the adaptive immune system, which leads to the generation of antibodies against the virus as well as T cells that directly attack any cell infected with the virus. Various antibodies are generated; some bind closely to the viral proteins and target them for phagocytosis (ingestion by specialized cells and destruction), but some bind the virus less well and appear instead to deliver the virus into a part of the phagocytes where it is not destroyed but can replicate further.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mechanism", "target_page_ids": [ 15120, 153663, 3113497, 969821, 1664060, 2362, 170417, 206508, 443416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 63 ], [ 67, 75 ], [ 138, 158 ], [ 233, 249 ], [ 369, 391 ], [ 426, 436 ], [ 466, 472 ], [ 623, 635 ], [ 650, 667 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is not entirely clear why secondary infection with a different strain of dengue virus places people at risk of dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome. The most widely accepted hypothesis is that of antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE). The exact mechanism behind ADE is unclear. It may be caused by poor binding of non-neutralizing antibodies and delivery into the wrong compartment of white blood cells that have ingested the virus for destruction. There is a suspicion that ADE is not the only mechanism underlying severe dengue-related complications, and various lines of research have implied a role for T cells and soluble factors such as cytokines and the complement system.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mechanism", "target_page_ids": [ 10849236, 543131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 243 ], [ 677, 694 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Severe disease is marked by the problems of capillary permeability (an allowance of fluid and protein normally contained within the blood to pass) and disordered blood clotting. These changes appear associated with a disordered state of the endothelial glycocalyx, which acts as a molecular filter of blood components. Leaky capillaries (and the critical phase) are thought to be caused by an immune system response. Other processes of interest include infected cells that become necrotic—which affect both coagulation and fibrinolysis (the opposing systems of blood clotting and clot degradation)—and low platelets in the blood, also a factor in normal clotting.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mechanism", "target_page_ids": [ 212193, 961291, 1681984, 39936, 241010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 176 ], [ 253, 263 ], [ 281, 297 ], [ 480, 488 ], [ 523, 535 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The diagnosis of dengue is typically made clinically, on the basis of reported symptoms and physical examination; this applies especially in endemic areas. However, early disease can be difficult to differentiate from other viral infections. A probable diagnosis is based on the findings of fever plus two of the following: nausea and vomiting, rash, generalized pains, low white blood cell count, positive tourniquet test, or any warning sign (see table) in someone who lives in an endemic area. Warning signs typically occur before the onset of severe dengue. The tourniquet test, which is particularly useful in settings where no laboratory investigations are readily available, involves the application of a blood pressure cuff at between the diastolic and systolic pressure for five minutes, followed by the counting of any petechial hemorrhages; a higher number makes a diagnosis of dengue more likely with the cut off being more than 10 to 20 per 1inch2 (6.25cm2).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 602919, 15845253, 18947703, 1018610, 3767198, 937967, 412531, 56558, 1157634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 112 ], [ 224, 240 ], [ 324, 330 ], [ 370, 396 ], [ 407, 422 ], [ 483, 490 ], [ 712, 731 ], [ 747, 756 ], [ 829, 838 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The diagnosis should be considered in anyone who develops a fever within two weeks of being in the tropics or subtropics. It can be difficult to distinguish dengue fever and chikungunya, a similar viral infection that shares many symptoms and occurs in similar parts of the world to dengue. Often, investigations are performed to exclude other conditions that cause similar symptoms, such as malaria, leptospirosis, viral hemorrhagic fever, typhoid fever, meningococcal disease, measles, and influenza. Zika fever also has similar symptoms as dengue.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 66577, 402679, 366112, 20423, 649760, 1719309, 31596, 3868809, 58911, 19572217, 11986060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 106 ], [ 110, 120 ], [ 174, 185 ], [ 392, 399 ], [ 401, 414 ], [ 416, 439 ], [ 441, 454 ], [ 456, 477 ], [ 479, 486 ], [ 492, 501 ], [ 503, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest change detectable on laboratory investigations is a low white blood cell count, which may then be followed by low platelets and metabolic acidosis. A moderately elevated level of aminotransferase (AST and ALT) from the liver is commonly associated with low platelets and white blood cells. In severe disease, plasma leakage results in hemoconcentration (as indicated by a rising hematocrit) and hypoalbuminemia. Pleural effusions or ascites can be detected by physical examination when large, but the demonstration of fluid on ultrasound may assist in the early identification of dengue shock syndrome. The use of ultrasound is limited by lack of availability in many settings. Dengue shock syndrome is present if pulse pressure drops to ≤20mmHg along with peripheral vascular collapse. Peripheral vascular collapse is determined in children via delayed capillary refill, rapid heart rate, or cold extremities. While warning signs are an important aspect for early detection of potential serious disease, the evidence for any specific clinical or laboratory marker is weak.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 515380, 1333992, 2166084, 1063353, 251899, 436059, 436059, 3420295, 356988, 197574, 143357, 530934, 2987139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 136 ], [ 141, 159 ], [ 192, 208 ], [ 210, 213 ], [ 218, 221 ], [ 348, 365 ], [ 392, 402 ], [ 408, 423 ], [ 425, 441 ], [ 446, 453 ], [ 540, 550 ], [ 727, 741 ], [ 867, 883 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The World Health Organization's 2009 classification divides dengue fever into two groups: uncomplicated and severe. This replaces the 1997 WHO classification, which needed to be simplified as it had been found to be too restrictive, though the older classification is still widely used including by the World Health Organization's Regional Office for Southeast Asia . Severe dengue is defined as that associated with severe bleeding, severe organ dysfunction, or severe plasma leakage while all other cases are uncomplicated. The 1997 classification divided dengue into an undifferentiated fever, dengue fever, and dengue hemorrhagic fever. Dengue hemorrhagic fever was subdivided further into grades I–IV. Grade I is the presence only of easy bruising or a positive tourniquet test in someone with fever, grade II is the presence of spontaneous bleeding into the skin and elsewhere, grade III is the clinical evidence of shock, and grade IV is shock so severe that blood pressure and pulse cannot be detected. Grades III and IV are referred to as \"dengue shock syndrome\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 33583, 41600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ], [ 985, 990 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The diagnosis of dengue fever may be confirmed by microbiological laboratory testing. This can be done by virus isolation in cell cultures, nucleic acid detection by PCR, viral antigen detection (such as for NS1) or specific antibodies (serology). Virus isolation and nucleic acid detection are more accurate than antigen detection, but these tests are not widely available due to their greater cost. Detection of NS1 during the febrile phase of a primary infection may be greater than 90% sensitive however is only 60–80% in subsequent infections. All tests may be negative in the early stages of the disease. PCR and viral antigen detection are more accurate in the first seven days. In 2012 a PCR test was introduced that can run on equipment used to diagnose influenza; this is likely to improve access to PCR-based diagnosis.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 1106830, 15037251, 23647, 1915, 28868189, 2362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 137 ], [ 140, 162 ], [ 166, 169 ], [ 177, 184 ], [ 208, 211 ], [ 225, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These laboratory tests are only of diagnostic value during the acute phase of the illness with the exception of serology. Tests for dengue virus-specific antibodies, types IgG and IgM, can be useful in confirming a diagnosis in the later stages of the infection. Both IgG and IgM are produced after 5–7 days. The highest levels (titres) of IgM are detected following a primary infection, but IgM is also produced in reinfection. IgM becomes undetectable 30–90 days after a primary infection, but earlier following re-infections. IgG, by contrast, remains detectable for over 60 years and, in the absence of symptoms, is a useful indicator of past infection. After a primary infection, IgG reaches peak levels in the blood after 14–21 days. In subsequent re-infections, levels peak earlier and the titres are usually higher. Both IgG and IgM provide protective immunity to the infecting serotype of the virus. In testing for IgG and IgM antibodies there may be cross-reactivity with other flaviviruses which may result in a false positive after recent infections or vaccinations with yellow fever virus or Japanese encephalitis. The detection of IgG alone is not considered diagnostic unless blood samples are collected 14 days apart and a greater than fourfold increase in levels of specific IgG is detected. In a person with symptoms, the detection of IgM is considered diagnostic.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 490666, 490673, 1447583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 175 ], [ 180, 183 ], [ 329, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prevention depends on control of and protection from the bites of the mosquito that transmits it. The World Health Organization recommends an Integrated Vector Control program consisting of five elements:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Advocacy, social mobilization and legislation to ensure that public health bodies and communities are strengthened;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collaboration between the health and other sectors (public and private);", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An integrated approach to disease control to maximize the use of resources;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Evidence-based decision making to ensure any interventions are targeted appropriately; and", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Capacity-building to ensure an adequate response to the local situation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The primary method of controlling A. aegypti is by eliminating its habitats. This is done by getting rid of open sources of water, or if this is not possible, by adding insecticides or biological control agents to these areas. Generalized spraying with organophosphate or pyrethroid insecticides, while sometimes done, is not thought to be effective. Reducing open collections of water through environmental modification is the preferred method of control, given the concerns of negative health effects from insecticides and greater logistical difficulties with control agents. People can prevent mosquito bites by wearing clothing that fully covers the skin, using mosquito netting while resting, and/or the application of insect repellent (DEET being the most effective). While these measures can be an effective means of reducing an individual's risk of exposure, they do little in terms of mitigating the frequency of outbreaks, which appear to be on the rise in some areas, probably due to urbanization increasing the habitat of A. aegypti. The range of the disease also appears to be expanding possibly due to climate change.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 1596317, 149463, 155739, 959629, 627468, 2347526, 1633981, 345526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 74 ], [ 169, 180 ], [ 185, 210 ], [ 253, 268 ], [ 272, 282 ], [ 666, 678 ], [ 724, 740 ], [ 742, 746 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016 a partially effective vaccine for dengue fever became commercially available in the Philippines and Indonesia. It has been approved for use by Mexico, Brazil, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Singapore, Paraguay, much of Europe, and the United States. The vaccine is only recommended in individuals who have had a prior dengue infection or in populations where most (>80%) of people have been infected by age 9. In those who have not had a prior infection there is evidence it may worsen subsequent infections. For this reason Prescrire does not see it as suitable for wide scale immunization, even in areas where the disease is common.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 43292838, 35719760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 54 ], [ 527, 536 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The vaccine is produced by Sanofi and goes by the brand name Dengvaxia. It is based on a weakened combination of the yellow fever virus and each of the four dengue serotypes. Studies of the vaccine found it was 66% effective and prevented more than 80 to 90% of severe cases. This is less than wished for by some. In Indonesia it costs about US$207 for the recommended three doses.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 566975, 43292838, 34254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 33 ], [ 61, 70 ], [ 117, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Given the limitations of the current vaccine, research on vaccines continues, and the fifth serotype may be factored in. One of the concerns is that a vaccine could increase the risk of severe disease through antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE). The ideal vaccine is safe, effective after one or two injections, covers all serotypes, does not contribute to ADE, is easily transported and stored, and is both affordable and cost-effective.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 10849236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Anti-Dengue Day is observed every year on 15 June. The idea was first agreed upon in 2010 with the first event held in Jakarta, Indonesia, in 2011. Further events were held in 2012 in Yangon, Myanmar, and in 2013 in Vietnam. Goals are to increase public awareness about dengue, mobilize resources for its prevention and control and, to demonstrate the Southeast Asian region's commitment in tackling the disease.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 16275, 57404, 202354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 140 ], [ 198, 204 ], [ 230, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are no specific antiviral drugs for dengue; however, maintaining proper fluid balance is important. Treatment depends on the symptoms. Those who can drink, are passing urine, have no \"warning signs\" and are otherwise healthy can be managed at home with daily follow-up and oral rehydration therapy. Those who have other health problems, have \"warning signs\", or cannot manage regular follow-up should be cared for in hospital. In those with severe dengue care should be provided in an area where there is access to an intensive care unit.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Management", "target_page_ids": [ 49197, 1558567, 6332859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 36 ], [ 279, 303 ], [ 524, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Intravenous hydration, if required, is typically only needed for one or two days. In children with shock due to dengue a rapid dose of 20mL/kg is reasonable. The rate of fluid administration is then titrated to a urinary output of 0.5–1mL/kg/h, stable vital signs and normalization of hematocrit. The smallest amount of fluid required to achieve this is recommended.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Management", "target_page_ids": [ 146311, 159421, 2250081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 104 ], [ 213, 227 ], [ 252, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Invasive medical procedures such as nasogastric intubation, intramuscular injections and arterial punctures are avoided, in view of the bleeding risk. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is used for fever and discomfort while NSAIDs such as ibuprofen and aspirin are avoided as they might aggravate the risk of bleeding. Blood transfusion is initiated early in people presenting with unstable vital signs in the face of a decreasing hematocrit, rather than waiting for the hemoglobin concentration to decrease to some predetermined \"transfusion trigger\" level. Packed red blood cells or whole blood are recommended, while platelets and fresh frozen plasma are usually not. There is not enough evidence to determine if corticosteroids have a positive or negative effect in dengue fever.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Management", "target_page_ids": [ 338082, 334821, 83406, 22071, 155627, 1525, 88857, 10445054, 212210, 196121, 2859118, 57996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 58 ], [ 60, 83 ], [ 151, 162 ], [ 218, 224 ], [ 233, 242 ], [ 247, 254 ], [ 313, 330 ], [ 553, 575 ], [ 579, 590 ], [ 614, 622 ], [ 628, 647 ], [ 710, 724 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the recovery phase intravenous fluids are discontinued to prevent a state of fluid overload. If fluid overload occurs and vital signs are stable, stopping further fluid may be all that is needed. If a person is outside of the critical phase, a loop diuretic such as furosemide may be used to eliminate excess fluid from the circulation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Management", "target_page_ids": [ 3419916, 973588, 478004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 98 ], [ 251, 264 ], [ 273, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most people with dengue recover without any ongoing problems. The risk of death among those with severe dengue is 0.8% to 2.5%, and with adequate treatment this is less than 1%. However, those who develop significantly low blood pressure may have a fatality rate of up to 26%. The risk of death among children less than five years old is four times greater than among those over the age of 10. Elderly people are also at higher risk of a poor outcome.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Prognosis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dengue is common in more than 120 countries. In 2013 it caused about 60 million symptomatic infections worldwide, with 18% admitted to hospital and about 13,600 deaths. The worldwide cost of dengue case is estimated US$9 billion. For the decade of the 2000s, 12 countries in Southeast Asia were estimated to have about 3million infections and 6,000 deaths annually. In 2019 the Philippines declared a national dengue epidemic due to the deaths reaching 622 people that year. It is reported in at least 22 countries in Africa; but is likely present in all of them with 20% of the population at risk. This makes it one of the most common vector-borne diseases worldwide.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Epidemiology", "target_page_ids": [ 937971, 13865571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 16 ], [ 636, 656 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Infections are most commonly acquired in urban environments. In recent decades, the expansion of villages, towns and cities in the areas in which it is common, and the increased mobility of people has increased the number of epidemics and circulating viruses. Dengue fever, which was once confined to Southeast Asia, has now spread to southern China in East Asia, countries in the Pacific Ocean and the Americas, and might pose a threat to Europe.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Epidemiology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rates of dengue increased 30fold between 1960 and 2010. This increase is believed to be due to a combination of urbanization, population growth, increased international travel, and global warming. The geographical distribution is around the equator. Of the 2.5billion people living in areas where it is common 70% are from the WHO Southeast Asia Region and Western Pacific Region. An infection with dengue is second only to malaria as a diagnosed cause of fever among travelers returning from the developing world. It is the most common viral disease transmitted by arthropods, and has a disease burden estimated at 1,600 disability-adjusted life years per million population. The World Health Organization counts dengue as one of seventeen neglected tropical diseases.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Epidemiology", "target_page_ids": [ 5042951, 7257968, 4144577, 6090525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 195 ], [ 588, 602 ], [ 622, 651 ], [ 741, 768 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like most arboviruses, dengue virus is maintained in nature in cycles that involve preferred blood-sucking vectors and vertebrate hosts. The viruses are maintained in the forests of Southeast Asia and Africa by transmission from female Aedes mosquitos—of species other than A. aegypti—to their offspring and to lower primates. In towns and cities, the virus is primarily transmitted by the highly domesticated A. aegypti. In rural settings the virus is transmitted to humans by A. aegypti and other species of Aedes such as A. albopictus. Both these species had expanding ranges in the second half of the 20th century. In all settings the infected lower primates or humans greatly increase the number of circulating dengue viruses, in a process called amplification. One projection estimates that climate change, urbanization, and other factors could result in more than 6 billion people at risk of dengue infection by 2080.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Epidemiology", "target_page_ids": [ 348202, 5042951, 56114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 524, 537 ], [ 797, 811 ], [ 813, 825 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first record of a case of probable dengue fever is in a Chinese medical encyclopedia from the Jin Dynasty (266–420) which referred to a \"water poison\" associated with flying insects. The primary vector, A. aegypti, spread out of Africa in the 15th to 19th centuries due in part to increased globalization secondary to the slave trade. There have been descriptions of epidemics in the 17th century, but the most plausible early reports of dengue epidemics are from 1779 and 1780, when an epidemic swept across Southeast Asia, Africa and North America. From that time until 1940, epidemics were infrequent.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 55020, 6585135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 119 ], [ 326, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1906, transmission by the Aedes mosquitos was confirmed, and in 1907 dengue was the second disease (after yellow fever) that was shown to be caused by a virus. Further investigations by John Burton Cleland and Joseph Franklin Siler completed the basic understanding of dengue transmission.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2831396, 12902101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 208 ], [ 213, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The marked spread of dengue during and after the Second World War has been attributed to ecologic disruption. The same trends also led to the spread of different serotypes of the disease to new areas and the emergence of dengue hemorrhagic fever. This severe form of the disease was first reported in the Philippines in 1953; by the 1970s, it had become a major cause of child mortality and had emerged in the Pacific and the Americas. Dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome were first noted in Central and South America in 1981, as DENV-2 was contracted by people who had previously been infected with DENV-1 several years earlier.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 23440, 3141410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 65 ], [ 305, 316 ], [ 371, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name came into English in the early 19th century from West Indian Spanish, which borrowed it from the Kiswahili term dinga (in full kidingapopo, \"disease caused by an evil spirit\"). The borrowed term changed to dengue in Spanish due to this word existing in Spanish with the meaning \"fastidiousness\" and this folk etymology referring to the dislike of movement by affected patients. Slaves in the West Indies having contracted dengue were said to have the posture and gait of a dandy, and the disease was known as \"dandy fever\".", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 28450, 912426, 8859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 115 ], [ 313, 327 ], [ 482, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term break-bone fever was applied by physician and United States Founding Father Benjamin Rush, in a 1789 report of the 1780 epidemic in Philadelphia. In the report title he uses the more formal term \"bilious remitting fever\". The term dengue fever came into general use only after 1828. Other historical terms include \"breakheart fever\" and \"la dengue\". Terms for severe disease include \"infectious thrombocytopenic purpura\" and \"Philippine\", \"Thai\", or \"Singapore hemorrhagic fever\".", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 540802, 260899, 50585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 84 ], [ 85, 98 ], [ 141, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Outbreaks of dengue fever increase the need for blood products while decreasing the number of potential blood donors due to potential infection with the virus. Someone who has a dengue infection is typically not allowed to donate blood for at least the next six months.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 505536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A National Dengue Day is held in India on 16 May in an effort to raise awareness in affected countries. Efforts are ongoing as of 2019 to make it a global event. The Philippines has an awareness month in June since 1998.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Research efforts to prevent and treat dengue include various means of vector control, vaccine development, and antiviral drugs.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A vaccine candidate, TAK-003, has shown 73% efficacy in a clinical trial of more than 20,000 children in endemic regions and 90% efficacy for hospitalized patients.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With regards to vector control, a number of novel methods have been used to reduce mosquito numbers with some success including the placement of the guppy (Poecilia reticulata) or copepods in standing water to eat the mosquito larvae. There are also trials with genetically modified male A.aegypti that after release into the wild mate with females, and render their offspring unable to fly.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 13865571, 23398075, 207036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 22 ], [ 156, 175 ], [ 180, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2021 research in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, infected A. aegypti with the wMel strain of Wolbachia pipientis. Infected mosquitos were less susceptible to dengue virus infection. Odds ratio of intervention clusters versus control clusters was .23 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.15 to 0.35; P=0.004).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 5336641, 839543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ], [ 87, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apart from the attempts to control the spread of the Aedes mosquito there are ongoing efforts to develop antiviral drugs that would be used to treat attacks of dengue fever and prevent severe complications. Discovery of the structure of the viral proteins may aid the development of effective drugs. There are several plausible targets. The first approach is inhibition of the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (coded by NS5), which copies the viral genetic material, with nucleoside analogs. Secondly, it may be possible to develop specific inhibitors of the viral protease (coded by NS3), which splices viral proteins. Finally, it may be possible to develop entry inhibitors, which stop the virus entering cells, or inhibitors of the 5′ capping process, which is required for viral replication.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 49197, 7690175, 2814045, 653278, 57285, 1085560, 6206758, 616940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 119 ], [ 383, 411 ], [ 474, 491 ], [ 543, 553 ], [ 567, 575 ], [ 598, 605 ], [ 661, 676 ], [ 737, 743 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carica papaya leaf extract has been studied and has been used for treatment and in hospitals. As of 2020, studies have shown positive benefits on clinical blood parameters, but a beneficial effect on disease outcome has yet to be studied, and papaya leaf extract is not considered a standard of practice therapy.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Research", "target_page_ids": [ 59249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] } ]

[ "Dengue_fever", "Tropical_diseases", "Vaccine-preventable_diseases", "Zoonoses", "Insect-borne_diseases" ]

[ "dengue disease", "classic dengue", "classical dengue", "breakbone fever", "Dengue Fever", "Dengue", "Bệnh Dengue", "Bệnh truyền nhiễm do muỗi" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Eleusine coracana, or finger millet, also known as ragi in India, kodo in Nepal, is an annual herbaceous plant widely grown as a cereal crop in the arid and semiarid areas in Africa and Asia. It is a tetraploid and self-pollinating species probably evolved from its wild relative Eleusine africana.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 777, 6700, 560009, 569881, 5334607, 689, 62610, 407234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 110 ], [ 129, 135 ], [ 148, 152 ], [ 157, 165 ], [ 175, 181 ], [ 186, 190 ], [ 200, 210 ], [ 215, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finger millet is native to the Ethiopian and Ugandan highlands. Interesting crop characteristics of finger millet are the ability to withstand cultivation at altitudes over 2000 m above sea level, its high drought tolerance, and the long storage time of the grains.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2573858, 31816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 40 ], [ 45, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finger millet originated in East Africa (Ethiopian and Ugandan highlands). It was claimed to have been found in an Indian archaeological site dated to 1800 BCE (Late Bronze Age); however, this was subsequently demonstrated to be incorrectly identified cleaned grains of hulled millets. The oldest record of finger millet comes from an archaeological site in Africa dating to the 8th century AD.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 260987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1996, cultivation of finger millet in Africa was declining rapidly because of the large amount of labor it required, with farmers preferring to grow nutritionally-inferior but less labor-intensive crops such as maize, sorghum, and cassava. Such a decline was not seen in Asia, however.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 20656228, 56122, 56465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 214, 219 ], [ 221, 228 ], [ 234, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are ten species under the genus Eleusine Gaertn, seven diploid (2n=16, 18 and 20) and three tetraploid taxa (2n=36 or 38). Eleusine africana (Kenn.-O'Bryne), Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn, Eleusine floccifolia (Spreng), Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn, Eleusine intermedia (Chiov.) (S.M.Phillips), Eleusine jaegeri (Pilg.), Eleusine kigeziensis (S.M.Phillips), Eleusine multiflora (Hochst. ex A.Rich), Eleusine semisterilis (S.M.Phillips) and Eleusine tristachya (Lam.) Lam. Different studies confirmed that Eleusine coracana was originated from E. indica and E. floccifolia genomes and selected for cultivation from its wild type E. Africana. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy and botanical description of finger millet", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Main cultivation areas are parts of eastern and southern Africaparticularly Uganda, Kenya, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, and Tanzaniaand parts of India and Nepal. It is also grown in southern Sudan and \"as far south\" in Africa as Mozambique.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Growing regions", "target_page_ids": [ 31816, 188171, 76762, 34399, 34415, 19088, 30118, 14533, 171166, 27421, 19301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 82 ], [ 84, 89 ], [ 95, 127 ], [ 129, 137 ], [ 139, 145 ], [ 147, 153 ], [ 159, 167 ], [ 180, 185 ], [ 190, 195 ], [ 226, 231 ], [ 264, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finger millet is a short-day plant with a growing optimum 12 hours of daylight for most varieties. Its main growing area ranges from 20°N to 20°S, meaning mainly the semiarid to arid tropics. Nevertheless, finger millet is found to be grown at 30°N in the Himalaya region (India and Nepal). It is generally considered as a drought-tolerant crop, but compared with other millets, such as pearl millet and sorghum, it prefers moderate rainfall ( annually). The majority of worldwide finger millet farmers grow it rainfed, although yields often can be significantly improved when irrigation is applied. In India, finger millet is a typical rabi (dry-winter season) crop. Heat tolerance of finger millet is high. For Ugandan finger millet varieties, for instance, the optimal average growth temperature ranges at about 27°C, while the minimal temperatures should not be lower than 18°C. Relative to other species (pearl millet and sorghum), finger millet has a higher tolerance to cool temperatures. It is grown from about 500 to about 2400 m above sea level (e.g. in Himalaya region). Hence, it can be cultivated on higher elevations than most tropical crops. Finger millet can grow on various soils, including highly weathered tropical lateritic soils. It thrives in free-draining soils with steady moisture levels. Furthermore, it can tolerate soil salinity up to a certain extent. Its ability to bear waterlogging is limited, so good drainage of the soils and moderate water-holding capacity are optimal. Finger millet can tolerate moderately acidic soils (pH 5), but also moderately alkaline soils (pH 8.2).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Climate requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 1964701, 37966, 1301613, 56122, 26855026, 64599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 34 ], [ 256, 264 ], [ 387, 399 ], [ 404, 411 ], [ 1234, 1243 ], [ 1343, 1356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finger millet monocrops grown under rainfed conditions are most common in drier areas of Eastern Africa. In addition, intercropping with legumes, such as cowpea or pigeon pea, are also quite common in East Africa. Tropical Central Africa supports scattered regions of finger millet intercropping mostly with legumes, but also with cassava, plantain, and vegetables.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cropping systems", "target_page_ids": [ 408703, 486873, 47863693, 305286, 56465, 38945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 131 ], [ 154, 160 ], [ 164, 174 ], [ 308, 314 ], [ 331, 338 ], [ 340, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most common finger millet intercropping systems in South India are as follows:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cropping systems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With legumes: Finger millet/dolichos, finger millet/pigeonpea, finger millet/black gram, finger millet/castor", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cropping systems", "target_page_ids": [ 1450654, 47863693, 518971, 172190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 36 ], [ 52, 61 ], [ 77, 87 ], [ 103, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With cereals: Finger millet/maize, finger millet/foxtail millet, finger millet/jowar, finger millet/little millet", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cropping systems", "target_page_ids": [ 2200906, 6647231, 21800502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 63 ], [ 79, 84 ], [ 100, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With other species: Finger millet/brassicas, finger millet/mustard", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cropping systems", "target_page_ids": [ 106355, 2028368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 42 ], [ 59, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Weeds are the major biotic stresses for finger millet cultivation. Its seeds are very small, which leads to a relatively slow development in early growing stages. This makes finger millet a weak competitor for light, water, and nutrients compared with weeds. In East and Southern Africa, the closely related species Eleusine indica (common name Indian goose grass) is a severe weed competitor of finger millet. Especially in early growing stages of the crop and the weed and when broadcast seeding instead of row seeding is applied (as often the case in East Africa), the two species are very difficult to distinguish. Besides Eleusine indica, the species Xanthium strumarium, which is animal dispersed and the stolon-owning species Cyperus rotondus and Cynodon dactylon are important finger millet weeds. Measures to control weeds include cultural, physical, and chemical methods. Cultural methods could be sowing in rows instead of broadcast sowing to make distinction between finger millet seedlings and E. indica easier when hand weeding. ICRISAT promotes cover crops and crop rotations to disrupt the growing cycle of the weeds. Physical weed control in financial resource-limited communities growing finger millet are mainly hand weeding or weeding with a hand hoe.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Weeds", "target_page_ids": [ 8619680, 1251355, 8619680, 8904779, 1430910, 3513027, 1029981, 1301759, 410783, 46470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 316, 331 ], [ 480, 497 ], [ 627, 642 ], [ 656, 675 ], [ 711, 717 ], [ 733, 749 ], [ 754, 770 ], [ 1043, 1050 ], [ 1060, 1070 ], [ 1076, 1089 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finger millet is generally seen as not very prone to diseases and pests. Nonetheless, finger millet blast, caused by the fungal pathogen Magnaporthe grisea (anamorph Pyricularia grisea), can locally cause severe damages, especially when untreated. In Uganda, yield losses up to 80% were reported in bad years. The pathogen leads to drying out of leaves, neck rots, and ear rots. These symptoms can drastically impair photosynthesis, translocation of photosynthetic assimilates, and grain filling, so reduce yield and grain quality. Finger millet blast can also infest finger millet weeds such as the closely related E. indica, E. africana, Digitaria spp., Setaria spp., and Doctylocterium spp. Finger millet blast can be controlled with cultural measures, chemical treatments, and the use of resistant varieties. Researchers in Kenya have screened wild relatives of finger millet and landraces for resistance to blast. Cultural measures to control finger millet blast suggested by ICRISAT for Eastern Africa include crop rotations with nonhost crops such as legumes, deep ploughing under of finger millet straw on infected fields, washing of field tools after use to prevent dissemination of the pathogen to uninfected fields, weed control to reduce infections by weed hosts, and avoiding of high plant densities to impede the pathogen dispersal from plant to plant. Chemical measures can be direct spraying of systemic fungicides, such as the active ingredients pyroquilon or tricyclazone or seed dressings with fungicides such as trycyclozole.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 1870627, 1870627, 24544, 2005663, 12351279, 305286, 515758, 11348614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 155 ], [ 166, 184 ], [ 417, 431 ], [ 640, 649 ], [ 656, 663 ], [ 1058, 1064 ], [ 1420, 1429 ], [ 1493, 1506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Striga, a parasitic weed which occurs naturally in parts of Africa, Asia, and Australia, can severely affect the crop and yield losses in finger millet and other cereals by 20 to 80%. Striga can be controlled with limited success by hand weeding, herbicide application, crop rotations, improved soil fertility, intercropping and biological control. The most economically feasible and environmentally friendly control measure would be to develop and use Striga-resistant cultivars. Striga resistant genes have not been identified yet in cultivated finger millet but could be found in crop wild relatives of finger millet. ICRISAT is currently evaluating crop wild relatives and will introgress Striga resistance into cultivated finger millet.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 2503423, 19653902, 1301759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 20, 24 ], [ 621, 628 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another pathogen of relevance in the finger millet cultivation is the fungus Helminthosporium nodulosum, causing leaf blight.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Finger millet pests are bird predators, such as quelea in East Africa.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 2046388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The pink stem borer (Sesamia inferens) and the finger millet shoot fly (Atherigona miliaceae) are considered as the most relevant insect pests in finger millet cultivation. Measures to control Sesamia inferens are uprooting of infected plants, destroying of stubbles, having a crop rotation, chemical control with insecticides, biological measures such as pheromone traps, or biological pest control with the use of antagonistic organisms (e.g. Sturmiopsis inferens).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 32103815, 68333316, 149463, 105390, 155739, 50576255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 37 ], [ 72, 92 ], [ 314, 325 ], [ 356, 365 ], [ 376, 399 ], [ 445, 465 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other insect pests include:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Root feeders", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "root aphid Tetraneura nigriabdominalis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 45556141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shoot and stem feeders", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Atherigona miliaceae and Atherigona soccata", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 68333316, 63957692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 25, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sesamia inferens", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 32103815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "stem weevil Listronotus bonariensis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 48810549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leaf feeders", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "hairy caterpillars, Amsacta albistriga, Amsacta transiens, and Amsacta moorei", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 25132786, 37874609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 38 ], [ 63, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "cutworms, Agrotis ipsilon", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 11988867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "armyworm larvae of Spodoptera exempta, Spodoptera mauritia, and Mythimna separata", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 4623698, 28557394, 20407509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 37 ], [ 39, 58 ], [ 64, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "leaf-folder Cnaphalocrocis medinalis larvae", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 24617735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "skipper Pelopidas mathias larvae", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 3708098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "grasshoppers, Chrotogonus hemipterus, Nomadacris septemfasciata, and Locusta migratoria", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 69501942, 2496961, 1118690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 36 ], [ 38, 63 ], [ 69, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "beetle grubs of Chnootriba similis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 69501975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "thrip, Heliothrips indicus", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 69501829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sucking pests", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "aphids, Hysteroneura setariae, Metopolophium dirhodum, Rhopalosiphum maidis, and Sitobion miscanthi", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 45465159, 56559377, 32905005, 45506467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 29 ], [ 31, 53 ], [ 55, 75 ], [ 81, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "mealy bug, Brevennia rehi", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 69501389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "leaf hoppers Cicadulina bipunctella bipunctella and Cicadulina chinai", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Diseases and pests", "target_page_ids": [ 69502382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Propagation in finger millet farming is done mainly by seeds. In rainfed cropping, four sowing methods are used:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Propagation and sowing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Broadcasting: Seeds are directly sown in the field. This is the common method because it is the easiest way and no special machinery is required. The organic weed management with this method is a problem, because it is difficult to distinguish between weed and crop.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Propagation and sowing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Line Sowing: Improved sowing compared to broadcasting. Facilitates organic weed management due to better distinction of weed and crop. In this method, spacing of 22cm to 30cm between lines and 8cm to 10cm within lines should be maintained. The seeds should be sown about 3cm deep in the soil.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Propagation and sowing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Drilling in rows: Seeds are sown directly in the untreated soil by using a direct-seed drill. This method is used in conservation agriculture.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Propagation and sowing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Transplanting the seedlings: Raising the seedlings in nursery beds and transplant to the main field. Leveling and watering of beds is required during transplanting. Seedlings with 4 weeks age should be transplanted in the field. For early Rabi and Kharif season, seedlings should be transplanted at 25cm x 10cm and for late Kharif season at 30cm x 10cm. Planting should be done 3cm depth in the soil", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Propagation and sowing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Crop does not mature uniformly and hence the harvest is to be taken up in two stages. When the earhead on the main shoot and 50% of the earheads on the crop turn brown, the crop is ready for the first harvest. At the first harvest, all earheads that have turned brown should be cut. After this drying, threshing and cleaning the grains by winnowing. The second harvest is around seven days after the first. All earheads, including the green ones, should be cut. The grains should then be cured to obtain maturity by heaping the harvested earheads in shade for one day without drying, so that the humidity and temperature increase and the grains get cured. After this drying, threshing and cleaning as after the first harvesting.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Harvest", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Once harvested, the seeds keep extremely well and are seldom attacked by insects or moulds. Finger millet can be kept for up to 10 years when it is unthreshed. Some sources report a storage duration up to 50 years under good storage conditions. The long storage capacity makes finger millet an important crop in risk-avoidance strategies as a famine crop for farming communities.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Storage", "target_page_ids": [ 37694, 23366462, 51469, 627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 24 ], [ 73, 79 ], [ 84, 89 ], [ 304, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a first step of processing finger millet can be milled to produce flour. However, finger millet is difficult to mill due to the small size of the seeds and because the bran is bound very tightly to the endosperm. Furthermore, the delicate seed can get crushed during the milling. The development of commercial mechanical milling systems for finger millet is challenging. Therefore, the main product of finger millet is whole grain flour. This has disadvantages, such as reduced storage time of the flour due to the high oil content. Furthermore, the industrial use of whole grain finger millet flour is limited. Moistening the millet seeds prior to grinding helps to remove the bran mechanically without causing damage to the rest of the seed. The mini millet mill can also be used to process other grains such as wheat and sorghum.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Processing", "target_page_ids": [ 56232, 489377, 678158, 2052597, 36858, 56122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 74 ], [ 171, 175 ], [ 205, 214 ], [ 422, 433 ], [ 817, 822 ], [ 827, 834 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another method to process the finger millet grain is germinating the seed. This process is also called malting and is very common in the production of brewed beverages such as beer. When finger millet is germinated, enzymes are activated, which transfer starches into other carbohydrates such as sugars. Finger millet has a good malting activity. The malted finger millet can be used as a substrate to produce for example gluten-free beer or easily digestible food for infants.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Processing", "target_page_ids": [ 32669077, 3363, 27711, 5932, 27712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 110 ], [ 176, 180 ], [ 254, 260 ], [ 274, 286 ], [ 296, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finger millet can be ground into a flour and cooked into cakes, puddings or porridge. The flour is made into a fermented drink (or beer) in Nepal and in many parts of Africa. The straw from finger millet is used as animal fodder.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1095698, 56232, 191993, 75515, 39390739, 3363, 171166, 46594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 27 ], [ 35, 40 ], [ 64, 71 ], [ 76, 84 ], [ 111, 126 ], [ 131, 135 ], [ 140, 145 ], [ 179, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finger millet is 11% water, 7% protein, 54% carbohydrates, and 2% fat (table). In a 100 gram (3.5 oz) reference amount, finger millet supplies 305 calories, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of dietary fiber and several dietary minerals, especially iron at 87% DV (table).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 6531493, 5932, 11042, 6423, 267488, 66554, 235195, 14734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 38 ], [ 44, 56 ], [ 66, 69 ], [ 147, 154 ], [ 198, 209 ], [ 218, 231 ], [ 244, 260 ], [ 273, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), a member of the CGIAR consortium, partners with farmers, governments, researchers and NGOs to help farmers grow nutritious crops, including finger millet. This helps their communities have more balanced diets and become more resilient to pests and drought. For example, the Harnessing Opportunities for Productivity Enhancement of Sorghum and Millets in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia (HOPE) project is increasing yields of finger millet in Tanzania by encouraging farmers to grow improved varieties.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1301759, 1301759, 1116736, 30118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 68 ], [ 70, 77 ], [ 96, 101 ], [ 524, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The finger millet or ragi is malted and its grain is ground into flour. The flour is consumed with milk, boiled water, or yogurt. The flour is made into flatbreads, including thin, leavened dosa and thicker, unleavened roti.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Preparation as food", "target_page_ids": [ 20853, 1095698, 56232, 19714, 156754, 359147, 429277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 33 ], [ 53, 59 ], [ 65, 70 ], [ 99, 103 ], [ 122, 128 ], [ 190, 194 ], [ 219, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are various food recipes of finger millet, including dosa, idli, and laddu. In southern India, on pediatrician's recommendation, finger millet is used in preparing baby food, because of millet's high nutritional content, especially iron and calcium. Satva, pole (dosa), bhakri, ambil (a sour porridge), and pappad are common dishes made using finger millet. In Karnataka, finger millet is generally consumed in the form of a porridge called ragi mudde in Kannada. It is the staple diet of many residents of South Karnataka. Mudde is prepared by cooking the ragi flour with water to achieve a dough-like consistency. This is then rolled into balls of desired size and consumed with sambar (huli), saaru (ಸಾರು), or curries. Ragi is also used to make roti, idli, dosa and conjee. In the Malnad region of Karnataka, the whole ragi grain is soaked and the milk is extracted to make a dessert known as keelsa. A type of flat bread is prepared using finger millet flour (called ragi rotti in Kannada) in Northern districts of Karnataka.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Preparation as food", "target_page_ids": [ 359147, 413472, 10748373, 678583, 23593, 877461, 21525, 14734, 5668, 10748373, 589702, 2390546, 429277, 413472, 359147, 47775243, 37445, 16880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 63 ], [ 65, 69 ], [ 75, 80 ], [ 85, 99 ], [ 104, 118 ], [ 170, 179 ], [ 206, 225 ], [ 238, 242 ], [ 247, 254 ], [ 447, 457 ], [ 687, 693 ], [ 702, 707 ], [ 754, 758 ], [ 760, 764 ], [ 766, 770 ], [ 775, 781 ], [ 991, 998 ], [ 1025, 1034 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Tamil Nadu, ragi is called kezhvaragu and also has other names like keppai, ragi, and ariyam. Ragi is dried, powdered, and boiled to form a thick mass that is allowed to cool. This is the famed kali or keppai kali. This is made into large balls to quantify the intake. It is taken with sambar or kuzhambu. For children, ragi is also fed with milk and sugar (malt). It is also made in the form of pancakes with chopped onions and tomatoes. Kezhvaragu is used to make puttu with jaggery or sugar. Ragi is called koozh – a staple diet in farming communities, eaten along with raw onions and green chillies. In Andhra Pradesh, ragi sankati or ragi muddha – ragi balls – are eaten in the morning with chilli, onions, and sambar. In Kerala, puttu, a traditional breakfast dish, can be made with ragi flour and grated coconut, which is then steamed in a cylindrical steamer. In the tribal and western hilly regions of Odisha, ragi or mandiaa is a staple food. In the Garhwal and Kumaon region of Uttarakhand, koda or maddua is made into thick rotis (served with ghee), and also made into badi, which is similar to halwa but without sugar. In the Kumaon region of northern India, ragi is traditionally fed to women after child birth. In some parts of Kumaon region the ragi flour is used to make various snacks like namkeen sev and mathri.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Preparation as food", "target_page_ids": [ 589702, 27122302, 20853, 3299775, 418125, 27712, 589702, 3299775, 250724, 1048921, 1429154, 182802, 1013167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 289, 295 ], [ 299, 307 ], [ 362, 366 ], [ 470, 475 ], [ 481, 488 ], [ 492, 497 ], [ 720, 726 ], [ 739, 744 ], [ 915, 921 ], [ 964, 971 ], [ 993, 1004 ], [ 1111, 1116 ], [ 1143, 1149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Nepal, a thick dough (ḍhĩḍo) made of millet flour (kōdō) is cooked and eaten by hand. The dough, on other hand, can be made into thick bread (rotee) spread over flat utensil and heating it. Fermented millet is used to make a beer chhaang and the mash is distilled to make a liquor (rakśiशी). Whole grain millet is fermented to make tongba. Its use in holy Hindu practices is barred especially by upper castes. In Nepal, the National Plant Genetic Resource Centre at Khumaltar maintains 877 accessions (samples) of Nepalese finger millet (kodo).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Preparation as food", "target_page_ids": [ 171166, 1497865, 8029076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 8 ], [ 234, 241 ], [ 336, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Sri Lanka, finger millet is called kurakkan and is made into kurakkan roti – an earthy brown thick roti with coconut and thallapa – a thick dough made of ragi by boiling it with water and some salt until like a dough ball. It is then eaten with a spicy meat curry and is usually swallowed in small balls, rather than chewing. It is also eaten as a soup (kurrakan kenda) and as a sweet called 'Halape'. In northwest Vietnam, finger millet is used as a medicine for women at childbirth. A minority use finger millet flour to make alcohol.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Preparation as food", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ragi malt porridge is made from finger millet which is soaked and shadow dried, then roasted and ground. This preparation is boiled in water and used as a substitute for milk powder-based beverages.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Preparation as food", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "'Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.' ", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Millets", "Cereals", "Grasses_of_Africa", "Grasses_of_Asia", "Chloridoideae", "Crops_originating_from_Ethiopia" ]

[ "Finger millet", "African Millet", "Coracan", "Natcheny", "Ragi" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Gas sculpture is a proposal made by Joan Miró in his late writings to make sculptures out of gaseous materials.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 63093, 26714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 45 ], [ 75, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The idea of a gas sculpture also appeared in the book Gog, by Giovanni Papini (1881–1956).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1810383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An example of pure water fog sculpture is in the sculpture garden at the National Gallery of Australia in Canberra. A large bank of very small nozzles is arrayed on the edge of a small rush-filled pond, and when the power is switched on a fine mist of fog billows out. The \"sculpture\" has a continuously changing shape as it is affected by the water, the rushes, and the air currents in the area.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 938481, 255840, 51983, 316824, 18842299, 58991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 65 ], [ 73, 102 ], [ 106, 114 ], [ 143, 149 ], [ 197, 201 ], [ 252, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cold water fog nozzle technologies were developed by industry in the late 1960s for factory air particulate control and agricultural orchard freeze prevention. These high pressure systems force filtered water at through custom nozzles to atomize the water into billions of ultra-fine droplets below in size. In industrial applications this also provides cooling due to rapid evaporation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Artists use this cold water fog technology to make experimental artworks that allow the viewer to safely interact and become fully immersed in the fog.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "High temperature steam fog from underground steam utility lines used for commercial heat transfer, and small boiler sources, are also used by artists for atmospheric visual displays, and as a dynamic projection surfaces.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the commercial entertainment industry these various water fog systems are used for special effects in movies, and for theme park atmospherics. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some kinetic sculptures contain other gaseous elements, such as the sculptures of Jean-Paul Riopelle's La Joute, which includes natural gas fire jets, a water fountain, and bronze sculptural elements.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Technology", "target_page_ids": [ 841792, 472594, 835112, 22131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 22 ], [ 82, 100 ], [ 103, 111 ], [ 128, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A large scale use of cold water fog is the Blur Building (2002), an exhibition pavilion built for Swiss Expo.02 on Lake Neuchatel by architects Diller Scofidio + Renfro. This is an architecture described as \"an inhabitable cloud whirling above a lake\", built with an atmosphere of fog surrounding a lightweight tensegrity structure . The primary visible building material is water. Water pumped from the lake is filtered and atomized to a fine mist through an array of 31,400 high-pressure nozzles. The nozzle pressures are regulated by a computer processor and a smart weather system that reads temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction. The fog created is thus in constant change, an interplay of natural and man-made forces. Two bridges connect the building with the shore, four hundred visitors at a time can enter the building and be within the fog mass. Inside the fog, one's normal spatial references are lost when immersed within an optical “whiteout”, and the “white noise” of hissing nozzles. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Contemporary fog sculptures", "target_page_ids": [ 2681040, 1176641, 313044, 2681040, 92981, 610527, 46182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 56 ], [ 104, 111 ], [ 115, 129 ], [ 144, 168 ], [ 311, 321 ], [ 956, 964 ], [ 976, 987 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Artistic use of steam fog was pioneered in the collaborative Center Beam artwork by the Center for Advanced Visual Studies at MIT. First shown in 1977 at documenta 6 in Kassel, Germany, it included steam works by Joan Brigham, Otto Piene, and Paul Earls. For Center Beam, a low pressure hot water steam fog became a medium to project lasers, holograms, films and text onto. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Contemporary fog sculptures", "target_page_ids": [ 4476170, 18879, 243987, 42108, 6624377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 122 ], [ 126, 129 ], [ 154, 163 ], [ 169, 184 ], [ 227, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Children's Museum of Pittsburgh is planning a new park with a fog sculpture created by Ned Kahn. Set for completion in 2012, the sculpture will be a grid of stainless steel poles outfitted with fog nozzles. Kahn said of the sculpture, \"When the fog is on, it will appear like a 20-foot-diameter sphere [] of fog spinning inside the poles.\" ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Contemporary fog sculptures", "target_page_ids": [ 11419790, 5813842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 35 ], [ 91, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other contemporary sculptures in which fog is used as a medium of expression are: Harbor Fog, a viewer responsive artwork in the parkland above Boston's Big Dig highway; Cloud RIngs (2006) by Ned Kahn at the 21c Museum Hotel in Louisville, Kentucky; and the interactive landscape of Dilworth Plaza at Philadelphia City Hall (completion date 2013).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Contemporary fog sculptures", "target_page_ids": [ 4318, 58592, 43748334, 505719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 160 ], [ 228, 248 ], [ 283, 297 ], [ 301, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " DOVIDs, Diffractive optically variable image device", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 67972884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lumino kinetic art", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20765964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robotic art", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4936389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sound art", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1788567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sound installation", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1788567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] } ]

[ "Sculptures_by_medium", "Water" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Berengar of Tours (died 6 January 1088), in Latin Berengarius Turonensis, was an 11th-century French Christian theologian and archdeacon of Angers, a scholar whose leadership of the cathedral school at Chartres set an example of intellectual inquiry through the revived tools of dialectic that was soon followed at cathedral schools of Laon and Paris. He came into conflict with Church authorities over the doctrine of transubstantiation of the Eucharist, instead arguing for a more spiritual presence.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 962731, 5211, 82357, 30188740, 52813, 2938695, 30907, 9767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 49 ], [ 95, 101 ], [ 102, 111 ], [ 141, 147 ], [ 183, 211 ], [ 280, 289 ], [ 316, 332 ], [ 420, 438 ], [ 446, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Berengar of Tours was born perhaps at Tours, probably in the early years of the 11th century. His education began in the school of Bishop Fulbert of Chartres, who represented the traditional theology of the early Middle Ages, but did not succeed in imparting it to his pupil. Berengar was less attracted by pure theology than by secular learning, and brought away a knowledge of Latin literature, dialectic, and a general knowledge and freedom of thought. Later he paid more attention to the Bible and early Christian writers, especially Gregory of Tours and Augustine of Hippo; and thus he came to formal theology.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 31593, 379994, 30503, 18836, 18058, 3390, 50851, 2030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 43 ], [ 138, 157 ], [ 191, 199 ], [ 213, 224 ], [ 379, 395 ], [ 492, 497 ], [ 538, 554 ], [ 559, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the death of Fulbert in 1028, Berengar returned to Tours, where he became a canon of the cathedral. In about 1040 became head of its school, improving its efficiency and attracting students from far and near. He acquired his fame as much from his blameless and ascetic life as from the success of his teaching. His reputation was such that a number of monks requested him to write a book to kindle their zeal; and his letter to Joscelin, later archbishop of Bordeaux, who had asked him to decide a dispute between Bishop Isembert of Poitiers and his chapter, is evidence of the authority attributed to his judgment. He became archdeacon of Angers, but remained in Tours to direct the school. He enjoyed the confidence of not a few bishops and of the powerful Count Geoffrey of Anjou.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1067968, 1201164, 83484, 5284750, 82357, 1133151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 87 ], [ 95, 104 ], [ 267, 274 ], [ 450, 472 ], [ 646, 652 ], [ 771, 788 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amid this chorus of praise, a discordant voice began to be heard; it was asserted that Berengar held heretical views on the Eucharist. The first controversies on the nature of the Eucharistic Presence date from the earlier Middle Ages. In the ninth century Paschasius Radbertus claimed that Christ's Eucharistic body was identical with his body in heaven, but he won practically no support. His doctrine was sharply attacked by Ratramnus and Rabanus Maurus, who opposed his emphatic realism, which was sometimes marred by unfortunate comparisons and illustrations, and proposed a more spiritual conception of the Divine presence. As for Berengar, by one account, \"Considerably greater stir was provoked ... by the teaching of Berengar, who opposed the doctrine of the Real Presence.\" But in reality, there are diverse opinions among theologians and historians on this point, and it is not clear that Berengar actually denies the Real Presence, though he does deny transubstantiation. The first to take formal notice of this was his former fellow student Adelmann, who begged him to abandon his opposition to the Church's teaching.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 20611083, 9767, 898854, 145848, 683585, 3719826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 110 ], [ 124, 133 ], [ 258, 278 ], [ 429, 438 ], [ 443, 457 ], [ 1055, 1063 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Probably in the early part of 1050, Berengar addressed a letter to Lanfranc, then prior of Bec Abbey in Normandy, in which he expressed his regret that Lanfranc adhered to the Eucharistic teaching of Paschasius and considered the treatise of Ratramnus on the subject (which Berengar supposed to have been written by Johannes Scotus Eriugena) to be heretical. He declared his own agreement with Eriugena, and believed himself to be supported by Saint Ambrose, Saint Jerome, Augustine, and other authorities. This letter was received by Lanfranc in Rome, where it was read before a council and Berengar's view was condemned. Berengar was summoned to appear at another council to be held at Vercelli in September. Berengar sought permission to go to the council from King Henry I of France, in his capacity as nominal abbot of St. Martin at Tours. Instead, for unclear reasons, the king imprisoned him. The council at Vercelli examined Berengar's doctrine and again condemned it and he was excommunicated.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 145841, 344277, 145848, 1082384, 20611083, 1370, 16005, 726056, 24096095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 75 ], [ 91, 100 ], [ 242, 251 ], [ 316, 340 ], [ 348, 357 ], [ 444, 457 ], [ 459, 471 ], [ 688, 696 ], [ 769, 786 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On his release from prison, probably effected by the influence of Geoffrey of Anjou, the king still pursued him, and called a synod to meet in Paris in October 1051. Berengar, fearing its purpose, avoided appearing, and the king's threats after its session had no effect, since Berengar was sheltered by Geoffrey and by his former student, Eusebius, now Bishop of Angers. He also found numerous partisans among less prominent people.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 10169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 340, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1054, a Council was held at Tours presided over by Cardinal Hildebrand as papal legate. Berengar wrote a profession of faith wherein he confessed that after consecration the bread and wine were truly the body and blood of Christ. The French bishops indicated that they wished a speedy settlement of the controversy and the synod declared itself satisfied by Berengar's written declaration. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 37015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1059, Berengar went to Rome, fortified by a letter of commendation from Count Geoffrey to Hildebrand. At a council held in the Lateran, he could get no hearing, and a formula representing what seemed to him the most carnal view of the sacrament was offered for his acceptance. Overwhelmed by the forces against him, he took this document in his hand and threw himself on the ground in the silence of apparent submission.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Berengar returned to France full of remorse for this desertion of his faith and of bitterness against the pope and his opponents; his friends were growing fewer—Geoffrey was dead and his successor hostile. Eusebius Bruno was gradually withdrawing from him. Rome, however, was disposed to give him a chance; Pope Alexander II wrote him an encouraging letter, at the same time warning him to give no further offence.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 23792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 307, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was still firm in his convictions, and in about 1069 he published a treatise in which he gave vent to his resentment against Pope Nicholas II and his antagonists in the Roman council. Lanfranc answered it, and Berengar rejoined. Bishop Hugo of Langres also wrote a treatise, De corpore et sanguine Christi, against Berengar. Even his namesake Berengar, Bishop of Venosa, was drawn into the quarrel and wrote against him at Rome in the years of his second summons there.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 77813, 15717898, 10309852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 144 ], [ 239, 254 ], [ 346, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "But the feeling against him in France was growing so hostile that it almost came to open violence at the Synod of Poitiers in 1076. Hildebrand, now Pope Gregory VII, tried yet to save him; he summoned him once more to Rome (1078), and undertook to silence his enemies by getting him to assent to a vague formula, something like the one which he had signed at Tours. But Berengar's enemies were not satisfied, and three months later at another synod they forced on him a formula which could mean nothing but what was later called transubstantiation, except by utterly indefensible sophistry. He was indiscreet enough to claim the sympathy of Gregory VII, who commanded him to acknowledge his errors and to pursue them no further. Berengar confessed that he had erred, and was sent home.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 51489, 37015, 31593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 122 ], [ 148, 164 ], [ 359, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once back in France, he published his own account of the proceedings in Rome, retracting his recantation. The consequence was another trial before a synod at Bordeaux (1080), and another recantation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After this he kept silence, retiring to the island of Saint-Cosme near Tours to live in ascetic solitude. It was there that he died, in union with the Roman Catholic Church.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"...the bread and wine which are placed on the altar are after consecration not only a sacrament but also the true body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, and with the senses not only sacramentally but in truth are taken and broken by the hands of the priests and crushed by the teeth of the faithful.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"I, Berengarius, believe in my heart and openly profess that the bread and wine that are placed on the altar are through the mystery of the sacred prayer and the words of our Redeemer substantially changed into the true and proper life-giving flesh and blood of Jesus Christ our Lord; and that after the consecration is the true body of Christ, which was born of the Virgin, as an offering for the salvation of the world hung on the cross, and sits at the right hand of the Father; and (is) the true blood of Christ which flowed from his side; not only through the sign and power of the sacrament but in his proper nature and true substance; as it is set down in this summary and as I read it and you understand it. Thus I believe, and I will not teach any more against this faith. So help me God and this holy Gospel of God.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Berengar's theory of the Eucharist had four points:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Berengar's theory of the Eucharist", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The elements remain in substance as well as in appearance, after the consecration, although they acquire a new significance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Berengar's theory of the Eucharist", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " However the wine and bread are not mere symbols, but in some sense they still are body and blood of Jesus which they represent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Berengar's theory of the Eucharist", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Christ is spiritually present and is spiritually received by faith.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Berengar's theory of the Eucharist", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The communion in the Eucharist is a communion with the whole undivided person of Jesus Christ, and not the blood and body of Jesus as separate elements. As the whole body of Christ was sacrificed in death, it is received in a spiritual manner as the whole body; and as Christ’s body is now glorified in heaven, we must spiritually ascend to heaven.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Berengar's theory of the Eucharist", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The views of Berengar on the Eucharist had very much in common with the views of John Calvin.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Berengar's theory of the Eucharist", "target_page_ids": [ 15930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Berengar of Tours can be seen as a forerunner of Christian rationalism, as he criticized Church authority.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Significance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Berengar's position was never diametrically opposed to that of his critics. But the controversy that he aroused forced people to reconsider the ninth-century discussion of the Eucharist, as Paschasius Radbertus had left it, and to clarify the doctrine of transubstantiation. Further, when both Berengar and his critics used the secular disciplines of logic and grammar to express a matter of Christian doctrine, the way was open to the scholasticism of the twelfth century.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Significance", "target_page_ids": [ 30907, 39872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 255, 273 ], [ 436, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Berengar of Tours was a forerunner of the Reformers, specially of Zwingli and John Calvin.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Significance", "target_page_ids": [ 13602, 15930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 73 ], [ 78, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Berengarians, followers of Berengar", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4305218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eucharist in the Catholic Church", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5581673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charles M. Radding, Francis Newton: Theology, Rhetoric and Politics in the Eucharistic Controversy, 1078-1079. Columbia University Press: New York, 2003.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cowdrey, H. E. J. Lanfranc. Oxford University Press: New York, 2003.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 52788338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Heron, Alisdair. Table and Tradition. Handsel Press: Edinburgh, 1983.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Macy, Gary. Treasures from the Storeroom. Liturgical Press: Collegeville, Minnesota, 1999.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Macy, Gary. The Banquet’s Wisdom. Paulist Press: New York, 1992.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Macy, Gary. The Theologies of the Eucharist in the Early Scholastic Period. Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1984.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gibson, Margaret. Lanfranc of Bec. Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1978.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mazza, Enrico. The Celebration of the Eucharist. Liturgical Press: Collegeville, Minnesota, 1999.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Whitney, J. P.. Hildebrandine Essays. Cambridge University Press: London, 1932.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Morin, G. \"Bérenger contre Bérenger.\" Récherches de théologie ancienne et médiévale. IV, 2 (1932), pp 109133.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "990s_births", "1088_deaths", "11th-century_French_Roman_Catholic_priests", "11th-century_French_Catholic_theologians", "People_temporarily_excommunicated_by_the_Catholic_Church", "Writers_from_Tours,_France", "11th-century_Latin_writers", "11th-century_French_philosophers", "Clergy_from_Tours,_France" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A planetary nebula (PN, plural PNe) is a type of emission nebula consisting of an expanding, glowing shell of ionized gas ejected from red giant stars late in their lives.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 174781, 59611, 21245707, 26808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 64 ], [ 110, 117 ], [ 135, 144 ], [ 145, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term \"planetary nebula\" is a misnomer because they are unrelated to planets. The term originates from the planet-like round shape of these nebulae observed by astronomers through early telescopes. The first usage may have occurred during the 1780s with the English astronomer William Herschel who described these nebulae as resembling planets; however, as early as January 1779, the French astronomer Antoine Darquier de Pellepoix described in his observations of the Ring Nebula, \"very dim but perfectly outlined; it is as large as Jupiter and resembles a fading planet\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 507851, 22915, 21664, 213607, 5149065, 90117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 41 ], [ 72, 78 ], [ 143, 149 ], [ 189, 199 ], [ 406, 435 ], [ 473, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though the modern interpretation is different, the old term is still used.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All planetary nebulae form at the end of the life of a star of intermediate mass, about 1-8 solar masses. It is expected that the Sun will form a planetary nebula at the end of its life cycle. They are relatively short-lived phenomena, lasting perhaps a few tens of millennia, compared to considerably longer phases of stellar evolution. Once all of the red giant's atmosphere has been dissipated, energetic ultraviolet radiation from the exposed hot luminous core, called a planetary nebula nucleus (P.N.N.), ionizes the ejected material. Absorbed ultraviolet light then energizes the shell of nebulous gas around the central star, causing it to appear as a brightly coloured planetary nebula.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26751, 27980, 31990, 25856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 133 ], [ 319, 336 ], [ 408, 419 ], [ 420, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Planetary nebulae probably play a crucial role in the chemical evolution of the Milky Way by expelling elements into the interstellar medium from stars where those elements were created. Planetary nebulae are observed in more distant galaxies, yielding useful information about their chemical abundances.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5180, 11971, 5659, 69453, 1129919, 12558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 62 ], [ 63, 89 ], [ 103, 110 ], [ 121, 140 ], [ 164, 172 ], [ 234, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Starting from the 1990s, Hubble Space Telescope images revealed that many planetary nebulae have extremely complex and varied morphologies. About one-fifth are roughly spherical, but the majority are not spherically symmetric. The mechanisms that produce such a wide variety of shapes and features are not yet well understood, but binary central stars, stellar winds and magnetic fields may play a role.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40203, 52713, 36563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 47 ], [ 331, 351 ], [ 371, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first planetary nebula discovered (though not yet termed as such) was the Dumbbell Nebula in the constellation of Vulpecula. It was observed by Charles Messier on July 12, 1764 and listed as M27 in his catalogue of nebulous objects. To early observers with low-resolution telescopes, M27 and subsequently discovered planetary nebulae resembled the giant planets like Uranus. As early as January 1779, the French astronomer Antoine Darquier de Pellepoix described in his observations of the Ring Nebula, \"a very dull nebula, but perfectly outlined; as large as Jupiter and looks like a fading planet\". ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Observations", "target_page_ids": [ 336123, 211517, 7246, 20608, 44475, 5149065, 90117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 93 ], [ 118, 127 ], [ 148, 163 ], [ 206, 215 ], [ 371, 377 ], [ 428, 457 ], [ 495, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The nature of these objects remained unclear. In 1782, William Herschel, discoverer of Uranus, found the Saturn Nebula (NGC 7009) and described it as \"A curious nebula, or what else to call it I do not know\". He later described these objects as seeming to be planets \"of the starry kind\". As noted by Darquier before him, Herschel found that the disk resembled a planet but it was too faint to be one. In 1785, Herschel wrote to Jérôme Lalande:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Observations", "target_page_ids": [ 33971, 933736, 196261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 71 ], [ 105, 118 ], [ 431, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These are celestial bodies of which as yet we have no clear idea and which are perhaps of a type quite different from those that we are familiar with in the heavens. I have already found four that have a visible diameter of between 15 and 30 seconds. These bodies appear to have a disk that is rather like a planet, that is to say, of equal brightness all over, round or somewhat oval, and about as well defined in outline as the disk of the planets, of a light strong enough to be visible with an ordinary telescope of only one foot, yet they have only the appearance of a star of about ninth magnitude.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Observations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He assigned these to Class IV of his catalogue of \"nebulae\", eventually listing 78 \"planetary nebulae\", most of which are in fact galaxies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Observations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Herschel used the term \"planetary nebulae\" for these objects. The origin of this term not known. The label \"planetary nebula\" became ingrained in the terminology used by astronomers to categorize these types of nebulae, and is still in use by astronomers today.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Observations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The nature of planetary nebulae remained unknown until the first spectroscopic observations were made in the mid-19th century. Using a prism to disperse their light, William Huggins was one of the earliest astronomers to study the optical spectra of astronomical objects.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Observations", "target_page_ids": [ 273679, 282998, 589277, 41464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 78 ], [ 135, 140 ], [ 166, 181 ], [ 231, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On August 29, 1864, Huggins was the first to analyze the spectrum of a planetary nebula when he observed Cat's Eye Nebula. His observations of stars had shown that their spectra consisted of a continuum of radiation with many dark lines superimposed. He found that many nebulous objects such as the Andromeda Nebula (as it was then known) had spectra that were quite similar. However, when Huggins looked at the Cat's Eye Nebula, he found a very different spectrum. Rather than a strong continuum with absorption lines superimposed, the Cat's Eye Nebula and other similar objects showed a number of emission lines. Brightest of these was at a wavelength of 500.7nanometres, which did not correspond with a line of any known element.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Observations", "target_page_ids": [ 250882, 20646034, 177320, 74331, 250882, 292420, 21837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 121 ], [ 193, 202 ], [ 226, 236 ], [ 299, 315 ], [ 412, 428 ], [ 599, 613 ], [ 662, 671 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At first, it was hypothesized that the line might be due to an unknown element, which was named nebulium. A similar idea had led to the discovery of helium through analysis of the Sun's spectrum in 1868. While helium was isolated on Earth soon after its discovery in the spectrum of the Sun, \"nebulium\" was not. In the early 20th century, Henry Norris Russell proposed that, rather than being a new element, the line at 500.7nm was due to a familiar element in unfamiliar conditions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Observations", "target_page_ids": [ 1074535, 13256, 26751, 124021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 104 ], [ 149, 155 ], [ 180, 183 ], [ 339, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Physicists showed in the 1920s that in gas at extremely low densities, electrons can occupy excited metastable energy levels in atoms and ions that would otherwise be de-excited by collisions that would occur at higher densities. Electron transitions from these levels in nitrogen and oxygen ions (, (a.k.a. O), and ) give rise to the 500.7nm emission line and others. These spectral lines, which can only be seen in very low density gases, are called forbidden lines. Spectroscopic observations thus showed that nebulae were made of extremely rarefied gas.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Observations", "target_page_ids": [ 9476, 516680, 19833, 59444, 21175, 22303, 12772040, 3439285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 79 ], [ 92, 99 ], [ 100, 110 ], [ 111, 123 ], [ 272, 280 ], [ 285, 291 ], [ 300, 300 ], [ 453, 467 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The central stars of planetary nebulae are very hot. Only when a star has exhausted most of its nuclear fuel can it collapse to a small size. Planetary nebulae are understood as a final stage of stellar evolution. Spectroscopic observations show that all planetary nebulae are expanding. This led to the idea that planetary nebulae were caused by a star's outer layers being thrown into space at the end of its life.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Observations", "target_page_ids": [ 27980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Towards the end of the 20th century, technological improvements helped to further the study of planetary nebulae. Space telescopes allowed astronomers to study light wavelengths outside those that the Earth's atmosphere transmits. Infrared and ultraviolet studies of planetary nebulae allowed much more accurate determinations of nebular temperatures, densities and elemental abundances. Charge-coupled device technology allowed much fainter spectral lines to be measured accurately than had previously been possible. The Hubble Space Telescope also showed that while many nebulae appear to have simple and regular structures when observed from the ground, the very high optical resolution achievable by telescopes above the Earth's atmosphere reveals extremely complex structures.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Observations", "target_page_ids": [ 29006, 15022, 20647050, 8429, 6804, 1977279, 202898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 129 ], [ 231, 239 ], [ 338, 349 ], [ 352, 361 ], [ 388, 409 ], [ 671, 689 ], [ 725, 743 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under the Morgan-Keenan spectral classification scheme, planetary nebulae are classified as Type-P, although this notation is seldom used in practice.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Observations", "target_page_ids": [ 28927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stars greater than 8solar masses (M⊙) will probably end their lives in dramatic supernovae explosions, while planetary nebulae seemingly only occur at the end of the lives of intermediate and low mass stars between 0.8M⊙ to 8.0M⊙. Progenitor stars that form planetary nebulae will spend most of their lifetimes converting their hydrogen into helium in the star's core by nuclear fusion at about 15million K. This generated energy creates outward pressure from fusion reactions in the core, balancing the crushing inward pressures of the star's gravity. This state of equilibrium is known as the main sequence, which can last for tens of millions to billions of years, depending on the mass.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 172987, 27680, 13255, 13256, 21544, 19593121, 19605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ], [ 80, 89 ], [ 328, 336 ], [ 342, 348 ], [ 371, 385 ], [ 405, 406 ], [ 595, 608 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the hydrogen source in the core starts to diminish, gravity starts compressing the core, causing a rise in temperature to about 100 million K. Such higher core temperatures then make the star's cooler outer layers expand to create much larger red giant stars. This end phase causes a dramatic rise in stellar luminosity, where the released energy is distributed over a much larger surface area, which in fact causes the average surface temperature to be lower. In stellar evolution terms, stars undergoing such increases in luminosity are known as asymptotic giant branch stars (AGB). During this phase, the star can lose 50 to 70% of its total mass from its stellar wind.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 27980, 1118042, 183934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 469, 486 ], [ 553, 582 ], [ 664, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For the more massive asymptotic giant branch stars that form planetary nebulae, whose progenitors exceed about 3M⊙, their cores will continue to contract. When temperatures reach about 100million K, the available helium nuclei fuse into carbon and oxygen, so that the star again resumes radiating energy, temporarily stopping the core's contraction. This new helium burning phase (fusion of helium nuclei) forms a growing inner core of inert carbon and oxygen. Above it is a thin helium-burning shell, surrounded in turn by a hydrogen-burning shell. However, this new phase lasts only 20,000 years or so, a very short period compared to the entire lifetime of the star.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 13256, 5299, 22303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 226 ], [ 237, 243 ], [ 248, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The venting of atmosphere continues unabated into interstellar space, but when the outer surface of the exposed core reaches temperatures exceeding about 30,000K, there are enough emitted ultraviolet photons to ionize the ejected atmosphere, causing the gas to shine as a planetary nebula.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 31990, 23535, 59611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 199 ], [ 200, 206 ], [ 211, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After a star passes through the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) phase, the short planetary nebula phase of stellar evolution begins as gases blow away from the central star at speeds of a few kilometers per second. The central star is the remnant of its AGB progenitor, an electron-degenerate carbon-oxygen core that has lost most of its hydrogen envelope due to mass loss on the AGB. As the gases expand, the central star undergoes a two-stage evolution, first growing hotter as it continues to contract and hydrogen fusion reactions occur in the shell around the core and then slowly cooling when the hydrogen shell is exhausted through fusion and mass loss. In the second phase, it radiates away its energy and fusion reactions cease, as the central star is not heavy enough to generate the core temperatures required for carbon and oxygen to fuse. During the first phase, the central star maintains constant luminosity, while at the same time it grows ever hotter, eventually reaching temperatures around 100,000K. In the second phase, it cools so much that it does not give off enough ultraviolet radiation to ionize the increasingly distant gas cloud. The star becomes a white dwarf, and the expanding gas cloud becomes invisible to us, ending the planetary nebula phase of evolution. For a typical planetary nebula, about 10,000years passes between its formation and recombination of the resulting plasma.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Lifetime", "target_page_ids": [ 1118042, 33501, 25916521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 55 ], [ 1175, 1186 ], [ 1403, 1409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Planetary nebulae may play a very important role in galactic evolution. Newly born stars consist almost entirely of hydrogen and helium, but as stars evolve through the asymptotic giant branch phase, they create heavier elements via nuclear fusion which are eventually expelled by strong stellar winds. Planetary nebulae usually contain larger proportions of elements such as carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, and these are recycled into the interstellar medium via these powerful winds. In this way, planetary nebulae greatly enrich the Milky Way and their nebulae with these heavier elements – collectively known by astronomers as metals and specifically referred to by the metallicity parameter Z.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Role in galactic enrichment", "target_page_ids": [ 13255, 13256, 1118042, 21544, 183934, 5299, 21175, 22303, 2589714, 21664, 1129919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 124 ], [ 129, 135 ], [ 169, 192 ], [ 233, 247 ], [ 288, 300 ], [ 376, 382 ], [ 384, 392 ], [ 397, 403 ], [ 533, 542 ], [ 553, 559 ], [ 671, 692 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subsequent generations of stars formed from such nebulae also tend to have higher metallicities. Although these metals are present in stars in relatively tiny amounts, they have marked effects on stellar evolution and fusion reactions. When stars formed earlier in the universe they theoretically contained smaller quantities of heavier elements. Known examples are the metal poor Population II stars. (See Stellar population.) Identification of stellar metallicity content is found by spectroscopy.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Role in galactic enrichment", "target_page_ids": [ 27980, 31880, 223315, 223315, 273679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 196, 213 ], [ 269, 277 ], [ 381, 394 ], [ 407, 425 ], [ 486, 498 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A typical planetary nebula is roughly one light year across, and consists of extremely rarefied gas, with a density generally from 100 to 10,000 particles . (The Earth's atmosphere, by comparison, contains 2.5 particles .) Young planetary nebulae have the highest densities, sometimes as high as 106 particles . As nebulae age, their expansion causes their density to decrease. The masses of planetary nebulae range from 0.1 to 1solar masses.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [ 23473595, 172987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 52 ], [ 429, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Radiation from the central star heats the gases to temperatures of about 10,000K. The gas temperature in central regions is usually much higher than at the periphery reaching 16,000–25,000K. The volume in the vicinity of the central star is often filled with a very hot (coronal) gas having the temperature of about 1,000,000K. This gas originates from the surface of the central star in the form of the fast stellar wind.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [ 19593121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nebulae may be described as matter bounded or radiation bounded. In the former case, there is not enough matter in the nebula to absorb all the UV photons emitted by the star, and the visible nebula is fully ionized. In the latter case, there are not enough UV photons being emitted by the central star to ionize all the surrounding gas, and an ionization front propagates outward into the circumstellar envelope of neutral atoms.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "About 3000 planetary nebulae are now known to exist in our galaxy, out of 200 billion stars. Their very short lifetime compared to total stellar lifetime accounts for their rarity. They are found mostly near the plane of the Milky Way, with the greatest concentration near the Galactic Center.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [ 2589714, 373352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 234 ], [ 277, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Only about 20% of planetary nebulae are spherically symmetric (for example, see Abell 39). A wide variety of shapes exist with some very complex forms seen. Planetary nebulae are classified by different authors into: stellar, disk, ring, irregular, helical, bipolar, quadrupolar, and other types, although the majority of them belong to just three types: spherical, elliptical and bipolar. Bipolar nebulae are concentrated in the galactic plane, probably produced by relatively young massive progenitor stars; and bipolars in the galactic bulge appear to prefer orienting their orbital axes parallel to the galactic plane. On the other hand, spherical nebulae are probably produced by old stars similar to the Sun.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [ 19206276, 7506826, 693623, 420275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 88 ], [ 258, 265 ], [ 430, 444 ], [ 530, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The huge variety of the shapes is partially the projection effect—the same nebula when viewed under different angles will appear different. Nevertheless, the reason for the huge variety of physical shapes is not fully understood. Gravitational interactions with companion stars if the central stars are binary stars may be one cause. Another possibility is that planets disrupt the flow of material away from the star as the nebula forms. It has been determined that the more massive stars produce more irregularly shaped nebulae. In January 2005, astronomers announced the first detection of magnetic fields around the central stars of two planetary nebulae, and hypothesized that the fields might be partly or wholly responsible for their remarkable shapes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [ 52713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 303, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Planetary nebulae have been detected as members in four Galactic globular clusters: Messier 15, Messier 22, NGC 6441 and Palomar 6. Evidence also points to the potential discovery of planetary nebulae in globular clusters in the galaxy M31. However, there is currently only one case of a planetary nebula discovered in an open cluster that is agreed upon by independent researchers. That case pertains to the planetary nebula PHR 1315-6555 and the open cluster Andrews-Lindsay 1. Indeed, through cluster membership, PHR 1315-6555 possesses among the most precise distances established for a planetary nebula (i.e., a 4% distance solution). The cases of NGC 2818 and NGC 2348 in Messier 46, exhibit mismatched velocities between the planetary nebulae and the clusters, which indicates they are line-of-sight coincidences. A subsample of tentative cases that may potentially be cluster/PN pairs includes Abell 8 and Bica 6, and He 2-86 and NGC 4463.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Membership in clusters", "target_page_ids": [ 12866, 958996, 960596, 48819950, 24572311, 74331, 22669, 21160349, 963160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 82 ], [ 84, 94 ], [ 96, 106 ], [ 108, 116 ], [ 121, 130 ], [ 236, 239 ], [ 322, 334 ], [ 653, 661 ], [ 678, 688 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Theoretical models predict that planetary nebulae can form from main-sequence stars of between one and eight solar masses, which puts the progenitor star's age at greater than 40 million years. Although there are a few hundred known open clusters within that age range, a variety of reasons limit the chances of finding a planetary nebula within. For one reason, the planetary nebula phase for more massive stars is on the order of millennia, which is a blink of the eye in astronomic terms. Also, partly because of their small total mass, open clusters have relatively poor gravitational cohesion and tend to disperse after a relatively short time, typically from 100 to 600 million years.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Membership in clusters", "target_page_ids": [ 19605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The distances to planetary nebulae are generally poorly determined, but the Gaia mission is now measuring direct parallactic distances between their central stars and neighboring stars. It is also possible to determine distances to nearby planetary nebula by measuring their expansion rates. High resolution observations taken several years apart will show the expansion of the nebula perpendicular to the line of sight, while spectroscopic observations of the Doppler shift will reveal the velocity of expansion in the line of sight. Comparing the angular expansion with the derived velocity of expansion will reveal the distance to the nebula.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Current issues in planetary nebula studies", "target_page_ids": [ 801330, 202661, 8724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 80 ], [ 113, 134 ], [ 462, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The issue of how such a diverse range of nebular shapes can be produced is a debatable topic. It is theorised that interactions between material moving away from the star at different speeds gives rise to most observed shapes. However, some astronomers postulate that close binary central stars might be responsible for the more complex and extreme planetary nebulae. Several have been shown to exhibit strong magnetic fields, and their interactions with ionized gas could explain some planetary nebulae shapes.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Current issues in planetary nebula studies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are two main methods of determining metal abundances in nebulae. These rely on recombination lines and collisionally excited lines. Large discrepancies are sometimes seen between the results derived from the two methods. This may be explained by the presence of small temperature fluctuations within planetary nebulae. The discrepancies may be too large to be caused by temperature effects, and some hypothesize the existence of cold knots containing very little hydrogen to explain the observations. However, such knots have yet to be observed.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Current issues in planetary nebula studies", "target_page_ids": [ 1129919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asymptotic giant branch", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1118042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cosmic distance ladder", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 471487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fast Low-Ionization Emission Region", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3028690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nova remnant", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1685744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " PG 1159 star (predegenerates)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11726394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Protoplanetary nebula", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2272102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Supernova remnant", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " White dwarf", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of planetary nebulae", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 525091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (Chapter 1 can be downloaded here.)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Entry in the Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Press release on recent observations of the Cat's Eye Nebula", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Planetary Nebulae, SEDS Messier Pages", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The first detection of magnetic fields in the central stars of four planetary nebulae", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Planetary Nebulae—Information and amateur observations", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Planetary nebula on arxiv.org", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Planetary_nebulae", "Stellar_evolution", "Articles_containing_video_clips" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "DeCSS is one of the first free computer programs capable of decrypting content on a commercially produced DVD video disc. Before the release of DeCSS, open source operating systems (such as BSD and Linux) could not play encrypted video DVDs.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5783, 11014498, 18932622, 6097297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 48 ], [ 106, 109 ], [ 191, 194 ], [ 199, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DeCSS's development was done without a license from the DVD Copy Control Association (CCA), the organization responsible for DVD copy protection—namely, the Content Scramble System (CSS) used by commercial DVD publishers. The release of DeCSS resulted in a Norwegian criminal trial and subsequent acquittal of one of the authors of DeCSS. The DVD CCA launched numerous lawsuits in the United States in an effort to stop the distribution of the software.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 173026, 219210, 18935238, 300834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 84 ], [ 129, 144 ], [ 157, 180 ], [ 298, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DeCSS was devised by three people, two of whom remain anonymous. It was on the Internet mailing list LiViD in October 1999. The one known author of the trio is Norwegian programmer Jon Lech Johansen, whose home was raided in 2000 by Norwegian police. Still a teenager at the time, he was put on trial in a Norwegian court for violating Norwegian Criminal Code section 145, and faced a possible jail sentence of two years and large fines, but was acquitted of all charges in early 2003. On 5 March 2003, a Norwegian appeals court ruled that Johansen would have to be retried. The court said that arguments filed by the prosecutor and additional evidence merited another trial. On 22 December 2003, the appeals court agreed with the acquittal, and on 5 January 2004, Norway's Økokrim (Economic Crime Unit) decided not to pursue the case further.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 14539, 1174073, 21241, 156282, 166845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 87 ], [ 101, 106 ], [ 160, 169 ], [ 181, 198 ], [ 774, 781 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The program was first released on 6 October 1999 when Johansen posted an announcement of DeCSS 1.1b, a closed source Windows-only application for DVD ripping, on the livid-dev mailing list. The source code was leaked before the end of the month. The first release of DeCSS was preceded by a few weeks by a program called DoD DVD Speed Ripper from a group called DrinkOrDie, which didn't include source code and which apparently did not work with all DVDs. Drink or Die reportedly disassembled the object code of the Xing DVD player to obtain a player key. The group that wrote DeCSS, including Johansen, came to call themselves Masters of Reverse Engineering and may have obtained information from Drink or Die.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 18934886, 18890, 509070, 27661, 18934661, 54390, 22373, 2856840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 116 ], [ 117, 124 ], [ 150, 157 ], [ 194, 205 ], [ 362, 372 ], [ 480, 492 ], [ 497, 508 ], [ 516, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The CSS decryption source code used in DeCSS was mailed to Derek Fawcus before DeCSS was released. When the DeCSS source code was leaked, Fawcus noticed that DeCSS included his css-auth code in violation of the GNU GPL. When Johansen was made aware of this, he contacted Fawcus to solve the issue and was granted a license to use the code in DeCSS under non-GPL terms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 18938683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 22 January 2004, the DVD CCA dropped the case against Jon Johansen.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 173026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The DeCSS program was a collaborative project, in which Johansen wrote the graphical user interface. The transcripts from the Borgarting Court of Appeal, published in the Norwegian newspaper Verdens Gang, contain the following description of the process which led to the release of DeCSS:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 12293, 19727908, 182662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 99 ], [ 126, 152 ], [ 191, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Through Internet Relay Chat (henceforth IRC), [Jon Lech Johansen] made contact with like-minded [people seeking to develop a DVD-player under the Linux operating system]. 11 September 1999, he had a conversation with \"mdx\" about how the encryption algorithm in CSS could be found, by using a poorly secured software-based DVD-player. In a conversation [between Jon Lech Johansen and \"mdx\"] 22 September, \"mdx\" informs that \"the nomad\" had found the code for CSS decryption, and that \"mdx\" now would send this [code] to Jon Lech Johansen. \"The nomad\" allegedly found this decryption algorithm through so-called reverse engineering of a Xing DVD-player, where the [decryption] keys were more or less openly accessible. Through this, information that made it possible [for \"mdx\"] to create the code CSS_scramble.cpp was retrieved. From chat logs dated 4 November 1999 and 25 November 1999, it appears that \"the nomad\" carried through the reverse engineering process on a Xing player, which he characterized as illegal. As the case is presented for the High Court, this was not known by Jon Lech Johansen before 4 November [1999].", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 6097297, 18935488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 151 ], [ 610, 629 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Regarding the authentication code, the High Court takes for its basis that \"the nomad\" obtained this code through the electronic mailing list LiVid (Linux Video) on the Internet, and that it was created by Derek Fawcus. It appears through a LiVid posting dated 6 October 1999 that Derek Fawcus on this date read through the DeCSS source code and compared it with his own. Further, it appears that \"the creators [of DeCSS] have taken [Derek Fawcus' code] almost verbatim - the only alteration was the removal of [Derek Fawcus'] copyright header and a paragraph containing commentaries, and a change of the function names.\" The name [of the code] was CSS_auth.cpp.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The High Court takes for its basis that the program Jon Lech Johansen later programmed, the graphical user interface, consisted of \"the nomad's\" decryption algorithm and Derek Fawcus' authentication package. The creation of a graphical user interface made the program accessible, also for users without special knowledge in programming. The program was published on the Internet for the first time 6 October 1999, after Jon Lech Johansen had tested it on the movie \"The Matrix.\" In this, he downloaded approximately 2.5%. 200 megabytes, of the movie to the hard drive on his computer. This file is the only film fragment Jon Lech Johansen has saved on his computer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When the release of the DeCSS source code made the CSS algorithm available for public scrutiny, it was soon found to be susceptible to a brute force attack quite different from DeCSS. The encryption is only 40-bit, and does not use all keys; a high-end home computer in 1999 running optimized code could brute-force it within 24 hours, and modern computers can brute-force it in a few seconds or less.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Technology and derived works", "target_page_ids": [ 53784, 487403, 53784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 155 ], [ 207, 213 ], [ 304, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Programmers around the world created hundreds of programs equivalent to DeCSS, some merely to demonstrate the trivial ease with which the system could be bypassed, and others to add DVD support to open source movie players. The licensing restrictions on CSS make it impossible to create an open source implementation through official channels, and closed source drivers are unavailable for some operating systems, so some users need DeCSS to watch even legally obtained movies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Technology and derived works", "target_page_ids": [ 22290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first legal threats against sites hosting DeCSS, and the beginning of the DeCSS mirroring campaign, began in early November 1999 (Universal v. Reimerdes). The preliminary injunction in DVD Copy Control Association, Inc. v. Bunner followed soon after, in January 2000. As a response to these threats a program also called DeCSS but with an unrelated function was developed. This program can be used to strip Cascading Style Sheets tags from HTML pages. In one case, a school removed a student's webpage that included a copy of this program, mistaking it for the original DeCSS program, and received a great deal of negative media attention. The CSS stripping program had been specifically created to bait the MPAA in this manner.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legal response", "target_page_ids": [ 1102756, 26497444, 23290197, 13191, 18932641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 156 ], [ 189, 233 ], [ 411, 433 ], [ 444, 448 ], [ 712, 716 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In protest against legislation that prohibits publication of copy protection circumvention code in countries that implement the WIPO Copyright Treaty (such as the United States' Digital Millennium Copyright Act), some have devised clever ways of distributing descriptions of the DeCSS algorithm, such as through steganography, through various Internet protocols, on T-shirts and in dramatic readings, as MIDI files, as a haiku poem (DeCSS haiku), and even as a so-called illegal prime number.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legal response", "target_page_ids": [ 33293, 3434750, 20648089, 28733, 19996, 13217, 42513922, 10595872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 149 ], [ 163, 176 ], [ 178, 210 ], [ 312, 325 ], [ 404, 408 ], [ 421, 426 ], [ 433, 444 ], [ 471, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " DVD Copy Control Association", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 173026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AACS encryption key controversy", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20609862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Illegal prime", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10595872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " youtube-dl", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 65666671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lawrence Lessig, The Future of Ideas, 2001, pp.187–190, freely available here .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 163716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " DeCSS Central - Information about DVD, CSS, DeCSS, LiVid, the DVD CCA and MPAA and the various lawsuits surrounding DeCSS.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " EFF archive of information on the Bunner and Pavlovich DVD-CAA lawsuits", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2600 News: DVD Industry Takes 2600 to Court", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aftenposten: Prosecutors let DVD-Jon's victory stand", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Openlaw DVD/DeCSS Forum Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) List", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 42 ways to distribute DeCSS", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " DeCSS Explained - A technical overview of the CSS decryption algorithm.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " DeCSS.c, The DeCSS source code", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1999_software", "Cryptanalytic_software", "Cryptography_law", "Digital_rights_management_circumvention_software", "Compact_Disc_and_DVD_copy_protection" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Black's Law Dictionary is the most widely used law dictionary in the United States. Henry Campbell Black (1860–1927) was the author of the first two editions of the dictionary.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 700750, 7460545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 61 ], [ 84, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first edition was published in 1891 by West Publishing, with the full title A Dictionary of Law: containing definitions of the terms and phrases of American and English jurisprudence, ancient and modern, including the principal terms of international constitutional and commercial law, with a collection of legal maxims and numerous select titles from the civil law and other foreign systems. A second edition was published in 1910 as A Law Dictionary. Black died in 1927 and future editions were titled Black's Law Dictionary.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4506473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sixth and earlier editions of the book additionally provided case citations for the term cited, which was viewed by lawyers as its most useful feature, providing a useful starting point with leading cases. The invention of the Internet made legal research easier therefore many state- or circuit-specific case citations and outdated or overruled case citations were omitted from the seventh edition in 1999. The eighth edition introduced a unique system of perpetually updated case citations and cross-references to legal encyclopedias. The current edition is the eleventh, published in 2019.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As many legal terms are derived from a Latin root word, the dictionary provides a pronunciation guide for such terms. In addition, the applicable entries provide pronunciation transcriptions pursuant to those found among North American practitioners of law or medicine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 264211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 44 ], [ 45, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An online version of the tenth edition can be accessed through the paid Westlaw legal information service, and is available as an application for iOS devices.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Availability", "target_page_ids": [ 483210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The second edition of Black's Law Dictionary, published in 1910, is now in the public domain and is widely reproduced online. References to case law are out-of-date, and that edition of the dictionary omits legal terms that have since come into use and does not reflect contemporary changes in how legal terms are used.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Availability", "target_page_ids": [ 18935551, 215403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 92 ], [ 140, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Black's Law Dictionary 11th ed. (West Group, 2019), Bryan A. Garner, editor, ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 4506473, 12832865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 43 ], [ 52, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Black's Law Dictionary 10th ed. (West Group, 2014), Bryan A. Garner, editor, ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 12832865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Black's Law Dictionary 9th ed. (West Group, 2009), Bryan A. Garner, editor, ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 12832865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Black's Law Dictionary 8th ed. (West Group, 2004), Bryan A. Garner, editor, ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 12832865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Black's Law Dictionary 7th ed. (West Group, 1999), Bryan A. Garner, editor, ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 12832865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Black's Law Dictionary 6th ed. (West Publishing, 1990) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Black's Law Dictionary 5th ed. (West Publishing, 1979) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Black's Law Dictionary Revised 4th ed. (St. Paul: West, 1968)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Black's Law Dictionary 4th ed. (St. Paul: West, 1951)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Black's Law Dictionary 3rd ed. (West Publishing Co., 1933) (the first edition after Henry C. Black's death)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Law Dictionary 2nd ed. (St. Paul, Minn.: West Publishing, 1910) . Public domain (accessible for free through Google Books)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 3190097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Dictionary of Law 1st ed. (St. Paul, Minn.: West Publishing, 1891) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Black's Law Dictionary 6th pocket ed. (West Group, 2021), Bryan A. Garner, editor, ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 12832865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Black's Law Dictionary 5th pocket ed. (West Group, 2016), Bryan A. Garner, editor, ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 12832865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Black's Law Dictionary 4th pocket ed. (West Group, 2011), Bryan A. Garner, editor, ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 12832865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Black's Law Dictionary 3rd pocket ed. (West Group, 2006), Bryan A. Garner, editor, ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 12832865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Black's Law Dictionary 2nd pocket ed. (West Group, 2001), Bryan A. Garner, editor, ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 12832865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Black's Law Dictionary 1st pocket ed. (West Group, 1996), Bryan A. Garner, editor, ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 12832865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Blackův právnický slovník. Complete translation of 6th edition into Czech. Victoria Publishing, Prague, 1993. .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Āqāʼī, Bahman. Farhang-i ḥuqūqī-i Bahman: Ingilīsī-Fārsī: bar asās-i Black's law dictionary (1999) (Fārsī)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Muqtadirah-yi Qaumī Zabān. Qānūnī, Angrezī-Urdu lug̲h̲at: Blaiks lāʼ dikshanarī se māk̲h̲ūz (Based on Black's law dictionary) / nigrān, Fatiḥ Muḥammad Malik (2002) . (Urdu)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bouvier's Law Dictionary", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2644469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Legal terminology textbook", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17843553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of legal abbreviations", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 723507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wex", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4868366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " WorldCat listing for all nine editions", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Libraries with the Urdu edition", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Libraries with the Persian edition", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Black's Law Dictionary, 2nd Edition (1910) at the Internet Archive", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "West_(publisher)", "1891_non-fiction_books", "Law_dictionaries" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Muckleshoot () are a Lushootseed-speaking Native American tribe, part of the Coast Salish peoples of the Pacific Northwest. They are descendants of the Duwamish and Puyallup peoples whose traditional territory was located along the Green and White rivers, including up to the headwaters in the foothills of the Cascade Mountains, in present-day Washington State. Since the mid-19th century, their reservation is located in the area of Auburn, Washington, about 15 miles (24km) northeast of the port of Tacoma and 35 miles (55km) southeast of Seattle, another major port.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 619509, 10670457, 78147, 478988, 611433, 76227, 151274, 13015878, 138165, 11388236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ], [ 81, 101 ], [ 109, 126 ], [ 236, 241 ], [ 246, 251 ], [ 315, 332 ], [ 439, 445 ], [ 447, 457 ], [ 506, 512 ], [ 546, 553 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The federally recognized Muckleshoot Indian Tribe is a group that formed post-Treaty, made up of related peoples who shared territory and later a reservation near Auburn. They organized a government in 1936; the tribe is composed of intermarried descendants of various tribal groups who inhabited Central Puget Sound and occupied the Green and White rivers' watershed, from the rivers' confluence in present-day Auburn to their headwaters in the Cascades. These include the following: ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Buklshuhls (later known as Muckleshoot) (buklshuhls - \"from a high point from which you can see\", which probably referred to a lookout site between the White and Green rivers) - they lived along the White River, from present-day Kent eastwards to the mountains and eventually to the Green River", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6901997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Duwamish - this people formed two bands before the mid-1850s ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 316556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dxʷ'Dəw?Abš / Dkhw'Duw'Absh (\"People of the Inside (the environs of Elliott Bay)\", also known as doo-AHBSH - \"People of the Doo, i.e. Inside\")", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 262350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Xacuabš (\"People of the Large Lake (Lake Washington)\", also known as hah-choo-AHBSH - \"people of HAH-choo\", meaning 'a large lake', referring to what is known today as Lake Washington)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 219797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Snoqualmie (S·dukʷalbixʷ / Sduqwalbixw) - they lived along the Tolt River and the Snoqualmie River)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40634790, 1274040, 262390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ], [ 64, 74 ], [ 83, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Upper Puyallup (River) people: Puyallup (Spuyaləpabš or S’Puyalupubsh) bands along the Upper Puyallup River ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 311647, 662445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 71 ], [ 88, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " White River Valley tribes: ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 611433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stkamish / Skekomish (Steq-ABSH) (\"People of the log jam\", named after the village Steq (\"log jam\") on the White (now Green) River in the Kent vicinity, the people of Steq were the Steq-ABSH; Settlers and government officials anglicized \"Steq-ABSH\" into Stkamish and applied the term to all villages between Auburn and Renton Junction, also known as White River Indians)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Smulkamish / Smalhkamish (\"People of White River\", named after the term that referred to the former course of the Upper White River) - They lived in villages on the present Muckleshoot Indian Reservation and near present-day Enumclaw)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 151278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Skopamish (Skop-ABSH / Skwohp-AHBSH) (\"The People of the variable stream\" or \"Green ('fluctuating') River People\". They were also known as the Green River Indians, related to their territory.) - They lived in the central Green River Valley, mostly above the former confluence near present-day Auburn. The term skop means \"first big and then little,\" in apparent reference to fluctuations of the Green River. Another source says their name is derived from the village name ill-AHL-koh (\"confluence\" or \"striped water\") at the historic confluence of the White and Green rivers at the present-day town of Auburn, possibly from the striped appearance of the Green River below the confluence before the waters merged.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 478988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 222, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tkwakwamish / T'Qua-qua-mish (along the headwaters of the Puyallup River)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Yilalkoamish tribe", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dothliuk (they lived in the area of South Prairie, Washington, south of the mouth of the Cole Creek at its confluence with South Prairie Creek, a Carbon River tributary)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 138159, 4357596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 62 ], [ 147, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Traditionally, the ancestors of the Muckleshoot lived along the eastern shores of Washington State's Puget Sound region and the adjacent rivers of the Cascade Range. They spoke Whulshootseed, a local form of Lushootseed. Most Muckleshoot today do not speak their ancestral language, but some do. The tribe has an active program for its preservation and resuscitation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 23682, 76227, 1563105, 619509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 112 ], [ 151, 164 ], [ 177, 190 ], [ 208, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most Muckleshoot now live on or near the 15.871km2 (6.128 sq mi) Muckleshoot Reservation. They have an approximate population of more than 3,000, making the Muckleshoot one of the largest Native American tribes in Washington State. The 2000 census reported a resident population of 3,606 on reservation land, with 28.65 percent reported solely Native American heritage. The Coast Salish and Muckleshoot had long absorbed other peoples into their tribes and have had multi-racial descendants. Their children are raised culturally as Muckleshoot.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 432383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 236, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The reservation is located on Muckleshoot Prairie, between the White and Green rivers southeast of the city of Auburn (at ) in King and Pierce counties. The city of Auburn overlaps and extends within the reservation. Some 72.6 percent of the reservation's population lives within the city boundaries.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 611433, 478988, 91203, 91069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 68 ], [ 73, 78 ], [ 127, 131 ], [ 136, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although they were skilled hunters, salmon fishing was the mainstay of traditional Coast Salish life. The people gathered and cured salmon, sometimes trading it with other peoples along the coast and inland. Because it was central to survival, salmon was treated with reverence, which continues to this day.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Traditional culture", "target_page_ids": [ 36984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the elaborate First Salmon Ceremony, which is still observed, the entire community shares the flesh of a Spring Chinook. They return its remains to the river where it was caught. This is so the salmon can inform the other fish of how well it was received. The other ceremony for the first salmon is to roast it until it becomes ashes. The Muckleshoot toss the bones and ashes back into the water or stream where they took the salmon, believing that the fish would come alive again (be part of a round of new propagation).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Traditional culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With a seemingly endless supply of food, the people could engage in various crafts, including weaving, wood-carving, and basket-making. A complex social structure also emerged, consisting of a nobility, middle class, and slaves. The latter were generally captured members of other tribes taken in raids or warfare.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Traditional culture", "target_page_ids": [ 23415844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coast Salish life changed radically as a result of first encounters with European and American traders and explorers. Lacking immunity to the newcomers' infectious diseases, the native population became decimated by the mid-nineteenth century. At the same time, amicable relations with American settlers deteriorated as whites began claiming choice land for themselves and encroaching on Salish territory. They tried to prevent the Native Americans from hunting and fishing in their traditional territories. In a last-ditch attempt to stem the tide of white colonization, the Muckleshoot allied with other local peoples in the Puget Sound Indian War (1855–1856). Upon their defeat, they were forced under a Treaty into a tiny reservation near present-day Auburn, Washington.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial contact", "target_page_ids": [ 3551835, 151274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 627, 649 ], [ 755, 773 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The peoples on the Muckleshoot Reservation cooperated and began to build a common culture. In the 1930s, they organized to set up a constitutional, elected government, adopting their constitution in 1936. They established more self-government, under an elected Tribal Council.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "20th century to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tensions with whites and mainstream society abated only slightly, however. In the early 20th century, many ethnic Japanese established farms in the Green River Valley, cultivating the fertile land for agriculture. From fear and racial discrimination, the government ordered ethnic Japanese to be interned and transported out of the area to camps inland during the war. Many lost their houses, businesses, and property. After litigation and court challenges in the late 20th century, the US government formally apologized to their representatives, passing a law to pay compensation to survivors and descendants.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "20th century to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A large Army quartermaster depot was established in the Green River Valley at the south end of Auburn to take advantage of railways. It served the ports along Puget Sound, supporting the US war effort in the Pacific. In the post-World War II era, Auburn began to be more industrialized. Together with rapid population growth in the region, which developed many suburbs, these changes put pressure on the Muckleshoot and their reservation holdings. Many private land owners tried to prevent them from fishing and hunting in traditional territories.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "20th century to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1960s and 1970s, the Muckleshoot engaged in a series of protests, intended at protecting their fragile ecosystem. Known as the Fish Wars, these protests attempted to preserve Muckleshoot fishing rights in nearby rivers that were not within the official reservation. County and state authorities had tried to regulate their fishing off-reservation. Similarly, the state tried to regulate other tribes in their fishing along the coastal waters.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "20th century to present", "target_page_ids": [ 38948583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Boldt Decision, the federal district court upheld the right of the Muckleshoot and other Treaty peoples to fish from the rivers of the region and hunt in these territories. It ruled that the Native Americans had rights to half the catch in their traditional areas. It designated the Muckleshoot as co-managers of the King County watershed, with control over fishing and hunting in their \"Usual and Accustomed\" historical fishing and hunting grounds.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "20th century to present", "target_page_ids": [ 1224878, 91203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ], [ 324, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While this improved the tribe's economic standing, the Muckleshoot were soon forced to contend with a sharp decline in the salmon population, due to the adverse effects on the environment, especially river water quality, of urbanization and industrialization. Dams on rivers had decreased the fish populations that could get upstream to spawn, and water quality in the rivers had declined. While they continue to fight for the preservation of the ancient salmon runs, the Muckleshoot also found other venues to improve their economy.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "20th century to present", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Taking advantage of their proximity to Seattle and other urban centers, and changes in gaming laws, in the late 20th century they opened a casino and bingo parlor on their reservation, called Muckleshoot Indian Casino and Muckleshoot Bingo. They have used some of the revenues to reacquire lands near the reservation and to support welfare and education of their people.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "20th century to present", "target_page_ids": [ 11388236, 58286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 46 ], [ 139, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Muckleshoot organized under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, during the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. They adopted a constitution that year that was ratified in 1941, establishing an elected government. The Muckleshoot Tribal Council has nine elected members to represent the tribe. This council is subject, in turn, to the General Council, consisting of all members of the tribe.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 10979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On November 6, 2013, the Muckleshoot Tribe bought 150 square miles (390km2) of forest in Washington state to add to its landholdings.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The reservation falls under Public Law 280 jurisdiction, with police services supplied by both King County and Auburn. The Muckleshoot Indian Tribe contracts with the King County Sheriff's Office for police services. As an unincorporated jurisdiction, the Tribe already receives base-level police services from the King County Sheriff's Office. Deputies assigned to the Muckleshoot reservation include six patrol officers, one school resource officer, a storefront deputy, a Muckleshoot Housing Authority deputy and one police chief assigned full-time to the reservation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 16891724, 509785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 195 ], [ 223, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Muckleshoot Tribal Schools is in King County, near Auburn.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 68231779, 151274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 51, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Muckleshoot Tribe website", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Muckleshoot Casino", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Native_American_tribes_in_Washington_(state)", "Geography_of_King_County,_Washington", "Geography_of_Pierce_County,_Washington", "Federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" ]

[ "Muckleshoot", "Buklshuhls" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Banksia is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes, and fruiting \"cones\" and heads. Banksias range in size from prostrate woody shrubs to trees up to 30 metres (100 ft) tall. They are found in a wide variety of landscapes: sclerophyll forest, (occasionally) rainforest, shrubland, and some more arid landscapes, though not in Australia's deserts.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38493, 21780446, 19828134, 56276, 5713772, 4689264, 823251, 216428, 61708, 159851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 18 ], [ 33, 40 ], [ 48, 53 ], [ 54, 60 ], [ 61, 71 ], [ 79, 88 ], [ 90, 100 ], [ 114, 126 ], [ 265, 270 ], [ 360, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heavy producers of nectar, banksias are a vital part of the food chain in the Australian bush. They are an important food source for all sorts of nectarivorous animals, including birds, bats, rats, possums, stingless bees and a host of invertebrates. Further, they are of economic importance to Australia's nursery and cut flower industries. However, these plants are threatened by a number of processes including land clearing, frequent burning and disease, and a number of species are rare and endangered.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3883838, 435078, 496037, 13966830, 2665468, 20110668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 25 ], [ 307, 314 ], [ 319, 329 ], [ 414, 427 ], [ 487, 491 ], [ 496, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banksias grow as trees or woody shrubs. Trees of the largest species, B. integrifolia (coast banksia) and B. seminuda (river banksia), often grow over 15 metres tall, some even grow to standing 30 metres tall. Banksia species that grow as shrubs are usually erect, but there are several species that are prostrate, with branches that grow on or below the soil.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 18955875, 61708, 4353272, 5689869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 21 ], [ 32, 38 ], [ 71, 86 ], [ 107, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The leaves of Banksia vary greatly between species. Sizes vary from the narrow, 1– centimetre long needle-like leaves of B. ericifolia (heath-leaved banksia), to the very large leaves of B. grandis (bull banksia), which may be up to 45 centimetres long. The leaves of most species have serrated edges, but a few, such as B.integrifolia, do not. Leaves are usually arranged along the branches in irregular spirals, but in some species they are crowded together in whorls. Many species have differing juvenile and adult leaves (e.g., Banksia integrifolia has large serrated juvenile leaves).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 5230443, 4364731, 29005044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 135 ], [ 188, 198 ], [ 466, 472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The flowers are arranged in flower spikes or capitate flower heads. The character most commonly associated with Banksia is the flower spike, an elongated inflorescence consisting of a woody axis covered in tightly packed pairs of flowers attached at right angles. A single flower spike generally contains hundreds or even thousands of flowers; the most recorded is around 6000 on inflorescences of B. grandis. Not all Banksia have an elongate flower spike, however: the members of the small Isostylis complex have long been recognised as banksias in which the flower spike has been reduced to a head; and recently the large genus Dryandra has been found to have arisen from within the ranks of Banksia, and sunk into it as B. ser. Dryandra. They similarly have capitate flower heads rather than spikes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 63528, 4364731, 3016255, 4200856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 167 ], [ 398, 408 ], [ 491, 500 ], [ 723, 739 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banksia flowers are usually a shade of yellow, but orange, red, pink and even violet flowers also occur. The colour of the flowers is determined by the colour of the perianth parts and often the style. The style is much longer than the perianth, and is initially trapped by the upper perianth parts. These are gradually released over a period of days, either from top to bottom or from bottom to top. When the styles and perianth parts are different colours, the visual effect is of a colour change sweeping along the spike. This can be most spectacular in B. prionotes (acorn banksia) and related species, as the white inflorescence in bud becomes a brilliant orange. In most cases, the individual flowers are tall, thin saccate (sack-shaped) in shape.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 34368, 71234, 25825, 215567, 37947, 1770564, 2394288, 5583645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 45 ], [ 51, 57 ], [ 59, 62 ], [ 64, 68 ], [ 78, 84 ], [ 167, 175 ], [ 196, 201 ], [ 561, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Occasionally, multiple flower spikes can form. This is most often seen in Banksia marginata and B. ericifolia (pictured right).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 5689780, 5230443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 91 ], [ 96, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the flower spikes or heads age, the flower parts dry up and may turn shades of orange, tan or dark brown colour, before fading to grey over a period of years. In some species, old flower parts are lost, revealing the axis; in others, the old flower parts may persist for many years, giving the fruiting structure a hairy appearance. Old flower spikes are commonly referred to as \"cones\", although they are not technically cones according to the botanical definition of the term: cones only occur in conifers and cycads.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 653598, 68085, 220457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 484, 489 ], [ 504, 511 ], [ 517, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the large number of flowers per inflorescence, only a few of them ever develop fruit, and in some species a flower spike will set no fruit at all. The fruit of Banksia is a woody follicle embedded in the axis of the inflorescence. In many species, the resulting structure is a massive woody structure commonly called a cone. Each follicle consists of two horizontal valves that tightly enclose the seeds. The follicle opens to release the seed by splitting along the suture. In some species, each valve splits too. In some species the follicles open as soon as the seed is mature, but in most species most follicles open only after stimulated to do so by bushfire. Each follicle usually contains one or two small seeds, each with a wedge-shaped papery wing that causes it to spin as it falls to the ground.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 12489896, 20827796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 196 ], [ 668, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Specimens of Banksia were first collected by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Daniel Solander, naturalists on the Endeavour during Lieutenant (later Captain) James Cook's first voyage to the Pacific Ocean. Cook landed on Australian soil for the first time on 29 April 1770, at a place that he later named Botany Bay in recognition of \"the great quantity of plants Mr Banks and Dr Solander found in this place\". Over the next seven weeks, Banks and Solander collected thousands of plant specimens, including the first specimens of a new genus that would later be named Banksia in Banks' honour. Four species were present in this first collection: B. serrata (Saw Banksia), B. integrifolia (Coast Banksia), B. ericifolia (Heath-leaved Banksia) and B. robur (Swamp Banksia). In June the ship was careened at Endeavour River, where specimens of B. dentata (Tropical Banksia) were collected.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 39657, 386287, 183655, 15630, 23070, 2496566, 4365490, 4353272, 5230443, 5256485, 2564884, 1976300, 5689713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 61 ], [ 66, 84 ], [ 105, 114 ], [ 149, 159 ], [ 182, 195 ], [ 296, 306 ], [ 637, 647 ], [ 663, 678 ], [ 696, 709 ], [ 737, 745 ], [ 784, 792 ], [ 796, 811 ], [ 832, 842 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The genus Banksia was finally described and named by Carolus Linnaeus the Younger in his April 1782 publication Supplementum Plantarum; hence the full name for the genus is \"Banksia L.f.\". Linnaeus placed the genus in class Tetrandra, order Monogynia of his father's classification, and named it in honour of Banks. The name Banksia had in fact already been published in 1775 as Banksia J.R.Forst & G.Forst, referring to some New Zealand species that the Forsters had collected during Cook's second voyage. However Linnaeus incorrectly attributed the Forsters' specimens to the genus Passerina, and therefore considered the name Banksia available for use. By the time Joseph Gaertner corrected Banks' error in 1788, Banksia L.f. was widely known and accepted, so Gaertner renamed Banksia J.R.Forst, & G.Forst to Pimelea, a name previously chosen for the genus by Banks and Solander.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 1990644, 7837371, 39736, 17539, 399844, 43667, 4913064, 9627507, 1455509, 7308831, 2518662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 81 ], [ 112, 134 ], [ 146, 155 ], [ 224, 233 ], [ 388, 397 ], [ 400, 407 ], [ 427, 438 ], [ 585, 594 ], [ 669, 684 ], [ 773, 780 ], [ 813, 820 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first specimens of a Dryandra were collected by Archibald Menzies, surgeon and naturalist to the Vancouver Expedition. At the request of Joseph Banks, Menzies collected natural history specimens wherever possible during the voyage. During September and October 1791, while the expedition were anchored at King George Sound, he collected numerous plant specimens, including the first specimens of Dryandra (now Banksia) sessilis (Parrotbush) and D. (now Banksia) pellaeifolia. Upon Menzies' return to England, he turned his specimens over to Banks; as with most other specimens in Banks' library, they remained undescribed for many years. Robert Brown gave a lecture, naming the new genus Dryandra in 1809, however Joseph Knight published the name Josephia before Brown published his paper with the description of Dryandra. Brown ignored Knight's name, as did subsequent botanists.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 815825, 9284829, 39657, 1857897, 5712514, 8717332, 18804156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 69 ], [ 101, 121 ], [ 141, 153 ], [ 309, 326 ], [ 400, 431 ], [ 449, 478 ], [ 718, 731 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1891, Otto Kuntze, strictly applying the principle of priority, argued that Pimelea should revert to the name Banksia J.R.Forst & G.Forst. He proposed the new genus Sirmuellera to replaced Banksia L.f. and transferred its species to the new genus. This arrangement was largely ignored by Kuntze's contemporaries.Banksia L.f. was formally conserved and Sirmuellera rejected in 1940.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 3716701, 12004499, 5176156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 20 ], [ 44, 65 ], [ 332, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banksia belongs to the family Proteaceae, subfamily Grevilleoideae, and tribe Banksieae. There are around 170 species. The closest relatives of Banksia are two genera of rainforest trees in North Queensland (Musgravea and Austromuellera).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 5713772, 5744614, 5744614, 5620929, 5541965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 40 ], [ 52, 66 ], [ 78, 87 ], [ 208, 217 ], [ 222, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alex George arranged the genus into two subgenera—subgenus Isostylis (containing B. ilicifolia, B. oligantha and B. cuneata) and subgenus Banksia (containing all other species except those he considered dryandras)—in his 1981 monograph and 1999 treatment for the Flora of Australia series. He held that flower morphology was the key to relationships in the genus. Austin Mast and Kevin Thiele published the official merging of Dryandra within Banksia in 2007, recalibrating the genus into subgenus Banksia and subgenus Spathulatae.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 3099530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All but one of the living Banksia species are endemic to Australia. The exception is B. dentata (tropical banksia), which occurs throughout northern Australia, and on islands to the north including New Guinea and the Aru Islands. An extinct species, B. novae-zelandiae, was found in New Zealand. The other species occur in two distinct geographical regions: southwest Western Australia and eastern Australia. Southwest Western Australia is the main centre of biodiversity; over 90% of all Banksia species occur only there, from Exmouth in the north, south and east to beyond Esperance on the south coast. Eastern Australia has far fewer species, but these include some of best known and most widely distributed species, including B. integrifolia (coast banksia) and B. spinulosa (hairpin banksia). Here they occur from the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia right around the east coast up to Cape York in Queensland.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 937971, 5689713, 20611456, 556452, 26368615, 4913064, 1755783, 33613, 45086, 276849, 1356985, 4353272, 5525531, 1377312, 481294, 59051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 53 ], [ 86, 96 ], [ 199, 209 ], [ 218, 229 ], [ 251, 269 ], [ 284, 295 ], [ 359, 368 ], [ 369, 386 ], [ 461, 473 ], [ 530, 537 ], [ 577, 586 ], [ 733, 748 ], [ 769, 781 ], [ 826, 840 ], [ 894, 903 ], [ 907, 917 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The vast majority of Banksia are found in sandy or gravelly soils, though some populations of B. marginata (silver banksia) and B.spinulosa do occur on soil that is heavier and more clay-like. B.seminuda is exceptional for its preference for rich loams along watercourses.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 5689780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most occur in heathlands or low woodlands; of the eastern species, B.integrifolia and B.marginata occur in forests; many south-western species such as B. grandis, B. sphaerocarpa, B. sessilis, B. nobilis and B. dallanneyi grow as understorey plants in jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata), wandoo (E. wandoo) and karri (E. diversicolor) forests, with B.seminuda being one of the forest trees in suitable habitat.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 461082, 66986, 4364731, 5689882, 5712514, 8717610, 8717573, 68764, 868575, 11090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 24 ], [ 32, 40 ], [ 151, 161 ], [ 163, 178 ], [ 180, 191 ], [ 193, 203 ], [ 208, 221 ], [ 252, 258 ], [ 306, 311 ], [ 330, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most species do not grow well near the coast, notable exceptions being the southern Western Australian species B. speciosa, B. praemorsa and B. repens. Only a few species, such as B. rosserae and B. elderiana (swordfish banksia), occur in arid areas. Most of the eastern Australian species survive in uplands, but only a few of the Western Australian species native to the Stirling Ranges – B. solandri, B. oreophila, B. brownii and B. montana – survive at high altitudes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 5236, 33613, 5689877, 5689839, 5689852, 4372936, 5689719, 18955999, 793565, 33613, 1624640, 5689870, 5689820, 4421383, 8717590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 44 ], [ 84, 101 ], [ 111, 122 ], [ 124, 136 ], [ 141, 150 ], [ 181, 192 ], [ 197, 209 ], [ 240, 244 ], [ 303, 310 ], [ 334, 351 ], [ 375, 389 ], [ 393, 404 ], [ 406, 418 ], [ 420, 430 ], [ 435, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Studies of the south-western species have found the distribution of Banksia species to be primarily constrained by rainfall. With the exception of B.rosserae, no species tolerates annual rainfall of less than 200 millimetres, despite many species surviving in areas that receive less than 400 millimetres. Banksia species are present throughout the region of suitable rainfall, with greatest speciation in cooler, wetter areas. Hotter, drier regions around the edges of its range tend to have fewer species with larger distributions. The greatest species richness occurs in association with uplands, especially the Stirling Range.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are many fossils of Banksia. The oldest of these are fossil pollen between 65 and 59million years old. There are fossil leaves between 59 and 56million years old found in southern New South Wales. The oldest fossil cones are between 47.8 and 41.2million years old, found in Western Australia. Although Banksia is now only native to Australia and New Guinea, there are fossils from New Zealand, between 21 and 25million years old.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Evolution and fossil record", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Evolutionary scientists Marcell Cardillo and Renae Pratt have proposed a southwest Australian origin for banksias despite their closest relatives being north Queensland rainforest species.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Evolution and fossil record", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Banksias are heavy producers of nectar, making them an important source of food for nectivorous animals, including honeyeaters and small mammals such as rodents, antechinus, honey possums, pygmy possums, gliders and bats. Many of these animals play a role in pollination of Banksia. Various studies have shown mammals and birds to be important pollinators. In 1978 Carpenter observed that some banksias had a stronger odour at night, possibly to attract nocturnal mammal pollinators. Other associated fauna include the larvae of moths (such as the Dryandra Moth) and weevils, which burrow into the \"cones\" to eat the seeds and pupate in the follicles; and birds such as cockatoos, who break off the \"cones\" to eat both the seeds and the insect larvae.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 3883838, 4719340, 209876, 2815219, 145025, 4375909, 4179297, 23538713, 50357, 66633, 7196491, 339399, 292371, 3410, 201258, 23366462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 38 ], [ 84, 95 ], [ 115, 126 ], [ 162, 172 ], [ 174, 186 ], [ 189, 201 ], [ 204, 211 ], [ 216, 219 ], [ 520, 525 ], [ 530, 534 ], [ 549, 562 ], [ 568, 574 ], [ 628, 632 ], [ 657, 661 ], [ 671, 679 ], [ 738, 744 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of Banksia species are considered rare or endangered. These include B. brownii (feather-leaved banksia), B. cuneata (matchstick banksia), B. goodii (Good's banksia), B. oligantha (Wagin banksia), B. tricuspis (pine banksia), and B. verticillata (granite banksia).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 4421383, 3042989, 4384517, 3061854, 5689895, 5689900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 88 ], [ 115, 125 ], [ 148, 157 ], [ 176, 188 ], [ 206, 218 ], [ 239, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banksia plants are naturally adapted to the presence of regular bushfires in the Australian landscape. About half of Banksia species are killed by bushfire, but these regenerate quickly from seed, as fire also stimulates the opening of seed-bearing follicles and the germination of seed in the ground. The remaining species usually survive bushfire, either by resprouting from a woody base known as a lignotuber or, more rarely, epicormic buds protected by thick bark. In Western Australia, banksias of the first group are known as 'seeders' and the second group as 'sprouters'.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 20827796, 179211, 23312277, 33613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 73 ], [ 402, 412 ], [ 430, 444 ], [ 473, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Infrequent bushfires at expected intervals pose no threat, and are in fact beneficial for regeneration of banksia populations. However, too frequent bushfires can seriously reduce or even eliminate populations from certain areas, by killing seedlings and young plants before they reach fruiting age. Many fires near urban areas are caused by arson, and thus the frequency is often much higher than fires would have been prior to human habitation. Furthermore, residents who live in areas near bushland may pressure local councils to burn areas near homes more frequently, to reduce fuel-load in the bush and thus reduce ferocity of future fires. Unfortunately there are often discrepancies in agreed frequency between these groups and conservation groups.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another threat to Banksia is the water mould Phytophthora cinnamomi, commonly known as \"dieback\". Dieback attacks the roots of plants, destroying the structure of the root tissues, \"rotting\" the root, and preventing the plant from absorbing water and nutrients. Banksia'''s proteoid roots, which help it to survive in low-nutrient soils, make it highly susceptible to this disease. All Western Australian species are vulnerable, although most eastern species are fairly resistant.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 244992, 1527015, 7815490, 8072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 44 ], [ 45, 67 ], [ 274, 287 ], [ 373, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vulnerable plants typically die within a few years of infection. In southwest Western Australia, where dieback infestation is widespread, infested areas of Banksia forest typically have less than 30% of the cover of uninfested areas. Plant deaths in such large proportions can have a profound influence on the makeup of plant communities. For example, in southwestern Australia Banksia often occurs as an understorey to forests of jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata), another species highly vulnerable to dieback. Infestation kills both the jarrah overstorey and the original Banksia understorey, and over time these may be replaced by a more open woodland consisting of an overstorey of the resistant marri (Corymbia calophylla), and an understorey of the somewhat resistant Banksia sessilis (parrot bush).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 1755783, 68764, 3707447, 5712514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 77 ], [ 431, 437 ], [ 703, 722 ], [ 770, 786 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of species of Banksia are threatened by dieback. Nearly every known wild population of B.brownii shows some signs of dieback infection, which could possibly wipe it out within years. Other vulnerable species include B.cuneata, and B.verticillata.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dieback is notoriously difficult to treat, although there has been some success with phosphite and phosphorous acid, which are currently used to inoculate wild B.brownii populations. However this is not without potential problems as it alters the soil composition by adding phosphorus. Some evidence suggests that phosphorous acid may inhibit proteoid root formation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 3868558, 1966205, 23318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 94 ], [ 99, 115 ], [ 274, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because dieback thrives in moist soil conditions, it can be a severe problem for banksias that are watered, such as in the cut flower industry and urban gardens.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Most of species are shrubs, only few of them can be found as trees and they are very popular because of their size, the tallest species are: B. integrifolia having its subspecies B. integrifolia subsp. monticola notable for reaching the biggest size for the genus and it is the most frost tolerant in this genus, B. seminuda, B. littoralis, B. serrata; species that can grow as small trees or big shrubs: B. grandis, B. prionotes, B. marginata, B. coccinea, B. speciosa and B. menziesii. Due to their size these species are popularly planted in parks, gardens and streets, the remaining species in this genus are only shrubs.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 4353272, 7594455, 5689869, 5689775, 4365490, 4364731, 5583645, 5689780, 3209075, 5689877, 5585516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 156 ], [ 180, 212 ], [ 314, 325 ], [ 327, 340 ], [ 342, 352 ], [ 406, 416 ], [ 418, 430 ], [ 432, 444 ], [ 446, 457 ], [ 459, 470 ], [ 475, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banksias are popular garden plants in Australia because of their large, showy flower heads, and because the large amounts of nectar they produce attracts birds and small mammals. Popular garden species include B.spinulosa, B.ericifolia, B. aemula (Wallum Banksia ), B. serrata (Saw Banksia), Banksia media (Southern Plains Banksia) and the cultivar Banksia 'Giant Candles'. Banksia species are primarily propagated by seed in the home garden as cuttings can be difficult to strike. However commercial nurserymen extensively utilize the latter method (indeed, cultivars by nature must be vegetatively propagated by cuttings or grafting).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3883838, 3410, 18838, 5539448, 4365490, 5689781, 167906, 5566521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 131 ], [ 154, 159 ], [ 170, 176 ], [ 238, 247 ], [ 267, 277 ], [ 293, 306 ], [ 341, 349 ], [ 350, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over time, dwarf cultivars and prostrate species are becoming more popular as urban gardens grow ever smaller. These include miniature forms under 50cm high of B.spinulosa and B.media, as well as prostrate species such as B. petiolaris and B. blechnifolia .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 5445282, 5727275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 222, 235 ], [ 240, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banksias possibly require more maintenance than other Australian natives, though are fairly hardy if the right conditions are provided (sunny aspect and well drained sandy soil).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "They may need extra water during dry spells until established, which can take up to two years. If fertilised, only slow-release, low-phosphorus fertilizer should be used, as the proteoid roots may be damaged by high nutrient levels in the soil. All respond well to some form of pruning.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 23318, 37401, 7815490, 66575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 144 ], [ 145, 155 ], [ 179, 193 ], [ 217, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Within the Australian horticultural community there is an active subculture of Banksia enthusiasts who seek out interesting flower variants, breed and propagate cultivars, exchange materials and undertake research into cultivation problems and challenges. The main forum for exchange of information within this group is ASGAP's Banksia Study Group.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 5558720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 320, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the exception of the nursery industry, Banksia have limited commercial use. Some species, principally B. coccinea (scarlet banksia), B. baxteri, B. hookeriana (Hooker's banksia), B. sceptrum (sceptre banksia), and B. prionotes (acorn banksia), and less commonly B. speciosa (showy banksia), B. menziesii (Menzies' banksia), B. burdettii and B. ashbyi are grown on farms in Western and Southern Australia, as well as Israel and Hawaii, and the flower heads harvested for the cut flower trade. Eastern species, such as B. ericifolia, B. robur and B. plagiocarpa, are sometimes cultivated for this purpose. The nectar is also sought by beekeepers, not for the quality of the dark-coloured honey, which is often poor, but because the trees provide an abundant and reliable source of nectar at times when other sources provide little.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 435078, 14543, 3209075, 5689662, 5689743, 5648858, 5583645, 5689877, 5585516, 5689676, 5689634, 29565262, 318412, 14361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 33 ], [ 34, 42 ], [ 108, 119 ], [ 139, 149 ], [ 151, 164 ], [ 185, 196 ], [ 220, 232 ], [ 269, 280 ], [ 298, 310 ], [ 332, 344 ], [ 349, 358 ], [ 482, 498 ], [ 641, 650 ], [ 694, 699 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banksia wood is reddish in color with an attractive grain but it is rarely used as it warps badly on drying. It is occasionally used for ornamental purposes in wood turning and cabinet paneling. It has also been used to make keels for small boats. Historically, the wood of certain species such as B. serrata was used for yokes and boat parts. The large \"cones\" or seed pods of B.grandis are used for woodturning projects. They are also sliced up and sold as drink coasters; these are generally marketed as souvenirs for international tourists. Woodturners throughout the world value Banksia pods for making ornamental objects.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 33550, 219807, 3996, 1076403, 1951498, 937531, 29789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 12 ], [ 226, 230 ], [ 242, 246 ], [ 402, 413 ], [ 460, 474 ], [ 508, 516 ], [ 536, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Indigenous people of south-western Australia would suck on the flower spikes to obtain the nectar, they also soaked the flower spikes in water to make a sweet drink. The Noongar people of southwest Western Australia also used infusions of the flower spikes to relieve coughs and sore throats. The Girai wurrung peoples of the western district of Victoria used the spent flower cones to strain water by placing the cones in their mouths and using them like a straw. Banksia trees are a reliable source of insect larvae which are extracted as food.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 12598742, 345495, 24502774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 174, 188 ], [ 301, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of field guides and other semi-technical books on the genus have been published. These include:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Field Guide to Banksias", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Written by Ivan Holliday and Geoffrey Watton and first published in 1975, this book contained descriptions and colour photographs of species known at the time. It was largely outdated by the publication of Alex George's classic 1981 monograph, but a revised and updated second edition was released in 1990.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Banksias", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 10256307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This three volume monograph contains watercolour paintings of every Banksia species by renowned botanical illustrator Celia Rosser, with accompanying text by Alex George. Its publication represents the first time that such a large genus has been entirely painted. Published by Academic Press in association with Monash University, the three volumes were published in 1981, 1988 and 2000 respectively.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 180046, 12538304, 5753000, 149620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 57 ], [ 96, 117 ], [ 118, 130 ], [ 312, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Banksia Book", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Begun by Australian photographer Fred Humphreys and Charles Gardner, both of whom died before its completion, The Banksia Book was eventually completed by Alex George and first published in 1984. It included every species known at the time, with a second edition appearing in 1987 and third in 1996.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 37648518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Banksia Atlas", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 5540623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1983 the Australian Biological Resources Study (ABRS) decided to pilot an Australia-wide distribution study of a significant plant genus. Banksia was chosen because it was a high-profile, widely distributed genus that was easily identified, but for which distribution and habitat was poorly known. The study mobilised over 400 volunteers, collecting over 25,000 field observations over a two-year period. Outcomes included the discovery of two new species, as well as new varieties and some rare colour variants, and discoveries of previously unknown populations of rare and threatened species. The collated data was used to create The Banksia Atlas, which was first published in 1988.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 5726682, 5540623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 49 ], [ 635, 652 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Banksias, Waratahs and Grevilleas and all other plants in the Australian Proteaceae family", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Written by J. W. Wrigley and M. Fagg, this was published by Collins Publishers in 1989. A comprehensive text on all the Proteaceae genera with good historical notes and an overview of the 1975 Johnson & Briggs classification. It is out of print and hard to find.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Perhaps the best known cultural reference to Banksia is the \"big bad Banksia men\" of May Gibbs' children's book Snugglepot and Cuddlepie. Gibb's \"Banksia men\" are modelled on the appearance of aged Banksia \"cones\", with follicles for eyes and other facial features. There is some contention over which species actually provided the inspiration for the \"Banksia men\": the drawings most resemble the old cones of B.aemula or B.serrata, but B. attenuata (slender banksia) has also been cited, as this was the species that Gibbs saw as a child in Western Australia.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 4581410, 5169759, 5541749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 94 ], [ 112, 136 ], [ 438, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1989, the Banksia Environmental Foundation was created to support and recognise people and organizations that make a positive contribution to the environment. The Foundation launched the annual Banksia Environmental Awards in the same year.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "B. archaeocarpa†", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 8096632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. attenuata", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 5541749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. integrifolia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 4353272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. seminuda", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 5689869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. ericifolia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 5230443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. grandis", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 4364731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. marginata", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 5689780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. prionotes", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 5583645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. dentata", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 5689713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. novae-zelandiae†", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 26368615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. spinulosa", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 5525531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. sphaerocarpa", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 5689882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. sessilis", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 5712514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. nobilis", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 8717610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. dallanneyi", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 8717573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. praemorsa", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 5689839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. repens", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 5689852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. rosserae", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 4372936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. elderiana", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 5689719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. solandri", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 5689870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. oreophila", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 5689820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. brownii", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 4421383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. montana", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 8717590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. goodii (Good's Banksia)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 4384517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. tricuspis (Pine Banksia)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 5689895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. verticillata (Granite Banksia)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 5689900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Isostylis", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 3016255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. cuneata (Matchstick Banksia)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 3042989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. ilicifolia (Holly-leaved Banksia)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 3040640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. oligantha (Wagin Banksia)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Selected species", "target_page_ids": [ 3061854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Banksiamyces''", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22505339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Banksia Page of ASGAP", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 5558720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Banksia Study Group of ASGAP", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 5558720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Banksia Farm, Private collection of all Banksia Species, Mount Barker, Western Australia", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Banksia", "Banksia_taxa_by_common_name", "Banksia_taxa_by_scientific_name", "Proteaceae_genera", "Taxa_named_by_Carl_Linnaeus_the_Younger" ]

[ "banksia", "Banksia" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Figure skating jumps are an element of three competitive figure skating disciplines—men's singles, women's singles, and pair skating, but not ice dancing. Jumping in figure skating is \"relatively recent\". They were originally individual compulsory figures, and sometimes special figures; many jumps were named after the skaters who invented them or from the figures from which they were developed. It was not until the early part of the 20th century, well after the establishment of organized skating competitions, when jumps with the potential of being completed with multiple revolutions were invented and when jumps were formally categorized. In the 1920s, Austrian skaters began to perform the first double jumps in practice. Skaters experimented with jumps, and by the end of the period, the modern repertoire of jumps had been developed. Jumps did not have a major role in free skating programs during international competitions until the 1930s. During the post-war period and into the 1950s and early 1960s, triple jumps became more common for both male and female skaters, and a full repertoire of two-revolution jumps had been fully developed. In the 1980s, men were expected to complete four or five difficult triple jumps, and women had to perform the easier triples. By the 1990s, after compulsory figures were removed from competitions, multi-revolution jumps became more important in figure skating.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11152, 7291274, 4546369, 39577, 666280, 4263610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 71 ], [ 84, 114 ], [ 120, 132 ], [ 142, 153 ], [ 237, 255 ], [ 271, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The six most common jumps can be divided into two groups: toe jumps (the toe loop, the flip, and the Lutz) and edge jumps (the Salchow, the loop, and the Axel). The Euler jump, which was known as a half loop before 2018, is an edge jump. Jumps are also classified by the number of revolutions. Pair skaters perform two types of jumps: side-by-side jumps, in which jumps are accomplished side by side and in unison, and throw jumps, in which the woman performs the jump when assisted and propelled by her partner.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1037148, 1042845, 1037109, 915322, 1919791, 30875354, 58154608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 81 ], [ 87, 91 ], [ 101, 105 ], [ 127, 134 ], [ 140, 144 ], [ 154, 158 ], [ 165, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the International Skating Union (ISU), jumps must have the following characteristics to earn the most points: they must have \"very good height and very good length\"; they must be executed effortlessly, including the rhythm demonstrated during jump combinations; and they must have good take-offs and landings. The following are not required, but also taken into consideration: there must be steps executed before the beginning of the jump, or it must have either a creative or unexpected entry; the jump must match the music; and the skater must have, from the jump's take-off to its landing, a \"very good body position\". A jump combination, defined as \"two (or more) jumps performed in immediate succession\", is executed when a skater's landing foot of the first jump is also the take-off foot of the following jump. All jumps are considered in the order that they are completed. Pair teams, both juniors and seniors, must perform one solo jump during their short programs.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1625178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jumps are divided into eight parts: the set-up, load, transition, pivot, takeoff, flight, landing, and exit. All jumps except the Axel are taken off while skating backward; Axels are entered into by skating forward. A skater's body absorbs up to 13–14 g-forces each time he or she lands from a jump, which may contribute to overuse injuries and stress fractures. Skaters add variations or unusual entries and exits to jumps to increase difficulty. Factors such as angular momentum, the moment of inertia, angular acceleration, and the skater's center of mass determines if a jump is successfully completed.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2839, 157700, 65929, 173961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 467, 483 ], [ 489, 506 ], [ 508, 528 ], [ 547, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to figure skating historian James R. Hines, jumping in figure skating is \"relatively recent\". Jumps were viewed as \"acrobatic tricks, not as a part of a skater’s art\" and \"had no place\" in the skating practices in England during the 19th century, although skaters experimented with jumps from the ice during the last 25 years of the 1800s. Hops, or jumps without rotations, were done for safety reasons, to avoid obstacles, such as hats, barrels, and tree logs, on natural ice. In 1881, Spuren Auf Dem Eise (\"Tracing on the Ice\"), \"a monumental publication describing the state of skating in Vienna\", briefly mentioned jumps, describing three jumps in two pages. Jumping on skates was a part of the athletic side of free skating, and was considered inappropriate for female skaters.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hines states that free skating movements such as spirals, spread eagles, spins, and jumps were originally individual compulsory figures, and sometimes special figures. For example, Norwegian skater Axel Paulsen, whom Hines calls \"progressive\", performed the first jump in competition, the Axel, which was named after him, at the first international competition in 1882, as a special figure. Jumps were also related to their corresponding figure; for example, the loop jump. Other jumps, such as the Axel and the Salchow, were named after the skaters who invented them. It was not until the early part of the 20th century, well after the establishment of organized skating competitions, when jumps with the potential of being completed with multiple revolutions were invented and when jumps were formally categorized. These jumps became elements in athletic free skating programs, but they were not worth more points than no-revolution jumps and half jumps. In the 1920s, Austrian skaters began to perform the first double jumps in practice and refine rotations in the Axel. Skaters experimented with jumps, and by the end of the period, the modern repertoire of jumps had been developed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7328338, 2002008, 1042827, 39686, 666280, 4263610, 2922138, 30875354, 1919791, 915322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 30 ], [ 49, 56 ], [ 58, 71 ], [ 73, 78 ], [ 117, 135 ], [ 151, 166 ], [ 198, 210 ], [ 289, 293 ], [ 463, 472 ], [ 512, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jumps did not have a major role in free skating programs during international competitions until the 1930s. Athleticism in the sport increased between the world wars, especially by women like Norwegian world and Olympic champion Sonia Henie, who popularized short skirts that allowed female skaters to maneuver and perform jumps. When international competitions were interrupted by World War II, double jumps by both men and women had become commonplace, and all jumps, except for the Axel, were being doubled. According to writer Ellyn Kestnbaum, \"the development of rotational technique required for Axels and double jumps continued\", especially in the United States and Czechoslovakia. Post-war skaters, according to Hines, \"pushed the envelope of jumping to extremes that skaters of the 1930s would not have thought possible\". For example, world champion Felix Kasper from Austria was well known for his athletic jumps, which were the longest and highest in the history of figure skating. Hines reported that his Axel measured four feet high and 25 feet from takeoff to landing. Both men and women, including women skaters from Great Britain, were doubling Salchows and loops in their competition programs.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 29491, 3176634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 240 ], [ 859, 871 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the post-war period, American skater Dick Button, who \"intentionally tried to bring a greater athleticism to men’s skating\", performed the first double Axel in competition in 1948 and the first triple jump, a triple loop, in 1952. Triple jumps, especially triple Salchows, became more common for male skater during the 1950s and early 1960s, and female skaters, especially in North America, included a full repertoire of two-revolution jumps. By the late 1960s and early 1970s, men commonly performed triple Salchows and women regularly performed double Axels in competitions. Men would also include more difficult multi-revolution jumps like triple flips, Lutzes, and loops; women included triple Salchows and toe loops. In the 1980s, men were expected to complete four or five difficult triple jumps, and women had to perform the easier triples such as the loop jump. By the 1990s, after compulsory figures were removed from competitions, multi-revolution jumps became more important in figure skating. According to Kestnbaum, jumps like the triple Lutz became more important during women's skating competitions. The last time a woman won a gold medal at the Olympics without a triple jump was Dorothy Hamill at the 1976 Olympics. According to sports reporter Dvora Meyers, the \"quad revolution in women’s figure skating\" of the early 21st century began in 2018, when Russian skater Alexandra Trusova began performing a quadruple Salchow when she was still competing as a junior.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 728326, 1042845, 1037109, 1037148, 434988, 2626430, 55035304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 55 ], [ 657, 662 ], [ 664, 670 ], [ 718, 727 ], [ 1203, 1217 ], [ 1225, 1238 ], [ 1392, 1409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anomalies in the take-off and landing highlighted in bold and italic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of jumps", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " All basic figure skating jumps are landed backwards.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of jumps", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The six most common jumps can be divided into two groups: toe jumps (the toe loop, the flip, and the Lutz) and edge jumps (the Salchow, the loop, and the Axel). The Euler jump, which was known as a half loop before 2018, is an edge jump. Toe jumps tend to be higher than edge jumps because skaters press the toe pick of their skate into the ice on takeoff. Both feet are on the ice at the time of take-off, and the toe-pick in the ice at take-off acts as a pole vault. It is impossible to add a half-revolution to toe jumps.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of jumps", "target_page_ids": [ 1037109, 58154608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 105 ], [ 165, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Skaters accomplish edge jumps by leaving the ice from any of their skates' four possible edges; lift is \"achieved from the spring gained by straightening of a bent knee in combination with a swing of the free leg\". They require precise rotational control of the skater's upper body, arms, and free leg, and of how well he or she leans into the take-off edge. The preparation going into the jump and its take-off, as well as controlling the rotation of the preparation and take-off, must be precisely timed. When a skater executes an edge jump, they must extend their leg and use their arms more than when they execute toe jumps.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of jumps", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jumps are also classified by the number of revolutions. For example, all single jumps, except for the Axel, include one revolution, double jumps include two revolution, and so on. More revolutions earn skaters earn more points. Double and triple versions have increased in importance \"as a measure of technical and athletic ability, with attention paid to clean takeoffs and landings\". Pair skaters perform two types of jumps: side-by-side jumps, in which jumps are accomplished side by side and in unison, and throw jumps, in which the woman performs the jump when assisted and propelled by her partner.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of jumps", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Euler is an edge jump.It was known as the half loop jump in International Skating Union (ISU) regulations prior to the 2018–2019 season, when the name was changed. In Europe, the Euler is also called the Thorén jump, after its inventor, Swedish figure skater Per Thorén. The Euler is executed when a skater takes off from the back outside edge of one skate and lands on the opposite foot and edge. It is most commonly done prior to the third jump during a three-jump combination, and serves as a way to put a skater on the correct edge in order to attempt a Salchow jump or a flip jump. It can only be accomplished as a single jump. The Euler has a base point value of 0.50 points, when used in combination between two listed jumps, and also becomes a listed jump.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of jumps", "target_page_ids": [ 1625178, 3265021, 915322, 1042845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 91 ], [ 263, 273 ], [ 562, 574 ], [ 580, 589 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The toe loop jump is the simplest jump in figure skating. It was invented in the 1920s by American professional figure skater Bruce Mapes. In competitions, the base value of a single toe loop is 0.40; the base value of a double toe loop is 1.30; the base value of a triple toe loop is 4.20; and the base value of a quadruple toe loop is 9.50.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of jumps", "target_page_ids": [ 3539792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The toe loop is considered the simplest jump because not only do skaters use their toe-picks to execute it, their hips are already facing the direction in which they will rotate. The toe loop is the easier jump to add multiple rotations to because the toe-assisted takeoff adds power to the jump and because a skater can turn his or her body towards the assisting foot at takeoff, which slightly reduces the rotation needed in the air. It is often added to more difficult jumps during combinations, and is the most common second jump performed in combinations. It is also the most commonly attempted jump, as well as \"the most commonly cheated on take off jump\", or a jump in which the first rotation starts on the ice rather than in the air. Adding a toe loop to combination jumps does not increase the difficulty of skaters' short or free skating programs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of jumps", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ISU defines a flip jump as \"a toe jump that takes off from a back inside edge and lands on the back outside edge of the opposite foot\". It is executed with assistance from the toe of the free foot. In competitions, the base value of a single flip is 0.50; the base value of a double flip is 1.80; the base value of a triple flip is 5.50; and the base value of a quadruple flip is 11.00.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of jumps", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ISU defines the Lutz jump as \"a toe-pick assisted jump with an entrance from a back outside edge and landing on the back outside edge of the opposite foot\". It is the second-most difficult jump in figure skating and \"probably the second-most famous jump after the Axel\". It is named after figure skater Alois Lutz from Vienna, Austria, who first performed it in 1913. In competitions, the base value of a single Lutz is 0.60; the base value of a double Lutz is 2.10; the base value of a triple Lutz is 5.90; and the base value of a quadruple Lutz is 11.50. A \"cheated\" Lutz jump without an outside edge is called a \"flutz\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of jumps", "target_page_ids": [ 30875354, 16265503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 269, 273 ], [ 308, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Salchow jump is an edge jump. It was named after its inventor, Ulrich Salchow, in 1909. The Salchow is accomplished with a takeoff from the back inside edge of one foot and a landing on the back outside edge of the opposite foot. It is \"usually the first jump that skaters learn to double, and the first or second to triple\". Timing is critical because both the takeoff and landing must be on the backward edge. A Salchow is deemed cheated if the skate blade starts to turn forward before the takeoff, or if it has not turned completely backward when the skater lands back on the ice.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of jumps", "target_page_ids": [ 563905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In competitions, the base value of a single Salchow is 0.40; the base value of a double Salchow is 1.30; the base value of a triple Salchow is 4.30; and the base value of a quadruple Salchow is 9.70.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of jumps", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The loop jump is an edge jump. It was created by German figure skater Werner Rittberger, and is known as the Rittberger in Russian and German. It also gets its name from the shape the blade would leave on the ice if the skater performed the rotation without leaving the ice. According to U.S. Figure Skating, the loop jump is \"the most fundamental of all the jumps\". The skater executes it by taking off from the back outside edge of the skating foot, turning one rotation in the air, and landing on the back outside edge of the same foot. It is often performed as the second jump in a combination.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of jumps", "target_page_ids": [ 3240812, 2361557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 87 ], [ 288, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In competitions, the base value of the single loop jump is 0.50; the base value of a double loop is 1.70; the base value of a triple loop is 4.90; and the base value of a quadruple loop is 10.50.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of jumps", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Axel jump, also called the Axel Paulsen jump for its creator, Norwegian figure skater Axel Paulsen, is an edge jump. It is figure skating's oldest and most difficult jump. The Axel jump is the most studied jump in figure skating. It is the only jump that begins with a forward takeoff, which makes it the easiest jump to identify. A double or triple Axel is required in both the short programs and free skating programs for junior and senior single skaters in all ISU competitions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of jumps", "target_page_ids": [ 2922138, 7327981, 7328338, 7291274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 102 ], [ 383, 397 ], [ 402, 414 ], [ 446, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Axel has an extra half rotation, which, as figure skating expert Hannah Robbins states, makes a triple Axel \"more a quadruple jump than a triple\". Sports reporter Nora Princiotti states, about the triple Axel, \"It takes incredible strength and body control for a skater to get enough height and to get into the jump fast enough to complete all the rotations before landing with a strong enough base to absorb the force generated\". According to American skater Mirai Nagasu, \"falling on the triple Axel is really brutal\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of jumps", "target_page_ids": [ 9159762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 464, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In competitions, the base value of a single Axel is 1.10; the base value of a double Axel is 3.30; the base value of a triple Axel is 8.00; and the base value of a quadruple Axel is 12.50. According to The New York Times, the triple Axel \"has become more common for male skaters\" to perform, although the quadruple Axel has not yet been successfully completed in competition.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types of jumps", "target_page_ids": [ 30680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The International Skating Union defines a jump element for both single skating and pair skating disciplines as \"an individual jump, a jump combination or a jump sequence\". Jumps are not allowed in ice dance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [ 1625178, 7291274, 4546369, 39577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ], [ 64, 78 ], [ 83, 95 ], [ 197, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also according to the ISU, jumps must have the following characteristics to earn the most points: they must have \"very good height and very good length\"; they must be executed effortlessly, including the rhythm demonstrated during jump combinations; and they must have good take-offs and landings. The following are not required, but also taken into consideration: there must be steps executed before the beginning of the jump, or it must have either a creative or unexpected entry; the jump must match the music; and the skater must have, from the jump's take-off to its landing, a \"very good body position\". Somersault-type jumps, like the back flip, are not allowed. The back flip has been banned by the ISU since 1976 because it was deemed too dangerous and lacked \"aesthetic value\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A jump sequence consists of \"two or three jumps of any number of revolutions\" and is executed when a skater's landing foot of the first jump is also the take-off foot of the following jump. The free foot can touch the ice, but there must be no weight transfer on it and if the skater makes one full revolution between the jumps, the element continues to be deemed a jump sequence and receive their full value. The second and/or third jump must be an Axel-type jump, \"with a direct step from the landing curve of the first/second jump in to the takeoff curve of the Axel jump\". The skater can also perform an Euler between jumps. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All jumps are considered in the order that they are completed. If an extra jump or jumps are completed, only the first jump will be counted; jumps done later in the program will have no value. The limitation on the number of jumps skaters can perform in their programs, called the \"Zayak Rule\" after American skater Elaine Zayak, has been in effect since 1983, after Zayak performed six triple jumps, four toe loop jumps, and two Salchows in her free skating program at the 1982 World Championships. Writer Ellyn Kestnbaum states that the ISU established the rule \"in order to encourage variety and balance rather than allowing a skater to rack up credit for demonstrating the same skill over and over\". Kestnbaum also states that as rotations in jumps for both men and women have increased, skaters have increased the difficulty of jumps by adding more difficult combinations and by adding difficult steps immediately before or after their jumps, resulting in \"integrating the jumps more seamlessly into the flow of the program\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [ 2516287, 23219502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 317, 329 ], [ 475, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In both the short program and free skating, any jump, jump combination, or jump sequence begun during the second half of the program earns extra points \"in order to give credit for even distribution of difficulties in the program\". As of the 2018–2019 season, however, only the last jump element performed during the short program and the final three jump elements performed during the free skate, counted in a skater's final score. International Figure Skating magazine called this regulation the \"Zagitova Rule\", named for Alina Zagitova from Russia, who won the gold medal at the 2018 Winter Olympics by \"backloading\" her free skating program, or placing all her jumps in the second half of the program in order to take advantage of the rule in place at the time that awarded a 10% bonus to jumps performed during the second half of the program. Also starting in 2018, single skaters could only repeat the same two triple or quadruple jumps in their free skating programs. They could repeat four-revolutions jumps only once, and the base value of the triple Axel and quadruple jumps were \"reduced dramatically\". Junior men and women single skaters are not allowed to perform quadruple jumps in their short programs, and junior women single skaters cannot include triple Axels in both their short and free skating programs. Both junior and senior skaters receive no points for jumps performed during their short programs that do not satisfy the requirements, including completing the wrong number of revolutions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [ 51428083, 961505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 525, 539 ], [ 583, 603 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pair teams, both juniors and seniors, must perform one solo jump during their short programs; it can include a double flip or double Axel for juniors, or any kind of double or triple jump for seniors. In the free skating program, for both juniors and seniors, skaters can perform up to three jump combinations or two jump combinations and one jump sequence; a jump combination and jump sequence can consist of the same or another single, double, triple, or quadruple jump. One jump combination or jump sequence can consist of up to three jumps, while the other two can consist of up to two jumps each. A jump sequence starts with any type of jump, immediately followed by an Axel-type jump. Junior pairs, during their short programs, earn no points for the solo jump if they perform a different jump than what is required. Both junior and senior pairs earn no points if, during their free skating programs, they repeat a jump with over two revolutions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All jumps are considered in the order in which they were performed. If the partners do not execute the same number of revolutions during a solo jump or part of a jump sequence or combination (which can consist of two or three jumps), only the jump with the fewer revolutions will be counted in their score. The double Axel and all triple and quadruple jumps, which have more than two revolutions, must be different from one another, although jump sequences and combinations can include the same two jumps. Extra jumps that do not fulfill the requirements are not counted in the team's score. Teams are allowed, however, to execute the same two jumps during a jump combination or sequence. If they perform any or both jump or jumps incorrectly, only the incorrectly-done jump is not counted and it is not considered a jump sequence or combination. Both partners can execute two solo jumps during their short programs, but the second jump is worth less points than the first.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Throw jumps are \"partner assisted jumps in which the Woman is thrown into the air by the Man on the take-off and lands without assistance from her partner on a backward outside edge\".<ref name=\" Skate Canada says, \"the male partner assists the female into flight\". The types of throw jumps include: the throw Axel, the throw Salchow, the throw toe loop, the throw loop, the throw flip, and the throw Lutz. The throw triple Axel is a difficult throw to accomplish because the woman must perform three-and-one-half revolutions after being thrown by the man, a half-revolution more than other triple jumps, and because it requires a forward take-off. The speed of the team's entry into the throw jump and the number of rotations performed increases its difficulty, as well as the height and/or distance they create. Pair teams must perform one throw jump during their short programs; senior teams can perform any double or triple throw jump, and junior teams must perform a double or triple toe loop, flip, or Lutz. If the throw jump is not done correctly, including if it has the wrong number of revolutions, it receives no value. Pair teams must perform at least two different throw jumps with a different number of revolutions in their free skating programs. A throw jump is judged as a jump with a higher number of revolution if it is over-rotated more than a quarter revolution; for example, if a pair attempts a double throw jump but over-rotates it, the judges record it as a downgraded triple throw jump.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Kestbaum, jumps are divided into eight parts: the set-up, load, transition, pivot, takeoff, flight, landing, and exit. All jumps, except for the Axel, are taken off while skating backward; Axels are entered into by skating forward. Skaters travel in three directions simultaneously while executing a jump: vertically (up off the ice and back down); horizontally (continuing along the direction of travel before leaving the ice); and around. They travel in an up and across, arc-like path while executing a jump, much like the projectile motion of a pole-vaulter. A jump's height is determined by vertical velocity and its length is determined by vertical and horizontal velocity. The trajectory of the jump is established during takeoff, so the shape of the arc cannot be changed once a skater is in the air. Their body absorbs up to 13—14 g-forces each time they land from a jump, which sports researchers Lee Cabell and Erica Bateman state contributes to overuse injuries and stress fractures.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Execution", "target_page_ids": [ 24082, 20491903, 389836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 562, 574 ], [ 618, 626 ], [ 853, 861 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Skaters add variations or unusual entries and exits to jumps to increase difficulty. For example, they will perform a jump with one or both arms overhead or extended at the hips, which demonstrates that they are able to generate rotation from the takeoff edge and from their entire body instead of relying on their arms. It also demonstrates their back strength and technical ability to complete the rotation without relying on their arms. Unusual entries into jumps demonstrate that skaters are able to control both the jump and with little preparation, the transition from the previous move to the jump. Skaters rotate more quickly when their arms are pulled in tightly to their bodies, which requires strength to keep their arms being pulled away from their bodies as they rotate.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Execution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to scientist Deborah King from Ithaca College, there are basic physics common to all jumps, regardless of the skating techiques required to execute them. Factors such as angular momentum, the moment of inertia, angular acceleration, and the skater's center of mass determines if a jump is successfully completed. Unlike jumping from dry land, which is fundamentally a linear movement, jumping on the ice is more complicated because of angular momentum. For example, most jumps involve rotation. Scientist James Richards from the University of Delaware stated that successful jumps depend upon \"how much angular momentum do you leave the ice with, how small can you make your moment of inertia in the air, and how much time you can spend in the air\". Richards found that a skater tends to spend the same amount of time in the air when performing triple and quadruple jumps, but their angular momentum at the start of triples and quadruples is slightly higher than it is for double jumps. The key to completing higher-rotation jumps is how they control the moment of inertia. Richards alsofound that many skaters, although they were able to gain the necessary angular momentum for takeoff, had difficulty gaining enough rotational speed to complete the jump. King agrees, stating that skaters must be in the air long enough, have enough jump height to complete the required revolutions, and the amount of veritical velocity they are able to gain as they jump off the ice, although different jumps require different patterns of movement. Skaters performing quadruple jumps tend to be in the air longer and have more rotational speed. As Tanya Lewis of Scientific American puts it, executing quadruple jumps, which as of 2022, has become more common in both male and female single skating competitions, requires \"exquisite strength, speed and grace\". ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Execution", "target_page_ids": [ 15446, 2839, 157700, 65929, 173961, 308722, 29507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 55 ], [ 180, 196 ], [ 202, 219 ], [ 221, 241 ], [ 260, 274 ], [ 539, 561 ], [ 1659, 1678 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, a skater could successfully complete a jump by making small changes to their arm position partway through the rotation, and a small bend in the hips and knees allows a skater \"to land with a lower center of mass than they started with, perhaps eeking out a few precious degrees of rotation and a better body position for landing\". When they execute a toe jump, they must use their skate's toe pick to complete a pole-vaulting-type motion off the ice, which along with extra horizontal speed, helps them store more energy in their leg. As they rotate over their leg, their horizontal motion converts into tangential velocity. King, who believes that quintuple jumps are mathematically possible, states that in order to execute more rotations, they could improve their rotational momentum as they execute their footwork or approach into their takeoff, creating torque about the rotating axis as they come off the ice. She also states that if skaters can increase their rotational momentum while \"still exploding upward\", they can rotate faster and increase the number of revolutions they perform. Sports writer Dvora Meyers, reporting on Russian coaching techniques, states that the female skaters executing more quadruple jumps in competition use what experts call pre-rotation, or the practice of twisting their upper bodies before they take off from the ice, which allows them to complete four revolutions before landing. Meyers also states that the technique depends on the skater being small, light, and young, and that it puts more strain on the back because they do not use as much leg strength. As a skater ages and goes through puberty, however, they tend to not be able to execute quadruple jumps because \"the technique wasn’t sound to start with\". They also tend to retire before the age of 18 due to the increase of back injuries.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Execution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since the tendency of an edge is toward the center of the circle created by that edge, a skater's upper body, arms, and free leg also have a tendency to be pulled along by the force of the edge. If the upper body, arms, and free leg are allowed to follow passively, they will eventually overtake the edge's rotational edge and will rotate faster, a principle that is also used to create faster spins. The inherent force of the edge and the force generated by a skater's upper body, arms, and free leg tend to increase rotation, so successful jumping requires precise control of these forces. Leaning into the curvature of the edge is how skaters regulate the edge's inherent angular momentum. Their upper body, arms, and free leg are controlled by what happens at the time of preparation for the jump and its take-off, which are designed to produce the correct amount of rotation on the take-off. If they do not have enough rotation, they will not be at the correct position at the take-off; if they rotate too much, their upper body will not be high enough in the air. Skaters must keep track of the many different movements and body positions, as well as the timing of those movements relative to each other and to the jump itself, which requires hours of practice but once mastered, becomes natural.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Execution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The number of possible combinations jumps are limitless; if a turn or change of feet is permitted between combination jumps, any number of sequences is possible, although if the landing of one jump is the take-off of the next, as is the case in loop combinations, how the skater lands will dictate the possibilities going into subsequent jumps. Rotational momentum tends to increase during combination jumps, so skaters should control rotation at the landing of each jump; if a skater does not control rotation, they will overrotate on subsequent jumps and probably fall. The way that skaters control rotation differs depending upon the nature of the landing and take-off edges, and the way they use their arms, which regulate their shoulders and upper body position, and free leg, which dictates the positioning of their hips. If the landing on one jump leads directly into the take-off of the jump that follows it, the bend on the landing leg of the first jump serves as preparation for the spring of the take-off of the subsequent jump. If some time elapses between the completion of the first jump and the take-off of the subsequent one, or if a series of movements serve as preparation for the subsequent jump, the leg bend for the spring can be separated from the bend of the landing leg. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Execution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following table lists first recorded jumps in competition for which there is secure information.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History of first jumps", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Communication No. 2168: Single & Pair Skating\". (ISU No. 2168) Lausanne, Switzerland: International Skating Union. 23 May 2018. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 20 July 2022.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Works cited", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Identifying Jumps\" (PDF). (USFS) U.S. Figure Skating. Archived from the original on 12 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2022.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Works cited", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"ISU Figure Skating Media Guide 2021/22\". International Skating Union. 20 April 2022. Retrieved 16 July 2022.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Works cited", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " King, Deborah; Smith, Sarah; Higginson, Brian; Muncasy, Barry; Scheirman, Gary (2004). \"Characteristics of Triple and Quadruple Toe-Loops Performed during The Salt Lake City 2002 Winter Olympics\" (PDF). Sports Biomechanics. 3 (1). Retrieved 20 July 2022.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Works cited", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mazurkiewicz, Anna, Dagmara Twańsak, and Czesław Urbanik (July 2018). \"Biomechanics of the Axel Paulsen Figure Skating Jump\". Polish Journal of Sport and Tourism 25 (2):3-9. 10.2478/pjst-2018-0007. Retrieved 20 July 2022.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Works cited", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Special Regulations & Technical Rules Single & Pair Skating and Ice Dance 2021\". International Skating Union. June 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2022 (S&P/ID 2021).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Works cited", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"ISU Judging System: Technical Panel Handbook: Pair Skating 2021/2022\" (PDF). International Skating Union. 8 July 2021. Retrieved 16 July 2022 (Tech Panel).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Works cited", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Figure_skating_elements", "Figure_skating_records_and_statistics", "Jumping_sports" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Spins are an element in figure skating in which the skater rotates, centered on a single point on the ice, while holding one or more body positions. They are performed by all disciplines of the sport, single skating, pair skating, and ice dance, and are a required element in most figure skating competitions. As The New York Times says, \"While jumps look like sport, spins look more like art. While jumps provide the suspense, spins provide the scenery, but there is so much more to the scenery than most viewers have time or means to grasp\". According to world champion and figure skating commentator Scott Hamilton, spins are often used \"as breathing points or transitions to bigger things\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11152, 7291274, 4546369, 39577, 7244130, 30680, 945072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 38 ], [ 201, 215 ], [ 217, 229 ], [ 235, 244 ], [ 281, 308 ], [ 313, 331 ], [ 603, 617 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Figure skating spins, along with jumps, spirals, and spread eagles were originally individual compulsory figures, sometimes special figures. Unlike jumps, spins were a \"graceful and appreciated\" part of figure skating throughout the 19th century. They advanced between World War I and World War II; by the late 1930s, all three basic spin positions were used. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39685, 666280, 4764461, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 38 ], [ 94, 112 ], [ 269, 280 ], [ 285, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are two types of spins, the forward spin and the backward spin. There are three basic spin positions: the upright spin, the sit spin, and the camel spin. Skaters also perform flying spins and combination spins. The International Skating Union (ISU), figure skating's governing body, delineates rules, regulations, and scoring points for each type and variety of spin.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17927537, 11328752, 5000923, 1625178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 124 ], [ 130, 138 ], [ 148, 158 ], [ 221, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Figure skating spins, along with jumps, spirals, and spread eagles were originally individual compulsory figures, sometimes special figures. Unlike jumps, spins were a \"graceful and appreciated\" part of figure skating throughout the 19th century. Jean Garcin, who wrote one of the first books about figure skating in the early 1800s, recognizes their beauty, especially when used as a way to conclude a figure artistically. Figure skater and historian Irving Brokaw categorizes spin variations not into positions as they are categorized today, but into different changes of the skating foot. He writes in the early 1900s about the importance of spins and insists that advanced skaters should be able to execute one or more spin varieties on either foot. Spins were performed in the early days of pair skating by more skilled and experienced skaters, often as conclusions to their programs. Figure skating historian James Hines states that even in modern skating, spins are placed at the end of programs to make them more exciting.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 39685, 666280, 21861942, 4546369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 38 ], [ 94, 112 ], [ 452, 465 ], [ 796, 808 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spins \"advanced greatly\" between World War I and World War II. The spins performed by Norwegian skater Sonja Henie, which can be viewed in her films made during the 1930s, often reached 40 or more revolutions and were \"usually well-centered, fast, and as exciting to watch today as they were then\". By the late 1930s, all three basic spin positions were used. Skaters were expected to spin in both directions at the time, but as spins became faster and more difficult, they were only expected to spin in one direction. Skaters like American Ronnie Robertson in the 1950s, Swiss Denise Biellmann in the 1980s, and Swiss Lucinda Ruh in the 1990s, had \"an uncanny ability to perform spins\", and were sometimes able to execute up to seven revolutions per second in the upright position. Canadian figure skater Olivia Oliver holds the Guinness World Record for the fastest spin, 342 rotations per minute, which she completed in Warsaw in 2015. However, as researchers Lee Cabell and Erica Bateman stated in 2018, \"Unfortunately, modern figure skaters often do not achieve these types of revolutions because the rules require skaters to perform spins in different body positions\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 32927, 29491, 4167617, 1347133, 1346729, 100796, 32908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 44 ], [ 49, 61 ], [ 103, 114 ], [ 541, 557 ], [ 578, 594 ], [ 619, 630 ], [ 830, 851 ], [ 923, 929 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "World champion and commentator Scott Hamilton reported that Robertson would spin so fast that he would break blood vessels in his hands. Hamilton also stated that Robertson and Ruh were so good at executing spins that they \"would find that part of the blade that had no friction with the ice, and they would spin at the same speed forever. It just seemed like it would never end, and they could change positions and then recrank the spin and make it happen again\". Ruh, however, suffered from chronic nausea and dizziness, and would regularly lose consciousness during practices or in hotel rooms. She was eventually diagnosed with miniconcussions that were probably linked to executing spins and the forces generated by them, especially during layback spins. Ruh also later stated that the rotational speeds she was able to maintain and the long hours practicing and performing them most likely contributed to the severity of her injuries.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 945072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pair spins became part of competitive figure skating between the world wars; side-by-side spins, along with death spirals, lifts, throw jumps, side-by-side jumps, and side-by-side footwork sequences, were a part of pair skating by the 1930s. In ice dance, there were limitations to dance spins, as well as for other moves associated with pair skating like jumps and lifts, when ice dance became a competitive sport and throughout the 1950s. Spins were limited to a maximum of one-and-a-half revolutions when done by one partner and to two-and-a-half revolutions when they spun around each other. These limitations were put in place to ensure its distinction from pair skating.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 7253301, 10769687, 4546369, 39577, 58079108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 121 ], [ 123, 128 ], [ 130, 141 ], [ 245, 254 ], [ 366, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As The New York Times says, \"While jumps look like sport, spins look more like art. While jumps provide the suspense, spins provide the scenery, but there is so much more to the scenery than most viewers have time or means to grasp\". According to Scott Hamilton, spins are often used \"as breathing points or transitions to bigger things\" and are more difficult to explain to the audience \"because there is so much going on\". Hamilton stated that explaining the intricacies of spins, like edge changes, is challenging because they are difficult to see.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Execution", "target_page_ids": [ 30680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most beginning skaters learn how to execute spins in the counter-clockwise direction, but some may execute them clockwise. Most spins are executed on one foot, except for the two-foot spin, which beginning skaters tend to learn first, and the cross-foot spin. The two-foot spin consists of three essential parts—the setup, the windup, and the spin—as well as the exit, which can be done by rotating in a closed spinning position until stopping or by using a back inside edge with a change of foot.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Execution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The effect of linear and rotational forces is most apparent and most powerful when performing spins. The successful accomplishment of spins depends upon the effective management of angular momentum, which occurs during the entrance of a spin and ends once a skater is in the spin and all linear force is translated into angular velocity. The skater rotates around the point at which their blade touches the ice, the most important point in the vertical axis made by their body, and a fixed vertical axis that extends from the blade on the ice to the highest point in their body. The absence of angular momentum means that fewer variables, or vectors, influence the resulting motion, so if the center of gravity is maintained, spins should be easier to perform than other elements such as jumps. The change from angular momentum to angular speed around a fixed vertical axis is difficult to control, though, as is the change from one force into another in general. Moving forward quickly also cannot be efficiently converted into fast angular speed, so the conversion of fast linear motion, which produces a lot of force, into fast rotational motion is small. Therefore, is it a waste of energy to build up speed going into a spin; entering a spin slowly achieves the same result and will probably be more consistent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Execution", "target_page_ids": [ 30400, 2839, 65927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 42 ], [ 181, 197 ], [ 320, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A spin consists of the following parts: preparation, entry, spin, and exit. During the preparation phase, skaters decrease the radius of the skating curve and velocity/speed, which means that the skater must increase how much they lean into the spin. As researchers Lee Cabell and Erica Bateman state, \"A step against the gliding edge exerts a force on the ice; the resultant torque about the axis of rotation results in the angular momentum that is used during the spin\". Greater force during the initial push of the spin's preparation phase results in greater torque and angular momentum, which will result in a faster spin. The International Skating Union defines a spin exit as \"the last phase of the spin and includes the phase immediately following the spin\". The exit coming out of a spin occurs in two stages: breaking the spin's rotational spin and the exit itself.There are many exit variations of spins. A difficult exit is any jump or movement a skater performs that makes the exit significantly more difficult.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Execution", "target_page_ids": [ 1625178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 631, 658 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The entry phase of a spin produces a logarithmic curve with an indefinite number of radii, smallest at the end and largest at the beginning. When the entry curve radius is decreased, the skater will change the angle of their ean towards the vertical axis, gradually reducing the velocity/speed. The curve ends with a 3 turn, then the center of gravity is slightly lower, resulting in the skater beginning to spin. After the initiation of the actual spin, they will exhibit a large moment of inertia. Their shoulders are square to the hips and rotating with each other at the same angular velocity. The skater's center of gravity must be directly above theie base of support (for example, where the blade is in contact with the ice) in order for them to execute a balanced spin. If the spin is not balanced and centered, the vertical projection of the center of gravity moves away from their base of support, which results in the spinning blade making small loops on the ice.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Execution", "target_page_ids": [ 2248676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 317, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The skater's goal for most spins is to rotate as quickly as possible, to have a well-defined and pleasing body position, to maintain perfect balance before, during, and after the spin, and to remain in one place, called centering, while executing a spin. A good spin should rotate in one place on the ice, \"drawing a series of tiny overlapping circles on top of each other\" into the ice. A skater who executes a spin that is not centered will travel across the ice, \"producing a series of loops strung out along a curve or straight line, so that the skater will end the spin several feet away from the spot on the ice where she began it\". In order to rotate rapidly, the skater must increase their speed (rotations per minute), which is accomplished by reducing the distance of the vertical axis from the parts of their body. This is done by bringing their arms and free leg closer to their body, in line with the vertical axis. Since the true center of gravity is at the point in which the blade meets the ice, the skater must also lower their arms and free leg toward that point. The force created by the spin is generated outward and upward, or via the path of least resistance, as their speed increases. When skaters allow the force to follow the path of least resistance, however, they will lose some of the force that contributes to rotational speed, so when they increase a spin's speed, they must move their arms and free leg inward and downward. Exactly how this is done varies depending on the type of spin skaters perform.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Execution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Skaters experience dizziness during spins because as they spin, their eyes focus on an immobile object and follows it until the object passes beyond their peripheral vision. Then their eyes race ahead to focus on a new object and as the spin ends, their eyes continue to follow this pattern, causing dizziness. It takes practice to train the eyes to return to normal, which dissipates the experience of dizziness.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Execution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are two types of spins, the forward spin and the backward spin. The forward spin is executed on the back inside edge of the skate and is entered into by the forward outside edge and 3 turn; the equivalent movement is ballet in the pirouette en dedans. The backward spin, which is executed on the back outside edge, is entered into by the forward inside edge and 3 turn; the equivalent movement in ballet is the pirouette en dehors.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types/positions of spins", "target_page_ids": [ 2248676, 49733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 194 ], [ 223, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are three basic spin positions: the upright spin, the sit spin, and the camel spin.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types/positions of spins", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The upright spin is one of the three basic figure skating spin positions. The ISU defines an upright spin as a spin with \"any position with the skating leg extended or slightly bent which is not a camel position\". It was invented by British figure skater Cecilia Colledge, who was the first to execute it. Variations of the upright spin include the layback spin, the Biellman spin (created by world champion Denise Biellmann), the full layback, the split, the back upright spin, the forward upright spin, the scratch spin (also called the blur spin), and the sideways leaning spin.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types/positions of spins", "target_page_ids": [ 1057287, 1347133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 367, 380 ], [ 408, 424 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sit spin, invented by American figure skater Jackson Haines, \"represents one of the most important spins in skating\". It is executed on one foot, in a sitting position, with the knee of the skating leg bent in a one-legged crouch position and the free leg held in front, to the side or to the back. It is difficult to learn, requires a great deal of energy, and is not as exciting to perform as other elements, such as jumps, but it has variations that make it more creative and pleasurable to watch. Skaters increase the difficulty of the sit spin in several ways.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types/positions of spins", "target_page_ids": [ 6111170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Colledge was also responsible for the invention of the camel spin (also called the parallel spin); she was the first to perform it, in the mid-1930s. Writer Ellyn Kestnbaum speculates that the camel and layback spins, which \"heightened the visual function of the skater creating interesting shapes with her body\", were, for the first ten years after their inventions, performed mostly by women and not by men because it was easier for women to achieve the interesting shapes the camel spin creates than it is for men. American skater Dick Button, however, performed the first forward camel spin, a variation of the camel spin, and spins became a regular part of the repertoire of male skaters. The camel spin is executed on one foot and is an adaptation of the arabesque ballet pose to the ice. When executed well, the stretch of the body should create a slight arch or straight line. Skaters increase the difficulty of camel spins in a variety of ways.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types/positions of spins", "target_page_ids": [ 728326, 16970115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 534, 545 ], [ 761, 770 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A flying spin is the combination of a jump and a spin. A flying spin can be appealing for the audience to watch and exciting for the skater to perform. Petrovich describes three types of flying spins: the flying camel, the flying sit spin, and the butterfly. The flying camel consists of a jump from a left forward outside edge, about one revolution in the air, with the landing executed in a camel spin. Dick Button might have been the first skater to successfully execute the flying camel; for many years, it was called the \"Button camel\". The flying sit spin was first performed by Buddy Vaughn and Bill Grimditch, who were students of figure skating coach Gustav Lussi, but Button and Ronnie Robertson made it famous. It consists of a take-off from a left forward outside edge, a sit spin position in the air during one-and-a-half revolutions, and a landing in a sit spin. According to Petkevich, \"When the jump is high, it can be an exhilarating maneuver for skater and audience alike\". The butterfly spin is so named because it describes the position in the air. It consists of a take-off from both feet, a body position horizontal to the ice, and a landing in a back spin. It is often performed at the end of a skater's program because although it adds to a program's technical content, it does not require much precision or energy to execute.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types/positions of spins", "target_page_ids": [ 17797630, 3999608, 4167617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 585, 597 ], [ 660, 672 ], [ 689, 705 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The jump section of flying spins is executed at the beginning of the spin and is part of the entrance into it. The angular momentum on the entrance, like for all spins, must be converted into pure rotational momentum. In ordinary jumps, angular momentum allows the skater to travel a long distance across the rink and propel high into the air, but for flying spins, the principles that govern the spin dominate the jump portion of the spin. The goal is to minimize forward motion on the jump portion. Creating speed on the spin portion is also a goal, but a flying spin never achieves the speed of a basic spin because some of the forces assigned to achieving the speed in a basic spin must be used to achieve height on the flying spin's jump portion. Centering the spin after the jump depends on converting all the angular momentum into rotational momentum. Mastering the flying spin takes less time and practice if skaters have already mastered basic spin techniques and good jumping ability.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types/positions of spins", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Combination spins are required in the programs of all disciplines. Flying spins and basic spins can be combined in any number of variations. The maintenance, or acceleration, of the rotational momentum created on the entrance of the first spin is the most important principle governing the execution of combination spins, which require quick movements during the spins' transitions. When a change of feet is required to successfully perform combination spins, the center of rotation of subsequent spins should be as close as possible to the center of rotation of the first spin of the combination. Combination spins must include more than one position and may or may not involve a change of foot.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types/positions of spins", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If a skater performs a spin that has no basic position with only two revolutions, or with less than two revolutions, they do not fulfill the position requirement for the spin, and receives no points for it. A spin with less than three revolutions is not considered a spin; rather, it is considered a skating movement. The flying spin and any spin that only has one position must have six revolutions; spin combinations must have 10 revolutions. Required revolutions are counted from when the skater enters the spin until they exit out of it, except for flying spins and the spins in which the final wind-up is in one position. Skaters increase the difficulty of camel spins by grabbing their leg or blade while performing the spin.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A skater earns points for a spin change of edge only if they complete the spin in a basic position. Fluctuations in speed and variations in the positions of a skater's arms, head, and free leg are permitted. A skater must execute at least three revolutions before and after a change of foot. If a skater tries to perform a spin and his or her change of foot is too far apart (thus creating two spins instead of one), only the part executed before the change of foot is included in the skater's score. The change of foot is optional for spin combinations and for single-position spins. If they fall while entering a spin, the skater can fill the time lost by executing a spin or spinning movement immediately afterwards; however, this movement will not be counted as an element. Difficult spin variations increase the level of a spin and are worth more points. These variations include a movement of the body part, head, leg, arm, or hand that requires flexibility or physical strength and that effects the balance of the skater's main body core. There are 11 categories of difficult spin variations; three are in the camel spin position, based on the direction of the skater's shoulder line.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A spin combination must have at least \"two different basic positions with 2 revolutions in each of these positions anywhere within the spin\". Skaters earn the full value of a spin combination when they include all three basic positions. The number of revolutions in non-basic positions are included in the total number of revolutions, but changing to a non-basic position is not considered a change of position. The change of foot and change of position can be made at the same time or separately, and can be performed as a jump or as a step-over movement. Non-basic positions are allowed during spins executed in one position or, for single skaters, during a flying spin. Difficult exits must have a significant impact on the spin's execution, control, and balance.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The solo spin combination must be performed once during the short program of pair skating competitions, with at least two revolutions in two basic positions. Both partners must include all three basic positions in order to earn the full points possible. There must be a minimum of five revolutions made on each foot. Spins can be commenced with jumps and must have at least two different basic positions, and both partners must include two revolutions in each position. A solo spin combination must have all three basic positions (the camel spin, the sit spin, and upright positions) performed by both partners, at any time during the spin to receive the full value of points, and must have all three basic positions performed by both partners to receive full value for the element. A spin with less than three revolutions is not counted as a spin; rather, it is considered a skating movement. If a skater changes to a non-basic position, it is not considered a change of position. The number of revolutions in non-basic positions, which may be considered difficult variations, are counted towards the team's total number of revolutions. Only positions, whether basic or non-basic, must be performed by the partners at the same time.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If a skater falls while entering into the spin, they can perform another spin or spinning movement immediately after the fall, to fill the time lost from the fall, but it is not counted as a solo spin combination. A change of foot, in the form of a jump or step over, is allowed, and the change of position and change of foot can be performed separately or at the same time. Pair teams require \"significant strength, skill and control\" to perform a change from a basic position to a different basic position without performing a nonbasic position first. They also have to execute a continuous movement throughout the change, without jumps to execute it, and they must hold the basic position for two revolutions both before and after the change. They lose points if they take a long time to reach the necessary basic position.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pair teams earn more points for performing difficult entrances into their spins. Difficult flying entrances count, although backward entry into the spin and a flying camel do not. All entrances must have a \"significant impact\" on the spin's execution, balance, and control, and the intended spin position must be achieved within the team's first two revolutions. The rules surrounding difficult variations, which also apply to single skaters and to both partners, are also worth more points. There are 11 categories of difficult solo spin variations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Both junior and senior pair teams must perform one pair spin combination, which may begin with a fly spin, during their free skating programs. Pair spin combinations must have at least eight revolutions, which must be counted from \"the entry of the spin until its exit\". If spins are done with less than two revolutions, pairs receive zero points; if they have less than three revolutions, they are considered a skating movement, not a spin. Pair teams cannot, except for a short step when changing directions, stop while performing a rotation. Spins must have at least two different basic positions, with two revolutions in each position performed by both partners anywhere within the spin; full value for pair spin combinations are awarded only when both partners perform all three basic positions. A spin executed in both clockwise and counter-clockwise directions is considered one spin. When a team simultaneously performs spins in both directions that immediately follow each other, they earn more points, but they must execute a minimum of three revolutions in each direction without any changes in position.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Both partners must execute at least one change of position and one change of foot (although not necessarily done simultaneously); if not, the element will have no value. Like the solo spin combination, the spin combination has three basic positions: the camel spin, the sit spin, and the upright spin. Also like the solo spin combination, changes to a non-basic position is counted towards the team's total number of revolutions and are not considered a change of position. A change of foot must have at least three revolutions, before and after the change, and can be any basic or non-basic position, in order for the element to be counted.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fluctuations of speed and variations of positions of the head, arms, or free leg are allowed. Difficult variations of a combined pair spin must have at least two revolutions. They receive more points if the spin contains three difficult variations, two of which can be non-basic positions, although each partner must have at least one difficult variation. The same rules apply for difficult entrances into pair spin combinations as they do for solo spin combinations, except that they must be executed by both partners for the element to count towards their final score. A difficult exit, in which the skaters exit the spin in a lift or spinning movement, is defined as \"an innovative move that makes the exit significantly more difficult\". If one or both partners fall while entering a spin, they can execute a spin or a spinning movement to fill up time lost during the fall.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are two types of dance spins: the spin and the combination spin. The ISU defines a dance spin as \"a spin skated by the Couple together in any hold\". The ISU also states, \"It should be performed on the spot around a common axis on one foot by each partner simultaneously\". The combination spin is defined as \"a spin performed as above after which one change of foot is made by both partners simultaneously and further rotations occur\". The solo spin, or pirouette, is allowed and defined as \"a spinning movement performed on one foot\", with or without the partner's assistance, performed by both partners at the same time but around separate centers. The ISU announces dance spin variations or combinations at the beginning of each season.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dance spins have three positions. The upright position is done on one foot with the skating leg slightly bent or straight and with the upper body upright, bent to the side, or with an arched back. The sit position is done on one foot, with \"the skating leg bent in a one-legged crouch position and with the free leg forward, either to the back or the side\". The camel position is done on one foot, with \"the skating leg straight or slightly bent forward, and with the free leg extended or bent forward horizontally or higher\". Ice dancers increase the difficulty of their spins by varying the direction of their spinning rotation and by changing how they enter into and exit out of the spin. For the direction of their rotation, they must both change the direction at the same time and complete at least three rotations in each direction. Their entry into their spins must be unexpected, without any evident preparation. Both their entry into and out of their spin, immediately before entering and exiting the spin, must both include a \"continuous combination of different creative and/or difficult and/or intricate steps or movements or a continuous combination of both creative and/or difficult and/or intricate step(s)\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rules and regulations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Communication No. 2393: Ice Dance\". Lausanne, Switzerland: International Skating Union. 6 May 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2022.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works cited", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Special Regulations & Technical Rules Single & Pair Skating and Ice Dance 2021\". (S&P/ID 2021) International Skating Union. June 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2022.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works cited", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Technical Panel Handbook: Pair Skating 2020/2021\" (PDF). (Tech Panel) ISU Judging System. International Skating Union. 20 July 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2022.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works cited", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Figure_skating_elements" ]

[ "figure skating spin", "spin (figure skating)", "Sp" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Norwich is a town in Windsor County, in the U.S. state of Vermont. The population was 3,612 at the 2020 census. Home to some of the state of Vermont's wealthiest residents, the municipality is a commuter town for nearby Hanover, New Hampshire across the Connecticut River. The town is part of the Dresden School District, the first interstate school district in the United States, signed into law by President John F. Kennedy. The town contains the Norwich Mid-Century Modern Historic District.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 91371, 18618239, 32578, 23962196, 33708322, 13937, 252145, 11410398, 3434750, 5119376, 57834961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 35 ], [ 44, 54 ], [ 58, 65 ], [ 99, 110 ], [ 195, 208 ], [ 220, 242 ], [ 254, 271 ], [ 297, 320 ], [ 366, 379 ], [ 410, 425 ], [ 449, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The boundaries of Norwich were established on July 4, 1761, when Governor Benning Wentworth of New Hampshire defined the boundaries of townships in Vermont. The first settlers reached the area in 1763 and began to clear the wilderness and erect the first hand-hewn log buildings, wintering over for the first time in 1765. Early settlements occurred along the Ompompanoosuc River. Later, the current village site became settled. The first town meeting occurred in April 1768. The first Congregational church was founded in 1770 and a structure built in 1778. The population grew from 206 in 1771 to 1,158 in 1791 and 2,316 in 1830.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 427623, 3400990, 5541561, 366312, 54367073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 91 ], [ 135, 144 ], [ 360, 379 ], [ 439, 451 ], [ 486, 507 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The town was named after Norwich, Connecticut, the state from which the first settlers originated. In the original charter, the name was spelled \"Norwhich\", but the additional 'h' was dropped shortly after the town was chartered. Originally pronounced \"Norritch\" (similar to the English pronunciation of the city of Norwich, England), the town name has in more recent times become more commonly pronounced \"Nor-wich\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 256970, 103443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 45 ], [ 316, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1819 native son, Alden Partridge, a former Superintendent of the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, founded the private \"American Literary, Scientific and Military Academy\" in Norwich. He hoped to establish a new \"American system\" for training cadets that included both humanities and science topics in the curriculum, in addition to military science. In his six years of Norwich residency, Partridge achieved an academy population of nearly 500 \"cadets\". He moved that school back to Middletown, Connecticut, in 1825, but returned in 1835 with a charter from the U.S. Congress to found another military academy, which remained in Norwich until 1866, when it burned to the ground. The school then relocated to Northfield, Vermont, where it exists today as Norwich University.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1126067, 32173, 126966, 636194, 86586, 275138, 260264, 2063664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 35 ], [ 68, 98 ], [ 102, 122 ], [ 268, 273 ], [ 358, 374 ], [ 509, 532 ], [ 734, 753 ], [ 780, 798 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Norwich lies on the western bank of the Connecticut River, which forms Vermont's boundary with New Hampshire, opposite its companion town, Hanover, New Hampshire. The Ledyard Bridge connects the two towns. The Vermont towns bordering Norwich are Thetford to the north, Sharon to the west, and Hartford to the south.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 252145, 21134, 13937, 2848289, 137358, 137466, 137458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 57 ], [ 95, 108 ], [ 139, 161 ], [ 167, 181 ], [ 246, 254 ], [ 269, 275 ], [ 293, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and , or 0.05%, is water. The Ompompanoosuc River flows into the Connecticut River in the northeastern part of the town.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 57070, 5541561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 44 ], [ 125, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The landscape is hilly and wooded. The elevation of the town center is . The hills in the town include the Griggs Mountain in the southwestern section and the Gile Mountain in the northwestern section.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 36615307, 3486045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 67 ], [ 161, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of the census of 2000, there were 3,544 people, 1,367 households, and 944 families residing in the town. The population density was 79.3 people per square mile (30.6/km2). There were 1,505 housing units at an average density of 33.7 per square mile (13.0/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 95.97% White, 0.48% African American, 0.20% Native American, 1.61% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.62% from other races, and 1.10% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 0.79% of the population.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 305, 310 ], [ 318, 334 ], [ 342, 357 ], [ 365, 370 ], [ 378, 394 ], [ 407, 418 ], [ 454, 462 ], [ 466, 472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were 1,367 households, out of which 41.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.1% were married couples living together, 8.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.9% were non-families. 24.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.59 and the average family size was 3.10.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the town, the population was spread out, with 29.3% under the age of 18, 4.9% from 18 to 24, 23.6% from 25 to 44, 31.3% from 45 to 64, and 11.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.1 males.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The median income for a household in the town was $66,000, and the median income for a family was $78,178. Males had a median income of $49,350 versus $33,871 for females. The per capita income for the town was $35,285. About 1.5% of families and 3.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.1% of those under age 18 and 6.2% of those age 65 or over.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The town commercial center features a traditional, but actively used, general store. Adjacent to the general store is a restored historic inn with a restaurant and brew pub. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commerce and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 36615307, 874564, 362355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 70, 83 ], [ 164, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Montshire Museum of Science and King Arthur Baking Company are located in Norwich.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Commerce and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 913390, 8823467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ], [ 36, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Norwich maintains one of the few interstate public school systems, the Dresden School District, commissioned by President John F. Kennedy, which is shared by the towns of Norwich and Hanover, New Hampshire. Students attend Marion Cross School in Norwich for kindergarten through sixth grade, Richmond Middle School in Hanover for grades seven and eight, and Hanover High School in Hanover for grades nine through twelve.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 11410398, 5119376, 13937, 3603516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 94 ], [ 122, 137 ], [ 183, 205 ], [ 358, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Major transportation routes, which run parallel through the Connecticut River valley, include Interstate 91 (Exit 13 serves the town), U.S. Route 5 and the former Boston and Maine Railroad right of way, now owned by the State of Vermont. The Appalachian Trail passes south to east through the town from Hartford to Hanover, New Hampshire.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 92121, 20718383, 238923, 87009, 137458, 13937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 107 ], [ 135, 147 ], [ 163, 188 ], [ 242, 259 ], [ 303, 311 ], [ 315, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Barron, United States Marshal for the District of Vermont", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 63002716, 98221, 915635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 17, 38 ], [ 47, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charles L. Bartlett, Mayor of Marlborough, Massachusetts", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 34415549, 116850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 31, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paul Brigham, second governor of Vermont", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 4969230, 252403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 22, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Heinrich Brüning, German chancellor of the Weimar Republic", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 220778, 33685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 44, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Daniel Azro Ashley Buck, US congressman", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 3532350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nicholas A. Christakis, sociologist, professor and physician", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 21566523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zerah Colburn, child prodigy \"mental calculator\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 852688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George A. Converse, Spanish–American War era navy admiral", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 1996949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pamela Kyle Crossley, historian", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 3306525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jonathan Finer, current Deputy National Security Advisor in Biden administration; prior Chief of Staff and Director of Policy Planning for former Secretary John Kerry at the U.S. Department of State", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 49751688, 5122699, 31975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 157, 167 ], [ 175, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Joseph D. Hatch, Vermont state legislator and mayor of Burlington, Vermont", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 62894730, 67258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 55, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jim Holland, Olympic ski jumper (1992 & 1994)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 8238480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joe Holland, Olympic Nordic combined skier (1988 & 1992)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 8238394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mike Holland, Olympic ski jumper (1984 & 1988)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 8237828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Norris Hoyt, politician and lawyer", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 40203943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hannah Kearney, Olympic medalist mogul skier (2010 gold, 2014 bronze)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 4043673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bob Keeshan, television's \"Captain Kangaroo\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 54589, 54588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 28, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Laurence G. Leavitt, headmaster of Vermont Academy, Saxtons River", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 20540964, 2616468, 137440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 36, 51 ], [ 53, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tony Lupien, first baseman with the Red Sox, Phillies and White Sox", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 826212, 4339, 23741, 5945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 37, 44 ], [ 46, 54 ], [ 59, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " David Macaulay, author and illustrator", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 1464891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Felix McGrath, Olympic alpine skier", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 35494959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Freya von Moltke, author and lecturer on German resistance to Nazism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 2663450, 31045316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 63, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robby Mook, presidential campaign manager for Hillary Clinton", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 40698959, 5043192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 47, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George Sylvester Morris, educator and philosophical writer", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 3744554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alden Partridge, founder of Norwich University", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 1126067, 2063664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 29, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lewis Samuel Partridge, nephew of Alden Partridge, U.S. Marshal for Vermont, and Adjutant General of the Vermont Militia", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 41161038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kevin Pearce, snowboarder", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 15933561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Simon Pearce, glassblower; designer; restaurateur", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 31010533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas E. G. Ransom, general in the American Civil War", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 6531595, 863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 37, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy, historian and social philosopher", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 274541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paul Sample, artist", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 34243224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Walter H. Stockmayer, chemist and Dartmouth College professor", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 957477, 8418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 35, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Andrew Wheating, Olympic 800-meter runner (2008)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 18924343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Edward Bancroft Williston, Medal of Honor recipient", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 9810794, 40331925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 28, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George Wright, general in the American Civil War", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 7639374, 863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 31, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Town of Norwich official website", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Norwich Village Historic District, National Register Nomination Information", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Norwich,_Vermont", "Vermont_populated_places_on_the_Connecticut_River", "Towns_in_Vermont", "Towns_in_Windsor_County,_Vermont", "Populated_places_established_in_1761", "1761_establishments_in_the_Thirteen_Colonies" ]

[ "Norwich, Vermont", "Norwich, VT" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Niihau (Hawaiian: ), anglicized as Niihau ( ), is the westernmost main and seventh largest inhabited island in Hawaii. It is southwest of Kauaʻi across the Kaulakahi Channel. Its area is . Several intermittent playa lakes provide wetland habitats for the Hawaiian coot, the Hawaiian stilt, and the Hawaiian duck. The island is designated as critical habitat for Brighamia insignis, an endemic and endangered species of Hawaiian lobelioid. The United States Census Bureau defines Niihau and the neighboring island and State Seabird Sanctuary of Lehua as Census Tract 410 of Kauai County, Hawaii. Its 2000 census population was 160, most of whom are native Hawaiians; Its 2010 census population was 170. At the 2020 census, the population had fallen to 84.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14240, 32880096, 13270, 70961, 17133, 318980, 102024, 12434258, 41397393, 1242933, 5696163, 4679911, 57070, 2986253, 105254, 85083, 432383, 3448729, 158383, 23962196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 16 ], [ 66, 70 ], [ 111, 117 ], [ 139, 145 ], [ 157, 174 ], [ 211, 216 ], [ 231, 238 ], [ 256, 269 ], [ 275, 289 ], [ 299, 312 ], [ 363, 381 ], [ 420, 438 ], [ 444, 471 ], [ 545, 550 ], [ 554, 566 ], [ 574, 594 ], [ 600, 611 ], [ 671, 682 ], [ 683, 693 ], [ 711, 722 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elizabeth Sinclair purchased Niihau in 1864 for from the Kingdom of Hawaii. The island's private ownership passed on to her descendants, the Robinsons. During World War II, the island was the site of the Niihau incident, in which, following the attack on Pearl Harbor, a Japanese navy fighter pilot crashed on the island and received help from residents of Japanese descent.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 34384215, 23363583, 21989860, 32927, 5131777, 60098, 1733449, 10929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 58, 75 ], [ 142, 150 ], [ 160, 172 ], [ 205, 220 ], [ 246, 268 ], [ 272, 285 ], [ 286, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The island, known as \"the Forbidden Isle\", is off-limits to all outsiders except the Robinson family and their relatives, U.S. Navy personnel, government officials, and invited guests. From 1987 onward, a limited number of supervised activity tours and hunting safaris have opened to tourists. The island is currently managed by brothers Bruce and Keith Robinson. The people of Niihau are noted for their gemlike lei pūpū (shell lei) craftsmanship. They speak Hawaiian as a primary language.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20518076, 14770771, 696202, 14240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 131 ], [ 348, 362 ], [ 413, 421 ], [ 460, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Niihau is located about west of Kauai, and the tiny, uninhabited island of Lehua lies north of Niihau. Niihau's dimensions are 6.2 miles by 18.6 miles (10km×30km). The maximum elevation (Paniau) is . The island is about 6 million years old, making it geologically older than the 5.8-million-year-old neighboring island of Kauai to the northeast. Niihau is the remnant of the southwestern slope of what was once a much larger volcano. The entire summit and other slopes collapsed into the ocean in a giant prehistoric landslide.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 70961, 2986253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 38 ], [ 76, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The island is relatively arid because it lies in the rain shadow of Kauai and lacks the elevation needed to catch significant amounts of trade wind rainfall. Niihau, therefore, depends on winter Kona storms for its rain, when more northerly weather systems intrude into the region. As such, the island is subject to long periods of drought. Historical droughts on Niihau have been recorded several times, one in 1792 by Captain James Cook's former junior officer, George Vancouver, who had been told that the people of Niihau had abandoned the island because of a severe drought and had moved to Kauai to escape famine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 560009, 426426, 642982, 9463590, 37335, 15630, 12867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 29 ], [ 53, 64 ], [ 137, 147 ], [ 195, 205 ], [ 332, 339 ], [ 428, 438 ], [ 464, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As an arid island, Niihau was barren of trees for centuries – Captain James Cook reported it treeless in 1778. Aubrey Robinson, grandfather of current owners Bruce Robinson and Keith Robinson, planted 10,000 trees per year during much of his ownership of the island; Robinson's afforestation efforts increased rainfall in the dry climate. Island co-owner Keith Robinson, a noted conservationist, preserved and documented many of Niihau's natural plant resources. The island is designated as a critical habitat for the ōlulu, an endemic and endangered species of Hawaiian lobelioid. Aylmer robinsonii, a Pritchardia palm tree named for Keith Robinson's uncle Aylmer Robinson, is an endangered species native to Niihau.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 15630, 21989860, 1968338, 45441, 5696163, 4679911, 12355346, 846396, 45715, 29365036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 80 ], [ 111, 126 ], [ 278, 291 ], [ 379, 394 ], [ 518, 523 ], [ 562, 580 ], [ 582, 599 ], [ 603, 614 ], [ 615, 619 ], [ 658, 673 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several bird species thrive on Niʻihau. The largest lakes on the island are Hālaliʻi Lake, Halulu Lake and Nonopapa Lake. These intermittent playa lakes on the island provide wetland habitats for the ʻalae keʻokeʻo (Hawaiian coot), the āeʻo (Hawaiian subspecies of Black-necked Stilt), and the koloa maoli (Hawaiian duck). The critically endangered Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi) is found in high numbers on Niʻihau's shores. Robinson states that Niʻihau's secluded shoreline offers them a safe haven from habitat encroachments. According to Robinson, conditions there are better than the government refuges of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. When the Robinsons originally purchased Niʻihau, no monk seals were present, because they lived in the northwestern part of the Hawaiian island chain, Necker and Midway islands. They have been relocated to the main Hawaiian island chain by NOAA fisheries over the past thirty years, and some have found homes on Niʻihau.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 54153824, 54154299, 318980, 102024, 12434258, 41397393, 1242933, 753770, 689835, 683078, 19250, 37876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 89 ], [ 91, 102 ], [ 141, 146 ], [ 175, 182 ], [ 200, 214 ], [ 236, 240 ], [ 294, 305 ], [ 349, 367 ], [ 628, 657 ], [ 810, 816 ], [ 821, 827 ], [ 899, 903 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Big game herds, imported from stock on Molokai Ranch in recent years, roam Niihau's forests and flatlands. Eland and aoudad are abundant, along with oryxes, wild boars and feral sheep. These big game herds provide income from hunting safari tourism.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 6065207, 194717, 5821698, 2776778, 314907, 52255, 17158563, 6065207, 185166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 39, 46 ], [ 107, 112 ], [ 117, 123 ], [ 149, 153 ], [ 162, 166 ], [ 178, 183 ], [ 226, 233 ], [ 234, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to the unification of the Kingdom of Hawaii under Kamehameha I, Niihau was ruled by the . Kahelelani was the first of the Niihau alii. His name is now used to refer to the Niihau kahelelani, the puka shell of the wart turbans (Leptothyra verruca), used to make exquisite Niihau shell jewelry. Kāʻeokūlani was a ruler of northern Niihau who unified the island after defeating his rival, a chief named Kawaihoa. A stone wall () across a quarter of the island's southern end marked the boundaries of the two chiefs: Kāeo's land was identified by black stones and Kawaihoa's by white stones. Eventually, a great battle took place, known as Pali Kamakaui. Kāeo's two brothers from the island of Maui, Kaʻiana and his half-brother Kahekili II, the King of Maui, fought for Kāeo, and Niihau was united under his rule. Kawaihoa was banished to the south end of the island and Kāeo moved to the middle of the island to govern. Kāeo married the Queen Kamakahelei, and a future king of Niihau and Kauai named Kaumualii was born in 1790. Kauai and Niihau are said to have carried the \"highest blood lines\" in the Hawaiian Islands.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23363583, 67156, 26980933, 26760034, 13706276, 70959, 70494473, 14266120, 17572478, 670512, 70961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 49 ], [ 56, 68 ], [ 96, 106 ], [ 219, 231 ], [ 519, 523 ], [ 696, 700 ], [ 702, 709 ], [ 731, 742 ], [ 947, 958 ], [ 1004, 1013 ], [ 1032, 1037 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kamehameha managed to unify all of the islands by 1795, except for Kauai and Niihau. Two attempts to conquer those islands had failed, and Kamehameha lost many men: bodies covered the beaches on Kauai's eastern shores. Finally, in 1810, Kamehameha amassed a great fleet, and Kaumualii, the last independent , surrendered rather than risk further bloodshed. Independence again became feasible after Kamehameha's death in 1819, but was put down when Kamehameha's widow Kaʻahumanu kidnapped Kaumualii and forced him to marry her. Thereafter Niihau remained part of the unified Hawaiian Kingdom.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 634257, 23363583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 467, 477 ], [ 574, 590 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elizabeth McHutchison Sinclair (1800–1892) purchased Niihau and parts of Kauai from Kamehameha V in 1864 for in gold. Sinclair chose Niihau over other options, including Waikīkī and Pearl Harbor. By around 1875, Niihau's population consisted of about 350 Native Hawaiians, with 20,000 sheep. This era marked the end of the art of Hawaiian mat-weaving made famous by the people of Niihau. (Cyperus laevigatus), a native sedge, used to grow on the edges of Niihau's three intermittent lakes. The stems were harvested and used to weave (mats), considered the \"finest sleeping mats in Polynesia\". The mats were valued by and foreign visitors alike, but by the end of the 19th century, Hawaiians had stopped weaving due to changes in population, culture, economics, and the environment.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 34384215, 690646, 59649, 21285632, 17158563, 1460408, 22565809, 299939, 18842431, 20611385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ], [ 84, 96 ], [ 171, 178 ], [ 183, 195 ], [ 286, 291 ], [ 391, 398 ], [ 399, 409 ], [ 421, 426 ], [ 472, 489 ], [ 584, 593 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1915, Sinclair's grandson Aubrey Robinson closed the island to most visitors. Even relatives of the inhabitants could visit only by special permission. Upon Aubrey's death in 1939 the island passed to his son Aylmer, and in 1968 to Aylmer's youngest brother Lester. Upon Lester's wife Helen's death, the island passed to his sons Bruce Robinson and Keith Robinson, the current co-owners. (See Sinclair-Robinson family tree)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 34384215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 396, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Niihau played a small role during the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. In what has come to be called the Niihau Incident (or the Battle of Niihau), a Japanese pilot whose Zero had been hit crash-landed on the island hoping to rendezvous with a rescue submarine. The pilot was apprehended and later escaped with the assistance of local Japanese residents, but he was killed shortly afterwards.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 60098, 5131777, 183897, 19623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 60 ], [ 116, 131 ], [ 161, 169 ], [ 182, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite its self-imposed isolation, Niihau has a long-standing relationship with the U.S. military dating from 1924. There is a small Navy installation on the island. No military personnel are permanently stationed there, but the U.S. military has used the island for training special operations units, which included hiring Hawaiians who live on Niihau as \"enemy\" trackers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32212, 20518076, 45204749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 98 ], [ 134, 138 ], [ 277, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The island of Niihau was considered as a possible location for the United Nations headquarters in 1944 by Franklin D. Roosevelt, who had visited Hawaii in 1934. Under Cordell Hull, Roosevelt's Secretary of State, the State Department seriously studied the proposal.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Society", "target_page_ids": [ 31769, 10979, 267720, 32293, 31975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 81 ], [ 106, 127 ], [ 167, 179 ], [ 193, 211 ], [ 217, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2004 President George W. Bush received all but one of the 40 votes cast on the island. The remaining vote was cast for Green Party nominee David Cobb. Fifty-one registered voters did not cast ballots. In 2006 Dan Akaka received 60% of votes in the 2006 Senate election to Cynthia Thielen's 36%. In 2008, Niihau's precinct was one of only 3 of Hawaii's 538 precincts to vote for John McCain over Barack Obama. McCain received 35 votes, Obama received 4, and Cynthia McKinney received 1. In the 2016 presidential election, 34 votes were cast for president, of which 20 were for Donald Trump and 10 for Hillary Clinton. In 2020, Donald Trump won 100% of the vote on Niihau against Joe Biden.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Society", "target_page_ids": [ 3414021, 30696, 440497, 296716, 7339733, 43715, 534366, 392017, 21377251, 4848272, 5043192, 4848272, 145422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 32 ], [ 122, 133 ], [ 142, 152 ], [ 212, 221 ], [ 275, 290 ], [ 381, 392 ], [ 398, 410 ], [ 460, 476 ], [ 496, 522 ], [ 579, 591 ], [ 603, 618 ], [ 629, 641 ], [ 681, 690 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2010 census states that there were 170 people living on the island. However, witness accounts estimate that the population actually ranges between 35 and 50 people. Some support themselves largely by subsistence fishing and farming, while others depend on welfare. All residents live rent-free, and meat is free. Niihau has no telephone services and no paved roads. Horses are the main form of transportation; bicycles are also used. There are no power lines; solar power provides all electricity. There is no plumbing or running water on the island. Water comes from rainwater catchment. The Robinson family established most of these conditions. There is no hotel, and barges deliver groceries from Kauai, often purchased by relatives, with free shipping.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Society", "target_page_ids": [ 247817, 1032545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 260, 267 ], [ 572, 591 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Residents generally speak the Niihau dialect of Hawaiian as their first language, in part encouraged by terms in the original purchase contract which obligated the new owners to help preserve Hawaiian culture and tradition. The Niihau dialect differs from modern standard Hawaiian in that, for example, and are the most common realizations of the phonemes and , respectively. Niihau is the only island where Hawaiian is spoken as a primary language. Oral tradition maintains that the Niihau dialect is closer to the Hawaiian register spoken during the time of contact with Europeans; there is linguistic evidence to support this claim, such as the pronunciation of k as . English is the second language.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Society", "target_page_ids": [ 14240, 14240, 8128, 1834, 22980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 44 ], [ 48, 56 ], [ 235, 242 ], [ 329, 341 ], [ 349, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some residents have radio and television sets, although limited reception effectively limits the latter to watching pre-recorded media. Niihau is subject to regular droughts that occasionally force the population to evacuate to Kauai temporarily, until rainfall replenishes their water supply. Residents commonly also commute to Kauai for work, medical care, or school, and many of them call both islands home. To avoid a long boat ride, the island's owners maintain an Agusta A109 helicopter for emergencies and for transporting Navy contractors and residents to and from Kauai. Helicopter tours and safaris help offset the costs of this service.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Society", "target_page_ids": [ 510266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 470, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A form of ipu art is known to have developed solely on the island of Niihau. In this method, after a design is carved in the skin of a fresh gourd, it is filled with dye which, after several weeks, changes the color of the uncarved portions of the surface where the skin is intact. Hawaiian music plays a central role on the island, with a cappella singers making use of only two or three tones and changing rhythms. Ukulele and guitar playing is nearly ubiquitous among the islanders, and there are three separate styles of slack-key music, with an older style originating from Kohala.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Society", "target_page_ids": [ 3072719, 140498, 8179, 244159, 2411, 32286, 564846, 891747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 13 ], [ 141, 146 ], [ 166, 169 ], [ 282, 296 ], [ 338, 348 ], [ 417, 424 ], [ 525, 534 ], [ 579, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Hawaii Department of Education operates the Niihau School, a K-12 school. Academic subjects and computer literacy are combined with teaching students to \"thrive from the land\". The school is powered entirely by solar power. The number of students varies from 25 to 50 since families often travel between Niihau and Kauai. Schoolchildren may stay with relatives in west Kauai, where they attend one of two Niihau-focused public charter schools. At the Ke Kula Niihau o Kekaha school, students speak primarily the Niihau dialect through the early elementary grades, and then Hawaiian and English through grade 12. The school has a digital recording and video system, which helps to preserve and teach traditional Niihau and Hawaiian culture. At the other west Kauai school, Kula Aupuni Niihau a Kahelelani Aloha (KANAKA), English is used in all grades, while still supporting the Niihau dialect. Both schools foster the culture, values, and spirituality of Niihau. Efforts to establish KANAKA began in 1993 and its current version was established in 1999.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Society", "target_page_ids": [ 751217, 65627501, 13690575, 40148490, 65626378, 14240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 34 ], [ 48, 61 ], [ 215, 226 ], [ 431, 445 ], [ 455, 485 ], [ 577, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Approximately 80% of Niihau's income comes from a small Navy installation atop 1,300-foot-high cliffs. Remote-controlled tracking devices are used for testing and training with Kaua'i's Pacific Missile Range Facility. Modern missile defense tests are conducted at the site for the U.S. and its allies. The installation brings in millions of dollars a year, and provides the island with a stable economic base without the complexity of tourism or industrial development.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 20518076, 844439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 60 ], [ 186, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sale of shells and shell jewelry is an additional source of income. Its beaches are known for their pūpū, tiny shells that wash onto shore during winter months. Species used for shell leis includes momi (Euplica varians), laiki or rice shells (Mitrella margarita) and kahelelani (Leptothyra verruca). The shells and jewelry are so popular that Governor Linda Lingle signed a bill in 2004 to protect lei pūpū o Niihau (Niihau shell leis) from counterfeiting. A single, intricate Niihau shell lei can sell for thousands of dollars.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 26759908, 26760108, 26760034, 360388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 223 ], [ 248, 266 ], [ 284, 302 ], [ 357, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many residents of Niihau were once employees of Niihau Ranch, farming cattle and sheep until the Robinsons shut down the operation in 1999. It had not been profitable for most of the 20th century. Honey cultivation was also no longer viable by 1999. Kiawe charcoal was once a large-scale export, but aggressive Mexican price competition ended that as well. Mullet farming has been popular on Niihau, with ponds and lakes stocked with baby mullet, which reach apiece before being harvested and sold on Kauai and Oahu.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 14361, 5393647, 21193982, 3966054, 4590134, 70961, 50862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 202 ], [ 250, 255 ], [ 256, 264 ], [ 311, 318 ], [ 357, 363 ], [ 502, 507 ], [ 512, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bruce Robinson, Niihau's co-owner, is seeking and considering new forms of non-invasive income generation. Depending on feasibility, impact, and ecological footprint on the ecosystem and culture, possibilities include: JP-8 generation by the lignocellulose process; military, including a possible runway; and windmill energy production. Robinson has declined offers to purchase sand from Niihau's beaches, because of adverse environmental effects.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 301500, 2484832, 5635233, 43490, 18994037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 165 ], [ 219, 223 ], [ 242, 256 ], [ 309, 317 ], [ 378, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Niihau's owners have offered half-day helicopter and beach tours of the island since 1987, although contact with residents is avoided and no accommodation exists. Since 1992, hunting safaris provide income via tourists who pay to visit the island to hunt eland, aoudad, and oryx, as well as wild sheep and boars. Any meat the hunters do not take with them is given to the village.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 6065207, 185166, 5821698, 2776778, 314907, 17158563, 52255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 182 ], [ 183, 189 ], [ 255, 260 ], [ 262, 268 ], [ 274, 278 ], [ 296, 301 ], [ 306, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The final missions of the campaigns in the 2007 real-time strategy video game Supreme Commander and its expansion, Forged Alliance take place on Niihau, which houses the Black Sun installation. The island is roughly portrayed correctly, and the missions also feature several fictitious islands around the island of Niihau itself.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 77251, 28832249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 67 ], [ 79, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Niʻihau Incident is portrayed in the 2019 film Enemy Within. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 5131777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 21 ] ] } ]

[ "Niihau", "Islands_of_Hawaii", "Volcanoes_of_Hawaii", "Geography_of_Kauai_County,_Hawaii", "Extinct_volcanoes", "Hawaiian–Emperor_seamount_chain", "Private_islands_of_the_United_States", "Pliocene_volcanoes", "Neogene_Oceania", "Cenozoic_Hawaii", "Private_islands_of_Oceania" ]

[ "Niihau" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Hawaii Five-O is an American police procedural drama series produced by CBS Productions and created by Leonard Freeman. Set in Hawaii, the show originally aired for 12 seasons on CBS from September 20, 1968 to April 8, 1980 and continues in reruns. At the airing of its last episode, it was the longest-running police drama in American television history and the last fictional primetime show that debuted in the 1960s to leave the air.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 479154, 20913753, 7322072, 1014954, 13270, 37653, 25745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 46 ], [ 47, 52 ], [ 72, 87 ], [ 103, 118 ], [ 127, 133 ], [ 179, 182 ], [ 241, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The show starred Jack Lord as Detective Captain Stephen \"Steve\" McGarrett, the head of a special state police task force in Hawaii which was based on an actual unit that existed under martial law after World War II. The theme music composed by Morton Stevens became especially popular. Many episodes in the series would end with McGarrett's catchphrase, \"Book 'em, Danno!\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 302622, 9644587, 32927, 463026, 6205785, 251944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 26 ], [ 48, 73 ], [ 203, 215 ], [ 222, 233 ], [ 246, 260 ], [ 344, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The CBS television network produced Hawaii Five-O, which aired from September 20, 1968, to April 5, 1980. The program continues to be broadcast in syndication worldwide. Created by Leonard Freeman, Hawaii Five-O was shot on location in Honolulu, Hawaii, and throughout the island of Oahu and other Hawaiian islands with occasional filming in locales such as Los Angeles, Singapore, and Hong Kong.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 37653, 7322072, 327785, 1014954, 13887, 50862, 158383, 18110, 27318, 13404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 7 ], [ 27, 35 ], [ 147, 158 ], [ 181, 196 ], [ 236, 252 ], [ 283, 287 ], [ 298, 314 ], [ 358, 369 ], [ 371, 380 ], [ 386, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The show centers on a fictional state police force led by former US naval officer Steve McGarrett (played by Jack Lord), a detective captain, who is appointed by the Governor, Paul Jameson. In the show, McGarrett oversees state police officers – the young Danny \"Danno\" Williams, veteran Chin Ho Kelly, and streetwise Kono Kalakaua for seasons one through four. Honolulu Police Department Officer Duke Lukela joined the team as a regular, as did Ben Kokua, who replaced Kono beginning with season five. Occasionally, McGarrett's Five-O team is assisted by other officers as needed: Det. Frank Kamana (Douglas Mossman), P.O. Sandi Wells (Amanda McBroom), medical examiner Doc Bergman (Al Eben), forensic specialist Che Fong (Harry Endo), and a secretary. The first secretary was May, then Jenny, and later Malia, Lani and Luana.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 302622, 253068, 63760597, 1020281, 747354, 44784080, 7420748, 21054032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 118 ], [ 166, 174 ], [ 256, 278 ], [ 288, 301 ], [ 362, 388 ], [ 601, 616 ], [ 637, 651 ], [ 724, 734 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The title of the show refers to Hawaii's status as the 50th US state; at the time of its premiere, Hawaii had officially been a U.S. state for only nine years. The Five-O team consists of three to five members (small for a real state police unit), and is portrayed as occupying a suite of offices in the Iolani Palace. Five-O lacks its own radio network, necessitating frequent requests by McGarrett to the Honolulu Police Department dispatchers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 469613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 304, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For 12 seasons, McGarrett and his team hounded international secret agents, criminals, and organized crime syndicates plaguing the Hawaiian Islands. With the aid of District Attorney and later Hawaii's Attorney General John Manicote, McGarrett is successful in sending most of his enemies to prison. One such crime syndicate was led by crime family patriarch Honore Vashon, a character introduced in the fifth season. Other criminals and organized crime bosses on the islands were played by actors such as Ricardo Montalbán, Gavin MacLeod, and Ross Martin as Tony Alika.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 22625, 402653, 930093, 19008450, 75311, 12792, 2439584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 106 ], [ 165, 182 ], [ 193, 218 ], [ 292, 298 ], [ 506, 523 ], [ 525, 538 ], [ 544, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the 12th and final season, series regular James MacArthur had left the show (in 1996, he admitted that he had become tired of the role and wanted to do other things), as had Kam Fong. Unlike other characters before him, Fong's character, Chin Ho Kelly, at Fong's request, was killed off, murdered while working undercover to expose a protection ring in Chinatown in the last episode of season 10. New characters Jim 'Kimo' Carew (William Smith), Lori Wilson (Sharon Farrell), and Truck (Moe Keale) were introduced in season 12 alongside returning regular character Duke Lukela.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 1020281, 581512, 13202353, 9983367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 241, 254 ], [ 433, 446 ], [ 462, 476 ], [ 490, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most episodes of Hawaii Five-O ended with the arrest of criminals and McGarrett snapping, \"Book 'em.\" The offense occasionally was added after this phrase, for example, \"Book 'em, murder one.\" In many episodes, this was directed to Danny \"Danno\" Williams and became McGarrett's catchphrase: \"Book 'em, Danno.\" This line was often imitated in other TV shows and in movies, and specifically in season one, episode twelve of the ABC TV comedy Sledge Hammer!. This catchphrase also expanded to sports in the mid-1970s with former Pittsburgh Penguins announcer Mike Lange, who would utter the line for some Penguins goals.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 63760597, 251944, 870082, 66964, 679895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 232, 254 ], [ 278, 289 ], [ 440, 454 ], [ 526, 545 ], [ 556, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "McGarrett's tousled yet immaculate hairstyle, as well as his proclivity for wearing a dark suit and tie on all possible occasions (uncommon in the islands), rapidly entered popular culture. While the other members of Five-O \"dressed mainland\" much of the time, they also often wore local styles, such as the ubiquitous Aloha shirt.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 456826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 319, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many episodes (including the pilot), McGarrett is drawn into the world of international espionage and national intelligence. McGarrett's nemesis is a rogue intelligence officer of the People's Republic of China named Wo Fat. The communist rogue agent was played by veteran actor Khigh Dhiegh. In the show's final episode in 1980, titled \"Woe to Wo Fat\", McGarrett finally sees his foe go to jail.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 10501, 146678, 5405, 7216253, 9209651, 1134419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 100 ], [ 105, 126 ], [ 187, 213 ], [ 220, 226 ], [ 233, 242 ], [ 283, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike the reboot the show's action and straightforward storytelling left little time for personal stories involving wives or girlfriends, though a two-part story in the first season dealt with the loss of McGarrett's sister's baby. Occasionally, a show would flash back to McGarrett's younger years or to a romantic figure.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the episode \"Number One with a Bullet, Part 2\", McGarrett tells a criminal, \"It was a bastard like you who killed my father.\" His 42-year-old father had been run down and killed by someone who had just held up a supermarket. Because Steve McGarrett is also a commander in the Naval Reserve, he sometimes uses their resources to help investigate and solve crimes. Hence the closing credits of some episodes mentioned the Naval Reserve. A 1975 episode involving Danno's aunt, played by MacArthur's mother Helen Hayes, provided a bit of Williams' back story.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 14157109, 1881324, 177771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 262, 271 ], [ 279, 292 ], [ 507, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sources differ on how the show came to be. Producer Leonard Freeman moved to Hawaii to recuperate after suffering a heart attack. One source states the idea for the show may have come from a conversation Freeman had with Hawaii's then-Governor John A. Burns.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Creation of the show", "target_page_ids": [ 519230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another source instead claims that Freeman wanted to set a show in San Pedro, Los Angeles, California until his friend Richard Boone convinced him to shoot it entirely in Hawaii. A third source claims Freeman discussed the show with Governor Burns only after pitching the idea to CBS. Before settling on the name \"Hawaii Five-O\", Freeman considered titling the show \"The Man\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Creation of the show", "target_page_ids": [ 198006, 783791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 101 ], [ 119, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Freeman offered Richard Boone the part of McGarrett, but Boone turned it down; Gregory Peck and Robert Brown were also considered. Ultimately, Jack Lord – then living in Beverly Hills – was asked at the last moment. Lord read for the part on a Wednesday, was cast, and flew to Hawaii two days later. On the following Monday, Lord was in front of the cameras. Freeman and Lord had worked together previously on an unsold TV pilot called Grand Hotel.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Creation of the show", "target_page_ids": [ 783791, 77491, 6859680, 302622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 29 ], [ 79, 91 ], [ 96, 108 ], [ 144, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tim O'Kelly originated the role of Danny \"Danno\" Williams in the pilot episode, \"Cocoon\". Test audiences apparently were not positive on O'Kelly, however, and the producers replaced him with James MacArthur.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Creation of the show", "target_page_ids": [ 13523214, 63760597, 248478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 35, 57 ], [ 191, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kam Fong Chun, an 18-year veteran of the Honolulu Police Department, auditioned for the part of the lead villain Wo Fat, but Freeman cast him in the part of Chin Ho Kelly instead. Freeman took the name Wo Fat from a restaurant in downtown Honolulu. The name Chin Ho came from Chinn Ho, the owner of the Ilikai Hotel where the penthouse shot of Steve McGarrett in the opening title sequence was taken. Richard Denning, who played the governor, had retired to Hawaii and came out of retirement for the show. Zulu was a Waikiki beach boy and local DJ with no acting experience when he was cast for the part of Kono, which he played for the next four years.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Creation of the show", "target_page_ids": [ 1020256, 747354, 1020281, 24267575, 21436838, 1022830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 41, 67 ], [ 157, 170 ], [ 276, 284 ], [ 303, 315 ], [ 401, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wo Fat (Khigh Dhiegh), a Chinese intelligence agent and criminal mastermind", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 7216253, 1134419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Che Fong (Edward Tom (season 1), Danny Kamekona (seasons 1-2), Harry Endo (seasons 2-10)), the HPD forensic specialist", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 37284221, 21054032, 747354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 48 ], [ 64, 74 ], [ 96, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joey Lee (Brian Tochi), former gang leader turned undercover informant for McGarrett ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 3785350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Doc Bergman (Al Eben), the medical examiner ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lieutenant George Kealoha (Douglas Mossman), HPD (season 1) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jonathan Kaye (James Gregory (pilot), Joseph Sirola (season 2–5), Robert Dixon (\"To Kill or Be Killed,\" season 3), Tim O'Connor (\"The Ninety-Second War,\" season 4), Bill Edwards (seasons 5–10), and Lyle Bettger (season 10)), from the U. S. State Department", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 1068581, 68290817, 2410984, 10122521, 4330581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 29 ], [ 39, 52 ], [ 116, 128 ], [ 166, 178 ], [ 199, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Doc\" (full name never used) (Newell Tarrant (season 1), Robert Brilliande (season 2), Ted Thorpe (season 2), Robert Costa (season 3)), HPD medical examiner (or coroner)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Attorney General Walter Stewart (Morgan White; season 1)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 28693999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May (Mitzi Hoag (pilot), Maggi Parker), McGarrett's secretary (season 1)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 39726170, 9250981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 16 ], [ 26, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jenny Sherman (Peggy Ryan), McGarrett's secretary (seasons 2-8)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 1127664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Luana (Laura Sode), McGarrett's secretary (seasons 11-12)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dr. Grant Ormsbee (Pat Hingle), a scientist (seasons 8 & 9)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 475055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dr. Bishop (Jean Tarrant), criminal psychologist (season 6). Tarrant also guest starred in two non-recurring character roles, one in season 8 and one in season 9.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Danny \"Danno\" Williams, Detective Sgt. – Tim O'Kelly", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 63760597, 13523214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 42, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paul Jameson, Governor – Lew Ayres", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 149808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May, secretary – Mitzi Hoag", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characters", "target_page_ids": [ 39726170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first season was shot in a rusty military Quonset hut in Pearl City, which the various cast members quickly nicknamed \"Mongoose Manor\". The roof tended to leak, and rats would often gnaw at the cables. The show then moved to a Fort Ruger location for seasons two to eight. A third studio was built at Diamond Head, and was used during the last four seasons.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 1240750, 110528, 15861976, 528778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 57 ], [ 61, 71 ], [ 231, 241 ], [ 305, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A problem from the beginning was the lack of a movie industry in Hawaii. Much of the crew and cast, including many locals who ended up participating in the show, had to learn their respective jobs as they went along. Jack Lord was known as a perfectionist who insisted on the best from everyone. His temper flared when he felt that others did not give their best, but in later reunions they admitted that Lord's hard-driving force had made them better actors and made Hawaii Five-O a better show. Lord's high standards helped the show last another six years after Leonard Freeman's death from heart trouble during the sixth season.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To critics and viewers, there was no question that Jack Lord was the center of the show, and that the other actors frequently served as little more than props, standing and watching while McGarrett emoted and paced around his office, analyzing the crime. But occasionally episodes would focus on the other actors, and let them showcase their own talents, such as Danno defusing bombs in \"The Clock Struck Twelve\". Since Jack Lord had a financial interest in the show, he referred to other regular cast actors in the program as a \"with\", as in \"With James MacArthur\"; they were never called \"co-stars\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Very few episodes were shot outside of Hawaii. At least two episodes were shot in Los Angeles, one in Hong Kong, and one in Singapore.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The opening title sequence was created by television director Reza S. Badiyi. Early shows began with a cold open suggesting the sinister plot for that episode, then cut to a shot of a big ocean wave and the start of the theme song. A fast zoom-in to the top balcony of the Ilikai Hotel followed, showing McGarrett turning to face the camera, followed by many quick-cuts and freeze-frames of Hawaiian scenery, and Hawaiian-Chinese-English model Elizabeth Malamalamaokalani Logue turning to face the camera. A grass-skirted hula dancer from the pilot episode was also included, played by Helen Kuoha-Torco, who later became a business professor at Windward Community College. The opening scene ended with shots of the supporting players, and the flashing blue light of a police motorcycle racing through a Honolulu street.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Credits", "target_page_ids": [ 5104457, 494155, 21436838, 405841, 770169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 76 ], [ 103, 112 ], [ 273, 285 ], [ 523, 527 ], [ 647, 673 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the conclusion of each episode, Jack Lord narrated a promo for the next episode, often emphasizing the \"guest villain\", especially if the villain is a recurring character, such as that played by actor Hume Cronyn (2 episodes). The line he spoke was, \"This is Jack Lord inviting you to be with us next week for <name of episode>\" and then, \"Be here. Aloha.\" The promos were removed from the syndicated episodes but most have been restored in DVD releases from the second season through the ninth. Most of the promos are slightly edited to remove references to \"next week\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Credits", "target_page_ids": [ 247582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This tradition has been continued in the 2010 version of Hawaii Five-0, but is not limited to Alex O'Loughlin. All of the primary cast members take turns with the \"Be here. Aloha\" line at the end of the preview segment.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Credits", "target_page_ids": [ 26365423, 2401235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 70 ], [ 94, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were two versions of the closing credits portion of the show. During the first season, the theme music was played over a short film of a flashing blue light attached to the rear of a police motorcycle in Waikiki heading west (the film is shown at twice the normal speed, as can be seen from people crossing a street behind the police motorcycle). In later seasons, the same music was played over film of outrigger canoeists battling the surf.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Credits", "target_page_ids": [ 59649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a 2010 issue of TV Guide, the show's opening title sequence ranked No. 4 on a list of TV's top 10 credits sequences, as selected by readers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Credits", "target_page_ids": [ 188834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The show was the longest-running crime show on American television until Law & Order surpassed it in 2002, and was the first to enjoy an uninterrupted run that exceeded a decade (it has since been joined in that distinction by several other series including Special Victims Unit, Crime Scene Investigation and NCIS).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 173629, 27553627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 84 ], [ 312, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the show premiered in 1968 Hawaii had been a state for only 9 years and was relatively obscure to Americans who had never served in the Pacific Theater, but as a geographic part of Polynesia it had an exotic image.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 342641, 20611385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 156 ], [ 186, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Known for the location, theme song, and ensemble cast, Hawaii Five-O contains a heavy use of exterior location shooting throughout the entire 12 seasons. A typical episode, on average, would have at least two-thirds of all footage shot on location, as opposed to a \"typical\" show of the time which would be shot largely on sound stages and backlots. It is also remembered for its unusual setting during an era when most crime dramas of the era were set in or around the Los Angeles or New York City areas.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 660410, 864333, 18110, 645042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 324, 335 ], [ 341, 348 ], [ 471, 482 ], [ 486, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Hawaii-based television show Magnum, P.I. was created after Hawaii Five-O ended its run, in order to make further use of the expensive production facilities created there for Five-O. The first few Magnum P.I. episodes made direct references to Five-O, suggesting that it takes place in the same fictional setting. Magnums producers made a few attempts to coax Jack Lord out of retirement for a cameo appearance, but he refused.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 277479, 8766153, 275882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 45 ], [ 299, 316 ], [ 398, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many local people were cast in the show, which was ethnically diverse by the standards of the late 1960s. The first run and syndication were seen by an estimated 400 million people around the world.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Bored, She Hung Herself\", the 16th episode of the second season, depicted a Five-O investigation into the apparent suicide of a woman by hanging, which she was supposedly practicing as part of a health regimen. A viewer reportedly died trying the same technique, and as a result, the episode was not rebroadcast, was never included in any syndication packages, and has not been included on any DVD release of the show to date. The family of the person who died in the real-life hanging sued CBS over the episode.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A one-hour pilot for a new series was made in 1996 but never aired. Produced and written by Stephen J. Cannell, it starred Gary Busey and Russell Wong as the new Five-O team. James MacArthur returned as Dan Williams, having become governor of Hawaii. Several cameos were made by other Five-O regulars, including Kam Fong as Chin Ho Kelly (even though the character had been killed off at the end of Season 10).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 288371, 13030, 998422, 1020281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 110 ], [ 123, 133 ], [ 138, 150 ], [ 324, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A remake pilot, called Hawaii Five-0 (the last character is a zero instead of the letter \"O\", which is the true title of the original series as well), aired September 20, 2010, on CBS. It lasted for 10 seasons until the 240th and final episode was aired on April 3, 2020. The remake version Hawaii Five-0 used the same principal character names as the original, and the new Steve McGarrett's late father's vintage 1974 Mercury Marquis was the actual car driven by Lord in the original series's final seasons. The new series opening credit sequence was an homage to the original; the theme song was cut in half, from 60 to 30 seconds, but was an otherwise identical instrumentation. Most of the iconic shots were replicated, beginning with the helicopter approach and close-up turn of McGarrett at the Ilikai Hotel penthouse, the jet engine nacelle, a hula dancer's hips, the quickly stepped zoom-in to the face of the Lady Columbia statue at Punchbowl, the close-up of the Kamehameha Statue's face, and the ending with a police motorcycle's flashing blue light. The surname of recurring character Governor Sam Denning (played by Richard T. Jones) was a nod to actor Richard Denning, who played the Governor in the original series. Starting with the Season 7 many of the clips that were part of the original opening were removed and more action shots of the cast were included. On the March 19, 2012, episode, Ed Asner reprised his role as \"August March\", a character he first played in a 1975 episode. Clips from the 1975 episode were included in the new one, even though the 2010 series was intended to be in a different narrative universe than the Jack Lord series. The 2016 episode \"Makaukau 'oe e Pa'ani?\" features a sequence in which McGarrett (played by Alex O'Loughlin) briefly interacts with a CGI reconstruction of Jack Lord.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 26365423, 37653, 2381423, 455395, 2165190, 521227, 800951, 2843559, 4220748, 1022830, 594844, 2401235, 302622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 36 ], [ 180, 183 ], [ 419, 434 ], [ 841, 848 ], [ 919, 939 ], [ 943, 952 ], [ 974, 991 ], [ 1042, 1061 ], [ 1130, 1146 ], [ 1167, 1182 ], [ 1410, 1418 ], [ 1761, 1776 ], [ 1825, 1834 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another legacy of the show is the popularity of the Hawaii Five-O theme music. The tune was composed by Morton Stevens, who also composed numerous episode scores performed by the CBS Orchestra. The theme was later recorded by the Ventures, whose version reached No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 pop chart, and is particularly popular with college and high school marching bands, especially at the University of Hawaii where it has become the unofficial fight song. The tune has also been heard at Robertson Stadium after Houston Dynamo goals scored by Brian Ching, a native of Hawaii. Because of the tempo of the music, the theme gained popularity in the UK with followers of Northern soul and was popular on dance floors in the 1970s.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 6205785, 419016, 423161, 39748, 646743, 766939, 3441277, 1032851, 456544, 15107732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 118 ], [ 226, 238 ], [ 275, 292 ], [ 361, 374 ], [ 395, 415 ], [ 495, 512 ], [ 519, 533 ], [ 550, 561 ], [ 675, 688 ], [ 708, 720 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The phrase \"five-O\" (or any variation, such as \"5–0\", \"5-O\", and \"five O\") ) has often come to refer to the police in the United States.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 23627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 1968 – December 1968: Thursdays at 8:00p.m.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Broadcast history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " December 1968 – March 1971: Wednesdays at 10:00p.m.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Broadcast history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " September 1971 – February 1974: Tuesdays at 8:30p.m.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Broadcast history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " September 1974 – March 1975: Tuesdays at 9:00p.m.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Broadcast history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " September 1975 – November 1975: Fridays at 9:00p.m.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Broadcast history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " December 1975 – November 1979: Thursdays at 9:00p.m.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Broadcast history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " December 1979 – January 1980: Tuesdays at 9:00p.m.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Broadcast history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " March 1980 – April 1980: Saturdays at 9:00p.m.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Broadcast history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hawaii Five-O survived long enough to overlap with reruns of early episodes, which were broadcast by CBS in their late night schedule while new episodes were still being produced. Once the program entered syndication after the original run of the series, CBS broadcast reruns of season 12 in late night under the title McGarrett to avoid confusion with the episodes in syndication broadcast under the title Hawaii Five-O. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Broadcast history", "target_page_ids": [ 327785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United Kingdom, the series first aired on ITV on July 19, 1970, in a Saturday evening time slot.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Broadcast history", "target_page_ids": [ 58089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2021, the series currently airs in Ontario, Canada weekdays at 1pm on CHCH TV 11. CHCH airs the HD remastered version of the series in its original unedited broadcast versions.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Broadcast history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Hawaii, the series aired on 13 Alanui beginning on August 1, 2001, the day 13 Alanui was released until December 30, 2011.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Broadcast history", "target_page_ids": [ 15167169, 15167169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 40 ], [ 78, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wins", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Awards and nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1970: Outstanding Music Composition - For a Series or a Single Program of a Series (In Its First Year Only): Morton Stevens, \"A Thousand Pardons, You're Dead!\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Awards and nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 19148160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1974: Best Music Composition - For a Series, a Single Program of a Series : Morton Stevens, \"Hookman\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Awards and nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 19148160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nominations", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Awards and nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1969: Outstanding Cinematography: Frank Phillips, \"Up-Tight\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Awards and nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1969: Outstanding Musical Composition: Morton Stevens, the pilot", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Awards and nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1971: Outstanding Film Editing: Arthur David Hilton, \"Over Fifty? Steal\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Awards and nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1971: Outstanding Directing: Bob Sweeney, \"Over Fifty? Steal\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Awards and nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1972: Outstanding Cinematography: Robert L. Morrison", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Awards and nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1973: Outstanding Drama Series: Leonard Freeman, executive producer; Bob Sweeney, supervising producer; William Finnegan, producer", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Awards and nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1974: Best Cinematography: Robert Morrison, Jack Whitman and Bill Huffman", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Awards and nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1974: Best Music Composition– Series: Don B. Ray, \"Nightmare in Blue\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Awards and nominations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1974: Best Music Composition– Series: Bruce Broughton, \"The $100,000 Nickel\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Awards and nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 4336739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1976: Outstanding Actress, Single Performance Drama or Comedy Series: Helen Hayes, \"Retire in Sunny Hawaii ... Forever\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Awards and nominations", "target_page_ids": [ 177771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CBS Interactive had presented the entire first season of the show online via Adobe Flash streaming media.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Streaming media", "target_page_ids": [ 5741098, 20947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 77, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of July 2017, almost every episode is available at CBS.com.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Streaming media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first 10 episodes of season 1 are available free of charge. All other episodes require a CBS All Access subscription to view.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Streaming media", "target_page_ids": [ 47795975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) has released all twelve seasons on DVD in Region 1. The first eight seasons have been released in region 2 and the first seven seasons in region 4.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Home media", "target_page_ids": [ 3336242, 4086922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 24, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2019 (Region 4, Australia), Via Vision Entertainment released a Season 1-7 Boxset followed by Season 8-12 Boxset in February 2020. The Via Vision Entertainment releases are only available in these box sets and not individual seasons.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Home media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The episode \"Bored, She Hung Herself\" is not included in The Second Season set. The omission is mentioned on the back of the box. Only some Australian bootlegs have had the episode. Seasons 2–8 contain episode promos by Jack Lord.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Home media", "target_page_ids": [ 302622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On December 3, 2013, Paramount released Hawaii Five-O – The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1. On April 18, 2017, The Complete Series set was reissued.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Home media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A soundtrack album featuring Morton Stevens' theme and incidental music from the pilot and the first two seasons was issued by Capitol Records in 1970. Unlike many albums of television music of the time, the music was taken directly from the scoring sessions rather than being specially re-recorded for album release. One of the instrumental pieces on the album, \"Call to Danger\", was originally recorded for the unsold 1967 pilot of the same name and also excerpted as background music accompanying a \"Special Presentation\" logo that CBS used to introduce its prime time television specials throughout the 1970s and 1980s. The album was re-issued on compact disc by Film Score Monthly in 2010.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Other media", "target_page_ids": [ 2822936, 6205785, 174650, 37653, 791921, 3535618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 18 ], [ 29, 43 ], [ 127, 142 ], [ 535, 538 ], [ 572, 590 ], [ 667, 685 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Hawaii Five-0\" (1:32)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Other media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Call to Danger\" (1:48)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Other media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"McGarrett's Theme\" (2:25)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Other media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Front Street\" (2:42)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Other media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Long Wait\" (2:18)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Other media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Blues Trip\" (3:14)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Other media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Floater\" (2:23)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Other media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Interlude\" (1:53)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Other media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Operation Smash\" (2:05)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Other media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Beach Trip\" (2:30)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Other media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Up Tight\" (2:05)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Other media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Chase/Hawaii Five-0\" (4:36)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Other media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hawaii Five-O was the subject of six original novels. The first two books were published by Signet Paperbacks in 1968 and 1969. After that were two juvenile hard covers published by Whitman publishing in 1969 and 1971 and finally two more books were published in England.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Other media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hawaii Five-O Home Page", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hawaii Five-O selected First Season episodes at cbs.com", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hawaii Five-O Episode Guide at TV Favourites", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jack Lord and Hawaii Five-0 Website", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Hawaii Five-O FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Hawaii_Five-O", "1968_American_television_series_debuts", "1970s_American_crime_drama_television_series", "1970s_American_police_procedural_television_series", "1970s_American_television_series", "1980_American_television_series_endings", "1980s_American_crime_drama_television_series", "1980s_American_police_procedural_television_series", "American_action_television_series", "American_detective_television_series", "CBS_original_programming", "English-language_television_shows", "Fictional_law_enforcement_agencies", "Fictional_portrayals_of_the_Honolulu_Police_Department", "Television_shows_adapted_into_novels", "Television_series_by_CBS_Studios", "Television_shows_filmed_in_Hawaii", "Television_shows_set_in_Hawaii" ]

[ "Hawaii 5-0", "Hawaii Five-0", "Hawaii Five-Oh" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Bobsleigh or bobsled is a team winter sport that involves making timed runs down narrow, twisting, banked, iced tracks in a gravity-powered sleigh. International bobsleigh competitions are governed by the International Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federation, also known as FIBT from the French . National competitions are often governed by bodies such as the United States Bobsled and Skeleton Federation, Bobsleigh Canada Skeleton, and the German Bobsleigh, Luge, and Skeleton Federation.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38950, 153862, 10852038, 16826457, 16826656, 16899164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 43 ], [ 140, 146 ], [ 205, 252 ], [ 354, 399 ], [ 401, 426 ], [ 436, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first bobsleds were built in the late 19th century in St. Moritz, Switzerland, by wealthy tourists from Victorian Britain who were staying at the Palace Hotel owned by Caspar Badrutt. The early sleds were adapted from boys' delivery sleds and toboggans. These eventually evolved into bobsleighs, luges and skeletons. Initially the tourists would race their hand-built contraptions down the narrow streets of St. Moritz; however, as collisions increased, growing opposition from St. Moritz residents led to bobsledding being eventually banned from public highways. In the winter of 1884, Badrutt had a purpose-built run constructed near the hamlet of Cresta. The Cresta Run remains the oldest in the world and is the home of the St. Moritz Tobogganing Club. It has hosted two Olympic Winter Games and as of 2022 was still in use.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 305193, 32798, 8303427, 8305414, 679828, 37779, 159776, 305193, 1117931, 1117931, 34069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 68 ], [ 108, 125 ], [ 150, 162 ], [ 172, 186 ], [ 247, 255 ], [ 300, 304 ], [ 310, 318 ], [ 412, 422 ], [ 666, 676 ], [ 732, 759 ], [ 779, 799 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern bobsleigh teams compete to complete a downhill route in the fastest times. An aggregate time from several runs is used to determine the winners. The four-man event has been featured since the first Winter Games in 1924 in Chamonix, France. The only exception was the 1960 games in Squaw Valley when the organizing committee decided not to build a track to reduce costs. The two-man event was introduced at the 1932 games and a two-woman event was first contested at the 2002 Winter Olympics. The women's monobob event was introduced in the 2022 games.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 54012, 101618, 5843419, 163231, 1904766, 156359, 38678, 8351234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 225 ], [ 229, 237 ], [ 239, 245 ], [ 274, 284 ], [ 288, 300 ], [ 417, 427 ], [ 477, 497 ], [ 547, 557 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name is derived from the action some early competitors adopted of bobbing back and forth inside their sleds to increase speed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although sledding on snow or ice had long been popular in many northern countries, the origins of bobsleighing as a modern sport are relatively recent. It developed after hotelier Caspar Badrutt (1848–1904) convinced some wealthy English regular guests to remain through the entire winter at his hotel in the mineral spa town of St. Moritz, Switzerland. He had been frustrated that his hotel was only busy during the summer months. By keeping his guests entertained with food, alcohol and activities, he quickly established the concept of \"winter resorting\". Within a few years, wintering at Badrutt's St. Moritz hotel became very fashionable in Victorian Britain. However, with increased numbers this led some guests to search for new diversions. In the early 1870s some adventurous Englishmen began adapting boys' delivery sleds for recreational purposes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 466301, 8305414, 8305339, 305193, 32798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 17 ], [ 181, 195 ], [ 310, 321 ], [ 330, 340 ], [ 647, 664 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, when they began colliding with pedestrians in the icy lanes, alleyways and roads of St. Moritz, this led to the invention of \"steering means\" for the sleds. The basic bobsleigh (bobsled) consisted of two crestas (skeleton sleds) attached together with a board that had a steering mechanism at the front. The ability to steer meant the sleds could make longer runs through the town. Longer runs also meant higher speeds on curves. Local sentiment about these informal competitions varied, but eventually complaints grew so vociferous that Badrutt had to do something. His solution, in the late 1870s, was to build a basic natural-ice run for his guests outside the town near the small hamlet named Cresta. He took action because he did not want to make enemies in the town, and he had worked hard and invested a lot of time and money in popularizing wintering in St. Moritz, so he was not going to let boredom induce customers not to visit the area.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Formal competitions began down the natural-ice Cresta Run in 1884, which was built in an annual partnership between guests and local people. The run, which was still in operation , has served as a host track for skeleton at two Winter Olympic Games (1928 and 1948). As one of the few natural weather tracks in the world, it does not use artificial refrigeration. It is not known how much the original track evolved in the early years as the three sports matured and stabilized. The first club was formed in 1897, and the first purpose-built track solely for bobsleds opened in 1902 outside St. Moritz. Over the years, bobsleigh tracks evolved from straight runs to twisting and turning tracks. The original wooden sleds gave way to streamlined fiberglass and metal ones.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1117931, 159776, 34069, 3812020, 3812095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 57 ], [ 212, 220 ], [ 228, 248 ], [ 250, 254 ], [ 259, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The International Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federation (FIBT) was founded in 1923. Men's four-man bobsleigh appeared in the first ever Winter Olympics in 1924, and the men's two-man bobsleigh event was added in 1932. Though not included in the 1960 Winter Olympics, bobsleigh has featured in every Winter Olympics since. Women's bobsleigh competition began in the US in 1983 with two demonstration races in Lake Placid, New York, one held in February and the second held during the World Cup races in March 1983. Women's two-woman bobsleigh made its Olympic debut at the 2002 Winter Olympics. Bobsleigh is also contested at American, European, and World Cup championships.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10852038, 163231, 38678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 51 ], [ 241, 261 ], [ 568, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Germany and Switzerland have proven the most successful bobsleighing nations, measured by overall success in European, World, World Cup, and Olympic championships. Since the 1990s Germans have dominated in international competition, having won more medals than any other nation. Italy, Austria, Canada and the United States also have strong bobsleigh traditions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bobsleighs can attain speeds of , with the reported world record being .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Modern tracks are made of concrete, coated with ice. They are required to have at least one straight section and one labyrinth (three turns in quick succession without a straight section). Ideally, a modern track should be long and have at least fifteen curves. Speeds may exceed , and some curves can subject the crews to as much as 5 g.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern era", "target_page_ids": [ 5371, 389836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 34 ], [ 337, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some bobsleigh tracks are also used for luge and skeleton competition.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern era", "target_page_ids": [ 37779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some tracks offer tourists rides in bobsleighs, including those at Sigulda, Latvia; Innsbruck-Igls, Austria; Whistler, British Columbia, Canada; Lillehammer, Norway; Cesana Pariol, Italy; Lake Placid, US; Salt Lake City, Utah, US; and La Plagne, France.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern era", "target_page_ids": [ 15607819, 15702882, 3392, 15842932, 4128854, 15278158, 15499452, 31716, 15754566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 74 ], [ 109, 117 ], [ 119, 135 ], [ 145, 156 ], [ 166, 179 ], [ 188, 199 ], [ 205, 219 ], [ 221, 225 ], [ 235, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern-day sleighs combine light metals, steel runners, and an aerodynamic composite body. Competition sleighs must be a maximum of long (4-crew) or long (2-crew). The runners on both are set at gauge. Until the weight-limit rule was added in 1952, bobsleigh crews tended to be very heavy to ensure the greatest possible speed. Nowadays the maximum weight, including crew, is (4-man), (2-man), or (2-woman), which can be reached via the addition of metal weights. The bobsleighs themselves are designed to be as light as possible to allow dynamic positioning of mass through the turns of the bobsleigh course.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern era", "target_page_ids": [ 267139, 33931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 203 ], [ 352, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although bobsleighs once were ridden by five or six, crews were reduced in the 1930s to either two or four people. The four-person crew consists of a pilot, a brakeman, and two pushers. Athletes are selected for their speed and strength, which are necessary to push the sleigh to a competitive speed at the start of the race. Pilots must have the skill, timing, and finesse to steer the sleigh along the path, or \"line\", that will produce the greatest speed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern era", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In modern bobsleighs, the steering system consists of two metal rings that actuate a pulley system located in the forward cowling that turns the front runners. For example, to turn left, the pilot would pull the left ring. Only subtle steering adjustments are necessary to guide the sled; at speeds up to , anything larger would result in a crash. The pilot does most of the steering, and the brakeman stops the sled after crossing the finish line by pulling the sled's brake lever.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern era", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Women compete in women's bobsleigh (which is always two-woman) and men in both two- and four-man competitions. Women were confirmed as being able to compete in any four-\"man\" bobsleigh event, as from 25 September 2014, either as part of a mixed-sex team or an all-female team. However, because women are on average lighter than men (and thus at a competitive disadvantage in a gravity sport), and because most sliding nations have fewer women able to compete than men, this option has not proved popular with teams.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern era", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A single-person bobsleigh is called a \"monobob\". Single-person sleds were introduced into international competition for both adaptive bobsleigh (for athletes who are able to drive a sled but not push) and as a youth sport (for younger athletes who have not yet developed the ability to push a heavy two- or four-person sled). After the 2018 Winter Olympics, the International Olympic Committee and the IBSF agreed to add women's monobob as an Olympic sport for the 2022 Winter Olympics, so that there would be an equal number of women's and men's events in bobsleigh.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern era", "target_page_ids": [ 961505, 8351234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 337, 357 ], [ 466, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to the 2020–21 competitive season, monobobs were traditionally constructed on one-piece chassis. Starting with the 2020–21 season, competitors in IBSF-sanctioned races must use articulated (two-section) monobobs manufactured by the IBSF's sole source sled builder, iXent. The sled must weigh a minimum of without the athlete (but including timing equipment and any ballast weights) and a maximum of including the athlete; runners are the same as for two-person bobsleighs. This implies a maximum athlete weight limit of .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern era", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Individual runs down the course, or \"heats\", begin from a standing start, with the crew pushing the sled for up to before boarding; though the pilot does not steer, grooves in the ice make steering unnecessary until the sled leaves the starting area. While poor form during the initial push can lose a team the heat, it is otherwise rarely, if ever, decisive. Over the rest of the course, a sleigh's speed depends on its weight, aerodynamics, runners, the condition of the ice, and the skill of the pilot.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern era", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Race times are recorded in hundredths of seconds, so even seemingly minor errors – especially those at the beginning, which affect the remainder of the heat – can have a measurable impact on the final race standings.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern era", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The men's and women's standings for normal races are calculated over the aggregate of two runs or heats. At the Olympic Winter Games and World Championships, all competitions (for both men and women) consist of four heats.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern era", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sledding at a competitive level involves sledders repeatedly subjecting themselves to high-G forces and multiple small collisions of their head into their helmet as sharp turns are taken. Additionally, when mistakes happen and the sled crashes, there are no \"seatbelts\" or other protections; the sledders can simply be falling down the course at high speed with their helmet grinding along the surface or bouncing off the interior of the sled. One sledder described his experience during crashes as being equivalent to his head being inside a jet engine. Even ignoring crashes, repetitive shaking from small imperfections in the course is hypothesized to cause small tears in the brain, especially if performed repeatedly. The culture of competitive bobsledders (especially before this danger was recognized) also made injured participants hesitant to speak up and request breaks, fearful of being dropped from the team. Bobsledders who train frequently have reported issues such as chronic headaches, a heightened sensitivity to bright lights and loud noises, forgetfulness, a \"mental fog\", and psychological problems. Repeated mild brain trauma has caused issues for boxers, rugby players, and football players with chronic traumatic encephalopathy, and fears have arisen that bobsledding carries a similar danger, at least with the steeper and faster courses used in competitions. A brain scan of one bobsledder, Christina Smith, revealed damage to the rear and frontal lobes, consistent with micro-tears in the brain's white matter.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Safety", "target_page_ids": [ 7251223, 57348635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1218, 1250 ], [ 1416, 1431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A significant number of athletes have either committed suicide or died of drug overdoses. Examples include medal-winning bobsledders Eugenio Monti and Pavle Jovanovic, who committed suicide; Steven Holcomb died of an overdose. Since 2013, three North American former bobsledders have taken their lives, another attempted it, and two others died of overdoses; this is far over expectation of the group from chance, as only a few hundred athletes participate seriously in bobsled and other sliding sports such as luge and skeleton at any one time.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Safety", "target_page_ids": [ 16831059, 313009, 941824, 13713615, 6585344, 37779, 159776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 62 ], [ 74, 87 ], [ 133, 146 ], [ 151, 166 ], [ 191, 205 ], [ 511, 515 ], [ 520, 528 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Luge", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cool Runnings", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1428132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of Bobsleigh World Cup champions", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16339018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ] ] } ]

[ "Bobsleigh", "Human-powered_vehicles", "Winter_Olympic_sports", "Racing", "Racing_vehicles", "Sledding", "Sliding_vehicles", "Sports_originating_in_Switzerland", "Winter_sports" ]

[ "bobsledding", "bobsled", "bobsleighing", "Bobsled" ]

[ { "plaintext": "An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus (; Latin \"oak tree\") of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 500 extant species of oaks. The common name \"oak\" also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus (stone oaks), as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta (silky oaks) and the Casuarinaceae (she-oaks). The genus Quercus is native to the Northern Hemisphere, and includes deciduous and evergreen species extending from cool temperate to tropical latitudes in the Americas, Asia, Europe, and North Africa. North America has the largest number of oak species, with approximately 160 species in Mexico of which 109 are endemic and about 90 in the United States. The second greatest area of oak diversity is China, with approximately 100 species.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18955875, 61708, 38493, 17730, 165252, 73644, 166125, 999752, 2570758, 435172, 66722, 66719, 50051, 66577, 29833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 16 ], [ 20, 25 ], [ 33, 38 ], [ 50, 55 ], [ 75, 80 ], [ 89, 97 ], [ 123, 149 ], [ 237, 248 ], [ 312, 329 ], [ 351, 364 ], [ 446, 455 ], [ 460, 469 ], [ 493, 507 ], [ 511, 519 ], [ 537, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species; some have serrated leaves or entire leaves with smooth margins. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring. In spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers (in the form of catkins) and small female flowers, meaning that the trees are monoecious. The fruit is a nut called an acorn or oak nut borne in a cup-like structure known as a cupule; each acorn contains one seed (rarely two or three) and takes 6–18 months to mature, depending on their species. The acorns and leaves contain tannic acid, which helps to guard from fungi and insects. The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group and instead are dispersed across the genus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 61563, 18973622, 1079412, 18973622, 5875628, 1373051, 68323528, 251647, 922939, 5336607, 692997, 474726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 16 ], [ 28, 34 ], [ 41, 55 ], [ 83, 98 ], [ 164, 174 ], [ 287, 293 ], [ 349, 359 ], [ 376, 379 ], [ 390, 395 ], [ 448, 454 ], [ 598, 609 ], [ 660, 668 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linnaeus described only five species of oak from eastern North America, based on general leaf form. These were white oak (Quercus alba), chestnut oak (Q. montana), red oak (Q. rubra), willow oak (Q. phellos), and water oak (Q. nigra). Because he was dealing with confusing leaf forms, the Q. montana and Q. rubra specimens actually included mixed foliage of more than one species.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 5233, 21139, 73638, 66693, 66687, 3224420, 6579442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 57, 70 ], [ 122, 134 ], [ 151, 161 ], [ 173, 181 ], [ 196, 206 ], [ 224, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most recent classification of Quercus divides the genus into two subgenera and eight sections. These divisions support the evolutionary diversification of oaks among two distinct clades: the \"Old World\" clade, including oaks that diversified mainly in Eurasia; and the \"New World\" clade, for oaks that diversified mainly in the Americas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 185907, 3069014, 143913, 2393552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 78 ], [ 89, 97 ], [ 196, 205 ], [ 274, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sect. Quercus (synonyms Lepidobalanus and Leucobalanus), the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Trees or shrubs that produce nuts, specifically acorns, as fruits. Acorns mature in one year for annual trees and two years for biannual trees. Acorn is encapsulated by a spiny cupule as characterized by the family Fagaceae. Flowers in the Quercus genera produce one flower per node, with three or six styles, as well as three or six ovaries, respectively. The leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 166125, 9239, 689, 532379, 201415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 72 ], [ 76, 82 ], [ 84, 88 ], [ 549, 561 ], [ 565, 578 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sect. Protobalanus, the canyon live oak and its relatives, in the southwestern United States and northwest Mexico. Styles are short; the acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. The leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with bristles at the lobe tip.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 166125, 3434750, 3966054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 58 ], [ 80, 93 ], [ 108, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sect. Ponticae, a disjunct including just two species. Styles are short and the acorns mature in 12 months. The leaves have large stipules, high secondary venation, and are highly toothed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sect. Virentes, the southern live oaks of the Americas. Styles are short and the acorns mature in 12 months. The leaves are evergreen or subevergreen.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sect. Lobatae (synonym Erythrobalanus), the red oaks of North America, Central America and northern South America. Styles are long; the acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. The actual nut is encased in a thin, clinging, papery skin. The leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with spiny bristles at the lobe.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 166125, 6121, 26769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 53 ], [ 72, 87 ], [ 101, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sect. Cyclobalanopsis, the ring-cupped oaks of eastern and southeastern Asia. These are evergreen trees growing tall. They are distinct from subgenus Quercus in that they have acorns with distinctive cups bearing concrescent rings of scales; they commonly also have densely clustered acorns, though this does not apply to all of the species. Species of Cyclobalanopsis are common in the evergreen subtropical laurel forests which extend from southern Japan, southern Korea, and Taiwan across southern China and northern Indochina to the eastern Himalayas, in association with trees of the genus Castanopsis and the laurel family (Lauraceae).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 166125, 689, 1183639, 1242549, 244905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 44 ], [ 73, 77 ], [ 411, 424 ], [ 597, 608 ], [ 632, 641 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sect. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles are long; acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the acorn's shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with bristles at the lobe tip.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 166125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sect. Ilex, the Ilex oak and its relatives of Eurasia and northern Africa. Styles are medium-long; acorns mature in 12–24 months, appearing hairy on the inside. The leaves are evergreen, with bristle-like extensions on the teeth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 5334607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Records of Quercus have been reported from Late Cretaceous deposits in North America and East Asia, however these are not considered definitive. In a survey of the fossil record of Quercus it was concluded that \"pre-Paleogene, and perhaps pre-Eocene occurrences of Quercus macroremains are generally represented by poorly preserved fossils that lack critical features needed for certain identification and need to be treated with caution.\" The oldest unequivocal records of Quercus are pollen from Austria, dating to the Paleocene-Eocene boundary, around 55 million years ago. The oldest records of Quercus in North America are from Oregon, dating to the Middle Eocene, around 44 million years ago, with the oldest records in Asia being from the Middle of Eocene of Japan; both forms have affinites to the Cyclobalanopsis group.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 648405, 23580, 9419, 18953024, 39696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 58 ], [ 216, 225 ], [ 243, 249 ], [ 521, 530 ], [ 806, 821 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The advent of molecular techniques for phylogenetic analysis transformed understanding of oak relationships, initially by uncovering molecular support for the diphyletic division of Quercus into Old World and New World clades. These techniques have proved highly useful in resolving fine-scale relationships among 2–5 oak species, particularly groups known to hybridize, but until recently the larger emphasis on this narrow approach prevented systematists from making large-scale determinations about oak history. As the capacity for sampling across wider swaths of oak species rose, so has resolution at the section and species level across the Quercus genus.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Further advances in oak systematics are expected to arise from next-generation sequencing techniques, including a recent project to sequence the entire genome of Quercus robur (the pedunculate oak). The recent completion of that genome has uncovered an array of mutations that may underlie the evolution of longevity and disease resistance in oaks. In addition, the generation of RAD-seq loci for hundreds of oak species has allowed for the construction of the most highly detailed oak phylogeny to date, although the high signal of introgression across the tree poses difficulties for deriving an unambiguous, unitary history of oaks. The phylogeny from Hipp et al 2019 is:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 32020153, 27962727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 89 ], [ 380, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oaks are keystone species in a wide range of habitats from Mediterranean semi-desert to subtropical rainforest. For example, oak trees are important components of hardwood forests, and certain species are particularly known to grow in associations with members of the Ericaceae in oak–heath forests. A number of kinds of truffles, including the two well known varieties, the black Périgord truffle and the white Piedmont truffle, have symbiotic relationships with oak trees. Similarly many other mushrooms such as Ramaria flavosaponaria also associate with oaks. The European pied flycatcher is an example of an animal species that often depends upon oak trees.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 230342, 9555, 22320319, 291692, 40081688, 57918169, 352874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 25 ], [ 268, 277 ], [ 281, 297 ], [ 321, 328 ], [ 381, 397 ], [ 514, 536 ], [ 567, 591 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many species of oaks are under threat of extinction in the wild, largely due to land use changes, livestock grazing and unsustainable harvesting. For example, over the past 200 years, large areas of oak forest in the highlands of Mexico, Central America and the northern Andes have been cleared for coffee plantations and cattle ranching. There is a continuing threat to these forests from exploitation for timber, fuelwood and charcoal. In the US, entire oak ecosystems have declined due to a combination of factors still imperfectly known, but thought to include fire suppression, increased consumption of acorns by growing mammal populations, herbivory of seedlings, and introduced pests. However, it has also been suggested that oaks as generally light-demanding trees with a relatively high tolerance for mechanic disturbances might depend on grazers like bison and the clearances they create in order to regenerate successfully, thus missing them since they were extirpated in most regions following the European colonization.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 49725, 52447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 861, 866 ], [ 1010, 1031 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mature trees shed varying numbers of acorns annually. Scientists suggest that shedding excess numbers allows the oaks to satiate nut gathering species which improves the chances of germination. Every four to ten years, certain oak populations will synchronize to produce almost no acorns at all, only to rain them down excessively the following year, known as a mast year. The year preceding the mast year is thought to starve off the mammal populations feeding on the supply, thereby increasing the effectiveness of the overproduction in the mast year that follows. This is necessary to the survival of any given oak species, as only one in 10,000 acorns results in an eventual tree.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 5206175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 366, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Interspecific hybridization is quite common among oaks, but usually between species within the same section only, and most common in the white oak group. White oaks are unable to discriminate against pollination by other species in the same section. Because they are wind pollinated and they have weak internal barriers to hybridization, hybridization produces functional seeds and fertile hybrid offspring. Ecological stresses, especially near habitat margins, can also cause a breakdown of mate recognition as well as a reduction of male function (pollen quantity and quality) in one parent species.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 41244, 2388685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ], [ 268, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frequent hybridization among oaks has consequences for oak populations around the world; most notably, hybridization has produced large populations of hybrids with copious amounts of introgression, and the evolution of new species. Frequent hybridization and high levels of introgression have caused different species in the same populations to share up to 50% of their genetic information. Having high rates of hybridization and introgression produces genetic data that often does not differentiate between two clearly morphologically distinct species, but instead differentiates populations. Research suggests that the maintenance of particular loci for adaptation to ecological niches might explain the retention of species identity despite significant gene flow.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 3636055, 9236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 196 ], [ 206, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Fagaceae, or beech family, to which the oaks belong, is a very slow evolving clade compared to other angiosperms, and the patterns of hybridization and introgression in Quercus pose a great challenge to the concept of a species since a species is often defined as a group of \"actually or potentially interbreeding populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.\" By this definition, many species of Quercus would be lumped together according to their geographic and ecological habitat, despite clear distinctions in morphology and, to a large extent, genetic data.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 73644, 6682, 18967, 9261359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 81, 86 ], [ 105, 115 ], [ 211, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sudden oak death (Phytophthora ramorum) is a water mould that can kill oaks within just a few weeks. Oak wilt, caused by the fungus Bretziella fagacearum is also a lethal disease of some oaks, particularly the red oaks (the white oaks can be infected but generally live longer). Other dangers include wood-boring beetles, as well as root rot in older trees which may not be apparent on the outside, often being discovered only when the trees come down in a strong gale. Oak apples are galls on oaks made by the gall wasp. The female kermes scale causes galls to grow on kermes oak. Oaks are used as food plants by the larvae of Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species such as the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, which can defoliate oak and other broadleaved tree species in North America.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 589513, 244992, 1368734, 5409892, 7044, 2033089, 320909, 5326576, 217384, 1884115, 4888618, 673275, 2802815, 50357, 53307, 48338, 66633, 171020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 45, 56 ], [ 101, 109 ], [ 301, 312 ], [ 313, 319 ], [ 338, 341 ], [ 464, 468 ], [ 470, 479 ], [ 485, 489 ], [ 511, 520 ], [ 533, 539 ], [ 540, 545 ], [ 570, 580 ], [ 618, 623 ], [ 628, 639 ], [ 641, 650 ], [ 655, 659 ], [ 681, 691 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A considerable number of galls are found on oak leaves, buds, flowers, roots, etc. Examples are oak artichoke gall, oak marble gall, oak apple gall, knopper gall, and spangle gall.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 217384, 16312748, 15624974, 5326576, 14178301, 23913393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 30 ], [ 96, 114 ], [ 116, 131 ], [ 133, 142 ], [ 149, 161 ], [ 167, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of species of fungus cause powdery mildew on oak species. In Europe the species Erysiphe alphitoides is the most common cause.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 750381, 27944739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 50 ], [ 89, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A new and yet little understood disease of mature oaks, acute oak decline, has been reported in parts of the UK since 2009.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 24483778, 31717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 73 ], [ 109, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The oak processionary moth (Thaumetopoea processionea) has become a serious threat in the UK since 2006. The caterpillars of this species defoliate the trees, and are hazardous to human health; their bodies are covered with poisonous hairs which can cause rashes and respiratory problems.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 2048786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In California, oaks are affected by the fungal disease foamy bark canker.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 44175730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The eastern grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) is native in North America and an invasive species across Europe where they are known to strip bark off of a variety of large trees, including oaks. Bark stripping can result in the death of the leading shoot and decreased crown size.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 408169, 51668, 12694131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 252, 257 ], [ 272, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The leaves and acorns of the oak tree are poisonous in large amounts to livestock including cattle, horses, sheep, and goats due to the toxin tannic acid, causing kidney damage and gastroenteritis. Symptoms of poisoning include lack of appetite, depression, constipation, diarrhea (which may contain blood), blood in urine, and colic. The exception is the domestic pig, which may be fed entirely on acorns in the right conditions, and has traditionally been pastured in oak woodlands (such as the Spanish dehesa and the English system of pannage).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Toxicity", "target_page_ids": [ 26051975, 13645, 17158563, 19167553, 692997, 869123, 42795, 582968, 1472548, 2391490, 17639323, 3282135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 98 ], [ 100, 105 ], [ 108, 113 ], [ 119, 123 ], [ 142, 153 ], [ 181, 196 ], [ 228, 244 ], [ 308, 322 ], [ 328, 333 ], [ 356, 368 ], [ 505, 511 ], [ 538, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Acorns are also edible by humans, after leaching of the tannins.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Toxicity", "target_page_ids": [ 922939, 16921412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 40, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oak wood has a density of about creating great strength and hardness. The wood is very resistant to insect and fungal attack because of its high tannin content. It also has very appealing grain markings, particularly when quartersawn.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 33550, 61983, 6754266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ], [ 146, 152 ], [ 223, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oak planking was common on high status Viking longships in the 9th and 10th centuries. The wood was hewn from green logs, by axe and wedge, to produce radial planks, similar to quarter-sawn timber. Wide, quarter-sawn boards of oak have been prized since the Middle Ages for use in interior panelling of prestigious buildings such as the debating chamber of the House of Commons in London and in the construction of fine furniture. Oak wood, from Quercus robur and Quercus petraea, was used in Europe for the construction of ships, especially naval men of war, until the 19th century, and was the principal timber used in the construction of European timber-framed buildings. Today oak wood is still commonly used for furniture making and flooring, timber-frame buildings, and veneer production.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 32610, 18025, 18836, 13828, 17867, 201415, 349281, 27008, 322148, 699422, 48597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 45 ], [ 46, 54 ], [ 258, 269 ], [ 361, 377 ], [ 381, 387 ], [ 446, 459 ], [ 464, 479 ], [ 524, 528 ], [ 548, 558 ], [ 650, 663 ], [ 717, 726 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Japanese oak is used for professional drums made by Yamaha Drums. The higher density of oak gives the drum a brighter and louder tone compared to traditional materials such as maple and birch.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2209031, 4649165, 67252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 64 ], [ 176, 181 ], [ 186, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In hill states of India, besides fuelwood and timber, the locals use oak wood for agricultural implements. The leaves are used as fodder for livestock during lean periods.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Of the North American red oaks, the northern red oak is one of the most prized for lumber, and is marketed as red oak regardless of species. This wood has open capillaries, and air blown through an end grain piece 10inches long can send bubbles out the other end into a glass of water. The openings give fungus easy access when the finish deteriorates, and natural red oak rots easily outdoors. However, if the wood is treated with a preservative compound, the capillaries absorb it deeply, and treated red oak will resist rot better than cured white oak heartwood, which has a closed cell structure. Shumard oak, a member of the red oak subgenus, provides timber described as \"mechanically superior\" to northern red oak. Cherrybark oak is another type of red oak that provides excellent timber.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 66687, 2230719, 23246600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 52 ], [ 601, 612 ], [ 722, 736 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The standard lumber tree of the white oak group – all marketed as white oak – is Quercus alba. White oak is often used to make wine barrels. The wood of the deciduous pedunculate oak and sessile oak accounts for most European oak production, but evergreen species such as Holm oak and cork oak also produce valuable timber.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 73638, 748887, 66722, 201415, 349281, 344877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 93 ], [ 127, 138 ], [ 157, 166 ], [ 167, 182 ], [ 187, 198 ], [ 272, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oak bark is also rich in tannin, and is used by tanners for tanning leather. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 14886368, 61983, 140990, 18062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 25, 31 ], [ 60, 67 ], [ 68, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oak galls were used for centuries as a main ingredient in iron gall ink for manuscripts, harvested at a specific time of year. In Korea, oak bark is used to make shingles for traditional roof construction.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 217384, 659960, 2601203, 18821585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ], [ 58, 71 ], [ 162, 170 ], [ 175, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Barrels for aging wines, sherry, and spirits such as brandy, Irish whiskey, Scotch whisky and Bourbon whiskey, are made from European and American oak, with single barrel whiskey fetching a premium. The use of oak in wine can add gustatory dimensions depending on the type of oak. Oak barrels, which may be charred before use, contribute to the colour, taste, and aroma of their potable contents, imparting a desirable oaky vanillin flavour. A dilemma for wine producers is to choose between French and American oakwoods. French oaks (Quercus robur, Q. petraea) give greater refinement, and are chosen for the best, most expensive wines; while American oak contributes greater texture and resistance to ageing, but produces a more powerful bouquet. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 640764, 640764, 32961, 160246, 45189, 188294, 28896, 44681, 4151502, 748887, 228190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 12, 17 ], [ 18, 22 ], [ 25, 31 ], [ 53, 59 ], [ 61, 74 ], [ 76, 89 ], [ 94, 109 ], [ 157, 178 ], [ 210, 221 ], [ 424, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oak wood chips are also used for smoking fish, meat, cheeses, and other foods.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 52995, 11749910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 40 ], [ 53, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The bark of the cork oak is used to produce wine stoppers (corks). This species grows around the Mediterranean Sea, with Portugal, Spain, Algeria, and Morocco producing most of the world's supply.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 344899, 32961, 862284, 19006, 23033, 26667, 358, 19291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 24 ], [ 44, 48 ], [ 49, 57 ], [ 97, 114 ], [ 121, 129 ], [ 131, 136 ], [ 138, 145 ], [ 151, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The bark of the white oak is dried and used in medical preparations. Acorns are used for making flour or roasted for acorn coffee.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 170396, 922939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ], [ 69, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to a comprehensive report by The Morton Arboretum and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) an estimated 31% of the world's estimated 430 oak species are threatened with extinction, while the study found an estimated 41% of oak species to be of conservation concern.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [ 3350686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The countries with the highest numbers of threatened oak species according to the report are China with 36 species, Mexico with 32 species, Vietnam with 20 species and the USA with 16 species. While the cause of decline is still partly unknown for some species, the main causes the scientists determined were climate change and invasive pests in the US, and deforestation and urbanization in Asia.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [ 5405, 3966054, 202354, 3434750, 5042951, 8103, 56114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 98 ], [ 116, 122 ], [ 140, 147 ], [ 172, 175 ], [ 309, 323 ], [ 358, 371 ], [ 376, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Himalayan region of India, oak forests are being invaded by pine forests due to the increase in temperature. The associated species of pine forest may cross frontiers and become new elements of the oak forests.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In eastern North America, rare species of oak trees include scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), chinquapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii), and post oak (Quercus stellata).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Conservation", "target_page_ids": [ 2604649, 86617, 521958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 89 ], [ 108, 129 ], [ 146, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The oak is a common symbol of strength and endurance and has been chosen as the national tree of many countries. In England, oaks have been a national symbol since at least the sixteenth century, often used by Shakespeare to convey heritage and power. In England today they remain a symbol of the nation's history, traditions, and the beauty of its countryside. Already an ancient Germanic symbol (in the form of the Donar Oak, for instance), certainly since the early nineteenth century, it stands for the nation of Germany and oak branches are thus displayed on some German coins, both of the former Deutsche Mark and the current euro currency. In 2004 the Arbor Day Foundation held a vote for the official National Tree of the United States of America. In November 2004, the United States Congress passed legislation designating the oak as America's National Tree.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 37673, 49901, 997680, 24890561, 1530455, 11867, 88160, 9472, 3434750, 31756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 26 ], [ 30, 38 ], [ 43, 52 ], [ 80, 93 ], [ 417, 426 ], [ 517, 524 ], [ 602, 615 ], [ 632, 636 ], [ 730, 754 ], [ 778, 800 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other countries have also designated the oak as their national tree including Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus (golden oak), Estonia, France, Germany, Moldova, Jordan, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Serbia, and Wales.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3415, 5573, 5593, 14158085, 28222445, 5843419, 11867, 19260, 7515964, 17514, 17675, 22936, 25445, 29265, 69894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 86 ], [ 88, 95 ], [ 97, 103 ], [ 105, 115 ], [ 118, 125 ], [ 127, 133 ], [ 135, 142 ], [ 144, 151 ], [ 153, 159 ], [ 161, 167 ], [ 169, 178 ], [ 180, 186 ], [ 188, 195 ], [ 197, 203 ], [ 209, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The oak is the emblem of County Londonderry in Northern Ireland, as a vast amount of the county was covered in forests of the tree until relatively recently. The name of the county comes from the city of Derry, which originally in Irish was known as Doire meaning \"oak\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 52819, 21265, 9055, 19872429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 43 ], [ 47, 63 ], [ 204, 209 ], [ 231, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Irish County Kildare derives its name from the town of Kildare which originally in Irish was Cill Dara meaning the Church of the Oak or Oak Church.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 94784, 400102, 19872429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 59, 66 ], [ 87, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, Iowa designated the oak as its official state tree in 1961; and the white oak is the state tree of Connecticut, Illinois and Maryland. The northern red oak is the provincial tree of Prince Edward Island, as well as the state tree of New Jersey. The live oak is the state tree of the US state of Georgia.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 26810748, 431030, 6466, 14849, 18858, 66687, 23071, 21648, 48830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 26 ], [ 62, 72 ], [ 121, 132 ], [ 134, 142 ], [ 147, 155 ], [ 161, 177 ], [ 204, 224 ], [ 255, 265 ], [ 317, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The oak is a national symbol from the Basque Country, especially in the province of Biscay.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 20514897, 192688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 52 ], [ 84, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Colombia, the oak tree is an insignia of the Department of Boyacá. In 2008, the Flag of Boyacá Department was amended to include five oak leaves.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 5222, 185665, 11155954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 48, 68 ], [ 83, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The oak is a symbol of the East Bay of the San Francisco Bay Area; the coat-of-arms and flag of Oakland, California feature the oak and the logo of the East Bay Regional Park District is an oak leaf.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1307148, 19283806, 50548, 507911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 35 ], [ 43, 65 ], [ 96, 115 ], [ 152, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The coats-of-arms of Vest-Agder, Norway, and Blekinge, Sweden, feature oak trees.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 171183, 21241, 24071774, 5058739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ], [ 33, 39 ], [ 45, 53 ], [ 55, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The coat-of-arms of the municipality Eigersund, Norway features an oak leaf.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 178066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oak leaves are traditionally an important part of German Army regalia.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Nazi party used the traditional German eagle, standing atop of a swastika inside a wreath of oak leaves. It is also known as the Iron Eagle.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the Third Reich of Nazi Germany, oak leaves were used for military valor decoration on the Knights Cross of the Iron Cross.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "They also symbolize rank in the United States Armed Forces. A gold oak leaf indicates an O-4 (major or lieutenant commander), whereas a silver oak leaf indicates an O-5 (lieutenant colonel or commander). Arrangements of oak leaves, acorns and sprigs indicate different branches of the United States Navy staff corps officers. Oak leaves are embroidered onto the covers (hats) worn by field grade officers and flag officers in the United States armed services.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 32212, 3412697, 14157162, 3412836, 14157109, 20518076, 5864176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 58 ], [ 94, 99 ], [ 103, 123 ], [ 170, 188 ], [ 192, 201 ], [ 285, 303 ], [ 304, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If a member of the United States Army or Air Force earns multiple awards of the same medal, then instead of wearing a ribbon or medal for each award, he or she wears one metal representation of an \"oak leaf cluster\" attached to the appropriate ribbon for each subsequent award.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 795554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The oak tree is used as a symbol by a number of political parties. It is the symbol of Toryism (on account of the Royal Oak) and the Conservative Party in the United Kingdom, and formerly of the Progressive Democrats in Ireland and the Democrats of the Left in Italy. In the cultural arena, the oakleaf is the symbol of the National Trust (UK), The Woodland Trust, and The Royal Oak Foundation.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 30980, 370241, 32113, 31717, 168462, 14560, 403190, 14532, 99078, 104044, 16162986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 91 ], [ 114, 123 ], [ 133, 151 ], [ 159, 173 ], [ 195, 216 ], [ 220, 227 ], [ 236, 257 ], [ 261, 266 ], [ 324, 338 ], [ 345, 363 ], [ 369, 393 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The prehistoric Indo-European tribes worshiped the oak and connected it with a thunder or lightning god, and this tradition descended to many classical cultures.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 24818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Greek mythology, the oak is the tree sacred to Zeus, king of the gods. In Zeus's oracle in Dodona, Epirus, the sacred oak was the centerpiece of the precinct, and the priests would divine the pronouncements of the god by interpreting the rustling of the oak's leaves. Mortals who destroyed such trees were said to be punished by the gods since the ancient Greeks believed beings called hamadryads inhabit them.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 23416994, 34398, 22589, 80219, 38260, 80387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 50, 54 ], [ 84, 90 ], [ 94, 100 ], [ 102, 108 ], [ 389, 398 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Celtic polytheism, the name of the oak tree was part of the Proto-Celtic word for 'druid': *derwo-weyd- > *-; however, Proto-Celtic *derwo- (and *dru-) can also be adjectives for 'strong' and 'firm', so Ranko Matasovic interprets that *- may mean 'strong knowledge'. As in other Indo-European faiths, Taranis, being a thunder god, was associated with the oak tree. \"Tree\" and drus may also be cognate with \"Druid,\" the Celtic priest to whom the oak was sacred. There has even been a study that shows that oaks are more likely to be struck by lightning than any other tree of the same height.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2112366, 14848, 86848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 282, 295 ], [ 304, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Norse mythology, the oak was sacred to the thunder god, Thor. Thor's Oak was a sacred tree of the Germanic Chatti tribe.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 23417070, 316348, 1530455, 5207456, 44507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 59, 63 ], [ 65, 75 ], [ 82, 93 ], [ 110, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Baltic and Slavic mythology, the oak was the sacred tree of Latvian god Pērkons, Lithuanian Perkūnas, Prussian Perkūns and Slavic Perun, the god of thunder and one of the most important deities.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2369290, 310584, 89159, 1039187, 760506, 29430101, 33576199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 63, 70 ], [ 75, 82 ], [ 84, 94 ], [ 105, 113 ], [ 133, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The oak also appears in the Hebrew tradition. In the Bible, the oak tree at Shechem is the site where Jacob buries the foreign gods of his people (Gen. 35:4). Also, Joshua erects a stone under an oak tree as the first covenant of Yahweh, the god of Israel (Josh. 24.25–7). In Isaiah 61, the prophet refers to the Israelites as \"Oaks of Righteousness\". Absalom's long hair (2 Samuel 18:9) gets caught in an oak tree, and allows Joab to kill him.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3390, 273789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 58 ], [ 76, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Veneration of the oak survives in Serbian Orthodox Church tradition. Christmas celebrations include the badnjak, a branch taken from a young and straight oak ceremonially felled early on Christmas Eve morning, similar to a yule log. In recent times, only the branches are collected, brought home, and ceremoniously thrown into a stove or church bonfire. In another tradition, a zapis (lit. \"inscription\") is an old, isolated oak on a hilltop or promontory, often inscribed with a cross by a parish priest. Reverence for probably originated in pre-Christian times, and they long remained places of public gathering and even of Christian worship where churches were not available. For example, in 1815, at a zapis assembly in Takovo, knez Miloš Obrenović declared the start of the Second Serbian Uprising. Even in modern times, cutting down zapis oaks can result in public outcry, even for projects like road building. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 344447, 6237, 8791456, 34393, 24849311, 756514, 2776241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 57 ], [ 69, 78 ], [ 104, 111 ], [ 223, 231 ], [ 378, 383 ], [ 738, 753 ], [ 780, 803 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several oak trees, such as the Royal Oak in Britain, the Charter Oak in the United States, and the Guernica oak in the Basque Country are of great historical or cultural importance.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 370241, 582372, 1018971, 683036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 40 ], [ 57, 68 ], [ 99, 111 ], [ 119, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"The Proscribed Royalist, 1651\", a famous painting by John Everett Millais, depicted a Royalist fleeing from Cromwell's forces and hidden in an oak. Millais painted the picture in Hayes, Kent, from a local oak tree that became known as the Millais Oak.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 10473679, 103152, 22413, 609726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ], [ 54, 74 ], [ 109, 117 ], [ 180, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Approximately 50km west of Toronto, Canada is the town of Oakville, Ontario, famous for its history as a shipbuilding port on Lake Ontario.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 180181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city of Raleigh, N.C., is known as the \"City of Oaks\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 57845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Jurupa Oak tree – a clonal colony of Quercus palmeri or Palmer's oak found in Riverside County, California – is an estimated 13,000 years old.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 27345241, 27088668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 41, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Large groups of very old oak trees are rare. One venerable group found in Poland, is about 480 years old, as assessed by dendrochronology.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the Roman Republic, a crown of oak leaves was given to those who had saved the life of a citizen in battle; it was called the \"civic oak crown\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1584790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Category: Individual oak trees", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Emancipation Oak is designated one of the 10 Great Trees of the World by the National Geographic Society and is part of the National Historic Landmark district of Hampton University in Virginia.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2694636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Ivenack Oak which is one of the largest trees in Europe is located in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany, and is approximately 800 years old.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 404534, 38168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ], [ 75, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Bowthorpe Oak, located in Bourne, Lincolnshire, is thought to be 1,000 years old. It was featured in the Guinness Book of World Records and was filmed for a TV documentary for its astonishing longevity.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 10200034, 382150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 18 ], [ 31, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Minchenden (or Chandos) Oak, in Southgate, London, is said to be the largest oak tree in England (already in girth in the nineteenth century), and is perhaps 800 years old.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 64393708, 94291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ], [ 37, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Seven Sisters Oak is the largest certified southern live oak tree. Located in Mandeville, Louisiana, it is estimated to be up to 1,500 years old with a trunk that measures .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 10192694, 472786, 115781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 22 ], [ 48, 65 ], [ 83, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Major Oak is an 800- to 1000-year-old tree located in Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire. According to folklore, it was used by Robin Hood for shelter.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 506201, 28739, 11303, 26171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 14 ], [ 59, 74 ], [ 106, 114 ], [ 131, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Friendship Oak is a 500-year-old southern live oak located in Long Beach, Mississippi.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 33407236, 122284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 63, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Crouch Oak is believed to have originated in the 11th Century and is located in Addlestone, Surrey. It is an important symbol of the town with many local businesses adopting its name. It used to mark the boundary of Windsor Great Park. Legend says that Queen Elizabeth I stopped by it and had a picnic.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2104298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Angel Oak is a southern live oak located in Angel Oak Park on John's Island near Charleston, South Carolina. The Angel Oak is estimated to be in excess of 400–500 years old, stands tall, and measures in circumference.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3863109, 3863106, 61024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 14 ], [ 67, 80 ], [ 86, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Kaiser's Oak, located at the village of Gommecourt in Artois, France, named in honour of Kaiser Wilhelm II, symbolically marked from late 1914 to April 1917 the furthest point in the West of the German Imperial Army during World War I.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 13031154, 38484, 50450, 12354993, 4764461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 55 ], [ 59, 65 ], [ 101, 111 ], [ 200, 220 ], [ 228, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Wye Oak in Maryland was the United States' largest white oak tree before it blew down in a storm in 2002, at an estimated age of 460 years.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1151742, 18858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 12 ], [ 16, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Bland Oak in Sydney, Australia, planted in the 1840s, was the largest tree in Australia until it was split in a storm early on New Year Day 1941.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 58312057, 27862, 4689264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 14 ], [ 18, 24 ], [ 26, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Treaty Oak in Austin, Texas, is a Texas live oak, and the last surviving member of the Council Oaks, a grove of 14 trees that served as a sacred meeting place for Comanche and Tonkawa tribes prior to European settlement of the area.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 438722, 1998, 29810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ], [ 19, 25 ], [ 27, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Wilberforce Oak was a pollard pedunculate oak in Keston, Kent, under which William Wilberforce resolved to propose the abolition of the slave trade to the House of Commons in 1787. The original was a hollow shell by 1969; its young replacement then blew down in the Great Storm of 1987, and the third generation oak now stands in its place.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 6747707, 94138, 16766, 50226, 41470580, 13828, 923791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 20 ], [ 54, 60 ], [ 62, 66 ], [ 80, 99 ], [ 124, 152 ], [ 160, 176 ], [ 271, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Byfield, Liz (1990) An Oak Tree, Collins book bus, London: Collins Educational, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Philips, Roger. Trees of North America and Europe, Random House, New York , 1979.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Logan, William B. (2005) Oak: The Frame of Civilization, New York; London: W. W. Norton, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Paterson, R.T . (1993) Use of Trees by Livestock, 5: Quercus, Chatham: Natural Resources Institute, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Royston, Angela (2000) Life Cycle of an Oak Tree, Heinemann first library, Oxford : Heinemann Library, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Savage, Stephen (1994) Oak Tree, Observing nature series, Hove: Wayland, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tansley, Arthur G., Sir (1952) Oaks and Oak Woods, Field study books, London: Methuen.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Żukow-Karczewski, Marek (1988) \"Dąb – król polskich drzew\" (\"Oak – the king of the Polish trees\"), AURA: A Monthly for the Protection and Shaping of Human Environment, 9, 20–21.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 46765161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flora of China – Cyclobalanopsis", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Oak diseases", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Flora Europaea: Quercus", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Oaks from Bialowieza Forest", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Common Oaks of Florida", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Oaks of the world", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Global Trees Campaign The Red List of Oaks and Global Survey of Threatened Quercus", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Latvia – the land of oaks ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Quercus", "Quercus_taxa_by_common_names", "Wood" ]

[ "the oak genus", "oak", "oak tree", "oaks", "Quercus" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Frederick Barbarossa (December 1122 – 10 June 1190), also known as Frederick I (, ), was the Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 until his death 35 years later. He was elected King of Germany in Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned in Aachen on 9 March 1152. He was crowned King of Italy on 24 April 1155 in Pavia and emperor by Pope Adrian IV on 18 June 1155 in Rome. Two years later, the term (\"holy\") first appeared in a document in connection with his empire. He was later formally crowned King of Burgundy, at Arles on 30 June 1178. He was named by the northern Italian cities which he attempted to rule: Barbarossa means \"red beard\" in Italian; in German, he was known as , which means \"Emperor Redbeard\" in English. The prevalence of the Italian nickname, even in later German usage, reflects the centrality of the Italian campaigns to his career.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 50853, 302609, 10992, 1520, 434937, 44934, 25458, 1468681, 79494, 14708, 8569916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 111 ], [ 169, 184 ], [ 188, 197 ], [ 229, 235 ], [ 268, 281 ], [ 302, 307 ], [ 357, 361 ], [ 489, 505 ], [ 510, 515 ], [ 638, 645 ], [ 710, 717 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before his imperial election, Frederick was by inheritance Duke of Swabia (1147–1152, as Frederick III). He was the son of Duke Frederick II of the Hohenstaufen dynasty and Judith, daughter of Henry IX, Duke of Bavaria, from the rival House of Welf. Frederick, therefore, descended from the two leading families in Germany, making him an acceptable choice for the Empire's prince-electors.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 66155500, 663122, 663147, 13805, 26309007, 330634, 14056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 28 ], [ 59, 73 ], [ 123, 140 ], [ 148, 160 ], [ 173, 179 ], [ 235, 248 ], [ 373, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick joined the Third Crusade and opted to travel overland to the Holy Land. In 1190, Frederick drowned attempting to cross the Saleph river leading to most of his army abandoning the Crusade before reaching Acre.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 106131, 148545, 1992718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 34 ], [ 71, 80 ], [ 133, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historians consider him among the Holy Roman Empire's greatest medieval emperors. He combined qualities that made him appear almost superhuman to his contemporaries: his longevity, his ambition, his extraordinary skills at organization, his battlefield acumen and his political perspicacity. His contributions to Central European society and culture include the reestablishment of the , or the Roman rule of law, which counterbalanced the papal power that dominated the German states since the conclusion of the Investiture Controversy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 235106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 512, 535 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to his popularity and notoriety, in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, he was used as a political symbol by many movements and regimes: the Risorgimento, the Wilhelmine government in Germany (especially under Emperor Wilhelm I) and the National Socialist movement, resulting in both golden and dark legends. Modern researchers, while exploring the legacy of Frederick, attempt to uncover the legends and reconstruct the true historical figure—these efforts result in new perspectives on both the emperor as a person and social developments associated with him.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 59642, 12674, 151112, 70140088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 167 ], [ 173, 194 ], [ 232, 241 ], [ 363, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick was born in mid-December 1122 in Haguenau, to Frederick II, Duke of Swabia and Judith of Bavaria. He learned to ride, hunt and use weapons, but could neither read nor write, and was also unable to speak the Latin language. Later on, he took part in the Hoftage during the reign of his uncle, King Conrad III, in 1141 in Strasbourg, 1142 in Konstanz, 1143 in Ulm, 1144 in Würzburg and 1145 in Worms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 998902, 663147, 26309007, 17730, 37725135, 40440, 37407, 98095, 189455, 30876585, 33896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 51 ], [ 56, 84 ], [ 89, 106 ], [ 217, 222 ], [ 263, 269 ], [ 307, 317 ], [ 330, 340 ], [ 350, 358 ], [ 368, 371 ], [ 381, 389 ], [ 402, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early 1147, Frederick joined the Second Crusade. His uncle, King Conrad III, had taken the crusader vow in public on 28 December 1146. Frederick's father strongly objected to his son's crusade. According to Otto of Freising, the duke berated his brother, Conrad III, for permitting his son to go. The elder Frederick, who was dying, expected his son to look after his widow and young half-brother.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 106130, 351392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 50 ], [ 210, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Perhaps in preparation for his crusade, Frederick married Adelaide of Vohburg sometime before March 1147. His father died on 4 or 6 April and Frederick succeeded to the Duchy of Swabia. The German crusader army departed from Regensburg seven weeks later.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 10104868, 49117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 77 ], [ 225, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 1147, while crossing the Byzantine Empire, an ill crusader stopped in a monastery outside Adrianople to recuperate. There he was robbed and killed. Conrad ordered Frederick to avenge him. The duke of Swabia razed the monastery, captured and executed the robbers and demanded a return of the stolen money. The intervention of the Byzantine general Prosuch prevented a further escalation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 16972981, 216887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 51 ], [ 100, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A few weeks later, on 8 September, Frederick and Welf VI were among the few German crusaders spared when flash flooding destroyed the main camp. They had encamped on a hill away from the main army. The army reached Constantinople the following day.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 5208477, 5646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 56 ], [ 215, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conrad III attempted to lead the army overland across Anatolia. Finding this too difficult in the face of constant Turkish attacks near Dorylaeum, he turned back. The rearguard was subsequently annihilated. Conrad sent Frederick ahead to inform King Louis VII of France of the disaster and ask for help. The two armies, French and German, then advanced together. When Conrad fell ill at Christmas in Ephesus, he returned to Constantinople by ship with his main followers, including Frederick.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 14372393, 48436, 9843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 145 ], [ 250, 269 ], [ 400, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With Byzantine ships and money, the German army left Constantinople on 7 March 1148 and arrived in Acre on 11 April. After Easter, Conrad and Frederick visited Jerusalem, where Frederick was impressed by the charitable works of the Knights Hospitaller. He took part in the council that was held at Palmarea on 24 June, where it was decided to attack Damascus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 55690, 16043, 8055956, 16656438, 8914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 103 ], [ 160, 169 ], [ 232, 251 ], [ 273, 306 ], [ 350, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Siege of Damascus (24–28 July) lasted a mere five days and ended in ignominious defeat. Gilbert of Mons, writing fifty years later, recorded that Frederick \"prevailed in arms before all others in front of Damascus\". On 8 September, the German army sailed out of Acre.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1883147, 3040610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 92, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the route home, Conrad III and Frederick stopped in Thessaloniki where they swore oaths to uphold the treaty that Conrad had agreed with Emperor Manuel I Komnenos the previous winter. This treaty obligated the Germans to attack King Roger II of Sicily in cooperation with the Byzantines. After confirming the treaty, Frederick was sent ahead to Germany. He passed through Bulgaria and Hungary and arrived in Germany in April 1149.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 40471, 44833, 79075, 3415, 41235373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 67 ], [ 148, 165 ], [ 236, 254 ], [ 375, 383 ], [ 388, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Conrad died in February 1152, only Frederick and the prince-bishop of Bamberg were at his deathbed. Both asserted afterwards that Conrad had, in full possession of his mental powers, handed the royal insignia to Frederick and indicated that Frederick, rather than Conrad's own six-year-old son, the future Frederick IV, Duke of Swabia, succeed him as king. Frederick energetically pursued the crown and at Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 the kingdom's princely electors designated him as the next German king.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1128800, 669253, 10992, 14056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 82 ], [ 311, 339 ], [ 411, 420 ], [ 451, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was crowned King of the Romans at Aachen several days later, on 9 March 1152. Frederick's father was from the Hohenstaufen family, and his mother was from the Welf family, the two most powerful families in Germany. The Hohenstaufens were often called Ghibellines, which derives from the Italianized name for Waiblingen castle, the family seat in Swabia; the Welfs, in a similar Italianization, were called Guelfs.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 302609, 1520, 13805, 330634, 327356, 173480, 330634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 33 ], [ 37, 43 ], [ 113, 125 ], [ 162, 166 ], [ 254, 265 ], [ 311, 321 ], [ 409, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The reigns of Henry IV and Henry V left the status of the German empire in disarray, its power waning under the weight of the Investiture controversy. For a quarter of a century following the death of Henry V in 1125, the German monarchy was largely a nominal title with no real power. The king was chosen by the princes, was given no resources outside those of his own duchy, and he was prevented from exercising any real authority or leadership in the realm. The royal title was furthermore passed from one family to another to preclude the development of any dynastic interest in the German crown. When Frederick I of Hohenstaufen was chosen as king in 1152, royal power had been in effective abeyance for over twenty-five years, and to a considerable degree for more than eighty years. The only real claim to wealth lay in the rich cities of northern Italy, which were still within the nominal control of the German king. The Salian line had died out with the death of Henry V in 1125. The German princes refused to give the crown to his nephew, the duke of Swabia, for fear he would try to regain the imperial power held by Henry V. Instead, they chose Lothair III (1125–1137), who found himself embroiled in a long-running dispute with the Hohenstaufens, and who married into the Welfs. One of the Hohenstaufens gained the throne as Conrad III of Germany (1137–1152). When Frederick Barbarossa succeeded his uncle in 1152, there seemed to be excellent prospects for ending the feud, since he was a Welf on his mother's side. The Welf duke of Saxony, Henry the Lion, would not be appeased, however, remaining an implacable enemy of the Hohenstaufen monarchy. Barbarossa had the duchies of Swabia and Franconia, the force of his own personality, and very little else to construct an empire.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 27485413, 27485376, 235106, 40439, 40440, 70712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 22 ], [ 27, 34 ], [ 126, 149 ], [ 1158, 1169 ], [ 1339, 1360 ], [ 1556, 1570 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Germany that Frederick tried to unite was a patchwork of more than 1,600 individual states, each with its own prince. A few of these, such as Bavaria and Saxony, were large. Many were too small to pinpoint on a map. The titles afforded to the German king were \"Caesar\", \"Augustus\", and \"Emperor of the Romans\". By the time Frederick would assume these, they were little more than propaganda slogans with little other meaning. Frederick was a pragmatist who dealt with the princes by finding a mutual self-interest. Unlike Henry II of England, Frederick did not attempt to end medieval feudalism, but rather tried to restore it, though this was beyond his ability. The great players in the German civil war had been the Pope, Emperor, Ghibellines and the Guelfs, but none of these had emerged as the winner.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 26042562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 526, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eager to restore the Empire to the position it had occupied under Charlemagne and Otto I the Great, the new king saw clearly that the restoration of order in Germany was a necessary preliminary to the enforcement of the imperial rights in Italy. Issuing a general order for peace, he made lavish concessions to the nobles. Abroad, Frederick intervened in the Danish civil war between Svend III and Valdemar I of Denmark and began negotiations with the Eastern Roman Emperor, Manuel I Comnenus. It was probably about this time that the king obtained papal assent for the annulment of his childless marriage with Adelheid of Vohburg, on the grounds of consanguinity (his great-great-grandfather was a brother of Adela's great-great-great-grandmother, making them fourth cousins, once removed). He then made a vain attempt to obtain a bride from the court of Constantinople. On his accession, Frederick had communicated the news of his election to Pope Eugene III, but had neglected to ask for papal confirmation. In March 1153, Frederick concluded the Treaty of Constance with the Pope, wherein he promised, in return for his coronation, to defend the papacy, to make no peace with king Roger II of Sicily or other enemies of the Church without the consent of Eugene, and to help Eugene regain control of the city of Rome.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 5314, 25605367, 816591, 184507, 44833, 10104868, 412395, 5646, 24688, 9918880, 79075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 77 ], [ 82, 98 ], [ 384, 393 ], [ 398, 419 ], [ 475, 492 ], [ 611, 630 ], [ 650, 663 ], [ 856, 870 ], [ 945, 960 ], [ 1050, 1069 ], [ 1185, 1203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick undertook six expeditions into Italy. In the first, beginning in October 1154, his plan was to launch a campaign against the Normans under King William I of Sicily. He marched down and almost immediately encountered resistance to his authority. Obtaining the submission of Milan, he successfully besieged Tortona on 13 February 1155, razing it to the ground on 18 April. He moved on to Pavia, where he received the Iron Crown and the title of King of Italy on 24 April in the Basilica of San Michele Maggiore. Moving through Bologna and Tuscany, he was soon approaching the city of Rome. There, Pope Adrian IV was struggling with the forces of the republican city commune led by Arnold of Brescia, a student of Abelard. As a sign of good faith, Frederick dismissed the ambassadors from the revived Roman Senate, and Imperial forces suppressed the republicans. Arnold was captured and hanged for treason and rebellion. Despite his unorthodox teaching concerning theology, Arnold was not charged with heresy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 21476352, 36511, 57536337, 2170997, 44934, 355409, 434937, 12161554, 21069333, 21967242, 1185905, 37464286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 142 ], [ 283, 288 ], [ 293, 314 ], [ 315, 322 ], [ 396, 401 ], [ 425, 435 ], [ 453, 466 ], [ 486, 518 ], [ 536, 543 ], [ 548, 555 ], [ 690, 707 ], [ 722, 729 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Frederick approached the gates of Rome, the Pope advanced to meet him. At the royal tent the king received him, and after kissing the pope's feet, Frederick expected to receive the traditional kiss of peace. Frederick had declined to hold the Pope's stirrup while leading him to the tent, however, so Adrian refused to give the kiss until this protocol had been complied with. Frederick hesitated, and AdrianIV withdrew; after a day's negotiation, Frederick agreed to perform the required ritual, reportedly muttering, \"Pro Petro, non Adriano -- For Peter, not for Adrian.\" Rome was still in an uproar over the fate of Arnold of Brescia, so rather than marching through the streets of Rome, Frederick and Adrian retired to the Vatican.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 13393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 730, 737 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next day, 18 June 1155, AdrianIV crowned Frederick I Holy Roman Emperor at St Peter's Basilica, amidst the acclamations of the German army. The Romans began to riot, and Frederick spent his coronation day putting down the revolt, resulting in the deaths of over 1,000 Romans and many more thousands injured. The next day, Frederick, Adrian, and the German army travelled to Tivoli. From there, a combination of the unhealthy Italian summer and the effects of his year-long absence from Germany meant he was forced to put off his planned campaign against the Normans of Sicily. On their way northwards, they attacked Spoleto and encountered the ambassadors of ManuelI Comnenus, who showered Frederick with costly gifts. At Verona, Frederick declared his fury with the rebellious Milanese before finally returning to Germany.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 50853, 73188, 92884, 27619, 282954, 263991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 75 ], [ 79, 98 ], [ 378, 384 ], [ 573, 579 ], [ 620, 627 ], [ 726, 732 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Disorder was again rampant in Germany, especially in Bavaria, but general peace was restored by Frederick's vigorous, but conciliatory, measures. The duchy of Bavaria was transferred from Henry II Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria, to Frederick's formidable younger cousin Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, of the House of Guelph, whose father had previously held both duchies. HenryII Jasomirgott was named Duke of Austria in compensation for his loss of Bavaria. As part of his general policy of concessions of formal power to the German princes and ending the civil wars within the kingdom, Frederick further appeased Henry by issuing him with the Privilegium Minus, granting him unprecedented entitlements as Duke of Austria. This was a large concession on the part of Frederick, who realized that Henry the Lion had to be accommodated, even to the point of sharing some power with him. Frederick could not afford to make an outright enemy of Henry.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1116423, 70712, 29662, 330634, 808980, 1112901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 208 ], [ 272, 286 ], [ 288, 302 ], [ 311, 326 ], [ 405, 420 ], [ 648, 665 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 9 June 1156 at Würzburg, Frederick married Beatrice of Burgundy, daughter and heiress of Renaud III, thus adding to his possessions the sizeable realm of the County of Burgundy. In an attempt to create comity, Emperor Frederick proclaimed the Peace of the Land, written between 1152 and 1157, which enacted punishments for a variety of crimes, as well as systems for adjudicating many disputes. He also declared himself the sole Augustus of the Roman world, ceasing to recognise ManuelI at Constantinople.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 30876585, 2396541, 2330616, 441670, 37963750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 26 ], [ 46, 66 ], [ 92, 102 ], [ 161, 179 ], [ 246, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The retreat of Frederick in 1155 forced Pope AdrianIV to come to terms with King WilliamI of Sicily, granting to WilliamI territories that Frederick viewed as his dominion. This aggrieved Frederick, and he was further displeased when Papal legates chose to interpret a letter from Adrian to Frederick in a manner that seemed to imply that the imperial crown was a gift from the Papacy and that in fact the Empire itself was a fief of the Papacy. Disgusted with the pope, and still wishing to crush the Normans in the south of Italy, in June 1158, Frederick set out upon his second Italian expedition, accompanied by Henry the Lion and his Saxon troops. This expedition resulted in the revolt and capture of Milan, the Diet of Roncaglia that saw the establishment of imperial officers and ecclesiastical reforms in the cities of northern Italy, and the beginning of the long struggle with Pope Alexander III. Milan soon rebelled again and humiliated Empress Beatrice (see Legend below).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 730694, 23056, 145893, 70712, 36511, 3417812, 23793, 2396541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 234, 246 ], [ 378, 384 ], [ 426, 430 ], [ 616, 630 ], [ 707, 712 ], [ 718, 735 ], [ 888, 906 ], [ 949, 965 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The death of Pope Adrian IV in 1159 led to the election of two rival popes, AlexanderIII and the antipope Victor IV, and both sought Frederick's support. Frederick, busy with the siege of Crema, appeared unsupportive of AlexanderIII, and after the sacking of Crema demanded that Alexander appear before the emperor at Pavia and to accept the imperial decree. Alexander refused, and Frederick recognised Victor IV as the legitimate pope in 1160. In response, Alexander III excommunicated both FrederickI and VictorIV. Frederick attempted to convoke a joint council with King Louis VII of France in 1162 to decide the issue of who should be pope. Louis neared the meeting site, but when he became aware that Frederick had stacked the votes for Alexander, Louis decided not to attend the council. As a result, the issue was not resolved at that time.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1633, 1245850, 30064854, 10338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 105 ], [ 106, 115 ], [ 179, 193 ], [ 472, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The political result of the struggle with Pope Alexander was an alliance formed between the Norman state of Sicily and Pope AlexanderIII against Frederick. In the meantime, Frederick had to deal with another rebellion at Milan, in which the city surrendered on 6 March 1162; much of it was destroyed three weeks later on the emperor's orders. The fate of Milan led to the submission of Brescia, Placentia, and many other northern Italian cities. Returning to Germany towards the close of 1162, Frederick prevented the escalation of conflicts between Henry the Lion from Saxony and a number of neighbouring princes who were growing weary of Henry's power, influence, and territorial gains. He also severely punished the citizens of Mainz for their rebellion against Archbishop Arnold. In Frederick's third visit to Italy in 1163, his plans for the conquest of Sicily were ruined by the formation of a powerful league against him, brought together mainly by opposition to imperial taxes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 47862814, 240090, 20537, 27619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 386, 393 ], [ 395, 404 ], [ 731, 736 ], [ 859, 865 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1164 Frederick took what are believed to be the relics of the \"Biblical Magi\" (the Wise Men or Three Kings) from the Basilica di Sant'Eustorgio in Milan and gave them as a gift (or as loot) to the Archbishop of Cologne, Rainald of Dassel. The relics had great religious significance and could be counted upon to draw pilgrims from all over Christendom. Today they are kept in the Shrine of the Three Kings in the Cologne cathedral. After the death of the antipope VictorIV, Frederick supported antipope Paschal III, but he was soon driven from Rome, leading to the return of Pope AlexanderIII in 1165.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 226651, 209068, 7922931, 36511, 662592, 2278808, 6704, 147274, 88384, 1836017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 57 ], [ 98, 109 ], [ 120, 146 ], [ 150, 155 ], [ 200, 221 ], [ 223, 240 ], [ 343, 354 ], [ 383, 408 ], [ 416, 433 ], [ 506, 517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the meantime Frederick was focused on restoring peace in the Rhineland, where he organized a magnificent celebration of the canonization of Charlemagne at Aachen, under the authority of the antipope PaschalIII. Concerned over rumours that Alexander III was about to enter into an alliance with the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I, in October 1166 Frederick embarked on his fourth Italian campaign, hoping as well to secure the claim of PaschalIII and the coronation of his wife Beatrice as Holy Roman Empress. This time, Henry the Lion refused to join Frederick on his Italian trip, tending instead to his own disputes with neighbors and his continuing expansion into Slavic territories in northeastern Germany. In 1167 Frederick began besieging Ancona, which had acknowledged the authority of ManuelI; at the same time, his forces achieved a great victory over the Romans at the Battle of Monte Porzio. Heartened by this victory, Frederick lifted the siege of Ancona and hurried to Rome, where he had his wife crowned empress and also received a second coronation from PaschalIII. Unfortunately, his campaign was halted by the sudden outbreak of an epidemic (malaria or the plague), which threatened to destroy the Imperial army and drove the emperor as a fugitive to Germany, where he remained for the ensuing six years. During this period, Frederick decided conflicting claims to various bishoprics, asserted imperial authority over Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary, initiated friendly relations with ManuelI, and tried to come to a better understanding with Henry II of England and Louis VII of France. Many Swabian counts, including his cousin the young Duke of Swabia, FrederickIV, died in 1167, so he was able to organize a new mighty territory in the Duchy of Swabia under his reign in this time. Consequently, his younger son FrederickV became the new Duke of Swabia in 1167, while his eldest son Henry was crowned King of the Romans in 1169, alongside his father who also retained the title.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 6097, 5314, 44833, 2396541, 52612, 5482211, 20423, 16392927, 27485318, 302609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 139 ], [ 143, 154 ], [ 319, 327 ], [ 476, 484 ], [ 744, 750 ], [ 878, 900 ], [ 1158, 1165 ], [ 1173, 1179 ], [ 1900, 1905 ], [ 1918, 1936 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Increasing anti-German sentiment swept through Lombardy, culminating in the restoration of Milan in 1169. In 1174 Frederick made his fifth expedition to Italy. (It was probably during this time that the famous Tafelgüterverzeichnis, a record of the royal estates, was made.) He was opposed by the pro-papal Lombard League (now joined by Venice, Sicily and Constantinople), which had previously formed to stand against him. The cities of northern Italy had become exceedingly wealthy through trade, representing a marked turning point in the transition from medieval feudalism. While continental feudalism had remained strong socially and economically, it was in deep political decline by the time of Frederick Barbarossa. When the northern Italian cities inflicted a defeat on Frederick at Alessandria in 1175, the European world was shocked. With the refusal of Henry the Lion to bring help to Italy, the campaign was a complete failure. Frederick suffered a heavy defeat at the Battle of Legnano near Milan, on 29 May 1176, where he was wounded and for some time was believed to be dead. This battle marked the turning point in Frederick's claim to empire. He had no choice other than to begin negotiations for peace with Alexander III and the Lombard League. In the Peace of Anagni in 1176, Frederick recognized Alexander III as pope, and in the Peace of Venice in 1177, Frederick and Alexander III were formally reconciled. With decisions of Paschal III nullfied, Beatrice ceased to be referred as empress.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 45327376, 473082, 32616, 5646, 453172, 873213, 5019383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 231 ], [ 307, 321 ], [ 337, 343 ], [ 356, 370 ], [ 790, 801 ], [ 980, 997 ], [ 1349, 1364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The scene was similar to that which had occurred between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor at Canossa a century earlier. The conflict was the same as that resolved in the Concordat of Worms: Did the Holy Roman Emperor have the power to name the pope and bishops? The Investiture controversy from previous centuries had been brought to a tendentious peace with the Concordat of Worms and affirmed in the First Council of the Lateran. Now it had recurred, in a slightly different form. Frederick had to humble himself before Alexander III at Venice. The emperor acknowledged the pope's sovereignty over the Papal States, and in return Alexander acknowledged the emperor's overlordship of the Imperial Church. Also in the Peace of Venice, a truce was made with the Lombard cities, which took effect in August 1178. The grounds for a permanent peace were not established until 1183, however, in the Peace of Constance, when Frederick conceded their right to freely elect town magistrates. By this move, Frederick recovered his nominal domination over Italy, which became his chief means of applying pressure on the papacy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 37015, 27485413, 7457654, 6865, 235106, 11391, 7287712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 73 ], [ 78, 106 ], [ 110, 117 ], [ 187, 205 ], [ 283, 306 ], [ 419, 447 ], [ 911, 929 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a move to consolidate his reign after the disastrous expedition into Italy, Frederick was formally crowned King of Burgundy at Arles on 30 June 1178. Although traditionally the German kings had automatically inherited the royal crown of Arles since the time of Conrad II, Frederick felt the need to be crowned by the Archbishop of Arles, regardless of his laying claim to the title from 1152.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1468681, 79494, 44399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 126 ], [ 130, 135 ], [ 264, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick did not forgive Henry the Lion for refusing to come to his aid in 1176. By 1180, Henry had successfully established a powerful and contiguous state comprising Saxony, Bavaria, and substantial territories in the north and east of Germany. Taking advantage of the hostility of other German princes to Henry, Frederick had Henry tried in absentia by a court of bishops and princes in 1180, declared that imperial law overruled traditional German law, and had Henry stripped of his lands and declared an outlaw. He then invaded Saxony with an imperial army to force his cousin to surrender. Henry's allies deserted him, and he finally had to submit to Frederick at an Imperial Diet in Erfurt in November 1181. Henry spent three years in exile at the court of his father-in-law Henry II of England in Normandy before being allowed back into Germany. He finished his days in Germany, as the much-diminished Duke of Brunswick. Frederick's desire for revenge was sated. Henry the Lion lived a relatively quiet life, sponsoring arts and architecture. Frederick's victory over Henry did not gain him as much in the German feudalistic system as it would have in the English feudalistic system. While in England the pledge of fealty went in a direct line from overlords to those under them, the Germans pledged oaths only to the direct overlord, so that in Henry's case, those below him in the feudal chain owed nothing to Frederick. Thus, despite the diminished stature of Henry the Lion, Frederick did not gain his allegiances.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 30599237, 9481, 26042562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 674, 687 ], [ 691, 697 ], [ 783, 802 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick was faced with the reality of disorder among the German states, where continuous civil wars were waged between pretenders and the ambitious who wanted the crown for themselves. Italian unity under German rule was more myth than truth. Despite proclamations of German hegemony, the pope was the most powerful force in Italy. When Frederick returned to Germany after his defeat in northern Italy, he was a bitter and exhausted man. The German princes, far from being subordinated to royal control, were intensifying their hold on wealth and power in Germany and entrenching their positions. There began to be a generalized social desire to \"create greater Germany\" by conquering the Slavs to the east.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although the Italian city states had achieved a measure of independence from Frederick as a result of his failed fifth expedition into Italy, the emperor had not given up on his Italian dominions. In 1184, he held a massive celebration, the Diet of Pentecost, when his two eldest sons were knighted, and thousands of knights were invited from all over Germany. While payments upon the knighting of a son were part of the expectations of an overlord in England and France, only a \"gift\" was given in Germany for such an occasion. Frederick's monetary gain from this celebration is said to have been modest. Later in 1184, Frederick again moved into Italy, this time joining forces with the local rural nobility to reduce the power of the Tuscan cities. In 1186, he engineered the marriage of his son Henry to Constance of Sicily, heiress to the Kingdom of Sicily, over the objections of Pope Urban III.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 62369065, 204331, 641373, 24285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 241, 258 ], [ 808, 827 ], [ 844, 861 ], [ 886, 900 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pope Urban III died shortly after, and was succeeded by Pope Gregory VIII, who even as Papal Chancellor had pursued a more conciliatory line with the Emperor than previous popes and was more concerned with troubling reports from the Holy Land than with a power struggle with Barbarossa.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 24198, 6761356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 73 ], [ 87, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Around 23 November 1187, Frederick received letters that had been sent to him from the rulers of the Crusader states in the Near East urging him to come to their aid. Around 1 December, Cardinal Henry of Marcy preached a crusade sermon before Frederick and a public assembly in Strasbourg. Frederick expressed support for the crusade but declined to take the cross on the grounds of his ongoing conflict with Archbishop Philip of Cologne. He did, however, urge King Philip II of France to take the cross through messengers and then in a personal meeting on 25 December on the border between Ivois and Mouzon.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 256355, 10034525, 37407, 7642523, 25093, 15429896, 15430337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 116 ], [ 195, 209 ], [ 278, 288 ], [ 420, 437 ], [ 466, 485 ], [ 591, 596 ], [ 601, 607 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 27 March 1188, at the Diet of Mainz, the archbishop of Cologne submitted to Frederick. Bishop of Würzburg, Godfrey of Spitzenberg, preached a crusade sermon and Frederick asked the assembly whether he should take the cross. At the universal acclaim of the assembly, he took the crusader's vow. His second son, the duke of Swabia, followed suit. The eldest, Henry VI, was to remain behind in Germany as regent. At Mainz Frederick proclaimed a \"general expedition against the pagans\". He set the period of preparation as 17 April 1188 to 8 April 1189 and scheduled the army to assemble at Regensburg on 23 April 1189.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 21948832, 70175090, 49117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 38 ], [ 110, 132 ], [ 590, 600 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At Strasbourg, Frederick had imposed a small tax on the Jews of Germany to fund the crusade. He also put the Jews under his protection and forbade anyone to preach against the Jews. When mobs threatened the Jews of Mainz on the eve of the assembly in March, Frederick sent the imperial marshal Henry of Kalden to disperse them. Rabbi Moses then met with the emperor, which resulted in an imperial edict threatening maiming or death for anyone who maimed or killed a Jew. On 29 March, Frederick and the rabbi rode through the streets together. Frederick successfully prevented a repeat of the massacres that had accompanied the First Crusade and Second Crusade in Germany.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1263527, 4968899, 1304081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 71 ], [ 294, 309 ], [ 592, 640 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because Frederick had signed a treaty of friendship with Saladin in 1175, he felt it necessary to give Saladin notice of the termination of their alliance. On 26 May 1188, he sent Count Henry II of Dietz to present an ultimatum to Saladin. A few days after Christmas 1188, Frederick received Hungarian, Byzantine, Serbian and Seljuk envoys in Nuremberg. The Hungarians and Seljuks promised provisions and safe-conduct to the crusaders. The envoys of Stefan Nemanja, grand prince of Serbia, announced that their prince would receive Frederick in Niš. Only with difficulty was an agreement reached with the Byzantine envoy, John Kamateros. Frederick sent a large embassy ahead to make preparations in Byzantium.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 21287, 276533, 249039, 50910091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 343, 352 ], [ 450, 464 ], [ 545, 548 ], [ 622, 636 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 15 April 1189 in Haguenau, Frederick formally and symbolically accepted the staff and scrip of a pilgrim and set out. His crusade was \"the most meticulously planned and organized\" up to that time. According to one source written in the 1220s, Frederick organized a grand army of 100,000 men (including 20,000 knights) and set out on the overland route to the Holy Land; This number is believed to be inaccurate and modern estimates using contemporary sources place the size of his army at 12,000–15,000 men, including 3,000–4,000 knights.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 998902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Crusaders passed through Hungary, Serbia, and Bulgaria before entering Byzantine territory. Matters were complicated by a secret alliance between the Emperor of Constantinople, Isaac II Angelos, and Saladin, warning of which was supplied by a note from Sibylla, ex-Queen of Jerusalem. While in Hungary, Barbarossa personally asked the Hungarian Prince Géza, brother of King Béla III of Hungary, to join the Crusade. The king agreed, and a Hungarian army of 2,000 men led by Géza escorted the German emperor's forces.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 879716, 31378963, 2843773, 73527, 26983, 308792, 27670514, 379358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 36 ], [ 38, 44 ], [ 50, 58 ], [ 181, 197 ], [ 203, 210 ], [ 257, 264 ], [ 349, 360 ], [ 378, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later on, Frederick camped in Philippopolis, then in Adrianople in the autumn of 1189 to avoid winter climate in Anatolia, in the meantime, he received imprisoned German emissaries who were held in Constantinople, and exchanged hostages with Isaac II, as a guarantee that the crusaders do not sack local settlements until they depart the Byzantine territory. In March 1190, Frederick left Adrianople to Gallipoli at the Dardanelles to embark to Asia Minor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 48456642, 216887, 854, 12929, 8073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 43 ], [ 53, 63 ], [ 113, 121 ], [ 403, 412 ], [ 420, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The armies coming from western Europe pushed on through Anatolia, where they were victorious at the Battle of Philomelium and defeated the Turks in the Battle of Iconium, eventually reaching as far as Cilician Armenia. The approach of Barbarossa's victorious German army greatly concerned Saladin, who was forced to weaken his force at the Siege of Acre and send troops to the north to block the arrival of the Germans.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 59102419, 27543083, 1118477, 26983, 347265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 121 ], [ 152, 169 ], [ 201, 217 ], [ 289, 296 ], [ 340, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emperor Frederick Barbarossa opted on the local Armenians' advice to follow a shortcut along the Saleph river. Meanwhile, the army started to traverse the mountain path. On 10 June 1190, he drowned near Silifke Castle in the Saleph river. There are several conflicting accounts of the event:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1992718, 35101118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 103 ], [ 203, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " According to \"Ansbert\", against everyone's advice, the emperor chose to swim across the river and was swept away by the current.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 64897196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Another account recorded that Frederick was thrown from his horse while crossing the river, weighed down by his armour, and drowned.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " According to the chronicler Ibn al-Athir, \"the king went down to the river to wash himself and was drowned at a place where the water was not even up to his waist. Thus God saved us from the evil of such a man\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1138639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The writer of the Letter on the Death of the Emperor Frederick, a churchman who accompanied the crusader forces, reported that \"after the many and terrible exertions that he [Frederick I] had undergone in the previous month and more, he decided to bathe in that same river, for he wanted to cool down with a swim. But by the secret judgment of God there was an unexpected and lamentable death and he drowned.\" Frederick who liked to swim, as he went to bathe with Otto of Wittelsbach in the Adriatic, might have been exhausted from weeks of marching, hence he was fatally affected by the very hot summer in Anatolia. If the writer was Godfrey of Spitzenberg, Bishop of Würzburg, who was a close confidante to Frederick, the report would be the most plausible account of what happened, since he might have witnessed the emperor's death.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 70364120, 3153854, 23275478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 63 ], [ 465, 484 ], [ 492, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jacques de Vitry, a historian of the Crusades, outlined Frederick's endeavors and Saladin's dilemma, in which he reported:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1024084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick's death caused several thousand German soldiers to leave the force and return home through the Cilician and Syrian ports. The German-Hungarian army was struck with an onset of disease near Antioch, weakening it further. Only 5,000 soldiers, a third of the original force, arrived in Acre. Barbarossa's son, Frederick VI of Swabia, carried on with the remnants of the German army, along with the Hungarian army under the command of Prince Géza, with the aim of burying the emperor in Jerusalem, but efforts to preserve his body in vinegar failed. Hence, his flesh was interred in the Church of Saint Peter in Antioch, his bones in the cathedral of Tyre, and his heart and inner organs in Saint Paul's Church, Tarsus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 36900, 55690, 669255, 16043, 32762, 15180639, 29189629, 871713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 206 ], [ 293, 297 ], [ 317, 329 ], [ 493, 502 ], [ 540, 547 ], [ 593, 614 ], [ 697, 716 ], [ 718, 724 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The unexpected demise of Frederick left the Crusader army under the command of the rivals Philip II and Richard, who had traveled to Palestine separately by sea, and ultimately led to its dissolution. Richard continued to the East where he fought Saladin, winning territories along the shores of Palestine, but ultimately failed to win the war by conquering Jerusalem itself before he was forced to return to his own territories in north-western Europe, known as the Angevin Empire. He returned home after he signed the Treaty of Ramla agreeing that Jerusalem would remain under Muslim control while allowing unarmed Christian pilgrims and traders to visit the city. The treaty also reduced the Latin Kingdom to a geopolitical coastal strip extending from Tyre to Jaffa.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1114732, 1256774, 34284520, 16822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 142 ], [ 467, 481 ], [ 520, 535 ], [ 695, 708 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The increase in wealth of the trading cities of northern Italy led to a revival in the study of the Justinian Code, a Latin legal system that had become extinct centuries earlier. Legal scholars renewed its application. It is speculated that Pope Gregory VII personally encouraged the Justinian rule of law and had a copy of it. The historian Norman Cantor described Corpus Juris Civilis (Justinian Body of Civil Law) as \"the greatest legal code ever devised\". It envisaged the law of the state as a reflection of natural moral law, the principle of rationality in the universe. By the time Frederick assumed the throne, this legal system was well established on both sides of the Alps. He was the first to utilize the availability of the new professional class of lawyers. The Civil Law allowed Frederick to use these lawyers to administer his kingdom in a logical and consistent manner. It also provided a framework to legitimize his claim to the right to rule both Germany and northern Italy. In the old days of Henry IV and Henry V, the claim of divine right of kings had been severely undermined by the Investiture controversy. The Church had won that argument in the common man's mind. There was no divine right for the German king to also control the church by naming both bishops and popes. The institution of the Justinian code was used, perhaps unscrupulously, by Frederick to lay claim to divine powers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Frederick and the Justinian code", "target_page_ids": [ 48727, 37015, 1005236, 48727, 9137, 235106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 114 ], [ 242, 258 ], [ 343, 356 ], [ 367, 387 ], [ 1050, 1071 ], [ 1108, 1131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Germany, Frederick was a political realist, taking what he could and leaving the rest. In Italy, he tended to be a romantic reactionary, reveling in the antiquarian spirit of the age, exemplified by a revival of classical studies and Roman law. It was through the use of the restored Justinian code that Frederick came to view himself as a new Roman emperor. Roman law gave a rational purpose for the existence of Frederick and his imperial ambitions. It was a counterweight to the claims of the Church to have authority because of divine revelation. The Church was opposed to Frederick for ideological reasons, not the least of which was the humanist nature found in the revival of the old Roman legal system. When Pepin the Short sought to become king of the Franks in the 8th century, the church needed military protection, so Pepin found it convenient to make an ally of the pope. Frederick, however, desired to put the pope aside and claim the crown of old Rome simply because he was in the likeness of the great emperors of old, who tended to have a domineering role over the church, Caesaropapism. Pope Adrian IV was naturally opposed to this view and undertook a vigorous propaganda campaign designed to diminish Frederick and his ambition. To a large extent, this was successful.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Frederick and the Justinian code", "target_page_ids": [ 2192581, 509436, 23828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 719, 734 ], [ 1093, 1106 ], [ 1108, 1122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick did little to encourage economic development in Germany prior to the autumn of 1165. In that year he visited the lower Rhineland, the most economically advanced region in Germany. He had already travelled to northern Italy, the most economically advanced region in the Empire, three times. From 1165 on, Frederick pursued economic policies to encourage growth and trade. There is no question that his reign was a period of major economic growth in Germany, but it is impossible now to determine how much of that growth was owed to Frederick's policies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economic policy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The number of mints in Germany increased ninefold in the reign of Frederick and his son Henry, from about two dozen mints at the start of his reign to 215 mints in 1197 and from a mere two royal mints to 28. Frederick himself established at least twelve royal mints, including those of Aachen, Donauwörth, Ulm, Haguenau, Duisburg, Kaiserswerth, Frankfurt, Gelnhausen and Dortmund. He also granted privileges exempting the merchants of Aachen, Gelnhausen, Haguenau, Monza, Rome, Pisa and Venice from all tolls within the Empire.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economic policy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Otto of Freising, Frederick's uncle, wrote an account of his reign entitled Gesta Friderici I imperatoris (Deeds of the Emperor Frederick), which is considered to be an accurate history of the king. Otto's other major work, the Chronica sive Historia de duabus civitatibus (Chronicle or History of the Two Cities) had been an exposition of the Civitas Dei (The City of God) of St. Augustine of Hippo, full of Augustinian negativity concerning the nature of the world and history. His work on Frederick is of opposite tone, being an optimistic portrayal of the glorious potentials of imperial authority. Otto died after finishing the first two books, leaving the last two to Rahewin, his provost. Rahewin's text is in places heavily dependent on classical precedent. For example, Rahewin's physical description of Frederick reproduces word-for-word (except for details of hair and beard) a description of another monarch, Theodoric II written nearly eight hundred years earlier by Sidonius Apollinaris:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [ 351392, 434485, 2030, 30530680, 391080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 357, 372 ], [ 377, 399 ], [ 674, 681 ], [ 921, 933 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick's charisma led to a fantastic juggling act that, over a quarter of a century, restored the imperial authority in the German states. His formidable enemies defeated him on almost every side, yet in the end he emerged triumphant. When Frederick came to the throne, the prospects for the revival of German imperial power were extremely thin. The great German princes had increased their power and land holdings. The king had been left with only the traditional family domains and a vestige of power over the bishops and abbeys. The backwash of the Investiture controversy had left the German states in continuous turmoil. Rival states were in perpetual war. These conditions allowed Frederick to be both warrior and occasional peace-maker, both to his advantage.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick is the subject of many legends, including that of a Kyffhäuser legend. Legend says he is not dead, but asleep with his knights in a cave in the Kyffhäuser mountains in Thuringia or Mount Untersberg at the border between Bavaria, Germany, and Salzburg, Austria, and that when the ravens cease to fly around the mountain he will awake and restore Germany to its ancient greatness. According to the story, his red beard has grown through the table at which he sits. His eyes are half closed in sleep, but now and then he raises his hand and sends a boy out to see if the ravens have stopped flying. A similar story, set in Sicily, was earlier attested about his grandson, Frederick II. To garner political support the German Empire built atop the Kyffhäuser the Kyffhäuser Monument, which declared Kaiser Wilhelm I the reincarnation of Frederick; the 1896 dedication occurred on 18 June, the day of Frederick's coronation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [ 321908, 1113017, 31130, 1144566, 40335, 26964606, 68974, 12674, 8224809, 151112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 79 ], [ 154, 164 ], [ 178, 187 ], [ 197, 207 ], [ 252, 260 ], [ 262, 269 ], [ 679, 691 ], [ 725, 738 ], [ 769, 788 ], [ 805, 821 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In medieval Europe, the Golden Legend became refined by Jacopo da Voragine. This was a popularized interpretation of the Biblical end of the world. It consisted of three things: (1) terrible natural disasters; (2) the arrival of the Antichrist; (3) the establishment of a good king to combat the anti-Christ. These millennial fables were common and freely traded by the populations on Continental Europe. End-time accounts had been around for thousands of years, but entered the Christian tradition with the writings of the Apostle Peter. German propaganda played into the exaggerated fables believed by the common people by characterizing Frederick Barbarossa and Frederick II as personification of the \"good king\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [ 245808, 142916, 19156399, 9760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 37 ], [ 56, 74 ], [ 233, 243 ], [ 405, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another legend states that when Barbarossa was in the process of seizing Milan in 1158, his wife, the Empress Beatrice, was taken captive by the enraged Milanese and forced to ride through the city on a donkey in a humiliating manner. Some sources of this legend indicate that Barbarossa implemented his revenge for this insult by forcing the magistrates of the city to remove a fig from the anus of a donkey using only their teeth. Another source states that Barbarossa took his wrath upon every able-bodied man in the city, and that it was not a fig they were forced to hold in their mouth, but excrement from the donkey. To add to this debasement, they were made to announce, \"Ecco la fica\" (meaning \"behold the fig\"), with the feces still in their mouths. It used to be said that the insulting gesture (called fico), of holding one's fist with the thumb in between the middle and forefinger came by its origin from this event.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [ 2396541, 2232753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 118 ], [ 176, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick's legend was further reinforced in the early twentieth century, when Adolf Hitler named Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union after him.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [ 34558, 2731583, 21212, 22618, 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 72 ], [ 79, 91 ], [ 98, 110 ], [ 113, 121 ], [ 129, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scholarly evaluations of Frederick began in the nineteenth century, but have been hampered by the unfortunate deaths of key researchers who did not have the chance to complete their works (such as Henry Simonsfeld who died in 1913, Wilhelm von Giesebrecht who died in 1889 and Johannes Laudage who died in an accident in 2008).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [ 70140088, 344699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ], [ 232, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nevertheless, the two volumes about Frederick (that focus on his relationship with the Welfs and the Papacy) in Wilhelm von Giesebrecht's Geschichte der Deutschen Kaiserzeit (1855–88), completed by his student Bernhard von Simson in 1895, later became the scholarly standard work on the emperor's life.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [ 344699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1975, Frederick's charters were published. This and the postwar abandonment of the Kyffhäuser myth have led to the publications of several new biographies. The notable recent authorities among German-speaking historians include Ferdinand Opll, Johannes Laudage, and Knut Görich.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Opll's Friedrich Barbarossa (1990) presents the emperor as a pragmatic leader with a capacity of adaptation and recovery after defeat. Laudage investigates the important role of the concept of honour in Frederick's decisions while explaining the far-reaching visions of the emperor and his advisers, while Görich (who also emphasizes the honour, or honor imperii factor) questions whether traditional researchers have overemphasized the intentional side of Frederick's politics and instead highlights his flexibility and consensus-building capability as a leader.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Italy, the scholarly attention towards Frederick's person and his reign is also considerable, with notable contributions including Franco Cardini's sympathetic 1985 biography biography or the 1982 work Federico Barbarossa nel dibattito storiografico in Italia e in Germania, edited by Manselli and Riedmann, considered by Schumann to be a definite synthesis of non-nationally oriented historiography approaches (combining German and Italian research results) of the last forty years.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In Victor Hugo's romantic play Les Burgraves (1843), Frederick (as character Frédéric de Hohenstaufen) returns many years after he was presumed dead, as expected by some medieval legends.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [ 42146, 3661211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 32, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cyrus Townsend Brady's Hohenzollern; a Story of the Time of Frederick Barbarossa (1901) begins with a dedication to \"the descendants of the great Germanic race who in Europe, in America, and in the Far East rule the world\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [ 1598754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Land of Unreason (1941), by L. Sprague de Camp and Fletcher Pratt, mentions the castle of the Kyffhäuser.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [ 6263825, 45075, 731778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 29, 47 ], [ 52, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Umberto Eco's novel Baudolino (2000) is set partly at Frederick's court, and also deals with the mystery of Frederick's death. The imaginary hero, Baudolino, is the Emperor's adopted son and confidant.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [ 32003, 511296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 21, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the 2009 movie Barbarossa (also titled Sword of War and Barbarossa: Siege Lord), Barbarossa is one of the main characters, played by Rutger Hauer.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [ 29044685, 37500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ], [ 137, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The German broadcaster Deutsche Welle (DW) 2018 documentary (The Germans), featured Frederick I in its 3rd of 6 episodes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [ 292259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Recently, to commemorate the emperor, the Supply Battalion 131 (called \"Battalion Barbarossa\") of the Kyffhäuser barracks (Kyffhäuser-Kaserne, Bundeswehr) built a huge ground artwork in Bad Frankenhausen, which uses among other things 300 roles of fabric (each was 100 meters long). The mission is named Rotbart (\"Redbeard\").", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural depictions", "target_page_ids": [ 288188, 3911964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 154 ], [ 187, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick's first marriage, to Adelheid of Vohburg, did not produce any children and was annulled.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Children", "target_page_ids": [ 10104868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From his second marriage, to Beatrice of Burgundy, he had the following children:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Children", "target_page_ids": [ 2396541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beatrice (end 1162/early 1163 – at least early 1174/1179). King William II of Sicily first asked for her hand but the marriage negotiations never came through. She married Guillaume (II) count of Chalon in 1173 and was mother to Beatrix, countess of Chalon.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick V, Duke of Swabia (Pavia, 16 July 1164 – 28 November 1170).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Children", "target_page_ids": [ 669254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (Nijmegen, November 1165 – Messina, 28 September 1197).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Children", "target_page_ids": [ 27485318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conrad (Modigliana, February 1167 – Acre, 20 January 1191), later renamed Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia after the death of his older brother.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Children", "target_page_ids": [ 669255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gisela (October/November 1168 – end 1184). She was betrothed to Richard, Count of Poitou (later King of England) but died before they could be married.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Children", "target_page_ids": [ 26368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto I, Count of Burgundy (June/July 1170 – killed, Besançon, 13 January 1200).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Children", "target_page_ids": [ 5860390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conrad II, Duke of Swabia and Rothenburg (February/March 1172 – killed, Durlach, 15 August 1196).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Children", "target_page_ids": [ 669256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Renaud (October/November 1173 – before April 1174/soon after October 1178).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "William (June/July 1175 – soon after October 1178).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Children", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Philip (February/March 1177 – killed, Bamberg, 21 June 1208) King of Germany in 1198.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Children", "target_page_ids": [ 151020, 50853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 61, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Agnes (early 1179 – 8 October 1184). She was betrothed to King Emeric of Hungary but died before they could be married.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Children", "target_page_ids": [ 1818375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "German monarchs family tree", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17767437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dukes of Swabia family tree", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 663122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Operation Barbarossa, the codename of the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, named after the emperor by Hitler.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22618, 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 65, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Primary sources", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Otto of Freising and his continuator Rahewin, The deeds of Frederick Barbarossa tr. Charles Christopher Mierow with Richard Emery. New York: Columbia University Press, 1953. Reprinted: Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 351392, 9555327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 84, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ibn al-Athir", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1138639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romuald of Salerno. Chronicon in Rerum Italicarum scriptores.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 4947991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otto of Sankt Blasien", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 7467993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"Bergamo Master\". Carmen de gestis Frederici I imperatoris in Lombardia.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chronicon Vincentii Canonici Pragensis in Monumenta historica Boemiae by Fr. Gelasius Dobner (1764) ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Secondary sources", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Manselli, Raoul, and Josef Riedmann, eds. Federico Barbarossa nel dibattito storiografico in Italia e in Germania. Bologna: Il Mulino, 1982. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 35639175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MSN Encarta – Frederick I (Holy Roman Empire) (Archived 2009-10-31)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Famous Men of the Middle Ages – Frederick Barbarossa", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Charter given by Emperor Frederick for the bishopric of Bamberg showing the Emperor's seal, 6 April 1157. Taken from the collections of the Lichtbildarchiv älterer Originalurkunden at Marburg University", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 4896, 499094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 63 ], [ 184, 202 ] ] } ]

[ "Frederick_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor", "1122_births", "1190_deaths", "12th-century_Holy_Roman_Emperors", "Christians_of_the_Second_Crusade", "Christians_of_the_Third_Crusade", "Deaths_by_drowning", "Dukes_of_Swabia", "Hohenstaufen", "People_temporarily_excommunicated_by_the_Catholic_Church", "People_from_Haguenau", "12th-century_Kings_of_the_Romans" ]

[ "Frederick I Barbarossa", "Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I", "Kaiser Rotbart", "Frederick Barbarossa", "Barbarossa" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Dari (, , ), or Dari Persian (, ), is a political term used for the various dialects of the Persian language spoken in Afghanistan. Dari is the term officially recognised and promoted since 1964 by the Afghan government for the Persian language, hence it is known as Afghan Persian or Eastern Persian in many Western sources. As Professor Nile Green remarks \"the impulses behind renaming of Afghan Persian as Dari were more nationalistic than linguistic\" in order to create an Afghan state narrative. Apart from a few basics of vocabulary, there is little difference between formal written Persian of Afghanistan and Iran. The term \"Dari\" is officially used for the characteristic spoken Persian of Afghanistan, but is best restricted to formal spoken registers. Persian-speakers in Afghanistan prefer to still call their language “Farsi,” while Pashto-speakers may sometimes refer to it as \"Parsi.\" Farsi Dari serves as the lingua franca for inter ethnic communications in Afghanistan.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11600, 737, 68683170, 66069194, 65373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 108 ], [ 119, 130 ], [ 202, 219 ], [ 339, 349 ], [ 925, 938 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As defined in the Constitution of Afghanistan, it is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan; the other is Pashto. Dari is the most widely spoken language in Afghanistan and the native language of approximately 40–45% of the population. Dari serves as the lingua franca of the country and is understood by up to 78% of the population.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32544278, 113248, 263257, 66468, 65373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 45 ], [ 116, 122 ], [ 187, 202 ], [ 234, 244 ], [ 265, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dari served as the preferred literary and administrative language among non-native speakers, such as the Pashtuns and Mughals, for centuries before the rise of modern nationalism. Also, like Iranian Persian and Tajiki Persian, Dari Persian is a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of the Sassanian Empire (224–651 AD), itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids (550–330 BC). In historical usage, Dari refers to the Middle Persian court language of the Sassanids.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24217897, 341857, 889882, 5876413, 399424, 30927438, 889882, 5876413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 125 ], [ 211, 225 ], [ 261, 275 ], [ 329, 345 ], [ 385, 396 ], [ 418, 429 ], [ 484, 498 ], [ 521, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dari is a name given to the New Persian language since the 10th century, widely used in Arabic (compare Al-Estakhri, Al-Muqaddasi and Ibn Hawqal) and Persian texts.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 11600, 803, 7415674, 1968921, 3178013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 48 ], [ 88, 94 ], [ 104, 115 ], [ 117, 129 ], [ 134, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1964, it has been the official name in Afghanistan for the Persian spoken there. In Afghanistan, Dari refers to a modern dialect form of Persian that is the standard language used in administration, government, radio, television, and print media. Because of a preponderance of Dari native speakers, who normally refer to the language as Farsi (, \"Persian\"), it is also known as \"Afghan Persian\" in some Western sources.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 305869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are different opinions about the origin of the word Dari. The majority of scholars believe that Dari refers to the Persian word dar or darbār (), meaning \"court\", as it was the formal language of the Sassanids. The original meaning of the word dari is given in a notice attributed to Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ (cited by Ibn al-Nadim in Al-Fehrest). According to him, \"Pārsī was the language spoken by priests, scholars, and the like; it is the language of Fars.\" This language refers to Middle Persian. As for Dari, he says, \"it is the language of the cities of Madā'en; it is spoken by those who are at the king's court. [Its name] is connected with presence at court. Among the languages of the people of Khorasan and the east, the language of the people of Balkh is predominant.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 5876413, 607307, 934310, 448049, 889882, 1379246, 332847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 215 ], [ 290, 305 ], [ 316, 328 ], [ 452, 456 ], [ 483, 497 ], [ 703, 711 ], [ 756, 761 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Dari language spoken in Afghanistan is not to be confused with the language of Iran called Dari or Gabri, which is a language of the Central Iranian subgroup spoken in some Zoroastrian communities.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 14653, 1126571, 34533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 87 ], [ 95, 99 ], [ 177, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dari comes from Middle Persian which was spoken during the rule of the Sassanid dynasty. In general, Iranian languages are known from three periods, usually referred to as Old, Middle, and New (Modern) periods. These correspond to three eras in Iranian history, the old era being the period from some time before, during, and after the Achaemenid period (that is, to 300 BC), the Middle Era being the next period, namely, the Sassanid period and part of the post-Sassanid period, and the New era being the period afterward down to the present day.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 889882, 39686851, 30927438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 30 ], [ 71, 87 ], [ 336, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dari or Deri has two meanings. It may mean the language of the court:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"the Zebani Deri (Zeban i Deri or Zaban i Dari = the language of Deri), or the language of the court, and the Zebani Farsi, the dialect of Persia at large (...)\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It may also indicate a form of poetry used from Rudaki to Jami. In the fifteenth century it appeared in Herat under the Persian-speaking Timurid dynasty. The Persian-language poets of the Mughal Empire who used the Indian verse methods or rhyme methods, like Bedil and Muhammad Iqbal, became familiar with the araki form of poetry. Iqbal loved both styles of literature and poetry, when he wrote:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 658597, 420409, 370256, 24217897, 1257077, 34348533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 54 ], [ 58, 62 ], [ 137, 152 ], [ 188, 201 ], [ 259, 264 ], [ 269, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This can be translated as:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Even though in euphonious Hindi is sugar–", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 66715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rhyme method in Dari (Persian) is sweeter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hendī here refers more accurately to Urdu written in Perso-Arabic script. Uzūbat usually means \"bliss\", \"delight\", \"sweetness\"; in language, literature and poetry, uzubat also means \"euphonious\" or \"melodic\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32231, 776450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 41 ], [ 53, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Referring to the 14th-century Persian poet Hafez, Iqbal wrote:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 204260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "English translation:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Here qand-e Pārsī (\"Rock candy of Persia\") is a metaphor for the Persian language and poetry.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 362677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Persian replaced the Central Asian languages of the Eastern Iranics. Ferghana, Samarkand, and Bukhara were starting to be linguistically Darified in originally Khorezmian and Soghdian areas during Samanid rule. Dari Persian spread around the Oxus River region, Afghanistan, and Khorasan after the Arab conquests and during Islamic-Arab rule. The replacement of the Pahlavi script with the Arabic script in order to write the Persian language was done by the Tahirids in 9th century Khorasan. The Dari Persian language spread and led to the extinction of Eastern Iranian languages like Bactrian, Khwarezmian with only a tiny amount of Sogdian descended Yaghnobi speakers remaining among the now Persian-speaking Tajik population of Central Asia, due to the fact that the Arab-Islamic army which invaded Central Asia also included some Persians who governed the region like the Sassanids. Persian was rooted into Central Asia by the Samanids. Persian phased out Sogdian. The role of lingua franca that Sogdian originally played was succeeded by Persian after the arrival of Islam.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 841140, 1589878, 503177, 1036177, 956315, 5876413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 204 ], [ 585, 593 ], [ 595, 606 ], [ 634, 641 ], [ 652, 660 ], [ 876, 885 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dari is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan (the other being Pashto). In practice though, it serves as the de facto lingua franca among the various ethnolinguistic groups.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geographical distribution", "target_page_ids": [ 113248, 65373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 80 ], [ 129, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dari is spoken natively by approximately twenty-five percent to eighty percent of the population of Afghanistan as a primary language. Tajiks, who comprise approximately 27% of the population, are the primary speakers, followed by Hazaras (9%) and Aymāqs (4%). Moreover, many Pashtuns living in Tajik and Hazara concentrated areas also use Dari as a first language. The World Factbook states that eighty percent of the Afghan population speaks the Dari language. About 2.5million Afghans in Iran and Afghans in Pakistan, part of the wider Afghan diaspora, also speak Dari as one of their primary languages.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geographical distribution", "target_page_ids": [ 66468, 37778, 9311462, 14131, 3071, 36973, 5163, 27376730, 22663356, 28092580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 111 ], [ 135, 141 ], [ 181, 191 ], [ 231, 238 ], [ 248, 253 ], [ 276, 284 ], [ 370, 384 ], [ 480, 495 ], [ 500, 519 ], [ 539, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dari dominates the northern, western, and central areas of Afghanistan, and is the common language spoken in cities such as Mazar-i-Sharif, Herat, Fayzabad, Panjshir, Bamiyan, and the Afghan capital of Kabul where all ethnic groups are settled. Dari-speaking communities also exist in southwestern and eastern Pashtun-dominated areas such as in the cities of Ghazni, Farah, Zaranj, Lashkar Gah, Kandahar, and Gardez.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geographical distribution", "target_page_ids": [ 20517, 14128, 27628856, 597281, 584630, 16826, 370315, 2476054, 878331, 1922847, 17260, 194162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 138 ], [ 140, 145 ], [ 147, 155 ], [ 157, 165 ], [ 167, 174 ], [ 202, 207 ], [ 359, 365 ], [ 367, 372 ], [ 374, 380 ], [ 382, 393 ], [ 395, 403 ], [ 409, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dari has contributed to the majority of Persian borrowings in several Indo-Aryan languages, such as Urdu, Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali and others, as it was the administrative, official, cultural language of the Persianate Mughal Empire and served as the lingua franca throughout the Indian subcontinent for centuries. Often based in Afghanistan, Turkic Central Asian conquerors brought the language into South Asia. The basis in general for the introduction of Persian language into the subcontinent was set, from its earliest days, by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties. The sizable Persian component of the Anglo-Indian loan words in English and in Urdu therefore reflects the Dari pronunciation. For instance, the words dopiaza and pyjama come from the Dari pronunciation; in Iranian Persian they are pronounced do-piyāzeh and pey-jāmeh. Persian lexemes and certain morphological elements (e.g., the ezāfe) have often been employed to coin words for political and cultural concepts, items, or ideas that were historically unknown outside the South Asian region, as is the case with the aforementioned \"borrowings\". The Dari language has a rich and colorful tradition of proverbs that deeply reflect Afghan culture and relationships, as demonstrated by U.S. Navy Captain Edward Zellem in his bilingual books on Afghan Dari proverbs collected in Afghanistan.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultural influence", "target_page_ids": [ 78966, 32231, 13652, 25044, 21378419, 882382, 24217897, 65373, 20611562, 737, 577843, 32231, 5700909, 153865, 23529, 37571968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 90 ], [ 100, 104 ], [ 106, 111 ], [ 113, 120 ], [ 122, 129 ], [ 207, 217 ], [ 218, 231 ], [ 250, 263 ], [ 279, 298 ], [ 329, 340 ], [ 349, 362 ], [ 674, 678 ], [ 746, 753 ], [ 758, 764 ], [ 1196, 1203 ], [ 1296, 1309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are phonological, lexical, and morphological differences between Afghan Persian and Iranian Persian. There are no significant differences in the written forms, other than regional idiomatic phrases.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Differences between Iranian and Afghan Persian", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The phonology of Dari as spoken in Kabul, compared to Classical Persian, is overall more conservative than the standard accent of Iran. The principal differences between standard Iranian Persian and Afghan Persian as based on the Kabul dialect are:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Differences between Iranian and Afghan Persian", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The merging of majhul vowels and into and respectively in Iranian Persian, whereas in Afghan Persian, they are still kept separate. For instance, the identically written words شیر 'lion' and 'milk' are pronounced the same in Iranian Persian as , but for 'lion' and for 'milk' in Afghan Persian. The long vowel in زود \"quick\" and زور \"strength\" is realized as in Iranian Persian, in contrast, these words are pronounced and respectively by Persian speakers in Afghanistan.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Differences between Iranian and Afghan Persian", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Classical Persian high short vowels and tend to be lowered in Iranian Persian to and , unlike in Dari where they might have both high and lowered allophones.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Differences between Iranian and Afghan Persian", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The treatment of the diphthongs of early Classical Persian \"ay\" (as \"i\" in English \"size\") and \"aw\" (as \"ow\" in Engl. \"cow\"), which are pronounced (as in English \"day\") and (as in Engl. \"low\") in Iranian Persian. Dari, on the other hand, is more conservative, e.g. نخیر 'no' is realized as in Iranian but in Afghan Persian, and نوروز 'Persian New Year' is in Iranian but in Afghan Persian. Moreover, is simplified to in normal Iranian speech, thereby merging with the lowered Classical short vowel (see above). This does not occur in Afghan Persian.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Differences between Iranian and Afghan Persian", "target_page_ids": [ 44629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The pronunciation of the labial consonant و, which is realized as a voiced labiodental fricative in standard Iranian, is still pronounced with the (classical) bilabial pronunciation in Afghanistan; is found in Afghan Persian as an allophone of before voiced consonants and as variation of in some cases, along with .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Differences between Iranian and Afghan Persian", "target_page_ids": [ 524871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The convergence of the voiced uvular stop (ق) and the voiced velar fricative (غ) in Iranian Persian (presumably under the influence of Turkic languages like Azeri and Turkmen) is absent in Dari, where the two are still kept separate.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Differences between Iranian and Afghan Persian", "target_page_ids": [ 524880, 524881, 192825, 258654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 42 ], [ 56, 78 ], [ 160, 165 ], [ 170, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " and in word-final positions are distinguished in Dari, whereas is a word-final allophone of in Iranian Persian.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Differences between Iranian and Afghan Persian", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The dialects of Dari spoken in Northern, Central, and Eastern Afghanistan, for example in Kabul, Mazar, and Badakhshan, have distinct features compared to Iranian Persian. However, the dialect of Dari spoken in Western Afghanistan stands in between the Afghan and Iranian Persian. For instance, the Herati dialect shares vocabulary and phonology with both Dari and Iranian Persian. Likewise, the dialect of Persian in Eastern Iran, for instance in Mashhad, is quite similar to the Herati dialect of Afghanistan.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Differences between Iranian and Afghan Persian", "target_page_ids": [ 16826, 20517, 1282198, 11600, 14128, 406512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 95 ], [ 97, 102 ], [ 108, 118 ], [ 155, 170 ], [ 299, 304 ], [ 448, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Kabuli dialect has become the standard model of Dari in Afghanistan, as has the Tehrani dialect in relation to the Persian in Iran. Since the 1940s, Radio Afghanistan has broadcast its Dari programs in Kabuli Dari, which ensured the homogenization between the Kabuli version of the language and other dialects of Dari spoken throughout Afghanistan. Since 2003, the media, especially the private radio and television broadcasters, have carried out their Dari programs using the Kabuli variety.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Differences between Iranian and Afghan Persian", "target_page_ids": [ 22150923, 285790, 32085423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 99 ], [ 153, 170 ], [ 391, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stops // are phonetically dental [].", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A glottal stop /ʔ/ only appears in words of Arabic origin.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A flap sound // may be realized as a trill sound [], in some environments, mostly word-final position; otherwise, they contrast between vowels wherein a trill occurs as a result of gemination (doubling) of [], especially in loanwords of Arabic origin. Only [] occurs before and after consonants; in word-final position, it is usually a free variation between a flap or a trill when followed by a consonant or a pause, but flap is more common, only flap before vowel-initial words.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " As in many other languages, is realized as bilabial before bilabial stops and as velar before velar stops.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is voiced to before voiced consonants.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " When occurring as lax, the open vowels are raised to .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Phonology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Successive governments of Afghanistan have promoted New Persian as an official language of government since the time of the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526), even as those governments were dominated by Pashtun people. Sher Ali Khan of the Barakzai dynasty (1826–1973) first introduced the Pashto language as an additional language of administration. The local name for the Persian variety spoken in Afghanistan was officially changed from Farsi to Dari, meaning \"court language\", in 1964. Zaher said there would be, as there are now, two official languages, Pashto and Farsi, though the latter would henceforth be named Dari. Within their respective linguistic boundaries, Dari and Pashto are the media of education.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Political views and disputes on the language", "target_page_ids": [ 193178, 295402, 581980, 12037313, 113248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 87 ], [ 124, 139 ], [ 213, 226 ], [ 234, 250 ], [ 284, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term continues to divide opinion in Afghanistan today. While Dari has been the official name for decades, \"Farsi\" is still the preferred name to many Persian speakers of Afghanistan. Omar Samad, an Afghan analyst and ambassador, says of the dispute:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Political views and disputes on the language", "target_page_ids": [ 1090581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Persian grammar", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1599251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Middle Persian", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 889882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tajik language", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 341857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hazaragi dialect", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 172699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lazard, G. \"Darī – The New Persian Literary Language\" in Encyclopædia Iranica Online Edition.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1081351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sakaria, S. (1967) Concise English– Afghan Dari Dictionary, Ferozsons, Kabul, OCLC 600815", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Farhadi, A. G. R.('Abd-ul-Ghafur Farhadi)(Abd-ul-ghafûr Farhâdi) (1955) Le Persan Parlé en Afghanistan: Grammaire du Kâboli Accompagné d'un Recueil de Quatrains Populaires de la Région de Kâbol, Centre national de la recherche scientifique or Librairie C. Klincksieck, Paris.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Farhadi, Rawan A. G. (1975) The Spoken Dari of Afghanistan: A Grammar of Kaboli Dari (Persian) Compared to the Literary Language, Peace Corps, Kabul, OCLC 24699677", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Zellem, Edward. 2015. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Zellem, Edward. 2012. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Harold F. Schiffman Language Policy and Language Conflict in Afghanistan and Its Neighbors (Brill's Studies in South and Southwest Asian Languages) BRILL, Leiden, 1.ed, 2011 ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dari at Encyclopædia Iranica", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 1081351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dari language at Britannica", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dari language, alphabet and pronunciation", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dari language resources", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dari alphabet", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Eastern_Persian_dialects_in_Afghanistan", "Languages_of_Iran", "Languages_of_Afghanistan", "Persian_language_in_Pakistan" ]

[ "Eastern Farsi", "Eastern Persian", "Afghan Persian", "Afghan Farsi", "Dari language", "fa-AF", "fa_AF", "fa-af" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In moral and political philosophy, the social contract is a theory or model that originated during the Age of Enlightenment and usually concerns the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual. Social contract arguments typically are that individuals have consented, either explicitly or tacitly, to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to the authority (of the ruler, or to the decision of a majority) in exchange for protection of their remaining rights or maintenance of the social order. The relation between natural and legal rights is often a topic of social contract theory. The term takes its name from The Social Contract (French: Du contrat social ou Principes du droit politique), a 1762 book by Jean-Jacques Rousseau that discussed this concept. Although the antecedents of social contract theory are found in antiquity, in Greek and Stoic philosophy and Roman and Canon Law, the heyday of the social contract was the mid-17th to early 19th centuries, when it emerged as the leading doctrine of political legitimacy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9258, 23040, 30758, 574823, 28151, 25879157, 1096446, 4510010, 51490, 396418, 327672, 1922779, 15941, 171171, 19224834, 26364, 6469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 8 ], [ 13, 33 ], [ 103, 123 ], [ 149, 159 ], [ 184, 189 ], [ 199, 209 ], [ 273, 282 ], [ 305, 312 ], [ 473, 479 ], [ 502, 514 ], [ 537, 561 ], [ 635, 654 ], [ 731, 752 ], [ 860, 865 ], [ 870, 875 ], [ 891, 896 ], [ 901, 910 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The starting point for most social contract theories is an examination of the human condition absent of any political order (termed the \"state of nature\" by Thomas Hobbes). In this condition, individuals' actions are bound only by their personal power and conscience. From this shared starting point, social contract theorists seek to demonstrate why rational individuals would voluntarily consent to give up their natural freedom to obtain the benefits of political order. Prominent 17th- and 18th-century theorists of the social contract and natural rights include Hugo Grotius (1625), Thomas Hobbes (1651), Samuel von Pufendorf (1673), John Locke (1689), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762) and Immanuel Kant (1797), each approaching the concept of political authority differently. Grotius posited that individual humans had natural rights. Thomas Hobbes famously said that in a \"state of nature\", human life would be \"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short\". In the absence of political order and law, everyone would have unlimited natural freedoms, including the \"right to all things\" and thus the freedom to plunder, rape and murder; there would be an endless \"war of all against all\" (bellum omnium contra omnes). To avoid this, free men contract with each other to establish political community (civil society) through a social contract in which they all gain security in return for subjecting themselves to an absolute sovereign, one man or an assembly of men. Though the sovereign's edicts may well be arbitrary and tyrannical, Hobbes saw absolute government as the only alternative to the terrifying anarchy of a state of nature. Hobbes asserted that humans consent to abdicate their rights in favor of the absolute authority of government (whether monarchical or parliamentary). Alternatively, Locke and Rousseau argued that we gain civil rights in return for accepting the obligation to respect and defend the rights of others, giving up some freedoms to do so.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 278263, 29823, 147885, 186123, 66612, 29823, 183563, 16143, 15941, 14631, 327672, 29823, 185966, 5695, 209443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 152 ], [ 157, 170 ], [ 246, 251 ], [ 256, 266 ], [ 567, 579 ], [ 588, 601 ], [ 610, 630 ], [ 639, 649 ], [ 658, 679 ], [ 691, 704 ], [ 821, 835 ], [ 837, 850 ], [ 1187, 1213 ], [ 1288, 1297 ], [ 1299, 1312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The central assertion that social contract theory approaches is that law and political order are not natural, but human creations. The social contract and the political order it creates are simply the means towards an end—the benefit of the individuals involved—and legitimate only to the extent that they fulfill their part of the agreement. Hobbes argued that government is not a party to the original contract and citizens are not obligated to submit to the government when it is too weak to act effectively to suppress factionalism and civil unrest. According to other social contract theorists, when the government fails to secure their natural rights (Locke) or satisfy the best interests of society (called the \"general will\" by Rousseau), citizens can withdraw their obligation to obey or change the leadership through elections or other means including, when necessary, violence. Locke believed that natural rights were inalienable, and therefore the rule of God superseded government authority, while Rousseau believed that democracy (majority-rule) was the best way to ensure welfare while maintaining individual freedom under the rule of law. The Lockean concept of the social contract was invoked in the United States Declaration of Independence. Social contract theories were eclipsed in the 19thcentury in favor of utilitarianism, Hegelianism and Marxism; they were revived in the 20thcentury, notably in the form of a thought experiment by John Rawls.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 636147, 327672, 31874, 31792, 43472912, 1904053, 49535, 123612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 719, 731 ], [ 909, 923 ], [ 1217, 1258 ], [ 1330, 1344 ], [ 1346, 1357 ], [ 1362, 1369 ], [ 1434, 1452 ], [ 1456, 1466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a general form of social contract theories, which is: I chooses R in M and this gives I* reason to endorse and comply with R in the real world insofar as the reasons I has for choosing R in M are (or can be) shared by I*.With M being the deliberative setting; R rules, principles or institutions; I the (hypothetical) people in original position or state of nature making the social contract; and I* being the individuals in the real world following the social contract.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 166660, 278263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 337, 354 ], [ 358, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The concept of the social contract was originally posed by Glaucon, as described by Plato in The Republic, BookII.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9604227, 22954, 1607411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 66 ], [ 84, 89 ], [ 93, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The social contract theory also appears in Crito, another dialogue from Plato. Over time, the social contract theory became more widespread after Epicurus (341-270 BC), the first philosopher who saw justice as a social contract, and not as existing in Nature due to divine intervention (see below and also Epicurean ethics), decided to bring the theory to the forefront of his society. As time went on, philosophers of traditional political and social thought, such as Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau put forward their opinions on social contract, which then caused the topic to become much more mainstream.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 680498, 10073, 39393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 48 ], [ 147, 155 ], [ 307, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Social contract formulations are preserved in many of the world's oldest records. The Indian Buddhist text of the second century BCE, Mahāvastu, recounts the legend of Mahasammata. The story goes as follows:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 20413436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his rock edicts, the Indian Buddhist king Asoka was said to have argued for a broad and far-reaching social contract. The Buddhist vinaya also reflects social contracts expected of the monks; one such instance is when the people of a certain town complained about monks felling saka trees, the Buddha tells his monks that they must stop and give way to social norms.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epicurus in the fourth century BCE seemed to have had a strong sense of social contract, with justice and law being rooted in mutual agreement and advantage, as evidenced by these lines, among others, from his Principal Doctrines (see also Epicurean ethics):", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10073, 39393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 240, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Quentin Skinner has argued that several critical modern innovations in contract theory are found in the writings from French Calvinists and Huguenots, whose work in turn was invoked by writers in the Low Countries who objected to their subjection to Spain and, later still, by Catholics in England. Francisco Suárez (1548–1617), from the School of Salamanca, might be considered an early theorist of the social contract, theorizing natural law in an attempt to limit the divine right of absolute monarchy. All of these groups were led to articulate notions of popular sovereignty by means of a social covenant or contract, and all of these arguments began with proto-\"state of nature\" arguments, to the effect that the basis of politics is that everyone is by nature free of subjection to any government.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 839238, 51402, 1058313, 1062850, 22063, 9137, 67366, 28791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 200, 213 ], [ 299, 315 ], [ 338, 357 ], [ 432, 443 ], [ 471, 483 ], [ 487, 504 ], [ 568, 579 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These arguments, however, relied on a corporatist theory found in Roman law, according to which \"a populus\" can exist as a distinct legal entity. Thus, these arguments held that a group of people can join a government because it has the capacity to exercise a single will and make decisions with a single voice in the absence of sovereign authority—a notion rejected by Hobbes and later contract theorists.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first modern philosopher to articulate a detailed contract theory was Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). According to Hobbes, the lives of individuals in the state of nature were \"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short\", a state in which self-interest and the absence of rights and contracts prevented the \"social\", or society. Life was \"anarchic\" (without leadership or the concept of sovereignty). Individuals in the state of nature were apolitical and asocial. This state of nature is followed by the social contract.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Philosophers", "target_page_ids": [ 29823, 278263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 87 ], [ 154, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The social contract was seen as an \"occurrence\" during which individuals came together and ceded some of their individual rights so that others would cede theirs. This resulted in the establishment of the state, a sovereign entity like the individuals now under its rule used to be, which would create laws to regulate social interactions. Human life was thus no longer \"a war of all against all\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Philosophers", "target_page_ids": [ 327672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The state system, which grew out of the social contract, was, however, also anarchic (without leadership). Just as the individuals in the state of nature had been sovereigns and thus guided by self-interest and the absence of rights, so states now acted in their self-interest in competition with each other. Just like the state of nature, states were thus bound to be in conflict because there was no sovereign over and above the state (more powerful) capable of imposing some system such as social-contract laws on everyone by force. Indeed, Hobbes' work helped to serve as a basis for the realism theories of international relations, advanced by E. H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau. Hobbes wrote in Leviathan that humans (\"we\") need the \"terrour of some Power\" otherwise humans will not heed the law of reciprocity, \"(in summe) doing to others, as wee would be done to\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Philosophers", "target_page_ids": [ 2940911, 681691, 691959, 190192, 12859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 592, 599 ], [ 649, 659 ], [ 664, 679 ], [ 697, 706 ], [ 794, 812 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Locke's conception of the social contract differed from Hobbes' in several fundamental ways, retaining only the central notion that persons in a state of nature would willingly come together to form a state. Locke believed that individuals in a state of nature would be bound morally, by the Law of Nature, not to harm each other in their lives or possessions. Without government to defend them against those seeking to injure or enslave them, Locke further believed people would have no security in their rights and would live in fear. Individuals, to Locke, would only agree to form a state that would provide, in part, a \"neutral judge\", acting to protect the lives, liberty, and property of those who lived within it.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Philosophers", "target_page_ids": [ 16143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Hobbes argued for near-absolute authority, Locke argued for inviolate freedom under law in his Second Treatise of Government. Locke argued that a government's legitimacy comes from the citizens' delegation to the government of their absolute right of violence (reserving the inalienable right of self-defense or \"self-preservation\"), along with elements of other rights (e.g. property will be liable to taxation) as necessary to achieve the goal of security through granting the state a monopoly of violence, whereby the government, as an impartial judge, may use the collective force of the populace to administer and enforce the law, rather than each man acting as his own judge, jury, and executioner—the condition in the state of nature.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Philosophers", "target_page_ids": [ 910810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), in his influential 1762 treatise The Social Contract, outlined a different version of social-contract theory, as the foundations of society based on the sovereignty of the ‘general will’.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Philosophers", "target_page_ids": [ 15941, 1922779, 636147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 68, 87 ], [ 208, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rousseau's political theory differs in important ways from that of Locke and Hobbes. Rousseau's collectivist conception is most evident in his development of the \"luminous conception\" (which he credited to Denis Diderot) of the ‘general will’. Summarised, the ‘general will’ is the power of all the citizens' collective interest - not to be confused with their individual interests.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Philosophers", "target_page_ids": [ 8199, 636147, 636147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 219 ], [ 229, 241 ], [ 261, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Rousseau wrote that the British were perhaps at the time the freest people on earth, he did not approve of their representative government, nor any form of representative government. Rousseau believed that society was only legitimate when the sovereign (i.e. the ‘general will’) were the sole legislators. He also stated that the individual must accept “the total alienation to the whole community of each associate with all his rights”. In short, Rousseau meant that in order for the social contract to work, individuals must forfeit their rights to the whole so that such conditions were “equal for all\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Philosophers", "target_page_ids": [ 636147, 661622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 285 ], [ 302, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rousseau's striking phrase that man must \"be forced to be free\" should be understood this way: since the indivisible and inalienable popular sovereignty decides what is good for the whole, if an individual rejects this \"civil liberty\" in place of \"natural liberty\" and self interest, disobeying the law, he will be forced to listen to what was decided when the people acted as a collective (as citizens). Thus the law, inasmuch as it is created by the people acting as a body, is not a limitation of individual freedom, but rather its expression. The individual, as a citizen, explicitly agreed to be constrained if, as a private individual, he did not respect his own will as formulated in the general will.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Philosophers", "target_page_ids": [ 6784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 394, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because laws represent the restraint of \"natural liberty\", they represent the leap made from humans in the state of nature into civil society. In this sense, the law is a civilizing force. Therefore Rousseau believed that the laws that govern a people help to mould their character.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Philosophers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rousseau also analyses the social contract in terms of risk management,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Philosophers", "target_page_ids": [ 24462958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "thus suggesting the origins of the state as a form of mutual insurance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Philosophers", "target_page_ids": [ 15176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Rousseau's social contract is based on popular sovereignty and not on individual sovereignty, there are other theories espoused by individualists, libertarians, and anarchists that do not involve agreeing to anything more than negative rights and creates only a limited state, if any.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Philosophers", "target_page_ids": [ 432513, 15181, 3225498, 12, 3558732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 64 ], [ 137, 150 ], [ 153, 165 ], [ 171, 181 ], [ 233, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) advocated a conception of social contract that did not involve an individual surrendering sovereignty to others. According to him, the social contract was not between individuals and the state, but rather among individuals who refrain from coercing or governing each other, each one maintaining complete sovereignty upon him- or herself:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Philosophers", "target_page_ids": [ 40949287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Building on the work of Immanuel Kant with its presumption of limits on the state, John Rawls (1921–2002), in A Theory of Justice (1971), proposed a contractarian approach whereby rational people in a hypothetical \"original position\" would set aside their individual preferences and capacities under a \"veil of ignorance\" and agree to certain general principles of justice and legal organization. This idea is also used as a game-theoretical formalization of the notion of fairness.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Philosophers", "target_page_ids": [ 123612, 243665, 166660, 166660, 11924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 93 ], [ 110, 129 ], [ 215, 232 ], [ 303, 320 ], [ 425, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "David Gauthier \"neo-Hobbesian\" theory argues that cooperation between two independent and self-interested parties is indeed possible, especially when it comes to understanding morality and politics. Gauthier notably points out the advantages of cooperation between two parties when it comes to the challenge of the prisoner's dilemma. He proposes that, if two parties were to stick to the original agreed-upon arrangement and morals outlined by the contract, they would both experience an optimal result. In his model for the social contract, factors including trust, rationality, and self-interest keep each party honest and dissuade them from breaking the rules.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Philosophers", "target_page_ids": [ 48050, 43717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 315, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Philip Pettit (b. 1945) has argued, in Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government (1997), that the theory of social contract, classically based on the consent of the governed, should be modified. Instead of arguing for explicit consent, which can always be manufactured, Pettit argues that the absence of an effective rebellion against it is a contract's only legitimacy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Philosophers", "target_page_ids": [ 4023645, 1096446, 20549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 158, 181 ], [ 264, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An early critic of social contract theory was Rousseau's friend, the philosopher David Hume, who in 1742 published an essay \"Of Civil Liberty\". The second part of this essay, entitled \"Of the Original Contract\", stresses that the concept of a \"social contract\" is a convenient fiction: ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 15941, 7925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 54 ], [ 81, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hume argued that consent of the governed was the ideal foundation on which a government should rest, but that it had not actually occurred this way in general. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 1096446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Legal scholar Randy Barnett has argued that, while presence in the territory of a society may be necessary for consent, this does not constitute consent to all rules the society might make regardless of their content. A second condition of consent is that the rules be consistent with underlying principles of justice and the protection of natural and social rights, and have procedures for effective protection of those rights (or liberties). This has also been discussed by O.A. Brownson, who argued that, in a sense, three \"constitutions\" are involved: first, the constitution of nature that includes all of what the Founders called \"natural law\"; second, the constitution of society, an unwritten and commonly understood set of rules for the society formed by a social contract before it establishes a government, by which it does establish the third, a constitution of government. To consent, a necessary condition is that the rules be constitutional in that sense.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 296095, 22063, 5253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 27 ], [ 637, 648 ], [ 941, 953 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The theory of an implicit social contract holds that by remaining in the territory controlled by some society, which usually has a government, people give consent to join that society and be governed by its government if any. This consent is what gives legitimacy to such a government.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other writers have argued that consent to join the society is not necessarily consent to its government. For that, the government must be set up according to a constitution of government that is consistent with the superior unwritten constitutions of nature and society.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The theory of an implicit social contract also goes under the principles of explicit consent. The main difference between tacit consent and explicit consent is that explicit consent is meant to leave no room for misinterpretation. Moreover, you should directly state what it is that you want and the person has to respond in a concise manner that either confirms or denies the proposition.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the will theory of contract, a contract is not presumed valid unless all parties voluntarily agree to it, either tacitly or explicitly, without coercion. Lysander Spooner, a 19th-century lawyer who argued before the Supreme Court and staunch supporter of a right of contract between individuals, argued in his essay No Treason that a supposed social contract cannot be used to justify governmental actions such as taxation because government will initiate force against anyone who does not wish to enter into such a contract. As a result, he maintains that such an agreement is not voluntary and therefore cannot be considered a legitimate contract at all. An abolitionist, he made similar arguments about the unconstitutionality of slavery in the US.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 79355, 11120766, 38894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 183 ], [ 329, 339 ], [ 673, 685 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern Anglo-American law, like European civil law, is based on a will theory of contract, according to which all terms of a contract are binding on the parties because they chose those terms for themselves. This was less true when Hobbes wrote Leviathan; at that time more importance was attached to consideration, meaning a mutual exchange of benefits necessary to the formation of a valid contract, and most contracts had implicit terms that arose from the nature of the contractual relationship rather than from the choices made by the parties. Accordingly, it has been argued that social contract theory is more consistent with the contract law of the time of Hobbes and Locke than with the contract law of our time, and that certain features in the social contract which seem anomalous to us, such as the belief that we are bound by a contract formulated by our distant ancestors, would not have seemed as strange to Hobbes' contemporaries as they do to us.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mandate of Heaven", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 215214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Classical republicanism", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1548104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Consent", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 215934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Consent of the governed", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1096446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Constitution", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Constitutionalism", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30874872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Self determination", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 29269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Contract", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19280537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Epicurean ethics", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Federalism", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mandate (politics)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1221086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mayflower Compact", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 176303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Monarchomachs", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 883666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Racial Contract", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25983988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Right of rebellion", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3438593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " School of Salamanca", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1062850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Social capital", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 45802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Social cohesion", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13854259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Social Contract (Britain) - British Labour Party policy involving trade-offs between employment conditions and social welfare", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2343026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Social disintegration", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3328588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Social Justice in the Liberal State", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1066082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Social rights (social contract theory)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18180538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Social solidarity", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2118929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Societal collapse", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3328588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Consent theory", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3962924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crito – dialogue by Plato", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 680498, 22954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 21, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Juan de Mariana", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2619357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ankerl, Guy. Towards a Social Contract on a Worldwide Scale: Solidarity contracts. Research series. Geneva: International Institute for Labour Studies [Pamphlet], 1980, .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Carlyle, R. W. A History of mediæval political theory in the West. Edinburgh London: W. Blackwood and sons, 1916.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Falaky, Faycal (2014). Social Contract, Masochist Contract: Aesthetics of Freedom and Submission in Rousseau. Albany: State University of New York Press. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gierke, Otto Friedrich Von and Ernst Troeltsch. Natural Law and the Theory of Society 1500 to 1800. Translated by Sir Ernest Barker, with a Lecture on \"The Ideas of Natural Law and Humanity\", by Ernst Troeltsch. Cambridge: The University Press, 1950.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gough, J. W.. The Social Contract. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1936.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Harrison, Ross. Hobbes, Locke, and Confusion's Empire: an Examination of Seventeenth-Century Political Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 2003.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan. 1651.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Locke, John. Second Treatise on Government 1689.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pettit, Philip. Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government. NY: Oxford U.P., 1997, , Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pufendorf, Samuel, James Tully and Michael Silverthorne. Pufendorf: On the Duty of Man and Citizen according to Natural Law. Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought. Cambridge University Press 1991.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rawls, John. A Theory of Justice (1971)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Riley, Patrick. \"How Coherent is the Social Contract Tradition?\" Journal of the History of Ideas 34: 4 (Oct. – Dec., 1973): 543–62.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Riley, Patrick. Will and Political Legitimacy: A Critical Exposition of Social Contract Theory in Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Kant, and Hegel. Cambridge, Massachusetts : Harvard University Press, 1982.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Riley, Patrick. The Social Contract and Its Critics, chapter 12 in The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Political Thought. Eds. Mark Goldie and Robert Wokler. Vol 4 of The Cambridge History of Political Thought. Cambridge University Press, 2006. pp.347–75.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 46835379, 70941167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 147 ], [ 152, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The Social Contract, or Principles of Political Right (1762)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Scanlon, T. M. 1998. What We Owe To Each Other. Cambridge, Massachusetts", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Social Contract\". In Our Time (7 Feb 2008). BBC Radio Program. Melvyn Bragg, moderator; with Melissa Lane, Cambridge University; Susan James, University of London; Karen O'Brien, University of Warwick.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Game Theory\". In Our Time (May 10, 2012). BBC Radio Program. Melvin Bragg, moderator, with Ian Stewart, Emeritus, University of Warwick, Andrew Colman, University of Leicester, and Richard Bradley, London School of Economics. Discussion of game theory that touches on relation of game theory to the Social Contract.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Foisneau, Luc. \"Governing a Republic: Rousseau's General Will and the Problem of Government\". Republics of Letters: A Journal for the Study of Knowledge, Politics, and the Arts 2, no. 1 (December 15, 2010)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sigmund, Paul E. \"Natural Law, Consent, and Equality: William of Ockham to Richard Hooker\". Published on website Natural Law, Natural Rights, and American Constitutionalism. A We the People project of the National Endowment for the Humanities.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jan Narveson. \"The Contractarian Theory of Morals:FAQ\". On website Against Politics: Anarchy Naturalized.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A satirical example of a social contract for the United States from the Libertarian Party. Parody.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Social Contract: A Basic Contradiction in Western Liberal Democracy, Eric Engle. A critique of social contract theory as counter-factual myth.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Political_concepts", "Social_theories", "Thomas_Hobbes", "John_Locke", "John_Rawls", "Sovereignty", "Social_agreement", "Sociological_terminology" ]

[ "political contract" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Speech is the vocal form of human communication.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2917649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Speech or speaking may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Spoken language", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 226988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Discourse", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 45134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Animal language, forms of animal communication that are considered to show similarities to human language", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 457115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Talking animal or speaking animal, any non-human animal which produces sounds or gestures resembling those of a human", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19009041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Connected speech in linguistics, a continuous sequence of sounds forming utterances or conversations in spoken language", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11119155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Public speaking, a process of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate manner", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Speech imitation, the saying by one individual of the spoken vocalizations made by another individual", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25490263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Speech synthesis, the artificial production of human speech language", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 42799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Right speech, a component of the Noble Eightfold Path in Buddhism", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Speech (rapper) (born 1968), an American rapper and musician", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 1718369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Speech Debelle (born 1983), a British rapper and Mercury Prize winner", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 23455186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Speech (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 56429609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of speeches", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 665585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Speak (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 228574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Speech sound", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Edward V (2 November 1470 – mid-1483) was de jure King of England and Lord of Ireland from 9 April to 25 June 1483. He succeeded his father, Edward IV, upon the latter's death. Edward V was never crowned, and his brief reign was dominated by the influence of his uncle and Lord Protector, the Duke of Gloucester, who deposed him to reign as King Richard III; this was confirmed by the Act entitled Titulus Regius, which denounced any further claims through his father's heirs.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9160, 47063, 170034, 46390, 53495, 26284, 145166, 71861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 50 ], [ 51, 66 ], [ 71, 86 ], [ 142, 151 ], [ 274, 288 ], [ 347, 358 ], [ 386, 389 ], [ 399, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward V and his younger brother Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York, were the Princes in the Tower who disappeared after being sent to heavily guarded royal lodgings in the Tower of London. Responsibility for their deaths is widely attributed to Richard III, but the lack of solid evidence and conflicting contemporary accounts allow for other possibilities.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 299148, 70600, 31165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 68 ], [ 79, 99 ], [ 174, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward was born on 2 November 1470 at Cheyneygates, the medieval house of the Abbot of Westminster, adjoining Westminster Abbey. His mother, Elizabeth Woodville, had sought sanctuary there from Lancastrian supporters who had deposed his father, the Yorkist king Edward IV, during the course of the Wars of the Roses. Edward was created Prince of Wales in June 1471, following his father's restoration to the throne, and in 1473 was established at Ludlow Castle on the Welsh Marches as nominal president of a newly created Council of Wales and the Marches. In 1479, his father conferred the earldom of Pembroke on him; it became merged into the crown on his succession.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 9255213, 43245, 47901, 73213, 89442, 90444, 30275656, 46204, 200453, 161081, 5354983, 80984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 98 ], [ 110, 127 ], [ 141, 160 ], [ 173, 182 ], [ 194, 216 ], [ 249, 256 ], [ 298, 315 ], [ 336, 351 ], [ 447, 460 ], [ 468, 481 ], [ 522, 554 ], [ 590, 609 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prince Edward was placed under the supervision of the queen's brother Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers, a noted scholar. In a letter to Rivers, Edward IV set down precise conditions for the upbringing of his son and the management of the prince's household. He was to \"arise every morning at a convenient hour, according to his age\". His day would begin with matins and then Mass, which he was to receive uninterrupted. After breakfast, the business of educating the prince began with \"virtuous learning\". Dinner was served from ten in the morning, and then he was to be read \"noble stories ... of virtue, honour, cunning, wisdom, and of deeds of worship\" but \"of nothing that should move or stir him to vice\". Perhaps aware of his own vices, the king was keen to safeguard his son's morals, and instructed Rivers to ensure that no one in the prince's household was a habitual \"swearer, brawler, backbiter, common hazarder, adulterer, [or user of] words of ribaldry\". After further study, in the afternoon the prince was to engage in sporting activities suitable for his class, before evensong. Supper was served from four, and curtains were to be drawn at eight. Following this, the prince's attendants were to \"enforce themselves to make him merry and joyous towards his bed\". They would then watch over him as he slept.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 243819, 890509, 5684685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 104 ], [ 361, 367 ], [ 377, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dominic Mancini reported of the young Edward V:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 99205 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As with several of his other children, Edward IV planned a prestigious European marriage for his eldest son, and in 1480 concluded an alliance with Francis II, Duke of Brittany, whereby Prince Edward was betrothed to the duke's four-year-old heir, Anne. The two were to be married upon their majority, with their eldest son inheriting England and the second son Brittany. Anne later married Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 642196, 642214, 39070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 176 ], [ 248, 252 ], [ 391, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was at Ludlow that the 12-year-old prince received news, on Monday 14 April 1483, of his father's sudden death five days before. Edward IV's will, which has not survived, nominated his trusted brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, as Protector during the minority of his son. The new king left Ludlow on 24 April, with Richard leaving York a day earlier, planning to meet at Northampton and travel to London together. However, when Richard reached Northampton, Edward and his party had already travelled onward to Stony Stratford, Buckinghamshire. The Earl Rivers travelled back to Northampton to meet Richard and Buckingham who had now arrived. On the night of 29 April Richard dined with Rivers and Edward's half-brother, Richard Grey, but the following morning Rivers, Grey and the king's chamberlain, Thomas Vaughan, were arrested and sent north. Despite Richard's assurances all three were subsequently executed. Dominic Mancini, an Italian who visited England in the 1480s, reports that Edward protested, but the remainder of his entourage was dismissed and Richard escorted him to London. On 19 May 1483, the new king took up residence in the Tower of London, where, on 16 June, he was joined by his younger brother Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 59003, 26284, 63734, 419420, 677605, 2851286, 31165, 299148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 16 ], [ 204, 231 ], [ 377, 388 ], [ 516, 531 ], [ 726, 738 ], [ 807, 821 ], [ 1152, 1167 ], [ 1225, 1260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The council had originally hoped for an immediate coronation to avoid the need for a protectorate. This had previously happened with Richard II, who had become king at the age of ten. Another precedent was Henry VI whose protectorate (which started when he inherited the crown aged 9 months) had ended with his coronation aged seven. Richard, however, repeatedly postponed the coronation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 46531, 46858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 143 ], [ 206, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 22 June, Ralph Shaa preached a sermon declaring that Edward IV had already been contracted to marry Lady Eleanor Butler when he married Elizabeth Woodville, thereby rendering his marriage to Elizabeth invalid and their children together illegitimate. The children of Richard's older brother George, Duke of Clarence, were barred from the throne by their father's attainder, and therefore, on 25 June, an assembly of Lords and Commons declared Richard to be the legitimate king (this was later confirmed by the act of parliament Titulus Regius). The following day he acceded to the throne as King Richard III.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 4534001, 71859, 49673, 705899, 71861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 22 ], [ 103, 122 ], [ 294, 318 ], [ 366, 375 ], [ 531, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dominic Mancini recorded that after Richard III seized the throne, Edward and his brother Richard were taken into the \"inner apartments of the Tower\" and then were seen less and less until the end of the summer to the autumn of 1483, when they disappeared from public view altogether. During this period Mancini records that Edward was regularly visited by a doctor, who reported that Edward, \"like a victim prepared for sacrifice, sought remission of his sins by daily confession and penance, because he believed that death was facing him.\" The Latin reference to had previously been translated as \"a doctor from Strasbourg\", because the Latin name for the city of Strasbourg, , was still current at the time; however, D. E. Rhodes suggests it may actually refer to \"Doctor Argentine\", whom Rhodes identifies as John Argentine, an English physician who would later serve as provost of King's College, Cambridge, and as doctor to Arthur, Prince of Wales, eldest son of King Henry VII of England (Henry Tudor).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disappearance", "target_page_ids": [ 37407, 7506172, 151267, 177655, 14186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 667, 677 ], [ 814, 828 ], [ 887, 912 ], [ 931, 954 ], [ 975, 995 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The princes' fate after their disappearance remains unknown, but the most widely accepted theory is that they were murdered on the orders of their uncle, King Richard. Thomas More wrote that they were smothered to death with their pillows, and his account forms the basis of William Shakespeare's play Richard III, in which Tyrrell murders the princes on Richard's orders. In the absence of hard evidence a number of other theories have been put forward, of which the most widely discussed are that they were murdered on the orders of Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, or by Henry Tudor. However, A. J. Pollard points out that these theories are less plausible than the straightforward one that they were murdered by their uncle who in any case controlled access to them and was therefore regarded as responsible for their welfare. In the period before the boys' disappearance, Edward was regularly being visited by a doctor; historian David Baldwin extrapolates that contemporaries may have believed Edward had died of an illness (or as the result of attempts to cure him). An alternative theory is that Perkin Warbeck, a pretender to the throne, was indeed Richard, Duke of York, as he claimed, having escaped to Flanders after his uncle's defeat at Bosworth to be raised by his aunt, Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disappearance", "target_page_ids": [ 30479, 32897, 176961, 105832, 87373, 17790367, 40280875, 46375, 71402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 179 ], [ 275, 294 ], [ 302, 313 ], [ 324, 331 ], [ 535, 573 ], [ 603, 616 ], [ 942, 955 ], [ 1111, 1125 ], [ 1293, 1322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bones belonging to two children were discovered in 1674 by workmen rebuilding a stairway in the Tower. On the orders of King Charles II, these were subsequently placed in Westminster Abbey, in an urn bearing the names of Edward and Richard. The bones were re-examined in 1933, at which time it was discovered the skeletons were incomplete and had been interred with animal bones. It has never been proven that the bones belonged to the princes, and it is possible that they were buried before the reconstruction of that part of the Tower of London. Permission for a subsequent examination has been refused.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disappearance", "target_page_ids": [ 46688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1789, workmen carrying out repairs in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, rediscovered and accidentally broke into the vault of Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville. Adjoining this was another vault, which was found to contain the coffins of two children. This tomb was inscribed with the names of two of Edward IV's children who had predeceased him: George, Duke of Bedford, and Mary. However, the remains of these two children were later found elsewhere in the chapel, leaving the occupants of the children's coffins within the tomb unknown.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disappearance", "target_page_ids": [ 23910568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1486 Edward IV's daughter Elizabeth, sister of Edward V, married Henry VII, thereby uniting the Houses of York and Lancaster.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disappearance", "target_page_ids": [ 47907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As outlined above, on the orders of Charles II, the presumed bones of Edward V and his brother Richard were interred in Westminster Abbey; Edward was thus buried in the place of his birth. The white marble sarcophagus was designed by Sir Christopher Wren and made by Joshua Marshall. The sarcophagus can be found in the north aisle of the Henry VII Chapel, near Elizabeth I's tomb.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Epitaph", "target_page_ids": [ 52946, 708945, 10128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 254 ], [ 339, 355 ], [ 362, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Latin inscription on the urn can be translated as follows:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Epitaph", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The original Latin text is as follows (original all in capitals):", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Epitaph", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Edward appears as a character in the play Richard III by William Shakespeare. Edward appears alive in only one scene of the play (Act 3 Scene 1), during which he and his brother are portrayed as bright, precocious children who see through their uncle's ambitions. Edward in particular is portrayed as wiser than his years (something his uncle notes) and ambitious about his kingship. Edward and his brother's deaths are described in the play, but occur offstage. Their ghosts return in one more scene (Act 5 Scene 3) to haunt their uncle's dreams and promise success to his rival, Richmond (i.e. King Henry VII). In film and television adaptations of this play, Edward V has been portrayed by the following actors:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Portrayals in fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 176961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kathleen Yorke in the 1911 silent short dramatising a part of the play.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Portrayals in fiction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Howard Stuart in the 1912 silent adaptation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Portrayals in fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 12156493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paul Huson in the 1955 film version, alongside Laurence Olivier as Richard.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Portrayals in fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 4962710, 1345780, 43675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 24, 36 ], [ 48, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hugh Janes in the 1960 BBC series An Age of Kings, which contained all the history plays from Richard II to Richard III.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Portrayals in fiction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nicolaus Haenel in the 1964 West German TV version ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Portrayals in fiction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dorian Ford in the 1983 BBC Shakespeare version.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Portrayals in fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 187709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Spike Hood provided his voice in the 1994 BBC series The Animated Tales.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Portrayals in fiction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Marco Williamson in the 1995 film version, alongside Ian McKellen as Richard.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Portrayals in fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 230546, 15308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 42 ], [ 54, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jon Plummer in the 2005 modernised TV version set on a Brighton housing estate.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Portrayals in fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 49796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Germaine De Leon in the 2007 modern-day adaptation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Portrayals in fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 4010174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Edward Bracey in the 2014 drama documentary Richard III: The Princes in the Tower.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Portrayals in fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 213741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Caspar Morley played Edward in the BBC's 2016 adaptation of Shakespeare's Richard III alongside Benedict Cumberbatch as Richard. It is the final episode in the second season of The Hollow Crown.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Portrayals in fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 32897, 176961, 2275990, 36394468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 72 ], [ 75, 86 ], [ 97, 117 ], [ 178, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward V is also featured as a mute role in another of Shakespeare's plays, Henry VI, Part 3, where he appears as a newborn baby in the final scene. His father Edward IV addresses his own brothers thus: \"Clarence, and Gloster, love my lovely queen, And kiss your princely nephew, brothers both.\" Gloster, the future Richard III, is at the close of this play already encompassing his nephew's demise, as he mutters in an aside, \"To say the truth, so Judas kiss'd his master, And cried – All hail! when as he meant – all harm.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Portrayals in fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 184847, 73165, 649720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 92 ], [ 124, 128 ], [ 420, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward appears in The White Queen, a 2009 historical novel by Philippa Gregory and in the subsequent 2013 TV miniseries The White Queen; in the latter he is played by Sonny Ashbourne Serkis.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Portrayals in fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 27140960, 202995, 37619511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 33 ], [ 62, 78 ], [ 120, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As heir apparent, Edward bore the royal arms (quarterly France and England) differenced by a label of three points argent. During his brief reign he used the royal arms undifferenced, supported by a lion and a hart as had his father. His livery badges were the traditional Yorkist symbols of the fetterlocked falcon and the rose argent.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Heraldry", "target_page_ids": [ 213047, 304587, 649232, 105249, 24785403, 1587447, 41726797, 741014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 16 ], [ 34, 44 ], [ 76, 87 ], [ 115, 121 ], [ 210, 214 ], [ 238, 251 ], [ 296, 306 ], [ 324, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Edward V 1483", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Edward_V_of_England", "1470_births", "1480s_deaths", "1480s_missing_person_cases", "15th-century_English_monarchs", "15th-century_English_nobility", "Disappeared_princes", "Dukes_of_Cornwall", "Earls_of_March_(England)", "Earls_of_Pembroke", "English_people_of_French_descent", "English_pretenders_to_the_French_throne", "House_of_York", "Knights_of_the_Garter", "Medieval_child_rulers", "Missing_person_cases_in_England", "People_from_Westminster", "People_of_the_Wars_of_the_Roses", "Princes_of_Wales", "Prisoners_in_the_Tower_of_London", "Rulers_deposed_as_children", "Rulers_who_died_as_children", "Children_of_Edward_IV_of_England" ]

[ "Edward V", "Edward V Plantagenet, King of England" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Fertile Crescent () is a crescent-shaped region in the Middle East, spanning modern-day Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine and Jordan, together with the northern region of Kuwait, southeastern region of Turkey and the western portion of Iran. Some authors also include Cyprus and Northern Egypt.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19323, 7515928, 7515849, 17771, 9282173, 241405, 7515964, 7515890, 11125639, 14653, 5593, 8087628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 70 ], [ 92, 96 ], [ 98, 103 ], [ 105, 112 ], [ 116, 122 ], [ 124, 133 ], [ 138, 144 ], [ 183, 189 ], [ 214, 220 ], [ 248, 252 ], [ 280, 286 ], [ 300, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Fertile Crescent is one of the very first regions where settled farming emerged as people started the process of clearance and modification of natural vegetation to grow newly domesticated plants as crops. Early human civilizations such as Sumer in Mesopotamia flourished as a result. Technological advances in the region include the development of agriculture and the use of irrigation, of writing, the wheel, and glass, most emerging first in Mesopotamia.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 627, 7500259, 6258, 50521, 2899597, 42261, 3697831, 33555, 26586160, 20189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 75 ], [ 203, 207 ], [ 222, 234 ], [ 244, 249 ], [ 353, 364 ], [ 380, 390 ], [ 395, 402 ], [ 408, 413 ], [ 419, 424 ], [ 449, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term \"Fertile Crescent\" was popularized by archaeologist James Henry Breasted in Outlines of European History (1914) and Ancient Times, A History of the Early World (1916). Breasted wrote:This fertile crescent is approximately a semicircle, with the open side toward the south, having the west end at the southeast corner of the Mediterranean, the center directly north of Arabia, and the east end at the north end of the Persian Gulf (see map, p. 100). It lies like an army facing south, with one wing stretching along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean and the other reaching out to the Persian Gulf, while the center has its back against the northern mountains. The end of the western wing is Palestine; Assyria makes up a large part of the center; while the end of the eastern wing is Babylonia.This great semicircle, for lack of a name, may be called the Fertile Crescent.1 It may also be likened to the shores of a desert-bay, upon which the mountains behind look down—a bay not of water but of sandy waste, some across, forming a northern extension of the Arabian desert and sweeping as far north as the latitude of the northeast corner of the Mediterranean. This desert-bay is a limestone plateau of some height—too high indeed to be watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, which have cut cañons obliquely across it. Nevertheless, after the meager winter rains, wide tracts of the northern desert-bay are clothed with scanty grass, and spring thus turns the region for a short time into grasslands. The history of Western Asia may be described as an age-long struggle between the mountain peoples of the north and the desert wanderers of these grasslands—a struggle which is still going on—for the possession of the Fertile Crescent, the shores of the desert-bay.1 There is no name, either geographical or political, which includes all of this great semicircle (see map, p. 100). Hence we are obliged to coin a term and call it the Fertile Crescent.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Terminology", "target_page_ids": [ 18951655, 572601, 19006, 24761, 2085, 46883, 199993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 60 ], [ 61, 81 ], [ 333, 346 ], [ 597, 609 ], [ 715, 722 ], [ 797, 806 ], [ 1072, 1086 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In current usage, the Fertile Crescent includes Israel, Palestine, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, and Jordan, as well as the surrounding portions of Turkey and Iran. In addition to the Tigris and Euphrates, riverwater sources include the Jordan River. The inner boundary is delimited by the dry climate of the Syrian Desert to the south. Around the outer boundary are the Anatolian and Armenian highlands to the north, the Sahara Desert to the west, Sudan to the south, and the Iranian plateau to the east.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Terminology", "target_page_ids": [ 9282173, 241405, 7515928, 7515849, 17771, 8087628, 7515964, 11125639, 14653, 31259, 10221, 47910, 2064417, 854, 2343789, 325363, 27421, 342050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 54 ], [ 56, 65 ], [ 67, 71 ], [ 73, 78 ], [ 80, 87 ], [ 89, 94 ], [ 100, 106 ], [ 147, 153 ], [ 158, 162 ], [ 183, 189 ], [ 194, 203 ], [ 236, 248 ], [ 308, 321 ], [ 370, 378 ], [ 384, 402 ], [ 421, 434 ], [ 448, 453 ], [ 476, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As crucial as rivers and marshlands were to the rise of civilization in the Fertile Crescent, they were not the only factor. The area is geographically important as the \"bridge\" between North Africa and Eurasia, which has allowed it to retain a greater amount of biodiversity than either Europe or North Africa, where climate changes during the Ice Age led to repeated extinction events when ecosystems became squeezed against the waters of the Mediterranean Sea. The Saharan pump theory posits that this Middle Eastern land bridge was extremely important to the modern distribution of Old World flora and fauna, including the spread of humanity.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Biodiversity and climate", "target_page_ids": [ 169208, 710778, 21714, 20611107, 45086, 9239, 21714, 47512, 557672, 49417, 19006, 8590459, 76483, 143913, 778246, 722672, 14821485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 30 ], [ 48, 68 ], [ 186, 198 ], [ 203, 210 ], [ 263, 275 ], [ 288, 294 ], [ 298, 310 ], [ 318, 332 ], [ 345, 352 ], [ 369, 379 ], [ 445, 462 ], [ 468, 487 ], [ 520, 531 ], [ 586, 595 ], [ 596, 601 ], [ 606, 611 ], [ 627, 645 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The area has borne the brunt of the tectonic divergence between the African and Arabian plates and the converging Arabian and Eurasian plates, which has made the region a very diverse zone of high snow-covered mountains.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Biodiversity and climate", "target_page_ids": [ 250984, 24944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 55 ], [ 88, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Fertile Crescent had many diverse climates, and major climatic changes encouraged the evolution of many \"r\" type annual plants, which produce more edible seeds than \"K\" type perennial plants. The region's dramatic variety in elevation gave rise to many species of edible plants for early experiments in cultivation. Most importantly, the Fertile Crescent was home to the eight Neolithic founder crops important in early agriculture (i.e., wild progenitors to emmer wheat, einkorn, barley, flax, chick pea, pea, lentil, bitter vetch), and four of the five most important species of domesticated animals—cows, goats, sheep, and pigs; the fifth species, the horse, lived nearby. The Fertile Crescent flora comprises a high percentage of plants that can self-pollinate, but may also be cross-pollinated. These plants, called \"selfers\", were one of the geographical advantages of the area because they did not depend on other plants for reproduction.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Biodiversity and climate", "target_page_ids": [ 5999, 1906854, 777, 1906854, 733199, 1390382, 627, 89367, 57522, 19541428, 38869, 57146, 59407, 174455, 2214333, 142586, 26051975, 19167553, 17158563, 2391490, 13645, 407234, 233609, 407234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 45 ], [ 108, 116 ], [ 117, 129 ], [ 169, 177 ], [ 178, 193 ], [ 381, 404 ], [ 424, 435 ], [ 463, 474 ], [ 476, 483 ], [ 485, 491 ], [ 493, 497 ], [ 499, 508 ], [ 510, 513 ], [ 515, 521 ], [ 523, 535 ], [ 585, 597 ], [ 606, 609 ], [ 612, 616 ], [ 619, 624 ], [ 630, 633 ], [ 659, 664 ], [ 754, 768 ], [ 786, 802 ], [ 826, 833 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As well as possessing many sites with the skeletal and cultural remains of both pre-modern and early modern humans (e.g., at Tabun and Es Skhul caves in Israel), later Pleistocene hunter-gatherers, and Epipalaeolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherers (the Natufians); the Fertile Crescent is most famous for its sites related to the origins of agriculture. The western zone around the Jordan and upper Euphrates rivers gave rise to the first known Neolithic farming settlements (referred to as Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)), which date to around 9,000 BCE and includes very ancient sites such as Göbekli Tepe, Chogha Golan, and Jericho (Tell es-Sultan).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 682482, 2806620, 7242855, 23310, 210098, 10259, 54716, 639115, 21189, 627, 629000, 515395, 49887520, 31275529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 114 ], [ 125, 130 ], [ 135, 143 ], [ 168, 179 ], [ 180, 195 ], [ 202, 217 ], [ 255, 263 ], [ 332, 354 ], [ 447, 456 ], [ 457, 464 ], [ 493, 516 ], [ 597, 609 ], [ 611, 623 ], [ 629, 653 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This region, alongside Mesopotamia (Greek for \"between rivers\", between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, lies in the east of the Fertile Crescent), also saw the emergence of early complex societies during the succeeding Bronze Age. There is also early evidence from the region for writing and the formation of hierarchical state level societies. This has earned the region the nickname \"The cradle of civilization\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 20189, 31259, 10221, 1655855, 4620, 32977, 13998, 23604120, 710778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 34 ], [ 83, 89 ], [ 94, 103 ], [ 180, 197 ], [ 220, 230 ], [ 281, 288 ], [ 310, 322 ], [ 323, 334 ], [ 391, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is in this region where the first libraries appeared about 4,500 years ago. The oldest known libraries are found in Nippur (in Sumer) and Ebla (in Syria), both from c. 2500 BCE.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 17727, 85478, 26704422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 46 ], [ 119, 125 ], [ 141, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both the Tigris and Euphrates start in the Taurus Mountains of what is modern-day Turkey. Farmers in southern Mesopotamia had to protect their fields from flooding each year. Northern Mesopotamia had sufficient rain to make some farming possible. To protect against flooding they made levees.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 596736, 11125639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 59 ], [ 82, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the Bronze Age, the region's natural fertility has been greatly extended by irrigation works, upon which much of its agricultural production continues to depend. The last two millennia have seen repeated cycles of decline and recovery as past works have fallen into disrepair through the replacement of states, to be replaced under their successors. Another ongoing problem has been salination—gradual concentration of salt and other minerals in soils with a long history of irrigation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4620, 1251925, 42261, 64599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ], [ 43, 52 ], [ 82, 92 ], [ 389, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prehistoric seedless figs were discovered at Gilgal I in the Jordan Valley, suggesting that fig trees were being planted some 11,400 years ago. Cereals were already grown in Syria as long as 9,000 years ago. Small cats (Felis silvestris) also were domesticated in this region. Also, legumes including peas, lentils and chickpea were domesticated in this region.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 57893, 30966537, 12105764, 6700, 39513173, 305286, 59407, 174455, 57146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 25 ], [ 45, 53 ], [ 61, 74 ], [ 144, 150 ], [ 174, 179 ], [ 283, 289 ], [ 301, 305 ], [ 307, 314 ], [ 319, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Domesticated animals include the cattle, sheep, goat, domestic pig, cat, and domestic goose.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 142586, 26051975, 17158563, 19167553, 2391490, 6678, 2736310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 33, 39 ], [ 41, 46 ], [ 48, 52 ], [ 54, 66 ], [ 68, 71 ], [ 77, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern analyses comparing 24 craniofacial measurements reveal a relatively diverse population within the pre-Neolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age Fertile Crescent, supporting the view that several populations occupied this region during these time periods. Similar arguments do not hold true for the Basques and Canary Islanders of the same time period, as the studies demonstrate those ancient peoples to be \"clearly associated with modern Europeans\". Additionally, no evidence from the studies demonstrates Cro-Magnon influence, contrary to former suggestions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cosmopolitan diffusion", "target_page_ids": [ 21189, 21189, 4620, 4660, 5717, 25828666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 118 ], [ 120, 129 ], [ 134, 144 ], [ 299, 306 ], [ 311, 324 ], [ 508, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The studies further suggest a diffusion of this diverse population away from the Fertile Crescent, with the early migrants moving away from the Near East—westward into Europe and North Africa, northward to Crimea, and northeastward to Mongolia. They took their agricultural practices with them and interbred with the hunter-gatherers whom they subsequently came in contact with while perpetuating their farming practices. This supports prior genetic and archaeological studies which have all arrived at the same conclusion.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cosmopolitan diffusion", "target_page_ids": [ 994309, 214632, 9239, 21714, 163045, 19271, 210098, 12266, 18951655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 39 ], [ 144, 153 ], [ 168, 174 ], [ 179, 191 ], [ 206, 212 ], [ 235, 243 ], [ 317, 332 ], [ 442, 449 ], [ 454, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Consequently, contemporary in situ peoples absorbed the agricultural way of life of those early migrants who ventured out of the Fertile Crescent. This is contrary to the suggestion that the spread of agriculture disseminated out of the Fertile Crescent by way of sharing of knowledge. Instead, the view now supported by a preponderance of evidence is that it occurred by actual migration out of the region, coupled with subsequent interbreeding with indigenous local populations whom the migrants came in contact with.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cosmopolitan diffusion", "target_page_ids": [ 379978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The studies show also that not all present day Europeans share strong genetic affinities to the Neolithic and Bronze Age inhabitants of the Fertile Crescent; the closest ties to the Fertile Crescent rest with Southern Europeans. The same study further demonstrates all present-day Europeans to be closely related.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cosmopolitan diffusion", "target_page_ids": [ 9239, 21189, 4620, 9239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 53 ], [ 96, 105 ], [ 110, 120 ], [ 281, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linguistically, the Fertile Crescent was a region of great diversity. Historically, Semitic languages generally prevailed in the modern regions of Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Sinai and the fringes of southeast Turkey and northwest Iran, as well as the Sumerian (a language isolate) in Iraq, whilst in the mountainous areas to the east and north a number of generally unrelated language isolates were found, including; Elamite, Gutian and Kassite in Iran, and Hattic, Kaskian and Hurro-Urartian in Turkey. The precise affiliation of these, and their date of arrival, remain topics of scholarly discussion. However, given lack of textual evidence for the earliest era of prehistory, this debate is unlikely to be resolved in the near future.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Languages", "target_page_ids": [ 26919, 7515928, 7515849, 7515964, 17771, 9282173, 1114732, 27644, 11125639, 14653, 65677, 161684, 161684, 496416, 22487771, 18808566, 14653, 437245, 31692010, 568814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 101 ], [ 147, 151 ], [ 153, 158 ], [ 160, 166 ], [ 168, 175 ], [ 177, 183 ], [ 185, 194 ], [ 196, 201 ], [ 232, 238 ], [ 253, 257 ], [ 274, 282 ], [ 286, 302 ], [ 399, 416 ], [ 440, 447 ], [ 449, 455 ], [ 460, 467 ], [ 471, 475 ], [ 481, 487 ], [ 489, 496 ], [ 501, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The evidence that does exist suggests that, by the third millennium BCE and into the second, several language groups already existed in the region. These included:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Languages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Proto-Euphratean language: a non-Semitic language previously hypothesized to be the substratum language of the people that introduced farming into Southern Iraq in the Early Ubaid period. (5300–4700 BCE) The linguistic consensus today is that multiple unknown substrata contributed to the formation of the artifacts in Sumerian names that motivated the Proto-Euphratean substrate hypothesis, including fossilized archaic elements from earlier stages of Sumerian itself. Another theory proposes that the pre-writing substrate was an early Indo-European language tentatively called Euphratic.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Languages", "target_page_ids": [ 3415043, 583461, 7515928, 398834, 14848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 85, 95 ], [ 157, 161 ], [ 175, 187 ], [ 539, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sumerian: a non-Semitic language isolate that displays a Sprachbund-type relationship with neighbouring Semitic Akkadian", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Languages", "target_page_ids": [ 65677, 161684, 166867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 25, 41 ], [ 58, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elamite language: a non-Semitic language isolate", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Languages", "target_page_ids": [ 496416, 161684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 33, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Semitic languages: Akkadian (aka Assyrian and Babylonian), Eblaite, Amorite, Aramaic, Ugaritic, Canaanite languages (including Hebrew, Moabite, Edomite, Phoenician/Carthaginian)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Languages", "target_page_ids": [ 26919, 50515, 266350, 50515, 1733454, 593589, 2303, 212342, 763205, 13450, 538731, 585305, 414942, 621468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 20, 28 ], [ 34, 42 ], [ 47, 57 ], [ 60, 67 ], [ 69, 76 ], [ 78, 85 ], [ 87, 95 ], [ 97, 116 ], [ 128, 134 ], [ 136, 143 ], [ 145, 152 ], [ 154, 164 ], [ 165, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hattic: a language isolate, spoken originally in central Anatolia", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Languages", "target_page_ids": [ 437245, 161684, 8318325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 11, 27 ], [ 50, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Indo-European languages: generally believed to be later intrusive languages arriving after 2000 BCE, such as Hittite, Luwian and the Indo-Aryan material attested in the Mitanni civilization", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Languages", "target_page_ids": [ 14848, 351025, 255039, 78966, 140389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 110, 117 ], [ 119, 125 ], [ 134, 144 ], [ 170, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Egyptian: a stand-alone branch of the Afroasiatic languages confined to Egypt", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Languages", "target_page_ids": [ 46918, 599, 8087628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 39, 60 ], [ 73, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hurro-Urartian languages, a small family. The Kassite language spoken in the northern part of the region may have belonged to this family.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Languages", "target_page_ids": [ 568814, 18808566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 47, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Links between Hurro-Urartian and Hattic and the indigenous languages of the Caucasus have frequently been suggested, but are not generally accepted.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Languages", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Beth Nahrain", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3553424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hilly Flanks", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2835817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of agriculture", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2899597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Mesopotamia", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5223262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hydraulic empire", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 423682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jared Diamond, A Short History of Everybody for the Last 13,000 Years, 1997.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 106082, 106086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 15, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anderson, Clifford Norman. The Fertile Crescent: Travels In the Footsteps of Ancient Science. 2d ed., rev. Fort Lauderdale: Sylvester Press, 1972.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Deckers, Katleen. Holocene Landscapes Through Time In the Fertile Crescent. Turnhout: Brepols, 2011.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ephʻal, Israel. The Ancient Arabs: Nomads On the Borders of the Fertile Crescent 9th–5th Centuries B.C. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1982.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Kajzer, Małgorzata, Łukasz Miszk, and Maciej Wacławik. The Land of Fertility I: South-East Mediterranean Since the Bronze Age to the Muslim Conquest. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2016.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Kozłowski, Stefan Karol. The Eastern Wing of the Fertile Crescent: Late Prehistory of Greater Mesopotamian Lithic Industries. Oxford: Archaeopress, 1999.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thomas, Alexander R. The Evolution of the Ancient City: Urban Theory and the Archaeology of the Fertile Crescent. Lanham: Lexington Books/Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ancient Fertile Crescent Almost Gone, Satellite Images Show– from National Geographic News, May 18, 2001. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 21550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 86 ] ] } ]

[ "1910s_neologisms", "Ancient_Near_East", "Eastern_Mediterranean", "History_of_the_Mediterranean", "Physiographic_divisions", "Historical_regions", "Divided_regions", "Cradle_of_civilization" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The 1936 Summer Olympics (German: Olympische Sommerspiele 1936), officially known as the Games of the XI Olympiad (German: Spiele der XI. Olympiade) and commonly known as Berlin 1936 or the Nazi Olympics, were an international multi-sport event held from 1 to 16 August 1936 in Berlin, Germany. Berlin won the bid to host the Games over Barcelona at the 29th IOC Session on 26 April 1931. The 1936 Games marked the second and most recent time the International Olympic Committee gathered to vote in a city that was bidding to host those Games. Later rule modifications forbade cities hosting the bid vote from being awarded the games.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11884, 11884, 53900, 3354, 4443, 1448558, 15147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 32 ], [ 115, 121 ], [ 227, 244 ], [ 278, 284 ], [ 337, 346 ], [ 359, 370 ], [ 447, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To outdo the 1932 Los Angeles Games, Reich Führer Adolf Hitler had a new 100,000-seat track and field stadium built, as well as six gymnasiums and other smaller arenas. The Games were the first to be televised, with radio broadcasts reaching 41 countries. Filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl was commissioned by the German Olympic Committee to film the Games for $7million. Her film, titled Olympia, pioneered many of the techniques now common in the filming of sports.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 84727, 2731583, 865871, 4896911, 17562, 797363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 35 ], [ 50, 62 ], [ 67, 109 ], [ 200, 209 ], [ 266, 282 ], [ 382, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hitler saw the 1936 Games as an opportunity to promote his government and ideals of racial supremacy and antisemitism, and the official Nazi Party paper, the Völkischer Beobachter, wrote in the strongest terms that Jews should not be allowed to participate in the Games. German Jewish athletes were barred or prevented from taking part in the Games by a variety of methods, although some women swimmers from the Jewish sports club Hakoah Vienna did participate. Jewish athletes from other countries were said to have been side-lined to avoid offending the Nazi regime.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1078, 21736, 856759, 5875130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 117 ], [ 136, 146 ], [ 158, 179 ], [ 431, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Total ticket revenues were 7.5million Reichsmark, generating a profit of over one million R.M. The official budget did not include outlays by the city of Berlin (which issued an itemized report detailing its costs of 16.5million R.M.) or outlays of the German national government (which did not make its costs public, but is estimated to have spent US$30million).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 768720, 166789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 48 ], [ 131, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jesse Owens of the United States won four gold medals in the sprint and long jump events, and became the most successful athlete to compete in Berlin, while Germany was the most successful country overall with 89 medals total, with the United States coming in second with 56 medals. These were the final Olympic Games under the presidency of Henri de Baillet-Latour and the final Games for 12 years due to the disruption of the Second World War. The next Olympic Games were held in 1948 (the Winter Games in St. Moritz, Switzerland and then the Summer Games in London, England).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 46827, 18084, 445522, 32927, 42195, 42196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 72, 81 ], [ 342, 365 ], [ 428, 444 ], [ 492, 504 ], [ 545, 557 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 28th IOC Session, held during 1930, in Berlin, 14 cities announced their intention to bid to host the 1936 Summer Olympic Games. The bidding for these Olympic Games was the first to be contested by IOC members casting votes for their own favorite host cities.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Host city selection", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The vote occurred on 26 April 1931, at the 29th IOC Session held in Barcelona, Spain that year. The vote was held 69 days after the declaration of the Second Spanish Republic and during the final years of the Weimar Republic. This was two years before Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party rose to power in Germany, in 1933.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Host city selection", "target_page_ids": [ 5195347, 33685, 2731583, 21736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 174 ], [ 209, 224 ], [ 252, 264 ], [ 273, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the time of the 1931 IOC Session, only Barcelona and Berlin were left in contention for the delegate vote. Rome withdrew on the eve of the vote. How other candidates withdrew is unclear, as is the seriousness of intent behind all of the listed candidate cities. The other cities who announced an intention to hold the games, but which withdrew from the race, were Alexandria, Budapest, Buenos Aires, Cologne, Dublin, Frankfurt, Helsinki, Lausanne, Montevideo, Nuremberg, Rio de Janeiro, and Rome. Helsinki, Rome, Barcelona and Rio de Janeiro would go on to host the Olympic Games in 1952, 1960, 1992 and 2016, respectively.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Host city selection", "target_page_ids": [ 3080, 36787, 255919, 6187, 8504, 10992, 13696, 18623, 38261, 21287, 25936, 25458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 367, 377 ], [ 379, 387 ], [ 389, 401 ], [ 403, 410 ], [ 412, 418 ], [ 420, 429 ], [ 431, 439 ], [ 441, 449 ], [ 451, 461 ], [ 463, 472 ], [ 474, 488 ], [ 494, 498 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The selection procedure marked the second and final time that the International Olympic Committee would gather to vote in a city which was bidding to host those Games. The only other time this occurred was at the inaugural IOC Session in Paris, France, on 24 April 1894. Then, Athens and Paris were chosen to host the 1896 and 1900 Games, respectively.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Host city selection", "target_page_ids": [ 15147, 1216, 48644, 169719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 97 ], [ 277, 283 ], [ 318, 322 ], [ 327, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city of Barcelona held a multi-sport festival at the same time as the 1931 IOC Session. This included a football match between Spain and the Irish Free State, which was watched by 70,000 spectators. The political uncertainty around the declaration of the Second Spanish Republic, which had happened days before the IOC Session, was likely to have been a greater factor in the decision taken by delegates regarding the host city for 1936. Berlin prevailed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Host city selection", "target_page_ids": [ 5195347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 259, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Nazis took control of Germany, and began instituting anti-Semitic policies, the IOC held private discussions among its delegates about changing the decision to hold the Games in Berlin. However, Hitler's regime gave assurances that Jewish athletes would be allowed to compete on a German Olympic team. One year before the games, the American Olympic Association suggested to change the venue to Rome; they saw Rome as a good replacement because Rome was originally selected to hold the 1908 Summer Olympics.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Host city selection", "target_page_ids": [ 287713, 180916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 343, 371 ], [ 496, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hans von Tschammer und Osten, as Reichssportführer (i.e., head of the Deutscher Reichsbund für Leibesübungen (DRL), the Reich Sports Office), played a major role in the structure and organisation of the Olympics. He promoted the idea that the use of sports would harden the German spirit and instill unity among German youth. At the same time he also believed that sports was a \"way to weed out the weak, Jewish, and other undesirables\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 1316079, 19660709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ], [ 70, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Von Tschammer trusted the details of the organisation of the games to Theodor Lewald and Carl Diem, the former president and secretary of the Deutscher Reichsausschuss für Leibesübungen, the forerunner of the Reich Sports Office. Among Diem's ideas for the Berlin Games was the introduction of the Olympic torch relay between Greece and the host nation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 507656, 74217, 12108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 98 ], [ 298, 317 ], [ 326, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1936 Summer Olympics torch relay was the first of its kind, following on from the reintroduction of the Olympic Flame at the 1928 Games. It pioneered the modern convention of moving the flame via a relay system from Greece to the Olympic venue. Leni Riefenstahl filmed the relay for the 1938 film Olympia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 25068939, 74217, 86224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 62 ], [ 108, 121 ], [ 129, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The games were the first to have live television coverage. The German Post Office, using equipment from Telefunken, broadcast over 70 hours of coverage to special viewing rooms throughout Berlin and Potsdam and a few private TV sets, transmitting from the Paul Nipkow TV Station. They used three different types of TV cameras, so blackouts would occur when changing from one type to another.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 538871, 653812, 49112, 4896911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 48 ], [ 104, 114 ], [ 199, 206 ], [ 256, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1936 Olympic village was located at Elstal in Wustermark (at ), on the western edge of Berlin. The site, which is from the centre of the city, consisted of one and two-floor dormitories, a large dining hall, Dining Hall of the Nations, a swimming facility, gymnasium, track, and other training facilities. Its layout was designed and construction overseen by appointed village commander Hauptmann Wolfgang Fürstner beginning in 1934. Less than two months before the start of the Olympic Games, Fürstner was abruptly demoted to vice-commander, and replaced by Oberstleutnant Werner von Gilsa, commander of the Berlin Guard-Regiment. The official reason for the replacement was that Fürstner had not acted \"with the necessary energy\" to prevent damage to the site as 370,000 visitors passed through it between 1 May and 15 June. However, this was just a cover story to explain the sudden demotion of the half-Jewish officer. The 1935 Nuremberg Laws, passed during the period Fürstner was overseeing the Olympic Village, had classified him as a Jew, and as such, the career officer was to be expelled from the Wehrmacht. Two days after the conclusion of the Berlin Olympics, vice-commander Fürstner had been removed from active Wehrmacht duty, and committed suicide because he realised he had no future under the Nazis.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 11666256, 294734, 21768178, 294735, 21798007, 4434425, 3191713, 21376046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 60 ], [ 392, 401 ], [ 402, 419 ], [ 564, 578 ], [ 579, 595 ], [ 614, 635 ], [ 937, 951 ], [ 1112, 1121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the completion of the Olympic Games, the village was repurposed for the Wehrmacht into the Olympic Döberitz Hospital (), and Army Infantry School (), and was used as such through the Second World War. In 1945 it was taken over by the Soviet Union and became a military camp of the union occupation forces. Late 20th-century efforts were made to restore parts of the former village, but little progress was made. More recently, the vast majority of the land of the Olympic village has been managed by the DKB Foundation, with more success; efforts are being made to restore the site into a living museum. The dormitory building used by Jesse Owens, Meissen House, has been fully restored, with the gymnasium and swimming hall partially restored. Seasonally, tours are given daily to small groups and students.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 21376046, 32927, 26779, 46827, 40674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 87 ], [ 189, 205 ], [ 240, 252 ], [ 641, 652 ], [ 654, 661 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The site remains relatively unknown even in Germany, but some tournaments are held at the site in an effort to boost knowledge of the venues.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Twenty-two venues were used for the 1936 Summer Olympics. Many were located in the Reich Sportsfeld complex.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Venues", "target_page_ids": [ 44690104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sailing was held in the Bay of Kiel, which would serve as the sailing venue for the 1972 Summer Olympics held in Munich. The Olympic Stadium would later be part of two FIFA World Cups and then host an IAAF World Championships in Athletics along with undergoing a renovation in the early 2000s to give new life to the stadium. Avus Motor Road (AVUS) was started in 1907, but was not completed until 1921 due to World War I. The track was rebuilt for the 1936 Games. AVUS continued being used after World War II though mainly in Formula 2 racing. The German Grand Prix was last held at the track in 1959. Dismantling of the track first took place in 1968 to make way for a traffic crossing for touring cars that raced there until 1998.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Venues", "target_page_ids": [ 538061, 8570363, 19058, 11370, 218926, 176958, 4764461, 32927, 550495, 349775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 35 ], [ 62, 104 ], [ 113, 119 ], [ 168, 182 ], [ 201, 238 ], [ 326, 341 ], [ 410, 421 ], [ 497, 509 ], [ 527, 536 ], [ 549, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "BSV 92 Field was first constructed in 1910 for use in football, handball, athletics, and tennis. The Reich Sports Field, which consisted of the Olympic Stadium, the Dietrich Ecekrt Open-Air Theatre, the Olympic Swimming Stadium, Mayfield, the Hockey Stadiums, the Tennis Courts, and the Haus des Deutschen Sports, was planned for the aborted 1916 Summer Olympics, but was not completed until 1934. Mayfield was the last venue completed prior to the 1936 Games in April 1936. Deutschland Hall was opened in 1935. Mommenstadion opened in 1930. Basketball was held outdoors at the request of the International Basketball Federation (FIBA). The tennis courts were used, which turned to mud during heavy rain at the final. The K-1 1000 m canoeing final was also affected by heavy rain at Grünau that included thunder and lightning. During World War II, Deutschlandhalle suffered heavy aerial bombing damage. After the second world war, the hall was reconstructed and expansion has continued . The Deutschlandhalle in Berlin, where the boxing, weightlifting, and wrestling events took place, was used as venue, but was increasingly closed for repairs, last in 2009 when it was close for repairs, It was demolished in December 2011. the Mommsenstadion was renovated in 1987 and was still in use in 2010.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Venues", "target_page_ids": [ 169517, 23676858, 19132406, 4974770, 22594791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 342, 362 ], [ 593, 628 ], [ 722, 732 ], [ 992, 1008 ], [ 1230, 1244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Olympic Stadium was used as an underground bunker in World War II as the war went against Nazi Germany's favor. The British reopened the Stadium in 1946 and parts of the stadium were rebuilt by the late 1950s. As a host venue for the 1974 FIFA World Cup, the stadium had its roof partially covered on the North and South Stands. British occupation of the stadium ended in 1994. Restoration was approved in 1998 with a contractor being found to do the work in 2000. This restoration ran from 2000 to 2004. The modernized Stadium reopened in 2004, with a capacity of 74,228 people. The seating has been changed greatly, especially the sections that were reserved for German and international political leaders. The stadium now plays host to Hertha BSC (1963–present), and is expected to remain the home of the team for years to come. For the 2006 FIFA World Cup, the venue was where the final took place between Italy and France. Three years later, the venue hosted the World Athletics Championships.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Venues", "target_page_ids": [ 92205, 21212, 157228, 157233, 3517978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 53 ], [ 94, 106 ], [ 238, 257 ], [ 844, 863 ], [ 972, 1001 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The opening ceremony was held at the Berlin Olympic Stadium on 1 August 1936. A flyover by the German airship Hindenburg flying the Olympic flag behind it was featured early in the opening ceremonies. After the arrival of Hitler and his entourage, the parade of nations proceeded, each nation with its own unique costume. As the birthplace of the Olympics, Greece entered the stadium first. The host nation, Germany, entered last. Some nations' athletes purposefully gave the Nazi salute as they passed Hitler. Others gave the Olympic salute (a similar one, given with the same arm), or a different gesture entirely, such as hats-over-hearts, as the United States, India, and China did. All nations lowered their flags as they passed the Führer, save the United States, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and the Commonwealth of the Philippines. (The United States doing this was explained later as an army regulation.) Writer Thomas Wolfe, who was there, described the opening as an \"almost religious event, the crowd screaming, swaying in unison and begging for Hitler. There was something scary about it; his cult of personality.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [ 865871, 55106, 36772726, 731192, 160735, 165654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 59 ], [ 110, 120 ], [ 476, 487 ], [ 527, 541 ], [ 810, 841 ], [ 924, 936 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After a speech by the president of the German Olympic Committee, the games were officially declared open by Adolf Hitler who quoted (in German): \"I proclaim open the Olympic Games of Berlin, celebrating the Eleventh Olympiad of the modern era.\" Hitler opened the games from his own box, on top of others. Writer David Wallechinsky has commented on the event, saying, \"This was his event, he wanted to be glorified.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [ 1815982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 312, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the Olympic flame was first introduced in the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam, this was the first instance of the torch relay. The Nazis invented the concept of the torch run from ancient Olympia to the host city. Thus as swimmer Iris Cummings later related, \"once the athletes were all in place, the torch bearer ran in through the tunnel to go around the stadium\". A young man chosen for this task ran up the steps all the way up to the top of the stadium there to light a cauldron which would start this eternal flame that would burn through the duration of the games.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [ 74217, 86224, 308634, 30448709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 26 ], [ 55, 75 ], [ 199, 206 ], [ 241, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "But in spite of all the pomp and ceremony, and the glorification of Hitler, all did not go according to plan, and there was a rather humorous aspect in the opening ceremony. U.S. distance runner Louis Zamperini, one of the athletes present, related it on camera:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [ 89285, 2525877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 194 ], [ 195, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "129 events in 25 disciplines, comprising 19 sports, were part of the Olympic program in 1936. The number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aquatics", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Road ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Track ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dressage ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Eventing ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Show jumping ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Freestyle ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Greco-Roman ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Basketball, canoeing, and handball made their debut at the Olympics. Handball did not appear again on the program until the next German summer Olympic games in Munich in 1972. Demonstration sports were Art, Baseball, Gliding, and Wushu. A team from India gave demonstrations of Kabaddi, Mallakhamb and other traditional Indian sports but were not part of India's official Olympic contingent.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [ 13730, 19058, 83112, 16593817, 1856513, 24066031, 3405602, 16926, 10399227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 34 ], [ 160, 166 ], [ 170, 174 ], [ 202, 205 ], [ 207, 215 ], [ 217, 224 ], [ 230, 235 ], [ 278, 285 ], [ 287, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Germany had a successful year in the equestrian events, winning individual and team gold in all three disciplines, as well as individual silver in dressage. In the cycling match sprint finals, the German Toni Merkens fouled Arie van Vliet of the Netherlands. Instead of being disqualified, he was fined 100 ℛℳ and kept his gold. German gymnasts Konrad Frey and Alfred Schwarzmann both won three gold medals.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [ 2378596, 19061907, 17927522, 10376730, 12887430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 54 ], [ 204, 216 ], [ 224, 238 ], [ 345, 356 ], [ 361, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American Jesse Owens won four gold medals in the sprint and long jump events. His German competitor Luz Long offered Owens advice after he almost failed to qualify in the long jump and was posthumously awarded the Pierre de Coubertin medal for sportsmanship. Mack Robinson, brother of Jackie Robinson, won the 200-meter sprint silver medal behind Owens by 0.4 seconds. Although he did not win a medal, future American war hero Louis Zamperini, lagging behind in the 5,000-meter final, made up ground by clocking a 56-second final lap. In one of the most dramatic 800-meter races in history, American John Woodruff won gold after slowing to jogging speed in the middle of the final in order to free himself from being boxed in. Glenn Edgar Morris, a farm boy from Colorado, won gold in the decathlon. British rower Jack Beresford won his fifth Olympic medal in the sport, and his third gold medal. The U.S. eight-man rowing team from the University of Washington won the gold medal, coming from behind to defeat the Germans and Italians with Hitler in attendance. 13-year-old American sensation Marjorie Gestring won the women's 3 meter diving event.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [ 46827, 18084, 1063473, 940616, 7616924, 16193, 2525877, 585165, 771512, 840727, 25736, 4062395, 31776, 11227110, 8683560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 20 ], [ 60, 69 ], [ 100, 108 ], [ 214, 239 ], [ 259, 272 ], [ 285, 300 ], [ 427, 442 ], [ 563, 572 ], [ 600, 613 ], [ 727, 745 ], [ 808, 813 ], [ 814, 828 ], [ 937, 961 ], [ 1094, 1111 ], [ 1120, 1148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jack Lovelock of New Zealand won the 1500m gold medal, coming through a strong field to win in world record time of 3:47.8.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [ 211930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the marathon, the ethnic Koreans Sohn Kee-chung and Nam Sung-yong won one gold and one bronze medal; as Korea was annexed by Japan at the time, they were running for Japan.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [ 49132, 335941, 241365, 241571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 15 ], [ 21, 35 ], [ 36, 50 ], [ 55, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "India won the gold medal in the field hockey event once again (they won the gold in all Olympics from 1928 to 1956), defeating Germany 8–1 in the final. However, Indians were officially considered Indo-Aryans by the Germans so there was no controversy regarding the victory. Rie Mastenbroek of the Netherlands won three gold medals and a silver in swimming. Estonia's Kristjan Palusalu won gold medals in both Men's heavyweight Wrestling styles, marking the last time Estonia competed as an independent nation in the Olympics until 1992.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [ 14533, 10886, 1481651, 101211, 21148, 28222445, 2140246, 735092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 32, 44 ], [ 197, 208 ], [ 275, 290 ], [ 298, 309 ], [ 358, 365 ], [ 368, 385 ], [ 428, 437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After winning the middleweight class, the Egyptian weightlifter Khadr El Touni continued to compete for another 45 minutes, finally exceeding the total of the German silver medalist by 35kg. The 20-year-old El Touni lifted a total of 387.5kg, crushing two German world champions and breaking the then-Olympic and world records, while the German lifted 352.5kg. Furthermore, El Touni had lifted 15kg more than the light-heavyweight gold medalist, a feat only El Touni has accomplished. El Touni's new world records stood for 13 years. Fascinated by El Touni's performance, Adolf Hitler rushed down to greet this human miracle. Prior to the competition, Hitler was said to have been sure that Rudolf Ismayr and Adolf Wagner would embarrass all other opponents. Hitler was so impressed by El Touni's domination in the middleweight class that he ordered a street named after him in Berlin's Olympic village. The Egyptian held the No. 1 position on the IWF list of history's 50 greatest weightlifters for 60 years, until the 1996 Games in Atlanta where Turkey's Naim Süleymanoğlu surpassed him to top the list.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [ 31912046, 3412716, 15850262, 3228206, 72311, 3138, 11125639, 551659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 50 ], [ 64, 78 ], [ 691, 704 ], [ 948, 951 ], [ 1020, 1030 ], [ 1034, 1041 ], [ 1048, 1054 ], [ 1057, 1074 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Italy's football team continued their dominance under head coach Vittorio Pozzo, winning the gold medal in these Olympics between their two consecutive World Cup victories (1934 and 1938). Much like the successes of German athletes, this triumph was claimed by supporters of Benito Mussolini's regime as a vindication of the superiority of the fascist system. Austria won the silver; a controversial win after Hitler called for a rematch of the quarterfinals match to discount Peru's 4–2 win over Austria. The Peruvian national Olympic team refused to play the match again and withdrew from the games. In the quarter-finals of the football tournament, Peru beat Austria 4–2 in extra-time. Peru rallied from a two-goal deficit in the final 15 minutes of normal time. During extra-time, Peruvian fans allegedly ran onto the field and attacked an Austrian player. In the chaos, Peru scored twice and won, 4–2. However, Austria protested and the International Olympic Committee ordered a replay without any spectators. The Peruvian government refused and their entire Olympic squad left in protest as did Colombia.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [ 362466, 1868128, 11370, 59729, 59879, 19283178, 170691, 26964606, 10568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 65, 79 ], [ 152, 161 ], [ 173, 177 ], [ 182, 186 ], [ 275, 291 ], [ 477, 481 ], [ 497, 504 ], [ 631, 639 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A remarkable story from the track and field competition was the gold medal won by the US women's 4 × 100m relay team. The German team were the heavy favourites, but dropped the baton at one hand-off. Of notable interest on the US team was Betty Robinson. She was the first woman ever awarded an Olympic gold medal for track and field, winning the women's 100m event at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. In 1931, Robinson was involved in a plane crash, and was severely injured. Her body was discovered in the wreckage and it was wrongly thought that she was dead. She was placed in the trunk of a car and taken to an undertaker, where it was discovered that she was not dead, but in a coma. She awoke from the coma seven months later, although it was another six months before she could get out of a wheelchair, and two years before she could walk normally again. Due to the length of her recovery, she had to miss participating in the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, in her home country.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [ 70503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 239, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A total of 49 nations attended the Berlin Olympics, up from 37 in 1932. Five nations made their first official Olympic appearance at these Games: Afghanistan, Bermuda, Bolivia, Costa Rica and Liechtenstein.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [ 84727, 737, 3460, 3462, 5551, 17810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 70 ], [ 146, 157 ], [ 159, 166 ], [ 168, 175 ], [ 177, 187 ], [ 192, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " , also took part in the Opening Ceremony, but its only athlete (a weightlifter) did not compete.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Games", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ten nations that won most medals at the 1936 Games.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Medal count", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hitler saw the Games as an opportunity to promote his government and ideals of racial supremacy. The official Nazi party paper, the Völkischer Beobachter, wrote in the strongest terms that Jewish and Black people should not be allowed to participate in the Games. However, when threatened with a boycott of the Games by other nations, he relented and allowed Black and Jewish people to participate, and added one token participant to the German team—a Jewish woman, Helene Mayer. In an attempt to \"clean up\" the host city, the German Ministry of the Interior authorized the chief of police to arrest all Romani and keep them in a \"special camp\", the Berlin-Marzahn concentration camp.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 856759, 3399319, 2499033, 26152, 18346385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 153 ], [ 466, 478 ], [ 527, 558 ], [ 604, 610 ], [ 650, 683 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "United States Olympic Committee president Avery Brundage became a main supporter of the Games being held in Germany, arguing that \"politics has no place in sport\", despite having initial doubts.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 287713, 412059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ], [ 42, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "French Olympians gave a Roman salute at the opening ceremony: known as the salut de Joinville per the battalion, Bataillon de Joinville, the Olympic salute was part of the Olympic traditions since the 1924 games. However, due to the different context this action was mistaken by the crowd for a support to fascism, the Olympic salute was discarded after 1946.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 340471, 731192, 731192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 36 ], [ 141, 155 ], [ 319, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Haiti attended only the opening ceremony, an interesting vexillological fact was noticed: its flag and the flag of Liechtenstein were coincidentally identical, and this was not discovered until then. The following year, a crown was added to Liechtenstein's to distinguish one flag from the other.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 13373, 143874, 459115, 78323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 14 ], [ 66, 80 ], [ 103, 107 ], [ 116, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marty Glickman and Sam Stoller were originally slated to compete in the American 4x100 relay team but were replaced by Jesse Owens and Ralph Metcalfe prior to the start of the race. There were speculations that their Jewish heritage contributed to the decision \"not to embarrass the German hosts\"; however, given that African-Americans were also heavily disliked by the Nazis, Glickman and Stoller's replacement with black American athletes does not support this theory. Others said that they were in a better physical condition, and that was the main reason behind the replacement.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 1395293, 21152412, 46827, 846945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 19, 30 ], [ 119, 130 ], [ 135, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1937, 20th Century Fox released the film Charlie Chan at the Olympics. The plot concerned members of the Berlin police force helping the Chinese detective apprehend a group of spies (of unnamed nationality) trying to steal a new aerial guidance system. Despite pertaining to the Berlin Olympics, actual Games' footage used by the filmmakers was edited to remove any Nazi symbols.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 170318, 30229919, 1141250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 25 ], [ 44, 72 ], [ 108, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Olympics, Jewish participation in German sports was further limited, and persecution of Jews started to become ever more lethal. The Olympic Games had provided a nine-month period of relative calmness.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The German Olympic committee, in accordance with Nazi directives, virtually barred Germans who were Jewish or Roma or had such an ancestry from participating in the Games (Helene Mayer, who had one Jewish parent, was the only German Jew to compete at the Berlin Games). This decision meant exclusion for many of the country's top athletes such as shotputter and discus thrower Lilli Henoch, who was a four-time world record holder and 10-time German national champion, and Gretel Bergmann who was suspended from the German team just days after she set a record of 1.60 meters in the high jump.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 26152, 3399319, 28209, 8490, 33612120, 7368882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 114 ], [ 172, 184 ], [ 347, 357 ], [ 362, 376 ], [ 377, 389 ], [ 473, 488 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Individual Jewish athletes from a number of countries chose to boycott the Berlin Olympics, including South African Sid Kiel, and Americans Milton Green and Norman Cahners. In the United States, the American Jewish Congress and the Jewish Labor Committee supported a boycott.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 46580199, 1672051, 25742876, 2743845, 3769807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 124 ], [ 140, 152 ], [ 157, 171 ], [ 199, 223 ], [ 232, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to and during the Games, there was considerable debate outside Germany over whether the competition should be allowed or discontinued. Berlin had been selected by the IOC as the host city in 1931 during the Weimar Republic, but after Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933, observers in many countries began to question the morality of going ahead with an Olympic Games hosted by the Nazi regime. A number of brief campaigns to boycott or relocate the Games emerged in the United Kingdom, France, Sweden, Czechoslovakia, the Netherlands, and the United States. Exiled German political opponents of Hitler's regime also campaigned against the Berlin Olympics through pro-Communist newspapers such as the Arbeiter-Illustrierte-Zeitung.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 33685, 3796622, 31717, 227177, 5058739, 8509308, 21148, 3434750, 5334380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 228 ], [ 240, 268 ], [ 477, 491 ], [ 493, 499 ], [ 501, 507 ], [ 509, 523 ], [ 529, 540 ], [ 550, 563 ], [ 707, 736 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The protests were ultimately unsuccessful; forty-nine teams from around the world participated in the 1936 Games, the largest number of participating nations of any Olympics to that point.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fencer Albert Wolff qualified for the French Olympic Team but boycotted the 1936 Summer Olympics, withdrawing from France's national team on principle because he was Jewish. He said: \"I cannot participate in anything sponsored by Adolf Hitler, even for France.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 27790866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Spanish government led by the newly elected left-wing Popular Front boycotted the Games and organized the People's Olympiad as a parallel event in Barcelona. Some 6,000 athletes from 49 countries registered. However, the People's Olympiad was aborted because of the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War just one day before the event was due to start.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 5195347, 273640, 899864, 4443, 18842471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ], [ 58, 71 ], [ 110, 127 ], [ 151, 160 ], [ 286, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Soviet Union had not participated in international sporting events since the 1920 Olympics. The Soviet government was not invited to the 1920 Games, with the Russian Civil War still raging, and they did not participate in the 1924 Olympics and forward on ideological grounds. Instead, through the auspices of the Red Sport International, it had participated in a left-wing workers' alternative, the Spartakiad, since 1928. The USSR had intended to attend the People's Olympiad in Barcelona until it was cancelled; the Soviets did attend the Spartakiad-sponsored 1937 Workers' Summer Olympiad in Antwerp, Belgium. The Soviet Union started competing in the Olympics in 1952, when Soviet leaders realized that they could use the event to fulfil their political and ideological agenda.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 26779, 113485, 26295, 94180, 18425178, 1082228, 39934059, 3343, 84318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 81, 94 ], [ 162, 179 ], [ 230, 243 ], [ 317, 340 ], [ 403, 413 ], [ 566, 595 ], [ 608, 615 ], [ 671, 675 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Halet Çambel and Suat Fetgeri Așani, the first Turkish and Muslim women athletes to participate in the Olympics (fencing), refused an offer by their guide to be formally introduced to Adolf Hitler, saying they would not shake hands with him due to his approach to Jews, as stated by Ms. Çambel in a Milliyet newspaper interview in 2000.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 27620724, 27620697, 16084878, 2731583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 17, 35 ], [ 47, 54 ], [ 184, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Traditionally, the United States sent one of the largest teams to the Olympics, and there was a considerable debate over whether the nation should participate in the 1936 Games.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Those involved in the debate on whether to boycott the Olympics included Ernest Lee Jahncke, Judge Jeremiah T. Mahoney, and future IOC President Avery Brundage. Some within the United States considered requesting a boycott of the Games, as to participate in the festivity might be considered a sign of support for the Nazi regime and its antisemitic policies. However, others such as Brundage (see below) argued that the Olympic Games should not reflect political views, but rather should be strictly a contest of the greatest athletes.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 25919402, 68238479, 26268140, 412059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 91 ], [ 99, 118 ], [ 131, 144 ], [ 145, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brundage, then of the United States Olympic Committee, opposed the boycott, stating that Jewish athletes were being treated fairly and that the Games should continue. Brundage asserted that politics played no role in sports, and that they should never be entwined. Brundage also believed that there was a \"Jewish-Communist conspiracy\" that existed to keep the United States from competing in the Olympic Games. Somewhat ironically, Brundage would be later accused of being a Soviet dupe for his controversial stance on the Soviet sports system that allowed them to circumvent the amateur rules. On the subject of Jewish discrimination, he stated, \"The very foundation of the modern Olympic revival will be undermined if individual countries are allowed to restrict participation by reason of class, creed, or race.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 287713, 412059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 53 ], [ 456, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During a fact-finding trip that Brundage went on to Germany in 1934 to ascertain whether German Jews were being treated fairly, Brundage found no discrimination when he interviewed Jews and his Nazi handlers translated for him, and Brundage commiserated with his hosts that he belonged to a sports club in Chicago that did not allow Jews entry, either.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike Brundage, Mahoney supported a boycott of the Games. Mahoney, the president of the Amateur Athletic Union, led newspaper editors and anti-Nazi groups to protest against American participation in the Berlin Olympics. He contested that racial discrimination was a violation of Olympic rules and that participation in the Games was tantamount to support for the Third Reich.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 427019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most African-American newspapers supported participation in the Olympics. The Philadelphia Tribune and the Chicago Defender both agreed that black victories would undermine Nazi views of Aryan supremacy and spark renewed African-American pride. American Jewish organizations, meanwhile, largely opposed the Olympics. The American Jewish Congress and the Jewish Labor Committee staged rallies and supported the boycott of German goods to show their disdain for American participation. The JLC organized the World Labor Athletic Carnival, held on 15 and 16 August at New York's Randall's Island, to protest the holding of the 1936 Olympics in Nazi Germany.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 47778629, 2743845, 3769807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 123 ], [ 321, 345 ], [ 354, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eventually, Brundage won the debate, convincing the Amateur Athletic Union to close a vote in favor of sending an American team to the Berlin Olympics. Mahoney's efforts to incite a boycott of the Olympic games in the United States failed.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and his administration did not become involved in the debate, due to a tradition of allowing the US Olympic Committee to operate independently of government influence. However, several American diplomats including William E. Dodd, the American ambassador to Berlin, and George Messersmith, head of the US legation in Vienna, deplored the US Olympic Committee's decision to participate in the games.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 10979, 518931, 7028384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 38 ], [ 253, 268 ], [ 309, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon the death of Joan Langdon on March 15, 2022, Iris Cummings became the last surviving competitor of the 1936 Summer Olympics.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Last surviving competitor", "target_page_ids": [ 21401488, 30448709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 30 ], [ 50, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Olympic Games Decoration", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33266737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Race (2016 film)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 43407351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " National Socialist League of the Reich for Physical Exercise", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19660709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Barry, James P. The Berlin Olympics. World Focus Books.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Grix, Jonathan, and Barrie Houlihan. \"Sports mega-events as part of a nation's soft power strategy: The cases of Germany (2006) and the UK (2012).\" British journal of politics and international relations 16.4 (2014): 572–596. online", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hart-Davis, Duff. Hitler's Games: The 1936 Olympics.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hilton, Christopher. Hitler's Olympics: The 1936 Berlin Olympic Games.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " William O. Johnson, Jr., All That Glitters is Not Gold.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Arnd Krüger, The Nazi Olympics of 1936, in Kevin Young and Kevin B. Wamsley (eds.), Global Olympics: Historical and Sociological Studies of the Modern Games. Oxford: Elsevier 2005; pp.43–58.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Krüger, Arnd, and William Murray (eds.), The Nazi Olympics: Sport, Politics and Appeasement in the 1930s. (Univ. of Illinois Press 2003).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lehrer, Steven. Hitler Sites: A City-by-city Guidebook (Austria, Germany, France, United States). McFarland, 2002.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Large, David Clay. Nazi games: the Olympics of 1936 (WW Norton & Company, 2007).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mandell, Richard D. The Nazi Olympics (University of Illinois Press, 1971).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Socolow, Michael J. Six Minutes in Berlin: Broadcast Spectacle and Rowing Gold at the Nazi Olympics. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2016.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 68566557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Walters, Guy, Berlin Games – How Hitler Stole the Olympic Dream.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Complete official IOC report. Part I ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Complete official IOC report. Part II", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " United States Holocaust Memorial Museum – Online Exhibition: Nazi Olympics: Berlin 1936", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " United States Holocaust Memorial Museum – Library Bibliography: 1936 Olympics", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Virtual Library: the NAZI Olympics", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Die XI. Olympischen Sommerspiele in Berlin 1936 at Lebendiges Museum Online. In German", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1936 Olympics and the Struggle for Influence on C-SPAN", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin, Germany", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nazi Games at PBS International", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1936_Summer_Olympics", "Olympic_Games_in_Germany", "Summer_Olympics_by_year", "1936_in_multi-sport_events", "1936_in_German_sport", "Articles_containing_video_clips", "International_sports_boycotts", "August_1936_sports_events", "Racism_in_sport" ]

[ "Berlin 1936", "Games of the XI Olympiad", "The Games of the XI Olympiad" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Roger Williams (21 December 1603between 27 January and 15 March 1683) was an English-born American Puritan minister, theologian, and author who founded Providence Plantations, which became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations and later the U.S. State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, now the State of Rhode Island. He was a staunch advocate for religious freedom, separation of church and state, and fair dealings with Native Americans.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24091, 367806, 489001, 25410, 25410, 46006, 168714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 106 ], [ 152, 174 ], [ 193, 242 ], [ 262, 310 ], [ 329, 341 ], [ 373, 390 ], [ 392, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Williams was expelled by the Puritan leaders from the Massachusetts Bay Colony and established Providence Plantations in 1636 as a refuge offering what he termed \"liberty of conscience.\" In 1638, he founded the First Baptist Church in America, in Providence. Williams studied the indigenous languages of New England and published the first book-length study of a native North American language in English.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 197490, 557913, 884386, 21531764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 78 ], [ 163, 184 ], [ 211, 242 ], [ 304, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roger Williams was born in or near London between 1602 and 1606, with many historians citing 1603 as the probable year of his birth. The exact details of Williams' birth are unknown as his birth records were destroyed when St. Sepulchre's Church burned during the Great Fire of London. His father was James Williams (1562–1620), a merchant tailor in Smithfield, and his mother was Alice Pemberton (1564–1635).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 683668, 7669549, 369470, 186876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 245 ], [ 264, 284 ], [ 331, 346 ], [ 350, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At an early age, Williams had a spiritual conversion, of which his father disapproved. As an adolescent, he apprenticed under Sir Edward Coke, (1552–1634) the famous jurist, and was educated at Charterhouse School under Coke's patronage. Williams later attended Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he received a Bachelor of Arts in 1627. Williams demonstrated a facility with languages, acquiring familiarity with Latin, Hebrew, Greek, Dutch, and French at an early age. Years later, he tutored John Milton in Dutch and Native American languages in exchange for refresher lessons in Hebrew.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 151475, 188959, 24927, 16215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 141 ], [ 194, 213 ], [ 262, 289 ], [ 494, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Williams took holy orders in the Church of England in connection with his studies, but he became a Puritan at Cambridge and thus ruined his chance for preferment in the Anglican church. After graduating from Cambridge, he became the chaplain to Sir William Masham. In April 1629, Williams proposed marriage to Jane Whalley, the niece of Lady Joan (Cromwell) Barrington, but she declined. Later that year, he married Mary Bernard (1609–76), the daughter of Rev. Richard Bernard, a notable Puritan preacher and author, at the Church of High Laver, in Epping Forest, a few miles east of London. Together Mary and Roger had six children, all born in America: Mary, Freeborn, Providence, Mercy, Daniel, and Joseph.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 13631, 5955, 27581650, 9119635, 2749265, 372434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 25 ], [ 33, 50 ], [ 245, 263 ], [ 461, 476 ], [ 534, 544 ], [ 549, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Williams knew that Puritan leaders planned to migrate to the New World. He did not join the first wave of settlers, but later decided that he could not remain in England under the administration of Archbishop William Laud. Williams regarded the Church of England as corrupt and false, and he had arrived at the Separatist position by 1630; on December 1, Williams and his wife boarded the Boston-bound Lyon in Bristol.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 2393552, 8051475, 41798239, 1128563, 24437894, 36741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 70 ], [ 92, 114 ], [ 209, 221 ], [ 307, 330 ], [ 389, 395 ], [ 410, 417 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 5 February 1631, the Lyon anchored in Nantasket, outside of the Puritan settlement of Boston. Upon his arrival, the church of Boston offered Williams the opportunity to serve during the vacancy of Rev. John Wilson, who had returned to England to accompany his wife to the colony. Williams declined the position on grounds that it was \"an unseparated church.\" In addition, he asserted that civil magistrates must not punish any sort of \"breach of the first table\" of the Ten Commandments such as idolatry, Sabbath-breaking, false worship, and blasphemy, and that individuals should be free to follow their own convictions in religious matters. These three principles later became central tenets of Williams' teachings and writings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "First years in America", "target_page_ids": [ 8197234, 17146495, 36468146, 306902, 2539671, 191747, 1181925, 90469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 50 ], [ 119, 135 ], [ 205, 216 ], [ 398, 408 ], [ 473, 489 ], [ 498, 506 ], [ 508, 524 ], [ 545, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a Separatist, Williams considered the Church of England irredeemably corrupt and believed that one must completely separate from it to establish a new church for the true and pure worship of God. The Salem church was also inclined to Separatism, and they invited him to become their teacher. In response, leaders in Boston vigorously protested, leading Salem to withdraw its offer. As the summer of 1631 ended, Williams moved to Plymouth Colony where he was welcomed, and informally assisted the minister. At Plymouth, he regularly preached; according to the colony's governor, William Bradford, \"his teachings were well approved.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "First years in America", "target_page_ids": [ 37587108, 116759, 218110, 218327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ], [ 203, 208 ], [ 432, 447 ], [ 581, 597 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After a time, Williams decided that the Plymouth church was not sufficiently separated from the Church of England. Furthermore, his contact with the Narragansett Indians had caused him to question the validity of colonial charters that did not include legitimate purchase of Indian land. Governor Bradford later wrote that Williams fell \"into some strange opinions which caused some controversy between the church and him.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "First years in America", "target_page_ids": [ 413435, 2578453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 169 ], [ 213, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 1632, Williams wrote a lengthy tract that openly condemned the King's charters and questioned the right of Plymouth to the land without first buying it from the Native Americans. He even charged that King James had uttered a \"solemn lie\" in claiming that he was the first Christian monarch to have discovered the land. Williams moved back to Salem by the fall of 1633 and was welcomed by Rev. Samuel Skelton as an unofficial assistant.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "First years in America", "target_page_ids": [ 269055, 30755076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 212, 222 ], [ 405, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Massachusetts Bay authorities were not pleased at Williams' return. In December 1633, they summoned him to appear before the General Court in Boston to defend his tract attacking the King and the charter. The issue was smoothed out, and the tract disappeared forever, probably burned. In August 1634, Williams became acting pastor of the Salem church, the Rev. Skelton having died. In March 1635, he was again ordered to appear before the General Court, and he was summoned yet again for the Court's July term to answer for \"erroneous\" and \"dangerous opinions.\" The Court finally ordered that he be removed from his church position.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "First years in America", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This latest controversy welled up as the town of Salem petitioned the General Court to annex some land on Marblehead Neck. The Court refused to consider the request unless the church in Salem removed Williams. The church felt that this order violated their independence, and sent a letter of protest to the other churches. However, the letter was not read publicly in those churches, and the General Court refused to seat the delegates from Salem at the next session. Support for Williams began to wane under this pressure, and he withdrew from the church and began meeting with a few of his most devoted followers in his home.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "First years in America", "target_page_ids": [ 275291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finally, in October 1635, the General Court tried Williams and convicted him of sedition and heresy. They declared that he was spreading \"diverse, new, and dangerous opinions\" and ordered that he be banished. The execution of the order was delayed because Williams was ill and winter was approaching, so he was allowed to stay temporarily, provided that he ceased publicly teaching his opinions. He did not comply with this demand, and the sheriff came in January 1636, only to discover that he had slipped away three days earlier during a blizzard. He traveled 55 miles through the deep snow, from Salem to Raynham, Massachusetts where the local Wampanoags offered him shelter at their winter camp. Sachem Massasoit hosted Williams there for the three months until spring.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "First years in America", "target_page_ids": [ 116725, 390881, 8506591, 578996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 608, 630 ], [ 647, 657 ], [ 700, 706 ], [ 707, 716 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the spring of 1636, Williams and a number of others from Salem began a new settlement on land which he had bought from Massasoit in Rumford, Rhode Island. After settling however, authorities of Plymouth Colony asserted that Williams and his followers were within their land grant and expressed concern that his presence there might anger the leaders of Massachusetts Bay Colony.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Settlement at Providence", "target_page_ids": [ 32758848, 1918823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 54 ], [ 135, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Accordingly, Williams, accompanied by Thomas Angell crossed the Seekonk River, in search of a new location suitable for settlement. Upon reaching the shore, Williams and Angell were met by indigenous Narragansett people who greeted them with the words \"What cheer, Netop\" (). The settlers then continued eastward along the Providence River, where they encountered a cove and freshwater spring. Finding the area suitable for settlement, Williams acquired the tract from sachems Canonicus and Miantonomi. Here, Williams and his followers established a new, permanent settlement. Under the belief that divine providence had brought them there, the settlers named the settlement \"Providence.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Settlement at Providence", "target_page_ids": [ 4075131, 413435, 8939070, 397274, 397279, 415601, 367806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 77 ], [ 200, 219 ], [ 323, 339 ], [ 477, 486 ], [ 491, 501 ], [ 599, 616 ], [ 676, 686 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Williams wanted his settlement to be a haven for those \"distressed of conscience,\" and it soon attracted a collection of dissenters and otherwise-minded individuals. From the beginning, a majority vote of the heads of households governed the new settlement, but only in civil things. Newcomers could also be admitted to full citizenship by a majority vote. In August 1637, a new town agreement again restricted the government to civil things. In 1640, 39 freemen (men who had full citizenship and voting rights) signed another agreement that declared their determination \"still to hold forth liberty of conscience.\" Thus, Williams founded the first place in modern history where citizenship and religion were separate, providing religious liberty and separation of church and state. This was combined with the principle of majoritarian democracy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Settlement at Providence", "target_page_ids": [ 3084768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 823, 845 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 1637, the General Court of Massachusetts disarmed, disenfranchised, and forced into exile some of the Antinomians, including the followers of Anne Hutchinson. John Clarke was among them, and he learned from Williams that Aquidneck (Rhode) Island might be purchased from the Narragansetts; Williams helped him to make the purchase, along with William Coddington and others, and they established the settlement of Portsmouth. In spring 1638, some of those settlers split away and founded the nearby settlement of Newport, also situated on Aquidneck Island.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Settlement at Providence", "target_page_ids": [ 226552, 318482, 509819, 437490, 1457536, 134319, 73352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 125 ], [ 154, 169 ], [ 171, 182 ], [ 233, 257 ], [ 354, 372 ], [ 424, 434 ], [ 523, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1638, Williams and about twelve others were baptized and formed a congregation. Today, Williams' congregation is recognized as the First Baptist Church in America.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Settlement at Providence", "target_page_ids": [ 884386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the meantime, the Pequot War had broken out. Massachusetts Bay asked for Williams' help, which he gave despite his exile, and he became the Bay colony's eyes and ears, and also dissuaded the Narragansetts from joining with the Pequots. Instead, the Narragansetts allied themselves with the colonists and helped to defeat the Pequots in 1637–38. The Narragansetts thus became the most powerful Native American tribe in southern New England.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Settlement at Providence", "target_page_ids": [ 412287, 58289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ], [ 230, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Williams formed firm friendships and developed deep trust among the Native American tribes, especially the Narragansetts. He was able to keep the peace between the Native Americans and the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations for nearly 40 years by his constant mediation and negotiation. He twice surrendered himself as a hostage to the Native Americans to guarantee the safe return of a great sachem from a summons to a court: Pessicus in 1645 and Metacom (\"King Philip\") in 1671. Williams was trusted by the Native Americans more than any other Colonist, and he proved trustworthy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Settlement at Providence", "target_page_ids": [ 489001, 8506591, 312415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 238 ], [ 408, 414 ], [ 463, 470 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, the other New England colonies began to fear and mistrust the Narragansetts and soon came to regard the Rhode Island colony as a common enemy. In the next three decades, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Plymouth exerted pressure to destroy both Rhode Island and the Narragansetts. In 1643, the neighboring colonies formed a military alliance called the United Colonies which pointedly excluded the towns around Narragansett Bay. In response, Williams traveled to England to secure a charter for the colony.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Settlement at Providence", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Williams arrived in London in the midst of the English Civil War. Puritans held power in London, and he was able to obtain a charter through the offices of Sir Henry Vane the Younger, despite strenuous opposition from Massachusetts' agents. His first published book A Key into the Language of America proved crucial to the success of his charter, albeit indirectly. Published in 1643 in London, the book combined a phrase-book with observations about life and culture as an aid to communicate with the Native Americans of New England. In its scope, the book covered everything from salutations to death and burial. Williams also sought to correct the attitudes of superiority displayed by the colonists towards Native Americans:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Settlement at Providence", "target_page_ids": [ 9709, 173532, 21141177, 21531764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 64 ], [ 156, 182 ], [ 266, 300 ], [ 522, 533 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Printed by Gregory Dexter, the book was the first book-length study of a native North American language in the English language. In England, the book was well received by readers who were curious about the indigenous people of the New World.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Settlement at Providence", "target_page_ids": [ 24717566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Williams secured his charter from Parliament for Providence Plantations in July 1644, after which he published his most famous book The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution for Cause of Conscience. The publication produced a great uproar; between 1644 and 1649, at least 60 pamphlets were published addressing the work's arguments. Parliament responded to Williams on August 9, 1644, by ordering the public hangman to burn all copies. By this time, however, Williams was already en route to New England, where he arrived with his charter in September.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Settlement at Providence", "target_page_ids": [ 23571325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It took Williams several years to unify the settlements of Narragansett Bay under a single government given the opposition of William Coddington. The four villages finally united in 1647 into the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. Freedom of conscience was again proclaimed, and the colony became a safe haven for people who were persecuted for their beliefs, including Baptists, Quakers, and Jews. Still, the divisions between the towns' powerful personalities did not bode well for the colony. Coddington disliked Williams and did not enjoy his position of subordination under the new charter government. Accordingly, Coddington sailed to England and returned to Rhode Island in 1651 with his own patent making him \"Governor for Life\" over Aquidneck and Conanicut Islands.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Settlement at Providence", "target_page_ids": [ 489001, 557913, 1146685, 1457536, 437495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 196, 245 ], [ 247, 268 ], [ 409, 413 ], [ 707, 721 ], [ 772, 788 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a result, Providence, Warwick, and Coddington's opponents on Aquidneck dispatched Roger Williams and John Clarke to England, seeking to cancel Coddington's commission. Williams sold his trading post at Cocumscussec (near Wickford, Rhode Island) to pay for his journey even though it provided his primary source of income. Williams and Clarke succeeded in rescinding Coddington's patent, with Clarke remaining in England for the following decade to protect the colonists' interests and secure a new charter. Williams returned to America in 1654 and was immediately elected the colony's president. He subsequently served in many offices in town and colonial governments.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Settlement at Providence", "target_page_ids": [ 134312, 3301604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 32 ], [ 224, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Williams did not write extensively about slavery. He consistently expressed disapproval of perpetual chattel slavery, though generally did not object to the enslavement of captured enemy combatants for a fixed duration, a practice from which he occasionally profited. During his life, Williams struggled with the morality of slavery and raised his concerns in letters to Massachusetts Bay Governor John Winthrop concerning the treatment of the Pequots during the Pequot War (1636–1638). In these letters, he requested Winthrop to prevent the enslavement of Pequot women and children as well as direct the colonial militia to spare them during the fighting. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Settlement at Providence", "target_page_ids": [ 27992, 13503900, 163154, 58289, 412287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 116 ], [ 371, 397 ], [ 398, 411 ], [ 444, 451 ], [ 463, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In another letter to Winthrop written on July 31, 1637, Williams stated that he approved of the capture and indenture of remaining Pequot women and children in order to \"lawfully\" ensure that remaining enemy combatants were \"weakned and despoild\", but pleaded that their indenture not be permanent. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Settlement at Providence", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite his reservations, Williams formed part of the colonial delegation sent to conduct negotiations at the end of the Pequot War, where the fates of the captured Pequot were decided upon between the colonists of New England and their indigenous allies: the Narragansett, Mohegan, and Niantic. Williams reported to Winthrop that he and the Narragansett sachem Miantonomoh discussed what to do with a group of captured Pequot; initially they discussed the possibility of distributing them as slaves amongst the four victorious parties, which Miantonomoh \"liked well\", though at Williams' suggestion, the non-combatants were relocated to an island in Niantic territory \"because most of them were families\". Miantonomoh later requested an enslaved female Pequot from Winthrop, to which Williams objected, stating that \"he had his share sent to him\". Instead, Williams suggested he \"buy one or two of some English man\". While some indigenous allies of the colonists aided in the export of enslaved Pequot to the West Indies, others disagreed with the practice, instead believing that they should have been given land and provisions to contribute to the wellbeing of colonial settlements, as was their customary tradition concerning slavery. Many enslaved Pequot frequently ran away, where they were taken in by surrounding indigenous settlements; Williams, as part of his constant mediation between colonists and indigenous peoples, negotiated for the return of runaway Pequots and facilitated the trade of indigenous slaves. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Settlement at Providence", "target_page_ids": [ 20047771, 413435, 31206994, 735996, 397279, 5574915, 23415844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 226 ], [ 260, 272 ], [ 274, 281 ], [ 287, 294 ], [ 362, 373 ], [ 1010, 1021 ], [ 1505, 1522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1641, the Massachusetts Bay Colony passed laws sanctioning slavery. In response, under Williams' leadership, the Providence Plantations passed a law in 1652 restricting the amount of time for which an individual could be held in slavery and tried to prevent the importation of enslaved Africans. The law established terms for slavery that mirrored that of indentured servitude; enslavement was to be limited in duration and not passed down to children. Upon the unification of Providence Plantations with Aquidneck Island, residents of the latter refused to accept this law, ensuring it became dead letter. Later in life, at the time of King Phillip's War, tensions with the Narragansetts were irreparable, and, despite Williams' efforts to maintain peace, a destructive war ensued, during which his home was burned to the ground. During the war, Williams, with a group of Providence citizens, facilitated and profited from the sale of a number of captured Narragansetts and Wamponoag.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Settlement at Providence", "target_page_ids": [ 249471, 49005, 51913, 313013, 390881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 69 ], [ 265, 297 ], [ 597, 608 ], [ 640, 658 ], [ 978, 987 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ezekiel Holliman baptized Williams in late 1638. A few years later, Dr. John Clarke established the First Baptist Church in Newport, Rhode Island, and both Roger Williams and John Clarke became the founders of the Baptist faith in America. Williams did not affiliate himself with any church, but he remained interested in the Baptists, agreeing with their rejection of infant baptism and most other matters. Both enemies and admirers sometimes called him a \"Seeker,\" associating him with a heretical movement that accepted Socinianism and Universal Reconciliation, but Williams rejected both of these ideas.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Relations with the Baptists", "target_page_ids": [ 67355017, 509819, 35129138, 24184, 174593, 1290363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 68, 83 ], [ 100, 145 ], [ 369, 383 ], [ 523, 534 ], [ 539, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "King Philip's War (1675–1676) pitted the colonists against indigenous peoples—including the Narragansett with which Williams had previously maintained good relations. Williams, although in his 70s, was elected captain of Providence's militia. On March 29, 1676, Narragansett warriors led by Canonchet burned Providence; among the structures destroyed were Williams' home.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "King Philip's War and death", "target_page_ids": [ 313013, 14668834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 291, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Williams died sometime between January 16 and March 16, 1683 and was buried on his own property. Fifty years later, his house collapsed into the cellar and the location of his grave was forgotten.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "King Philip's War and death", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the National Park Service, in 1860, Providence residents determined to raise a monument in his honor \"dug up the spot where they believed the remains to be, they found only nails, teeth, and bone fragments. They also found an apple tree root,\" which they thought followed the shape of a human body; the root followed the shape of a spine, split at the hips, bent at the knees, and turned up at the feet. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "King Philip's War and death", "target_page_ids": [ 161535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Rhode Island Historical Society has cared for this tree root since 1860 as representative of Rhode Island's founder. Since 2007, the root has been displayed at the John Brown House.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "King Philip's War and death", "target_page_ids": [ 8814549, 15891476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 35 ], [ 168, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The few remains discovered alongside the root were reinterred in Prospect Terrace Park in 1939 at the base of a large stone monument.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "King Philip's War and death", "target_page_ids": [ 9835665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Williams was a staunch advocate of separation of church and state. He was convinced that civil government had no basis for meddling in matters of religious belief. He declared that the state should concern itself only with matters of civil order, not with religious belief, and he rejected any attempt by civil authorities to enforce the \"first Table\" of the Ten Commandments, those commandments that deal with an individual's relationship with and belief in God. Williams believed that the state must confine itself to the commandments dealing with the relations between people: murder, theft, adultery, lying, and honoring parents. Williams wrote of a \"hedge or wall of Separation between the Garden of the Church and the Wilderness of the world.\" Thomas Jefferson later used the metaphor in his 1801 Letter to Danbury Baptists.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Separation of church and state", "target_page_ids": [ 168714, 1939759, 2539671, 58809, 29922, 1800607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 65 ], [ 89, 105 ], [ 359, 375 ], [ 595, 603 ], [ 750, 766 ], [ 803, 829 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Williams considered the state's sponsor of religious beliefs or practice \"forced worship\", declaring \"Forced worship stinks in God's nostrils.\" He also believed Constantine the Great to be a worse enemy to Christianity than Nero because the subsequent state involvement in religious matters corrupted Christianity and led to the death of the Christian church. He described the attempt of the state to pass laws concerning an individual's religious beliefs as \"rape of the soul\" and spoke of the \"oceans of blood\" shed as a result of trying to command conformity. The moral principles in the Scriptures ought to inform the civil magistrates, he believed, but he observed that well-ordered, just, and civil governments existed even where Christianity was not present. Thus, all governments had to maintain civil order and justice, but Williams decided that none had a warrant to promote or repress any religious views. Most of his contemporaries criticized his ideas as a prescription for chaos and anarchy, and the vast majority believed that each nation must have its national church and could require that dissenters conform.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Separation of church and state", "target_page_ids": [ 7236, 21632, 27857492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 182 ], [ 224, 228 ], [ 591, 601 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Williams's career as an author began with A Key into the Language of America (London, 1643), written during his first voyage to England. His next publication was Mr. Cotton's Letter lately Printed, Examined and Answered (London, 1644; reprinted in Publications of the Narragansett Club, vol. ii, along with John Cotton's letter which it answered). His most famous work is The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution for Cause of Conscience (published in 1644), considered by some to be one of the best defenses of liberty of conscience.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Writings", "target_page_ids": [ 21141177, 533230, 23571325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 76 ], [ 307, 318 ], [ 372, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An anonymous pamphlet was published in London in 1644 entitled Queries of Highest Consideration Proposed to Mr. Tho. Goodwin, Mr. Phillip Nye, Mr. Wil. Bridges, Mr. Jer. Burroughs, Mr. Sidr. Simpson, all Independents, etc. which is now ascribed to Williams. These \"Independents\" were members of the Westminster Assembly; their Apologetical Narration sought a way between extreme Separatism and Presbyterianism, and their prescription was to accept the state church model of Massachusetts Bay.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Writings", "target_page_ids": [ 1274703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 299, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Williams published The Bloody Tenent yet more Bloudy: by Mr. Cotton's Endeavor to wash it white in the Blood of the Lamb; of whose precious Blood, spilt in the Bloud of his Servants; and of the Blood of Millions spilt in former and later Wars for Conscience sake, that most Bloody Tenent of Persecution for cause of Conscience, upon, a second Tryal is found more apparently and more notoriously guilty, etc. (London, 1652) during his second visit to England. This work reiterated and amplified the arguments in Bloudy Tenent, but it has the advantage of being written in answer to Cotton's A Reply to Mr. Williams his Examination (Publications of the Narragansett Club, vol. ii.).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Writings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other works by Williams include:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Writings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Hireling Ministry None of Christ's (London, 1652)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Writings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Experiments of Spiritual Life and Health, and their Preservatives (London, 1652; reprinted Providence, 1863)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Writings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " George Fox Digged out of his Burrowes (Boston, 1676) (discusses Quakerism with its different belief in the \"inner light,\" which Williams considered heretical)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Writings", "target_page_ids": [ 52809803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A volume of his letters is included in the Narragansett Club edition of Williams' Works (7 vols., Providence, 1866–74), and a volume was edited by J. R. Bartlett (1882).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Writings", "target_page_ids": [ 2306777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Correspondence of Roger Williams, 2 vols., Rhode Island Historical Society, 1988, edited by Glenn W. LaFantasie.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Writings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Brown University's John Carter Brown Library has long housed a 234-page volume referred to as the \"Roger Williams Mystery Book\". The margins of this book are filled with notations in handwritten code, believed to be the work of Roger Williams. In 2012, Brown University undergraduate Lucas Mason-Brown cracked the code and uncovered conclusive historical evidence attributing its authorship to Williams. Translations are revealing transcriptions of a geographical text, a medical text, and 20 pages of original notes addressing the issue of infant baptism. Mason-Brown has since discovered more writings by Williams employing a separate code in the margins of a rare edition of the Eliot Indian Bible.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Writings", "target_page_ids": [ 4157, 10124637, 24184, 40285077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 19, 44 ], [ 541, 555 ], [ 682, 700 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Williams' defense of the Native Americans, his accusations that Puritans had reproduced the \"evils\" of the Anglican Church, and his insistence that England pay the Native Americans for their land all put him at the center of many political debates during his life. He was considered an important historical figure of religious liberty at the time of American independence, and he was a key influence on the thinking of the Founding Fathers.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 31874, 20982080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 350, 371 ], [ 423, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tributes to Williams include:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The 1936 commemorative Rhode Island Tercentenary half dollar", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 51375500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roger Williams National Memorial, a park in downtown Providence established in 1965", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 4391560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roger Williams Park, Providence, Rhode Island, and the Roger Williams Park Zoo", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 4391588, 19356538, 5871508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 22, 46 ], [ 56, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roger Williams University in Bristol, Rhode Island", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1250776, 248962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 30, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roger Williams Dining Hall at the University of Rhode Island", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 15206116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roger Williams Inn, the main dining hall at the American Baptists' Green Lake Conference Center, founded in 1943 in Green Lake, Wisconsin", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 260466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rhode Island's representative statue in the National Statuary Hall Collection in the United States Capitol, added in 1872", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 57401828, 700241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ], [ 45, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A depiction of him on the International Monument to the Reformation in Geneva, along with other prominent reformers", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 6410323, 12521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 68 ], [ 72, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roger Williams Middle School, a public school in Providence", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 4317139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pembroke College in Brown University was named for Williams' alma mater", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 5233344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Slate Rock, a prominent boulder on the west shore of the Seekonk River (near the current Gano Park) was once one of Providence's most important historic landmarks. The rock was believed to be the spot where the Narragansetts greeted Williams with the famous phrase \"What cheer, netop?\" The historic rock was accidentally blown up by city workers in 1877. They were attempting to expose a buried portion of the stone, but used too much dynamite and the stone was \"blasted to pieces.\" A memorial in Roger Williams Square commemorates the location.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 489001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rhode Island", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of early settlers of Rhode Island", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32758848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Cotton (puritan)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 533230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Winthrop", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 163154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joseph Kinnicutt Angell", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 70833885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roger Williams National Memorial", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4391560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roger Williams Park", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4391588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Barry, John, Roger Williams and the Creation of the American Soul (New York: Viking Press, 2012).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bejan, Teresa, Mere Civility: Disagreement and the Limits of Toleration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017). Addresses Roger Williams' ideas in dialogue with Hobbes and Locke, and suggests lessons from Williams for how to disagree well in the modern public sphere.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 54086684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brockunier, Samuel. The Irrepressible Democrat, Roger Williams, (1940), popular biography", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Burrage, Henry S. \"Why Was Roger Williams Banished?\" American Journal of Theology 5 (January 1901): 1–17.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 6828690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Byrd, James P., Jr. The Challenges of Roger Williams: Religious Liberty, Violent Persecution, and the Bible (2002). 286 pp.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Davis. Jack L. \"Roger Williams among the Narragansett Indians\", New England Quarterly, Vol. 43, No. 4 (Dec. 1970), pp.593–604 in JSTOR", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 17422249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Field, Jonathan Beecher. \"A Key for the Gate: Roger Williams, Parliament, and Providence\", New England Quarterly 2007 80(3): 353–382", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Goodman, Nan. \"Banishment, Jurisdiction, and Identity in Seventeenth-Century New England: The Case of Roger Williams\", Early American Studies, An Interdisciplinary Journal Spring 2009, Vol. 7 Issue 1, pp 109–39.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gaustad, Edwin, S. Roger Williams (Oxford University Press, 2005). 140 pp. short scholarly biography stressing religion", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 19546545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gaustad, Edwin, S. Roger Williams: Prophet of Liberty (Oxford University Press, 2001).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gaustad, Edwin, S., Liberty of Conscience: Roger Williams in America. (Judson Press, Valley Forge, 1999).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gray, Nicole. “Aurality in Print: Revisiting Roger Williams's A Key into the Language of America.” PMLA/Publications of the Modern Language Association of America 131 (2016): 64 - 83.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hall, Timothy L. Separating Church and State: Roger Williams and Religious Liberty (1998). 206 pp.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Johnson, Alan E. The First American Founder: Roger Williams and Freedom of Conscience (Pittsburgh, PA: Philosophia Publications, 2015). In-depth discussion of Roger Williams's life and work and his influence on the US Founders and later American history.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Miller, Perry, Roger Williams, A Contribution to the American Tradition, (1953). much debated study; Miller argues that Williams thought was primarily religious, not political as so many of the historians of the 1930s and 1940s had argued.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Morgan, Edmund S. Roger Williams: the church and the state (1967) 170 pages; short biography by leading scholar", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Neff, Jimmy D. \"Roger Williams: Pious Puritan and Strict Separationist\", Journal of Church and State 1996 38(3): 529–546 in EBSCO", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 34693540, 30864833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 101 ], [ 125, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Phillips, Stephen. \"Roger Williams and the Two Tables of the Law\", Journal of Church and State 1996 38(3): 547–568 in EBSCO", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 30864833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Skaggs, Donald. Roger Williams' Dream for America (1993). 240 pp.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stanley, Alison. \"'To Speak With Other Tongues': Linguistics, Colonialism and Identity in 17th Century New England\", Comparative American Studies March 2009, Vol. 7 Issue 1, p1, 17p", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Winslow, Ola Elizabeth, Master Roger Williams, A Biography. (1957) standard biography", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wood, Timothy L. \"Kingdom Expectations: The Native American in the Puritan Missiology of John Winthrop and Roger Williams\", Fides et Historia 2000 32(1): 39–49", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 40273474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Carlino, Anthony O. \"Roger Williams and his Place in History: The Background and the Last Quarter Century\", Rhode Island History 2000 58(2): 34–71, historiography", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Irwin, Raymond D. \"A Man for all Eras: The Changing Historical Image of Roger Williams, 1630–1993\", Fides Et Historia 1994 26(3): 6–23, historiography", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Morgan, Edmund S. \" Miller's Williams\", New England Quarterly, Vol. 38, No. 4 (Dec. 1965), pp.513–523 in JSTOR", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1237123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Moore, Leroy, Jr. \"Roger Williams and the Historians\", Church History 1963 32(4): 432–451 in JSTOR", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Peace, Nancy E. \"Roger Williams: A Historiographical Essay\", Rhode Island History 1976 35(4): 103–113,", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Williams, Roger. The Complete Writings of Roger Williams, 7 vols. 1963", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Williams, Roger. The Correspondence of Roger Williams, 2 vols. ed. by Glenn W. LaFantasie, 1988", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Settle, Mary Lee, I, Roger Williams: A Novel, W. W. Norton & Company, Reprint edition (2002).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " George, James W., The Prophet and the Witch: A Novel of Puritan New England, Amazon Digital Services (2017).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Side of the US-American Roger Williams circle of friends", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Documentary about Roger Williams life: Roger Williams – Freedom's Forgotten Hero (Part 1 to 7)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lecture by Martha Nussbaum: Equal Liberty of Conscience: Roger Williams and the Roots of a Constitutional Tradition", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Roger Williams Hireling Ministry None of Christ's", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chronological list of Rhode Island leaders ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A Key into the Language of America – digitization of a first edition copy held at the John Carter Brown Library", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 10124637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 111 ] ] } ]

[ "1603_births", "1683_deaths", "17th-century_American_writers", "17th-century_Baptist_ministers_from_the_United_States", "17th-century_Calvinist_and_Reformed_theologians", "17th-century_English_writers", "17th-century_English_male_writers", "17th-century_New_England_Puritan_ministers", "Alumni_of_Pembroke_College,_Cambridge", "American_abolitionists", "American_Calvinist_and_Reformed_theologians", "American_evangelicals", "American_sermon_writers", "Christian_abolitionists", "Christians_from_Rhode_Island", "Clergy_from_London", "Colonial_governors_of_Rhode_Island", "Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans_inductees", "Immigrants_to_Plymouth_Colony", "Linguists_of_Algic_languages", "Massachusetts_colonial-era_clergy", "People_educated_at_Charterhouse_School", "People_of_colonial_Rhode_Island", "Politicians_from_Providence,_Rhode_Island", "Anglican_saints" ]

[ "Rev. Roger Williams, Founder of Rhode Island", "Rodzher Uilʹi︠a︡ms", "Rogerius Williams" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Brady Bunch is an American sitcom created by Sherwood Schwartz that aired from September 26, 1969, to March 8, 1974, on ABC. The series revolves around a large blended family with six children. The show aired for five seasons and, after its cancellation in 1974, went into syndication in September 1975. Though it was never a ratings hit or a critical success during its original run, the program has since become a popular syndicated staple, especially among children and teenage viewers.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20913980, 861011, 62027, 223979, 327785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 37 ], [ 49, 66 ], [ 124, 127 ], [ 164, 178 ], [ 277, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Brady Bunchs success in syndication led to several television reunion films and spin-off series: The Brady Bunch Hour (1976–77), The Brady Girls Get Married / The Brady Brides (1981), The Brady Girls Get Married / The Brady Brides (1981), A Very Brady Christmas (1988), and The Bradys (1990). In 1995, the series was adapted into a satirical comedy theatrical film titled The Brady Bunch Movie, followed by A Very Brady Sequel in 1996. A second sequel, The Brady Bunch in the White House, aired on Fox in November 2002 as a made-for-television film.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7285190, 4739734, 3371225, 3371142, 2158983, 3142340, 5507511, 46252, 164342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 92 ], [ 101, 121 ], [ 243, 265 ], [ 278, 288 ], [ 376, 397 ], [ 411, 430 ], [ 457, 491 ], [ 502, 505 ], [ 528, 552 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1997, \"Getting Davy Jones\" (season three, episode 12) was ranked number 37 on TV Guides 100 Greatest Episodes of All-Time. The show's enduring popularity has resulted in its widespread recognition as an American cultural icon.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9141, 35216677, 5974844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 28 ], [ 81, 124 ], [ 215, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mike Brady (Robert Reed), a widowed architect with three sons—Greg (Barry Williams), Peter (Christopher Knight), and Bobby (Mike Lookinland)—marries Carol Martin (Florence Henderson), who herself has three daughters: Marcia (Maureen McCormick), Jan (Eve Plumb), and Cindy (Susan Olsen). Carol and her daughters take the Brady surname. Included in the blended family are Mike's live-in housekeeper, Alice Nelson (Ann B. Davis), and the boys' dog, Tiger. (In the pilot episode, the girls also have a pet: a cat named Fluffy. Fluffy never appears in any other episodes.) The setting is a large two-story house designed by Mike, located in a Los Angeles suburb. The show never addressed what happened to Carol's first husband ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Premise", "target_page_ids": [ 3641290, 1170, 3648904, 3649107, 3649127, 3648917, 3632577, 3631151, 3632593, 1389393, 3641299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 23 ], [ 36, 45 ], [ 68, 82 ], [ 92, 110 ], [ 124, 139 ], [ 163, 181 ], [ 225, 242 ], [ 250, 259 ], [ 273, 284 ], [ 385, 396 ], [ 412, 424 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the first season, awkward adjustments, accommodations, gender rivalries, and resentments inherent in blended families dominate the storylines. In an early episode, Carol tells Bobby that the only \"steps\" in their household lead to the second floor (in other words, that the family contains no \"stepchildren\", only \"children\"). Thereafter, episodes focus on typical teen and preteen concerns like sibling rivalry, puppy love, self-image, character building, and responsibility. Noticeably absent is any political commentary, especially regarding the Vietnam War, which was being waged at its largest extent during the height of the series.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Premise", "target_page_ids": [ 202286, 3730967, 481335, 23332738, 5386990, 32611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 377, 384 ], [ 399, 414 ], [ 416, 426 ], [ 428, 438 ], [ 505, 525 ], [ 552, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The regular cast appears in an opening title sequence in which video \"headshots\" are arranged in a three-by-three grid, with cast members appearing to look around at one another. The sequence used the then-new \"multi-dynamic image technique\" created by Canadian filmmaker Christopher Chapman; as a result of the popular attention it garnered in this sequence, it was referred to in the press as \"the Brady Bunch effect\". In a 2010 issue of TV Guide, the show's opening title sequence ranked number eight on a list of TV's top-10 credits sequences, as selected by readers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 35432038, 48399343, 188834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 240 ], [ 272, 291 ], [ 440, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robert Reed as Mike Brady", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 3641290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Florence Henderson as Carol Brady", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 3648917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ann B. Davis as Alice Nelson", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 3641299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Maureen McCormick as Marcia Brady", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 3632577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eve Plumb as Jan Brady", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 3631151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Susan Olsen as Cindy Brady", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 3632593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Barry Williams as Greg Brady", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 3648904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Christopher Knight as Peter Brady", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 3649107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mike Lookinland as Bobby Brady", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 3649127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sam Franklin (Allan Melvin) is Alice's boyfriend. He is the owner of a local butcher shop. Sam appears in only eight episodes, but they span all five seasons. He is also frequently mentioned in dialogue, and Alice occasionally goes on dates with him off-screen. By the time of the 1981 made-for-TV movie The Brady Girls Get Married, Alice and Sam are married.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 1917062, 495814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ], [ 78, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tiger the dog – The original dog that played Tiger died early in the first season. A replacement dog proved problematic, so the producers decided the dog would appear only when essential to the plot. Tiger appeared in about half the episodes in the first season and about half a dozen episodes in the second season. Tiger seemingly vanished without an explanation and was not shown again after \"The Impractical Joker\" (last episode shown with Tiger) and \"What Goes Up\" (last episode made with Tiger); however, his kennel remained in the back yard for the entire run of the series.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 6065473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mr. Phillips (Jack Collins) is Mike's boss at the architectural firm. He appears in only three episodes, but is often mentioned in other episodes when work-related issues occur.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 9572026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cousin Oliver (Robbie Rist) – In the middle of season five, producers added a new character named Oliver, Carol Brady's young nephew, who is sent to live with the Bradys while his parents are living in South America. The character was added in an attempt to fill the age gap left by the maturing Brady children—the youngest (Susan Olsen) was 12 years old during the show's final season. Lloyd Schwartz, son of creator and executive producer Sherwood Schwartz, later admitted that the character threw off the balance of the show and said that fans regarded the character as an interloper. Oliver appears in the final six episodes of season five, which proved to be the final season, as ABC cancelled the series in 1974. The addition of the character has been cited as the moment the series \"jumped the shark\". The term \"Cousin Oliver\" has been used to describe the addition of a young character as an attempt to save a series from cancellation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 1917633, 179512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 27 ], [ 791, 807 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Herbert Anderson as a doctor who comes to treat the boys' measles in \"Is There a Doctor in the House?\" (season one)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 6515894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Melissa Sue Anderson played Millicent, a girl who gives Bobby his first kiss (\"Never Too Young\", season five)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 36909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Desi Arnaz Jr. meets Marcia, who wrote about him in her diary in \"The Possible Dream\" (season one)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 592647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jim Backus appears three times in the series, twice in two of the three Grand Canyon episodes, \"Ghost Town U.S.A.\" and \"Grand Canyon or Bust\", playing Zaccariah T. Brown, who mistakenly thinks the Bradys are jumping his gold claim and locks them in a ghost-town jail; and in \"The Hustler\" (season five) playing Mike's second boss, Mr. Harry Matthews", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 242782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ken Berry played Ken Kelly, the Brady's new neighbor who is the adoptive father of three diverse boys (black, white, and Asian) in the season five episode \"Kelly's Kids\". Sherwood Schwartz was attempting to sell a spin-off series called Kelly's Kids featuring Berry, but the show idea failed to interest ABC", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 1883095, 7285190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 215, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Imogene Coca plays the Brady girls' great-aunt Jenny, whom Jan fears she will grow up to resemble after seeing a childhood photo of her in \"Jan's Aunt Jenny\" (season three)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 603453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Don Drysdale tries to inject reality into Greg's dreams of being a professional baseball player in \"The Dropout\" (season two)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 364847, 3850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 81, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Don Ho meets Cindy and Bobby and serenades Cindy in Honolulu in \"Hawaii Bound\" (part one of a three-part season-four episode), filmed on location in Hawaii", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 47720197, 13887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 53, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Davy Jones (of The Monkees) performs at a music studio and then takes Marcia to her school dance in \"Getting Davy Jones\" (season three). Decades later, Jones satirized his cameo in The Brady Bunch Movie", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 9141, 31417, 2158983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 16, 27 ], [ 182, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Deacon Jones encourages Peter's singing in \"The Drummer Boy\" (season two)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 774364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bart La Rue plays a football coach in \"The Drummer Boy\" (season two) and \"Click\" (season three)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 14828838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " E. G. Marshall is J.P. Randolph, Marcia's school principal, in \"The Slumber Caper\" (season two)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 923348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brigadier General James McDivitt (NASA astronaut) signs autographs for Peter and Bobby after appearing on a talk show in \"Out of This World\" (season five)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 622247, 18426568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joe Namath visits Bobby after Cindy contacts him saying Bobby has a terminal illness in \"Mail Order Hero\" (season five)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 285712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Denise Nickerson as Pamela Phillips, niece of Mike Brady's boss, Ed Phillips, whom Peter dates at Mike's request in \"Two Petes in a Pod\" (season five).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 2272570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wes Parker meets Mike and Greg in Greg's math classroom, thus curing Greg of the crush he had on his teacher Miss Linda O'Hara (played by Gigi Perreau), Parker's fiancée in \"The Undergraduate\" (season one)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 1568600, 14653582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 139, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vincent Price appears twice in the series in two of the three Hawaii episodes, \"Pass the Tabu\", and \"The Tiki Caves\" from season four, playing the villainous Professor Hubert Whitehead, who holds the Brady boys hostage", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 151949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marion Ross appears as a doctor who comes to treat the girls' measles in \"Is There a Doctor in the House?\" (season one)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 842172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Natalie Schafer is Mike's fussy client, Penelope Fletcher, who is charmed by Cindy's impromptu 'Shirley Temple' routine in \"The Snooperstar\" (season five)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 492494, 804602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 97, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marcia Wallace plays a salesclerk in \"Would the Real Jan Brady Please Stand Up\" (season two) and Mrs. Robbins in \"Getting Davy Jones\" (season three)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 113163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rita Wilson began her career with a guest appearance in \"Greg's Triangle\" (season four) where she plays one of the candidates running against Marcia for head cheerleader", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 1088740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paul Winchell appears as Skip Farnum, the TV commercial director in \"And Now a Word From Our Sponsor\" (season three)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cast and characters", "target_page_ids": [ 261904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1966, following the success of his TV series Gilligan's Island, Sherwood Schwartz conceived the idea for The Brady Bunch after reading in the Los Angeles Times that \"30% of marriages [in the United States] have a child or children from a previous marriage.\" He set to work on a pilot script for a series tentatively titled Mine and Yours. Schwartz then developed the script to include three children for each parent. While Mike Brady is depicted as being a widower, Schwartz originally wanted the character of Carol Brady to have been a divorcée, but the network objected to this. A compromise was reached whereby Carol's marital status (whether she was divorced or widowed) was never directly revealed.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 87639, 273319, 396572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 65 ], [ 145, 162 ], [ 281, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schwartz shopped the series to the \"big three\" television networks of the era. ABC, CBS, and NBC all liked the script, but each network wanted changes before they would commit to filming, so Schwartz shelved the project. Although similarities exist between the series and two 1968 theatrical release films, United Artists' Yours, Mine and Ours (starring Henry Fonda and Lucille Ball) and CBS's With Six You Get Eggroll (starring Brian Keith and Doris Day), the original script for The Brady Bunch predated the scripts for both of these films. Nonetheless, the outstanding success of Yours, Mine and Ours (the 11th-highest-grossing film of 1968) was a factor in ABC's decision to order episodes for the series.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 62027, 37653, 21780, 1543888, 46228, 24191364, 11260926, 2150351, 643639, 8300, 171685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 82 ], [ 84, 87 ], [ 93, 96 ], [ 323, 343 ], [ 354, 365 ], [ 370, 382 ], [ 388, 391 ], [ 394, 418 ], [ 429, 440 ], [ 445, 454 ], [ 605, 643 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After receiving a commitment for 13 weeks of television shows from ABC in 1968, Schwartz hired film and television director John Rich to direct the pilot, then called \"The Brady Brood,\" cast the six children from 264 interviews during that summer, and hired the actors to play the mother, father, and housekeeper roles. As the sets were built on Paramount Television stage 5, adjacent to the stage where H.R. Pufnstuf was filmed by Sid and Marty Krofft, who later produced The Brady Bunch Hour, the production crew prepared the backyard of a home in Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles, as the exterior location for the chaotic backyard wedding scene. Filming of the pilot began on Friday, October 4, 1968, and lasted eight days.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 3944874, 62830737, 192202, 173736, 434509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 133 ], [ 346, 366 ], [ 404, 417 ], [ 432, 452 ], [ 550, 575 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The theme song, written by Schwartz and Frank De Vol, and originally arranged, sung, and performed by Paul Parrish, Lois Fletcher, and John Beland under the name the Peppermint Trolley Company, quickly communicated to audiences that the Bradys were a blended family. As described above, the Brady family is shown in a three-by-three grid, tic-tac-toe board-style graphic with Carol in the top center, Alice in the middle block, and Mike in the bottom center. To the right are three blocks with the boys from the oldest on top to the youngest. To the left are three blocks with the girls from the oldest to the youngest. In season two, the Brady kids took over singing the theme song. In season three, the boys sing the first verse, girls sing the second verse, and all sing together for the third and last verse. In season four, a new version is recorded with the same structure as the season three version, but in season five, the season three version returns. Utilizing Christopher Chapman's \"multi-dynamic image technique,\" a version of which had famously appeared in the 1968 film The Thomas Crown Affair, the sequence was created and filmed by Howard A. Anderson Jr., a visual effects pioneer who worked on the title sequences for many popular television series. The use of this innovation here became so familiar through the sitcom's popularity that it was referred to in the press as the \"Brady Bunch effect\". ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 3243160, 21495867, 48399343, 35432038, 2367145, 48411444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 52 ], [ 166, 192 ], [ 972, 993 ], [ 995, 1024 ], [ 1085, 1108 ], [ 1149, 1171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The end credits feature an instrumental version of the theme song's third verse. In season one, it was recorded by the Peppermint Trolley Company. From season two on, the theme was recorded in-house by Paramount musicians.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The house, built in 1959 and used in exterior shots, originally bore little relation to the interior layout (until 2018, when the interior of the house was rebuilt to match the soundstage sets) of the Bradys' on-screen home, is located in Studio City, within the city limits of Los Angeles. According to a 1994 article in the Los Angeles Times, the San Fernando Valley house was built in 1959 and selected as the Brady residence because series creator Schwartz felt it looked like a home where an architect would live. A false window was attached to the front's A-frame section to give the illusion that it had two full stories (the 2018/2019 renovation installed a real window where the false one was in the TV show footage). Contemporary establishing shots of the house were filmed with the owner's permission for the 1990 TV series The Bradys. The owner refused to allow Paramount to restore the property to its 1969 look for The Brady Bunch Movie in 1995, so a facade resembling the original home was built around an existing house.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 434497, 324331, 9413305, 3371142, 2158983, 332666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 239, 250 ], [ 350, 369 ], [ 563, 570 ], [ 836, 846 ], [ 930, 951 ], [ 966, 972 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The house was put up for sale, for the first time since 1973, in the summer of 2018 with an asking price of $1.885 million. Cable network HGTV outbid seven others for it, including NSYNC's Lance Bass. HGTV has expanded the home for its original series A Very Brady Renovation, with the goal of recreating each of the interior rooms used in the TV series (which had only existed as a Paramount Studios set) while maintaining the original exterior look from the street, and to make it fully habitable (unlike the sets made on Paramount soundstage #5). The six actors who played the TV children, and who also actively participated in the 2018/2019 renovation, posed for a photo in front on November 1, 2018. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 30876873, 23535509, 161230, 58942724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 142 ], [ 181, 186 ], [ 189, 199 ], [ 252, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the series, the address of the house was given as 4222 Clinton Way (as read aloud by Carol from an arriving package in the first-season episode entitled \"Lost Locket, Found Locket\", and \"Clinton Way\" is clearly legible on Marcia's driver permit in the fifth-season episode \"The Driver's Seat\"). Although no city was ever specified, it was presumed from references to the Los Angeles Dodgers, the Los Angeles Rams, and a Hollywood movie studio, among many others, that the Bradys lived in Southern California, most likely Los Angeles or one of its suburbs.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 18213, 23408886, 53849, 62520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 374, 393 ], [ 399, 415 ], [ 423, 432 ], [ 491, 510 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The interior sets of the Brady house were used at least three times for other Paramount TV shows while The Brady Bunch was still in production: twice for Mannix and once for Impossible. In the case of Mission: Impossible, the Brady furniture was also used. A re-creation of the Brady house was constructed for the X-Files episode \"Sunshine Days\", which also revolved around The Brady Bunch.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 790831, 30304, 8996336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 160 ], [ 315, 322 ], [ 332, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since its first syndicated airing in September 1975, an episode of the show has been broadcast somewhere in the United States and abroad every day of the year. Episodes were also shown on ABC Daytime from July 9, 1973, to April 18, 1975, and from June 30 to August 29, 1975, at 11:30a.m. EST/10:30 CST.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Broadcast and syndication", "target_page_ids": [ 8490042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The show aired on TBS starting in the 1980s until 1997, Nick at Nite in 1995 (for a special event), and again from 1998 to 2003 (and briefly during the spring of 2012), The N from March to April 2004, on TV Land on and off from 2002 to 2015, Nick Jr. (as part of the NickMom block from 2012 to 2013), and Hallmark Channel from January to June 2013 and again starting September 5, 2016, until September 30, 2016.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Broadcast and syndication", "target_page_ids": [ 31234796, 798088, 66317475, 783778, 47540867, 33706706, 921055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 21 ], [ 56, 68 ], [ 169, 174 ], [ 204, 211 ], [ 242, 250 ], [ 267, 274 ], [ 305, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syndicated episodes are edited to shorten the original 25–26 minute running times, allowing for longer commercial breaks.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Broadcast and syndication", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From its national launch in 2010 until May 2022, the Weigel Broadcasting-owned classic-TV network MeTV has aired a weekly two-hour block of the show every Sunday morning/early afternoon promoted as the \"Brady Bunch Brunch\". The show still airs occasionally as part of the network's \"Sunday Block Party\", which features a marathon of different shows every week. Decades — a MeTV sister network — occasionally airs the show as well.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Broadcast and syndication", "target_page_ids": [ 4242650, 7024077, 44177021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 72 ], [ 98, 102 ], [ 362, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Brady Bunch is also available through video-on-demand services Hulu and Paramount+, although neither streamer offers the complete collection of episodes in its entirety.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Broadcast and syndication", "target_page_ids": [ 147143, 1350109, 47795975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 57 ], [ 67, 71 ], [ 76, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Italy, the show aired on Canale 5 under the name La famiglia Brady (The Brady Family) in March 1987.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Broadcast and syndication", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "ITV broadcast the show in a number of United Kingdom regions, including Thames, Granada, Tyne Tees, Grampian and Ulster from 1975 to 1982; it later appeared on Sky One. The series was never a big hit in Britain.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Broadcast and syndication", "target_page_ids": [ 58089, 226719, 180153, 268092, 370939, 519430, 392026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ], [ 72, 78 ], [ 80, 87 ], [ 89, 98 ], [ 100, 108 ], [ 113, 119 ], [ 160, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paramount Home Entertainment released all five seasons on DVD in Region 1 from 2005 to 2006, before CBS Home Entertainment took over DVD rights to the Paramount Television library (though CBS DVD releases are still distributed by Paramount). Paramount/CBS has released the series on DVD in other countries as well.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Home media", "target_page_ids": [ 4086922, 1692431, 3336242, 62830737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ], [ 65, 73 ], [ 100, 122 ], [ 151, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On April 3, 2007, CBS Home Entertainment and Paramount Home Entertainment released the complete series box set, which includes the TV movies A Very Brady Christmas and \"The Brady 500\" (an episode of The Bradys), as well as two episodes of The Brady Kids animated series. The box art for this set features green shag carpeting and 1970s-style wood paneling.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Home media", "target_page_ids": [ 246038, 2733506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 110 ], [ 311, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "8 years later on April 7, 2015, CBS Home Entertainment and Paramount Home Entertainment re-released the complete series box set, a repackaged version at a lower price, but it does not include the bonus disc that was part of the original complete series release.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Home media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The TV movie A Very Brady Christmas was released as a stand-alone DVD in Region 1 on October 10, 2017.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Home media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In conjunction with the 50th anniversary of the original series, CBS/Paramount released The Brady-est Brady Bunch TV & Movie Collection in Region 1 on June 4, 2019. The collection contains every episode of The Brady Bunch, The Brady Kids, The Brady Brides, and The Bradys, as well as the movies A Very Brady Christmas, The Brady Bunch Movie, A Very Brady Sequel, The Brady Bunch in the White House, and Growing Up Brady.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Home media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first two seasons are also available on Region 2 DVD for the UK, with audio in English and subtitle choices in Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, or Finnish.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Home media", "target_page_ids": [ 21704, 26689, 8227, 19984080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 124 ], [ 126, 133 ], [ 135, 141 ], [ 146, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The series has also been released on VHS.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Home media", "target_page_ids": [ 52124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ratings data prior to 1972 is scarce for shows that did not place in the Top 30. Beginning in 2017, The TV Ratings Guide began publishing vintage television ratings as they became readily available from old newspaper publishings. Season 4 ratings came from Variety year-end rankings dated May 30, 1973. The Brady Bunch earned steady ratings during its primetime run (but never placed in the top 30 during the five years it aired) and was cancelled in 1974 after five seasons and 117 episodes; it was cancelled shortly after the series crossed the minimum threshold for syndication. At that point in the storyline, Greg graduated from high school and was about to enroll in college.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 22101487, 664226, 327785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 258, 265 ], [ 548, 565 ], [ 570, 581 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Brady Bunch was not an award-winning show at the time of its original broadcast in the 1970s. The series and its cast and crew were not nominated for an award until 1989, when Barry Williams was honored with the Former Child Star Lifetime Achievement Award at the 10th Youth in Film Awards.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 3648904, 34972372, 31747683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 194 ], [ 216, 260 ], [ 268, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All other awards and nominations for the series have come from the TV Land Awards:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 4471774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the series' original run, the six Brady kids recorded several albums on Paramount's record label, all credited to \"The Brady Bunch\". Note that Florence Henderson and Robert Reed did not participate in these recordings, and are not pictured on the album sleeves. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While session musicians provided backing, the actors from the series provided their own singing voices (which was not always the case for early 1970s television crossover acts). In addition, Chris Knight & Maureen McCormick issued a duet LP in 1973, and five of the six Brady kids also released solo singles between 1970 and 1974; only Susan Olsen did not. None of the singles from The Brady Bunch, or any single or album from the assorted spin-off acts, ever became hits on any national music charts. The group's 1972 album Meet The Brady Bunch was their only charting release, hitting #108 on Billboard's album charts.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [ 882485, 1290194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 22 ], [ 494, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also includes solo singles as indicated.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Several spin-offs and sequels and reality series, to the original series have been made, featuring all or most of the original cast. These include another sitcom, an animated series, a variety show, television movies, a dramatic series, a stage play, theatrical movies, and a reality series:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [ 7285190, 196510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 16 ], [ 22, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A final-season Brady Bunch episode, \"Kelly's Kids\", was intended as a pilot for a prospective spin-off series of the same name. Ken Berry starred as Ken Kelly, a friend and neighbor of the Bradys, who with his wife Kathy (Brooke Bundy) adopted three orphaned boys of different racial backgrounds. One of the adopted sons was played by Todd Lookinland, the younger brother of Mike Lookinland. While Kelly's Kids was not subsequently picked up as a full series, producer Sherwood Schwartz reworked the basic premise for the short-lived 1980s sitcom Together We Stand starring Elliott Gould and Dee Wallace.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [ 1883095, 2201642, 261392, 624312, 1256151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 137 ], [ 222, 234 ], [ 547, 564 ], [ 574, 587 ], [ 592, 603 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A 22-episode animated Saturday morning cartoon series, produced by Filmation and airing on ABC from September 1972 to August 1974, is about the Brady kids having various adventures. The family's adults were never seen or mentioned, and the \"home\" scenes were in a very large, well-appointed tree house. Several animals were regular characters, including two non-English-speaking pandas (Ping and Pong), a talking bird (Merlin) which could do magic, and an ordinary pet dog (Mop Top). The first 17 episodes featured the voices of all six of the original child actors from the show, but Barry Williams, Maureen McCormick, and Christopher Knight were replaced for the last five episodes due to a contract dispute.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [ 177831, 102806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 46 ], [ 67, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On November 28, 1976, a one-hour television special entitled The Brady Bunch Variety Hour aired on ABC. Eve Plumb was the only regular cast member from the original show who declined to be in the series and the role of Jan was recast with Geri Reischl. Produced by Sid and Marty Krofft, the sibling team behind H.R. Pufnstuf, Donny and Marie, and other variety shows and children's series of the era, the show was intended to air every fifth week in the same slot as The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries, but ended up being scheduled sporadically throughout the season, leading to inconsistent ratings and its inevitable cancellation.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [ 791921, 3631151, 3641275, 173736, 192202, 21624189, 5909570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 51 ], [ 104, 113 ], [ 239, 251 ], [ 265, 285 ], [ 311, 324 ], [ 326, 341 ], [ 467, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2009, Brady Bunch cast member Susan Olsen, with Lisa Sutton, published a book, Love to Love You Bradys, which dissects and celebrates the Variety Hour as a cult classic.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [ 25168037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A TV reunion movie called The Brady Girls Get Married was produced in 1981. Although scheduled to be shown in its original full-length movie format, NBC at the last minute divided it into half-hour segments and showed one part a week for three weeks, and the fourth week debuted a spin-off sitcom titled The Brady Brides. The reunion movie featured the entire original cast; this proved to be the only time the entire cast worked together on a single project following the cancellation of the original series (the complete surviving cast also appeared in these official projects together: Brady Bunch Home Movies from 1995, Still Brady After All These Years from 2004, as well as various reunion programs in 2019 for the 50th anniversary). The movie's opening credits featured the season-one \"Grid\" and theme song, with the addition of The Brady Girls Get Married title. The movie shows what the characters had been doing since the original series ended: Mike is still an architect, Carol is a real-estate agent, Greg is a doctor, Marcia is a fashion designer, Peter is in the Air Force, Jan is also an architect, Bobby and Cindy are in college, and Alice has married Sam. Eventually, they all reunite for Marcia and Jan's double wedding.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Brady Brides features Maureen McCormick and Eve Plumb reprising their respective roles as Marcia and Jan Brady. The series begins with Marcia and Jan and their new husbands buying a house and living together. The clashes between Jan's uptight and conservative husband, Philip Covington III (a college professor in science who is several years older than Jan, played by Ron Kuhlman) and Marcia's slovenly and more bohemian husband, Wally Logan (a fun-loving salesman for a large toy company, played by Jerry Houser), were the pivot on which many of the stories were based, not unlike The Odd Couple. Florence Henderson and Ann B. Davis also appeared regularly. Ten episodes were aired before the sitcom was cancelled. This was the only Brady show in sitcom form to be filmed in front of a live studio audience. Bob Eubanks guest-starred as himself in an episode where the two couples appear on The Newlywed Game.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [ 3632577, 3631151, 373672, 5198570, 6307761, 3648917, 3641299, 979429, 407686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 43 ], [ 48, 57 ], [ 417, 425 ], [ 505, 517 ], [ 587, 601 ], [ 603, 621 ], [ 626, 638 ], [ 814, 825 ], [ 897, 914 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout the late 1980s and 1990s, The Brady Girls Get Married was rerun on various networks in its original full-length movie format.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2019, the series was released on DVD for the first time as a part of The Brady-est Brady Bunch TV & Movie Collection.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A second TV reunion movie, A Very Brady Christmas, aired in December 1988 on CBS and features most of the regular cast (except Susan Olsen, who was on her honeymoon at the time of filming; the role of Cindy was played by Jennifer Runyon), as well as three grandchildren, Peter's girlfriend, Valerie, and the spouses of Greg, Marcia, and Jan (Nora, Wally, and Phillip, respectively). The Nielsen ratings for A Very Brady Christmas were the highest of any television movie that season for CBS.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [ 3632593, 3499948, 236591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 138 ], [ 221, 236 ], [ 387, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the success of A Very Brady Christmas, CBS asked Brady Bunch creator Sherwood Schwartz and son Lloyd to create a new series for the network. According to Lloyd Schwartz, he and his father initially balked at the idea because they felt a new series would harm the Brady franchise. They finally relented because CBS was \"desperate for programming\". A new series featuring the Brady clan was created entitled The Bradys. All original Brady Bunch cast members returned for the series, except for Maureen McCormick (Marcia), who was replaced with Leah Ayres.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [ 3632577, 2804536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 499, 516 ], [ 549, 559 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As with A Very Brady Christmas, The Bradys also balanced elements of comedy and drama and featured storylines of a more serious nature than the original series and subsequent spin-offs. Lloyd Schwartz later said he compared The Bradys to another dramedy of the time, thirtysomething. The two-hour series premiere episode aired on February 9, 1990, at 9 pm on CBS and initially drew respectable ratings. Subsequent episodes were moved to 8 pm, where ratings quickly declined. Due to the decline, CBS cancelled the series after six episodes.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [ 763673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 267, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Day by Day episode titled \"A Very Brady Episode\" (February 5, 1989), on NBC, reunited six of the original Brady Bunch cast members: Robert Reed, Florence Henderson, Ann B. Davis, Christopher Knight, Mike Lookinland and Maureen McCormick.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [ 973174, 3641290, 3648917, 3641299, 3649107, 3649127, 3632577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 136, 147 ], [ 149, 167 ], [ 169, 181 ], [ 183, 201 ], [ 203, 218 ], [ 223, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A one-hour TV special retrospective of The Brady Bunch hosted by Florence Henderson who introduces a montage of various episodes of the original series, and also examines the show's phenomenal after-life, illustrated by clips from spin-offs and other incarnations of the series. Also, cast members Christopher Knight, Susan Olsen, Mike Lookinland, Barry Williams, Ann B. Davis, and creator Sherwood Schwartz reflect on the impact of the show on their lives. Directed by Malcolm Leo, the special was originally broadcast on ABC on May 19, 1993.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [ 1671672, 3648917, 3649107, 3632593, 3649127, 3648904, 3641299, 861011, 36915742, 62027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ], [ 65, 83 ], [ 298, 316 ], [ 318, 329 ], [ 331, 346 ], [ 348, 362 ], [ 364, 376 ], [ 390, 407 ], [ 470, 481 ], [ 523, 526 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 2018, it was announced that Christopher Knight, Mike Lookinland, Maureen McCormick, Susan Olsen, Eve Plumb, and Barry Williams were reuniting for the 2019 HGTV series A Very Brady Renovation, which follows a full renovation (interior mostly) of the real house, used for the sitcom's exterior shots, into the fictional Brady house.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [ 3649107, 3649127, 3632577, 3632593, 3631151, 3648904, 30876873, 58942724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 58 ], [ 60, 75 ], [ 77, 94 ], [ 96, 107 ], [ 109, 118 ], [ 124, 138 ], [ 167, 171 ], [ 179, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In conjunction with the Renovation series, in the autumn of 2019, The Food Network aired two episodes of their program Chopped with the siblings as guest judges. Season 43, episode 3 - \"Brady Bunch Bash\" features Williams, Plumb, and Lookinland judging meals made from Hawaiian ingredients. Season 43, episode 4 - \"A Very Brady Chopped\" features McCormick, Knight, and Olsen judging meals from \"groovy\" ingredients of the '70s.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [ 616842, 21190805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 82 ], [ 119, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2020, Ogunquit Playhouse did a live stream broadcast of A Very Brady Musical, a brand new musical adventure for the stage created by Lloyd J. Schwartz (son of Brady Bunch creator Sherwood Schwartz), Hope Juber (book/lyrics), and Laurence Juber (music/lyrics) and directed by Richard Israel. It was co-produced by Ogunquit Playhouse, Purple Mountain Productions, and Broadway and Beyond Theatricals. More in the vein of the Brady films, this PG-13 story follows the Brady kids’ misadventures when they come to the mistaken conclusion that Mike and Carol are headed for divorce. After consulting Alice, the kids raise money to pay for marriage counseling, learning valuable lessons along the way, as their respective well-intentioned ideas land them in outrageous trouble. Barry Williams and Christopher Knight were on hand for a post-show question and answer session on all things Brady.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [ 36550240, 7678849, 861011, 3632145, 3648904, 3649107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 35 ], [ 144, 161 ], [ 190, 207 ], [ 240, 254 ], [ 782, 796 ], [ 801, 819 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On June 30, 2021, streaming service Paramount+ celebrated Pride Month with the premiere of a crossover special combining The Brady Bunch and popular reality television series RuPaul's Drag Race. In the crossover event, original Brady cast members and former Drag Race competitors come together to recreate a Brady Bunch episode. Christopher Knight and Mike Lookinland reprise their roles of Peter and Bobby Brady, respectively, while the original Greg Brady, Barry Williams, switches parts to play family patriarch Mike; Greg Brady is portrayed by Drag Race Season 6 and Allstars 3 competitor BenDeLaCreme. Season 6 winner Bianca Del Rio fills the role of mother Carol Brady, and daughters Marcia, Jan, and Cindy are portrayed by Allstars 5 winner Shea Couleé, season 2 and Allstars 6 competitor Kylie Sonique Love, and season 13 runner-up Kandy Muse, respectively. Season 11 Miss Congeniality Nina West appears as housekeeper Alice Nelson.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [ 47795975, 20718432, 3649107, 3649127, 3648904, 41299879, 55541143, 42258008, 40066094, 60651451, 56560979, 25137239, 64783122, 58946127, 62506224, 66060848, 56609437, 59395549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 46 ], [ 175, 193 ], [ 329, 347 ], [ 352, 367 ], [ 459, 473 ], [ 548, 566 ], [ 571, 581 ], [ 593, 605 ], [ 623, 637 ], [ 730, 740 ], [ 748, 759 ], [ 761, 769 ], [ 774, 784 ], [ 796, 814 ], [ 820, 829 ], [ 840, 850 ], [ 866, 875 ], [ 894, 903 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The special, which recreates the season two episode \"Will the Real Jan Brady Please Stand Up?\", also contains cameos by Drag Race judges RuPaul and Michelle Visage, who appear as employees of a wig shop that Jan patronizes. The original Jan and Cindy Brady, Eve Plumb and Susan Olsen, also appear as children who are guests at the birthday party.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [ 89678, 2182403, 3631151, 3632593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 143 ], [ 148, 163 ], [ 258, 267 ], [ 272, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On January 31, 2022, Christopher Knight and Barry Williams published their new podcast The Real Brady Bros. The weekly podcast recaps episodes of The Brady Bunch.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Spin-offs, sequels, and reunions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Twenty years following the conclusion of the original series, a film adaptation, The Brady Bunch Movie, went into production and was released in 1995 from Paramount Pictures. The film is set in the present day (1990s) and the Bradys, still living their lives as if it were the 1970s, are unfamiliar with their surroundings. It stars Gary Cole and Shelley Long as Mike and Carol Brady, with Christopher Daniel Barnes (Greg), Christine Taylor (Marcia), Paul Sutera (Peter), Jennifer Elise Cox (Jan), Jesse Lee (Bobby), Olivia Hack (Cindy), Henriette Mantel (Alice), and cameo appearances from Ann B. Davis as a long-haul truck driver, Barry Williams as a record label executive, Christopher Knight as a Westdale High gym teacher, Rupaul as a Guidance Councelor, and Florence Henderson as Carol's mother. Mike Lookinland, Susan Olsen and Maureen McCormick appear in deleted scenes.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Film adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 2158983, 22918, 739691, 579069, 470170, 105307, 10599878, 3680117, 5467642, 12449294, 3641299, 3648904, 3649107, 89678, 3648917, 3649127, 3632593, 3632577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 102 ], [ 155, 173 ], [ 333, 342 ], [ 347, 359 ], [ 390, 415 ], [ 424, 440 ], [ 472, 490 ], [ 498, 507 ], [ 517, 528 ], [ 538, 554 ], [ 591, 603 ], [ 633, 647 ], [ 677, 695 ], [ 728, 734 ], [ 764, 782 ], [ 802, 817 ], [ 819, 830 ], [ 835, 852 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A sequel, A Very Brady Sequel, was released in 1996. The cast of the first film returned for the sequel. Another sequel, The Brady Bunch in the White House, was made-for-television and aired on Fox in 2002. Gary Cole and Shelley Long returned for the third film, while the Brady kids and Alice were recast.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Film adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 3142340, 5507511, 46252, 739691, 579069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ], [ 121, 155 ], [ 194, 197 ], [ 207, 216 ], [ 221, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The third episode of the Disney+ miniseries WandaVision, \"Now in Color\", pays homage to 1970s sitcoms, including The Brady Bunch, and uses a similar intro for the virtual WandaVision in-show program.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Film adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 57014419, 59082207, 66360996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 32 ], [ 44, 55 ], [ 58, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Best of The Brady Bunch", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tam Spiva, a Brady Bunch script writer", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19609020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Christmas with The Brady Bunch, an album released by Paramount Records in 1970", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22327366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Brady Bunch Cast: Where are they now?\" - ABC News, 2010 (includes some editorial errors)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " - The Real Brady Bros Podcast", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "The_Brady_Bunch", "1969_American_television_series_debuts", "1974_American_television_series_endings", "1960s_American_sitcoms", "1970s_American_sitcoms", "American_Broadcasting_Company_original_programming", "English-language_television_shows", "Single-camera_television_sitcoms", "Television_shows_adapted_into_films", "Television_series_about_children", "Television_series_about_fictional_musicians", "Television_series_about_families", "Television_series_created_by_Sherwood_Schwartz", "Television_series_by_CBS_Studios", "Television_shows_set_in_Los_Angeles", "Television_series_about_siblings" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Élie Ducommun (19 February 1833, Geneva – 7 December 1906, Bern) was a Swiss peace activist. He was a Nobel laureate, awarded the 1902 Nobel Peace Prize, which he shared with Charles Albert Gobat.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12521, 49749, 15706527, 26230922, 313592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 39 ], [ 59, 63 ], [ 77, 91 ], [ 135, 152 ], [ 175, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born in Geneva, he worked as a tutor, language teacher, journalist and a translator for the Swiss federal Chancellery (1869–1873).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1867 he helped to found the Ligue de la paix et de la liberté (League of Peace and Freedom), though he continued working at other positions, including secretary for the Jura-Simplon Steel Company from 1873 to 1891. That year, he was appointed director of the newly formed Bureau international de la paix (International Peace Office), the first non-governmental international peace organization, based in Bern. He refused to accept a salary for the position, stating that he wished to serve in this capacity solely for reasons of idealism.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6279632, 3342296, 49749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 93 ], [ 275, 306 ], [ 407, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His keen organizational skills ensured the group's success. He was awarded in the Nobel Peace Prize in 1902, and served as director of the organization until his death in 1906.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " List of peace activists", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38646474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " including the Nobel Lecture, May 16, 1904 The Futility of War Demonstrated by History", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1833_births", "1906_deaths", "People_from_Geneva", "Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates", "Swiss_Nobel_laureates", "19th-century_Swiss_journalists", "Swiss_Protestants", "20th-century_Swiss_journalists", "Swiss_Christian_pacifists" ]

[ "Elie Ducommun" ]

[ { "plaintext": "LCF may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Canadian Football League (Ligue canadienne de football)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 56802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lawyers' Christian Fellowship", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 18061505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " London College of Fashion", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisations", "target_page_ids": [ 533483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Low-cycle fatigue, plastic deformation and low cycle", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 49327485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " LCF notation, for cubic Hamiltonian graphs", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 24186720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Logic of Computable Functions, a deductive system for computable functions, 1969 formalism by Dana Scott", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 23997265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Logic for Computable Functions, an interactive automated theorem prover, 1973 formalism by Robin Milner", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 161900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Landing Craft, Flak, a World war 2 Landing craft (BPC)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 539716, 539716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 36, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Low cab forward, a body style of truck", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Transportation and military", "target_page_ids": [ 6269181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Transportation and military", "target_page_ids": [ 6343363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Launch control facility (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Transportation and military", "target_page_ids": [ 6333996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " De Zeven Provinciën-class frigate (Luchtverdedigings- en commandofregat, air defense and command frigate)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Transportation and military", "target_page_ids": [ 3677211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " La Cañada Flintridge, California, a city in the US", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 107642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " LCF, a signature in the movie The Ninth Gate", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 417891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 45 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Edmund of Abingdon (also known as Edmund Rich, St Edmund of Canterbury, Edmund of Pontigny, French: St Edme; c. 11741240) was an English-born prelate who served as Archbishop of Canterbury. He became a respected lecturer in mathematics, dialectics and theology at the Universities of Paris and Oxford, promoting the study of Aristotle. Having already an unsought reputation as an ascetic, he was ordained a priest, took a doctorate in divinity and soon became known not only for his lectures on theology but as a popular preacher, spending long years travelling within England, and engaging in 1227 preaching the sixth crusade. Obliged to accept an appointment as Archbishop of Canterbury by Pope Gregory IX, he combined a gentle personal temperament with a strong public stature and severity towards King Henry III in defence of Magna Carta and in general of good civil and Church government and justice. He also worked for strict observance in monastic life and negotiated peace with Llywelyn the Great. His policies earned him hostility and jealousy from the king, and opposition from several monasteries and from the clergy of Canterbury Cathedral. He died in France at the beginning of a journey to Rome in 1240. He was canonised in 1246.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2345, 18831, 52813, 84692, 31797, 308, 59716, 2345, 24218, 46591, 20958, 48090, 6097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 189 ], [ 225, 236 ], [ 238, 248 ], [ 285, 290 ], [ 295, 301 ], [ 326, 335 ], [ 614, 627 ], [ 665, 689 ], [ 693, 708 ], [ 807, 816 ], [ 831, 842 ], [ 987, 1005 ], [ 1226, 1235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edmund was born circa 1174, possibly on 20 November (the feast of St Edmund the Martyr), in Abingdon in Berkshire (now Oxfordshire), 7 miles south of Oxford, England. Edmund had two sisters and at least one brother.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 153259, 155482, 53518, 22308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 86 ], [ 92, 100 ], [ 119, 130 ], [ 150, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Rich\" was an epithet sometimes given to his wealthy merchant father, Reynold. It was never applied to Edmund or his siblings in their lifetimes. His father retired, with his wife's consent, to the monastery at Eynsham Abbey, leaving in her hands the education of their family. Her name was Mabel; she was a devout woman who lived an ascetic life and encouraged her children to do the same. Both her daughters took the veil.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 11155201, 11064, 83484, 62984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 224 ], [ 308, 314 ], [ 334, 341 ], [ 410, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edmund may have been educated at the monastic school in Abingdon. He developed a taste for religious learning, saw visions while still at school, and at the age of twelve took a vow of perpetual chastity in the Virgin's church at Oxford. His early studies were in England, but he completed his higher learning in France at the University of Paris. About 1195, in company with his brother Richard, he was sent to the schools of Paris. He studied at the universities of Oxford and Paris and became a teacher about 1200, or a little earlier. For six years he lectured on mathematics and dialectics, apparently dividing his time between Oxford and Paris, and helped introduce the study of Aristotle.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 2166684, 2690012, 7366, 5258071, 84692, 31797, 18831, 52813, 308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 52 ], [ 56, 64 ], [ 195, 203 ], [ 211, 226 ], [ 327, 346 ], [ 452, 474 ], [ 568, 579 ], [ 584, 594 ], [ 685, 694 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edmund became one of Oxford's first lecturers with a Master of Arts, but was not Oxford's first Doctor of Divinity. Long hours at night spent in prayer had the result that he often \"nodded off\" during his lectures. There is a long-established tradition that he utilised his lecture-fees to build the Lady Chapel of St Peter's in the East at Oxford. The site where he lived and taught was formed into a mediaeval academic hall in his name and later incorporated as the college of St Edmund Hall.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 128377, 66044862, 128377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 315, 337 ], [ 412, 425 ], [ 479, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His mother's influence then led to his taking up the study of theology.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 30503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though for some time Edmund resisted the change, he finally entered upon his new career between 1205 and 1210. He spent a year in retirement with the Augustinian canons of Merton Priory, received ordination, took a doctorate in divinity and soon became known as a lecturer on theology and as an extemporaneous preacher. In this capacity he gained some reputation for eloquence. He spent the fees which he received in charity, and refused to spend upon himself the revenues which he derived from several benefices. He often retired for solitude to Reading Abbey, and it is possible that he would have become a monk if that profession had afforded more scope for his gifts as a preacher and expositor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 2326374, 1749622, 1038380, 64116, 419369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 161 ], [ 172, 185 ], [ 503, 511 ], [ 547, 560 ], [ 609, 613 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some time between 1219 and 1222 he was appointed vicar of the parish of Calne in Wiltshire, and treasurer of Salisbury Cathedral. He held this position for eleven years, during which time he also engaged in preaching. In 1227 he preached the sixth crusade through a large part of England. He formed a friendship with Ela, countess of Salisbury, and her husband, William Longespée, and was noted for his works of charity and the austerity of his life.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 893027, 72313, 59716, 22897996, 296084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 77 ], [ 109, 128 ], [ 242, 255 ], [ 317, 343 ], [ 362, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1233 came the news of Edmund's appointment, by Pope Gregory IX, to the Archbishopric of Canterbury. The chapter had already made three selections which the pope had declined to confirm. Edmund's name had been proposed as a compromise by Gregory, perhaps on account of his work for the crusade. He was consecrated on 2 April 1234.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 24218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before his consecration Edmund became known for supporting ecclesiastical independence from Rome, maintenance of the Magna Carta and the exclusion of foreigners from civil and ecclesiastical office. Reluctant to accept appointment as archbishop, Edmund was persuaded when it was pointed out that if he refused, the Pope might very well appoint a foreign ecclesiastic. He chose as his chancellor Richard of Wich, known to later ages as St Richard of Chichester.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 20958, 998713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 128 ], [ 395, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the name of his fellow bishops Edmund admonished Henry III of England at Westminster, on 2 February 1234, to heed the example of his father, John of England. A week after his consecration he again appeared before the king with the barons and bishops, this time threatening Henry with excommunication if he refused to dismiss his councillors, many of them foreign, and particularly Peter des Roches, Bishop of Winchester. Henry yielded, and the favourites were dismissed, Hubert de Burgh (whom they had imprisoned) was released and reconciled to the king and soon the archbishop was sent to Wales to negotiate peace with Llywelyn the Great. Edmund's success, however, turned the king against him.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 46591, 37432, 16550, 684844, 6945592, 87943, 69894, 48090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 72 ], [ 76, 87 ], [ 144, 159 ], [ 384, 400 ], [ 402, 422 ], [ 474, 489 ], [ 593, 598 ], [ 623, 641 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edmund was valued by the local people for his teaching, preaching, study, and his prayer; but his uncompromising stand in favour of good discipline in both civil and ecclesial government, of strict observance in monastic life, and of justice in high quarters brought him into conflict with Henry III, with several monasteries, and with the priests of Canterbury cathedral. He claimed and exercised metropolitan rights of visitation, this was often challenged and he had to resort to litigation to maintain his authority, not the least with his own monastic chapter at Canterbury.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1236, with the object of emancipating himself from Edmund's control, the king asked the pope to send him a legate. On the arrival of Cardinal Odo in 1237 the archbishop found himself thwarted and insulted at every point. The politically significant marriage between Simon de Montfort and Henry's sister Eleanor, which Edmund had pronounced invalid, was ratified at Rome upon appeal. The king and legate upheld the monks of Canterbury in their opposition to Edmund's authority. Edmund protested to the king, and excommunicated in general terms all who had infringed the liberties of Canterbury. These measures had no impact, and the pope could not be moved to reverse the legate's decisions. Edmund complained that the discipline of the national church was ruined by this conflict of powers, and began to consider retirement.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 730694, 11814488, 48925, 686109, 10338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 116 ], [ 136, 148 ], [ 269, 286 ], [ 306, 313 ], [ 514, 528 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Notwithstanding the gentleness of his disposition, Edmund firmly defended the rights of Church and State against the exactions and usurpations of Henry III. In December 1237 Edmund set out for Rome to plead his cause in person. From this futile mission he returned to England in August 1238 where his efforts to foster reform were frustrated. Edmund submitted to the papal demands and, early in 1240 paid to the pope's agents one fifth of his revenue, which had been levied for the pope's war against Emperor Frederick II. Other English prelates followed his example.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 68974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 501, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The papacy then ordered that 300 English benefices should be assigned to Romans. In 1240 Edmund set out for Rome. At the Cistercian Pontigny Abbey in France he became sick, began travelling back to England, but died only 50 miles further north, on 16 November 1240, at the house of Augustinian Canons at Soisy-Bouy and was taken back to Pontigny.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 50409, 4705244, 2326374, 11737656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 131 ], [ 132, 146 ], [ 282, 300 ], [ 304, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Less than a year after Edmund's death, miracles were alleged to be wrought at his grave. Despite Henry's opposition, he was canonised only six years after his death, in December 1246. His feast day is 16 November. A few years later, the first chapel dedicated to him, St Edmund's Chapel, was consecrated in Dover by his friend Richard of Chichester, making it the only chapel dedicated to one English saint by another; this small building still stands.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 6097, 7488181, 40419, 998713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 134 ], [ 269, 287 ], [ 308, 313 ], [ 328, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At Salisbury, a collegiate church founded in 1269 by Bishop de la Wyle was dedicated to Edmund; rebuilt in 1407, the church is now Salisbury Arts Centre. An altar in the cathedral is also dedicated to him.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1067958, 7103443, 42118583, 72313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 33 ], [ 53, 70 ], [ 131, 152 ], [ 166, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today he is remembered in the name of St Edmund Hall, Oxford and St Edmund's College, Cambridge. His name is given also to St Edmund's College, Ware; St Edmund's School, Canterbury; St Edmund's School, Hindhead; St Edmund's Catholic School, Portsmouth; St Edmund's Roman Catholic Primary School, Abingdon, Oxfordshire and St Edmund Preparatory High School, Brooklyn, NY.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 128377, 480151, 3248897, 2928158, 3218020, 36659999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 60 ], [ 65, 95 ], [ 123, 148 ], [ 150, 180 ], [ 182, 210 ], [ 212, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edmund Rich of Abingdon is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 16 November.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 4476440, 5955, 7164201, 21726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 37 ], [ 45, 62 ], [ 70, 83 ], [ 87, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edmund's body was never translated to Canterbury, because the Benedictine community there resented what they regarded as Edmund's attacks on their independence. After his death he was taken back to Pontigny Abbey, where his main relics are now found in a baroque reliquary tomb dating to the 17th century.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 4705244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An arm is enshrined in the Chapel of Our Lady of the Assumption at St. Edmund's Retreat on Enders Island off the coast of Mystic, Connecticut. The retreat is operated by the Society of the Fathers and Brothers of St. Edmund.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 19358845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1853, the fibula of Edmund's left leg was presented to St Edmund's College, Ware, by Cardinal Wiseman. Many local cures of serious illnesses were attributed to the intercession of St Edmund; one of the earliest of these was of a student who nearly died after a fall in 1871. His complete healing led to the accomplishment of a vow to extend the beautiful Pugin chapel with a side chapel to honour the saint.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 503352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Islamic silk chasuble, with the main fabric probably made in Al-Andalus, that Edmund had with him at his death remains in a local church, with a stole and maniple.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 493609, 355643, 493654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 25 ], [ 65, 75 ], [ 159, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edmund's life was one of self-sacrifice and devotion to others. From boyhood he practised asceticism; such as fasting on Saturdays on bread and water, and wearing a hair shirt. After snatching a few hours' sleep, most of the night he spent in prayer and meditation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 83484, 895982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 100 ], [ 165, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Besides his \"Constitutions,\" issued in 1236 (printed in W. Lynwood's Constitutiones Angliae, Oxford, 1679), Edmund wrote a work in the genre of the Speculum literature entitled Speculum ecclesiae (London, 1521; Eng. transl., 1527; reprinted in M. de la Bigne's Bibliotheca veterum patrum, v., Paris, 1609), which was translated into Anglo-Norman around the second half of the thirteenth century as Mirour de Seinte Eglyse ('a mirror of the holy Church'), a treatise about the Christian faith aimed at religious practitioners. (The French text was then revised in a version labelled by its editor as a 'lay version', which is attested principally in the manuscript London, British Library, MS Arundel 288).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 5960345, 11811516, 6458883, 11292933, 5211, 353930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 66 ], [ 148, 167 ], [ 244, 258 ], [ 333, 345 ], [ 476, 491 ], [ 602, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edmund's life inspired the formation of the Society of Saint Edmund at Pontigny, France, in 1843 by Jean Baptiste Muard and Pierre Boyer. The Society intended to keep Edmund's memory and life alive by conducting parish missions in the archdiocese of Sens, so as to revitalize the faith of the people who had become alienated from the Church. Members of the Society, based in Pontigny, fled to the United States in 1889 after widespread anticlericalism in France. The Society of Saint Edmund settled in Winooski Park, Vermont and in 1904 established Saint Michael's College where the deeds and values of Edmund's life continue through the college mission. Today members of the Society of Saint Edmund devote themselves to parochial work in the Diocese of Burlington, Vermont, ministry to the African American community through the Edmundite Missions in Selma, Alabama, to higher education at Saint Michael's College, and retreat ministry at Saint Edmund's Retreat (Enders Island) in Connecticut as well as Saint Anne's Shrine in Vermont.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious Congregation of the Society of St Edmund", "target_page_ids": [ 6736150, 2768488, 13938087, 13972784, 571440, 530643, 1692203, 100580, 32440036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 67 ], [ 71, 79 ], [ 100, 119 ], [ 124, 136 ], [ 436, 451 ], [ 550, 573 ], [ 744, 765 ], [ 853, 867 ], [ 1006, 1025 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Royal Berkshire History: St. Edmund of Abingdon", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "St. Edmund Hall, Oxford: Birth of St Edmund of Abingdon", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Society of St. Edmund, Roman Catholic Community of Priests and Brothers", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Walsh, Michael A New Dictionary of Saints: East and West London: Burns & Oats 2007 ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " St. Edmund Rich at Catholic Online", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " St. Edmund Rich of Abingdon at Patron Saints' Index", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Archbishops_of_Canterbury", "13th-century_English_Roman_Catholic_archbishops", "People_from_Abingdon-on-Thames", "1170s_births", "1240_deaths", "13th-century_Christian_saints", "13th-century_Christian_mystics", "Medieval_English_saints", "Roman_Catholic_mystics", "English_Roman_Catholic_saints", "Burials_in_France", "People_educated_at_Abingdon_School", "Anglican_saints" ]

[ "Edmund of Canterbury", "Edmund Rich", "St. Edmund", "Saint Edmund", "San Edmundo Rich" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In taxonomy, binomial nomenclature (\"two-term naming system\"), also called nomenclature (\"two-name naming system\") or binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms, although they can be based on words from other languages. Such a name is called a binomial name (which may be shortened to just \"binomial\"), a binomen, name or a scientific name; more informally it is also historically called a Latin name.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30463, 21780446, 147176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 169, 176 ], [ 257, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first part of the name – the generic name – identifies the genus to which the species belongs, whereas the second part – the specific name or specific epithet – distinguishes the species within the genus. For example, modern humans belong to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens. Tyrannosaurus rex is likely the most widely known binomial. The formal introduction of this system of naming species is credited to Carl Linnaeus, effectively beginning with his work Species Plantarum in 1753. But as early as 1622, Gaspard Bauhin introduced in his book Pinax theatri botanici (English, Illustrated exposition of plants) many names of genera that were later adopted by Linnaeus.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38493, 38493, 488341, 682482, 30467, 5233, 2011017, 610148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 45 ], [ 63, 68 ], [ 256, 260 ], [ 298, 310 ], [ 312, 329 ], [ 444, 457 ], [ 495, 512 ], [ 544, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The application of binomial nomenclature is now governed by various internationally agreed codes of rules, of which the two most important are the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) for animals and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICNafp). Although the general principles underlying binomial nomenclature are common to these two codes, there are some differences, both in terminology they use and in their particular rules.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 136538, 396505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 192 ], [ 220, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In modern usage, the first letter of the generic name is always capitalized in writing, while that of the specific epithet is not, even when derived from a proper noun such as the name of a person or place. Similarly, both parts are italicized in normal text (or underlined in handwriting). Thus the binomial name of the annual phlox (named after botanist Thomas Drummond) is now written as Phlox drummondii. Often, after a species name is introduced in a text, the generic name is abbreviated to the first letter in subsequent mentions (e. g., P. drummondii).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 60260, 265914, 32855572, 10350332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 167 ], [ 233, 242 ], [ 356, 371 ], [ 391, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In scientific works, the authority for a binomial name is usually given, at least when it is first mentioned, and the year of publication may be specified.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In zoology", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 34413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Patella vulgata Linnaeus, 1758\". The name \"Linnaeus\" tells the reader who published the name and description for this species of limpet; 1758 is the year the name and original description was published (in this case, in the 10th edition of the book Systema Naturae).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20683023, 28292088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 17 ], [ 226, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Passer domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758)\". The original name given by Linnaeus was Fringilla domestica; the parentheses indicate that the species is now placed in a different genus. The ICZN does not require that the name of the person who changed the genus be given, nor the date on which the change was made, although nomenclatorial catalogs usually include such information.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 196147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In botany", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Amaranthus retroflexus L.\"– \"L.\" is the standard abbreviation used for \"Linnaeus\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2855237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Hyacinthoides italica (L.) Rothm.\"– Linnaeus first named this bluebell species Scilla italica; Rothmaler transferred it to the genus Hyacinthoides; the ICNafp does not require that the dates of either publication be specified.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4365031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name is composed of two word-forming elements: bi- (Latin prefix meaning 'two') and [[wiktionary:nomial|nomial]] (literally 'name'). In Medieval Latin, the related word was used to signify one term in a binomial expression in mathematics. The word nomen (plural nomina) means 'name' in Latin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to the adoption of the modern binomial system of naming species, a scientific name consisted of a generic name combined with a specific name that was from one to several words long. Together they formed a system of polynomial nomenclature. These names had two separate functions. First, to designate or label the species, and second, to be a diagnosis or description; however these two goals were eventually found to be incompatible. In a simple genus, containing only two species, it was easy to tell them apart with a one-word genus and a one-word specific name; but as more species were discovered, the names necessarily became longer and unwieldy, for instance, Plantago foliis ovato-lanceolatus pubescentibus, spica cylindrica, scapo tereti (\"plantain with pubescent ovate-lanceolate leaves, a cylindric spike and a terete scape\"), which we know today as Plantago media.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 43933350, 4091815, 5333759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 827, 833 ], [ 834, 839 ], [ 866, 880 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Such \"polynomial names\" may sometimes look like binomials, but are significantly different. For example, Gerard's herbal (as amended by Johnson) describes various kinds of spiderwort: \"The first is called Phalangium ramosum, Branched Spiderwort; the second, Phalangium non ramosum, Unbranched Spiderwort. The other ... is aptly termed Phalangium Ephemerum Virginianum, Soon-Fading Spiderwort of Virginia\". The Latin phrases are short descriptions, rather than identifying labels.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Bauhins, in particular Caspar Bauhin (1560–1624), took some important steps towards the binomial system, by pruning the Latin descriptions, in many cases to two words. The adoption by biologists of a system of strictly binomial nomenclature is due to Swedish botanist and physician Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778). It was in Linnaeus's 1753 Species Plantarum that he began consistently using a one-word trivial name () after a generic name (genus name) in a system of binomial nomenclature. Trivial names had already appeared in his Critica Botanica (1737) and Philosophia Botanica (1751). This trivial name is what is now known as a specific epithet (ICNafp) or specific name (ICZN). The Bauhins' genus names were retained in many of these, but the descriptive part was reduced to a single word.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 51711, 610148, 5058739, 5233, 2011017, 28559148, 12070901, 1651329, 2807383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 27, 40 ], [ 255, 262 ], [ 286, 299 ], [ 340, 357 ], [ 532, 548 ], [ 560, 580 ], [ 633, 649 ], [ 662, 675 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linnaeus's trivial names introduced an important new idea, namely that the function of a name could simply be to give a species a unique label. This meant that the name no longer need be descriptive; for example both parts could be derived from the names of people. Thus Gerard's Phalangium ephemerum virginianum became Tradescantia virginiana, where the genus name honoured John Tradescant the Younger, an English botanist and gardener. A bird in the parrot family was named Psittacus alexandri, meaning \"Alexander's parrot\", after Alexander the Great, whose armies introduced eastern parakeets to Greece. Linnaeus's trivial names were much easier to remember and use than the parallel polynomial names and eventually replaced them.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14227710, 7378675, 62267, 3769960, 783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 320, 343 ], [ 375, 402 ], [ 452, 465 ], [ 476, 495 ], [ 533, 552 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The value of the binomial nomenclature system derives primarily from its economy, its widespread use, and the uniqueness and stability of names that the Codes of Zoological and Botanical, Bacterial and Viral Nomenclature provide:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Value", "target_page_ids": [ 136538, 2697067, 2824202, 94320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 172 ], [ 177, 186 ], [ 188, 197 ], [ 202, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Economy. Compared to the polynomial system which it replaced, a binomial name is shorter and easier to remember. It corresponds to the widespread system of family name plus given name(s) used to name people in many cultures.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Value", "target_page_ids": [ 72243, 247991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 168 ], [ 174, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Widespread use. The binomial system of nomenclature is governed by international codes and is used by biologists worldwide. A few binomials have also entered common speech, such as Homo sapiens, E. coli, Boa constrictor, Tyrannosaurus rex, and Aloe vera.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Value", "target_page_ids": [ 682482, 40114, 30863385, 30467, 1548277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 194 ], [ 196, 203 ], [ 205, 220 ], [ 222, 239 ], [ 245, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Uniqueness. Provided that taxonomists agree as to the limits of a species, it can have only one name that is correct under the appropriate nomenclature code, generally the earliest published if two or more names are accidentally assigned to a species. However, establishing that two names actually refer to the same species and then determining which has priority can be difficult, particularly if the species was named by biologists from different countries. Therefore, a species may have more than one regularly used name; all but one of these names are \"synonyms\". Furthermore, within zoology or botany, each species name applies to only one species. If a name is used more than once, it is called a homonym. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Value", "target_page_ids": [ 2736805, 8166296, 3699937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 157 ], [ 558, 566 ], [ 704, 711 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stability. Although stability is far from absolute, the procedures associated with establishing binomial names, such as the principle of priority, tend to favor stability. For example, when species are transferred between genera (as not uncommonly happens as a result of new knowledge), the second part of the binomial is kept the same (unless it becomes a homonym). Thus there is disagreement among botanists as to whether the genera Chionodoxa and Scilla are sufficiently different for them to be kept separate. Those who keep them separate give the plant commonly grown in gardens in Europe the name Chionodoxa siehei; those who do not give it the name Scilla siehei. The siehei element is constant. Similarly if what were previously thought to be two distinct species are demoted to a lower rank, such as subspecies, the second part of the binomial name is retained as a trinomen (the third part of the new name). Thus the Tenerife robin may be treated as a different species from the European robin, in which case its name is Erithacus superbus, or as only a subspecies, in which case its name is Erithacus rubecula superbus. The superbus element of the name is constant, as is its authorship and year of publication.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Value", "target_page_ids": [ 9167359, 431359, 26815654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 436, 446 ], [ 451, 457 ], [ 604, 621 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Binomial nomenclature for species has the effect that when a species is moved from one genus to another, sometimes the specific name or epithet must be changed as well. This may happen because the specific name is already used in the new genus, or to agree in gender with the new genus if the specific epithet is an adjective modifying the genus name. Some biologists have argued for the combination of the genus name and specific epithet into a single unambiguous name, or for the use of uninomials (as used in nomenclature of ranks above species).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Problems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Because genus names are unique only within a nomenclature code, it is possible for two or more species to share the same genus name and even the same binomial if they occur in different kingdoms. At least 1,240 instances of genus name duplication occur (mainly between zoology and botany).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Problems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nomenclature (including binomial nomenclature) is not the same as classification, although the two are related. Classification is the ordering of items into groups based on similarities or differences; in biological classification, species are one of the kinds of item to be classified. In principle, the names given to species could be completely independent of their classification. This is not the case for binomial names, since the first part of a binomial is the name of the genus into which the species is placed. Above the rank of genus, binomial nomenclature and classification are partly independent; for example, a species retains its binomial name if it is moved from one family to another or from one order to another, unless it better fits a different genus in the same or different family, or it is split from its old genus and placed in a newly created genus. The independence is only partial since the names of families and other higher taxa are usually based on genera.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Relationship to classification and taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 30463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Taxonomy includes both nomenclature and classification. Its first stages (sometimes called \"alpha taxonomy\") are concerned with finding, describing and naming species of living or fossil organisms. Binomial nomenclature is thus an important part of taxonomy as it is the system by which species are named. Taxonomists are also concerned with classification, including its principles, procedures and rules.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Relationship to classification and taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 30463, 30463, 10958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 92, 106 ], [ 180, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A complete binomial name is always treated grammatically as if it were a phrase in the Latin language (hence the common use of the term \"Latin name\" for a binomial name). However, the two parts of a binomial name can each be derived from a number of sources, of which Latin is only one. These include:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Derivation of binomial names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Latin, either classical or medieval. Thus, both parts of the binomial name Homo sapiens are Latin words, meaning \"wise\" (sapiens) \"human/man\" (Homo).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Derivation of binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 21983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 24 ], [ 28, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Classical Greek. The genus Rhododendron was named by Linnaeus from the Greek word , itself derived from rhodon, \"rose\", and dendron, \"tree\". Greek words are often converted to a Latinized form. Thus coca (the plant from which cocaine is obtained) has the name Erythroxylum coca. Erythroxylum is derived from the Greek words erythros, red, and xylon, wood. The Greek neuter ending - (-on) is often converted to the Latin neuter ending -um.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Derivation of binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 148363, 40336, 5233, 1458251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 28, 40 ], [ 54, 62 ], [ 261, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Other languages. The second part of the name Erythroxylum coca is derived from kuka, the name of the plant in Aymara and Quechua. Since many dinosaur fossils were found in Mongolia, their names often use Mongolian words, e.g. Tarchia from tarkhi, meaning \"brain\", or Saichania meaning \"beautiful one\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Derivation of binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 1458251, 341876, 25286, 154909, 4435596, 3553047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 63 ], [ 111, 117 ], [ 122, 129 ], [ 205, 214 ], [ 227, 234 ], [ 268, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Names of people (often naturalists or biologists). The name Magnolia campbellii commemorates two people: Pierre Magnol, a French botanist, and Archibald Campbell, a doctor in British India.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Derivation of binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 1228354, 1830969, 6129841, 3574003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 80 ], [ 106, 119 ], [ 144, 162 ], [ 176, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Names of places. The lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum, is widespread in the United States.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Derivation of binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 12573760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Other sources. Some binomial names have been constructed from taxonomic anagrams or other re-orderings of existing names. Thus the name of the genus Muilla is derived by reversing the name Allium. Names may also be derived from jokes or puns. For example, Ratcliffe described a number of species of rhinoceros beetle, including Cyclocephala nodanotherwon.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Derivation of binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 64021800, 368726, 47840567, 16267, 24145, 65855888, 51521531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 80 ], [ 150, 156 ], [ 190, 196 ], [ 229, 234 ], [ 238, 241 ], [ 300, 317 ], [ 329, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first part of the name, which identifies the genus, must be a word which can be treated as a Latin singular noun in the nominative case. It must be unique within the purview of each nomenclatural code, but can be repeated between them. Thus Huia recurvata is an extinct species of plant, found as fossils in Yunnan, China, whereas Huia masonii is a species of frog found in Java, Indonesia.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Derivation of binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 42296, 21774, 2736805, 30779522, 10958, 166410, 12405885, 69336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 111 ], [ 124, 139 ], [ 186, 204 ], [ 245, 259 ], [ 301, 307 ], [ 312, 318 ], [ 335, 347 ], [ 378, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The second part of the name, which identifies the species within the genus, is also treated grammatically as a Latin word. It can have one of a number of forms:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Derivation of binomial names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The second part of a binomial may be an adjective. The adjective must agree with the genus name in gender. Latin has three genders, masculine, feminine and neuter, shown by varying endings to nouns and adjectives. The house sparrow has the binomial name Passer domesticus. Here domesticus (\"domestic\") simply means \"associated with the house\". The sacred bamboo is Nandina domestica rather than Nandina domesticus, since Nandina is feminine whereas Passer is masculine. The tropical fruit langsat is a product of the plant Lansium parasiticum, since Lansium is neuter. Some common endings for Latin adjectives in the three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) are -us, -a, -um (as in the previous example of domesticus); -is, -is, -e (e.g. tristis, meaning \"sad\"); and -or, -or, -us (e.g. minor, meaning \"smaller\"). For further information, see Adjectives.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Derivation of binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 13068, 196147, 5404775, 2169301, 17997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 106 ], [ 219, 232 ], [ 349, 362 ], [ 490, 497 ], [ 847, 858 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The second part of a binomial may be a noun in the nominative case. An example is the binomial name of the lion, which is Panthera leo. Grammatically the noun is said to be in apposition to the genus name and the two nouns do not have to agree in gender; in this case, Panthera is feminine and leo is masculine.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Derivation of binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 1529376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 177, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The second part of a binomial may be a noun in the genitive (possessive) case. The genitive case is constructed in a number of ways in Latin, depending on the declension of the noun. Common endings for masculine and neuter nouns are -ii or -i in the singular and -orum in the plural, and for feminine nouns -ae in the singular and -arum in the plural. The noun may be part of a person's name, often the surname, as in the Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii), the shrub Magnolia hodgsonii, or the olive-backed pipit (Anthus hodgsoni). The meaning is \"of the person named\", so that Magnolia hodgsonii means \"Hodgson's magnolia\". The -ii or -i endings show that in each case Hodgson was a man (not the same one); had Hodgson been a woman, hodgsonae would have been used. The person commemorated in the binomial name is not usually (if ever) the person who created the name; for example Anthus hodgsoni was named by Charles Wallace Richmond, in honour of Hodgson. Rather than a person, the noun may be related to a place, as with Latimeria chalumnae, meaning \"of the Chalumna River\". Another use of genitive nouns is in, for example, the name of the bacterium Escherichia coli, where coli means \"of the colon\". This formation is common in parasites, as in Xenos vesparum, where vesparum means \"of the wasps\", since Xenos vesparum is a parasite of wasps.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Derivation of binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 12539, 17997, 1369072, 5504146, 341034, 616208, 5715146, 3025004, 40114, 59366, 13215094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 60 ], [ 160, 170 ], [ 423, 439 ], [ 474, 492 ], [ 501, 519 ], [ 917, 941 ], [ 1031, 1050 ], [ 1068, 1082 ], [ 1161, 1177 ], [ 1204, 1209 ], [ 1257, 1271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whereas the first part of a binomial name must be unique within the purview of each nomenclatural code, the second part is quite commonly used in two or more genera (as is shown by examples of hodgsonii above). The full binomial name must be unique within each code.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Derivation of binomial names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From the early 19th century onwards it became ever more apparent that a body of rules was necessary to govern scientific names. In the course of time these became nomenclature codes. The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) governs the naming of animals, the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICNafp) that of plants (including cyanobacteria), and the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB) that of bacteria (including Archaea). Virus names are governed by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), a taxonomic code, which determines taxa as well as names. These codes differ in certain ways, e.g.:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Codes", "target_page_ids": [ 2736805, 136538, 396505, 129618, 2824202, 9028799, 19179592, 19167679, 4215591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 181 ], [ 187, 232 ], [ 275, 338 ], [ 374, 387 ], [ 398, 444 ], [ 460, 468 ], [ 480, 487 ], [ 490, 495 ], [ 522, 568 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Binomial nomenclature\" is the correct term for botany, although it is also used by zoologists. Since 1953, \"binominal nomenclature\" is the technically correct term in zoology. A binomial name is also called a binomen (plural binomina) or name.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Codes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Both codes consider the first part of the two-part name for a species to be the \"generic name\". In the zoological code (ICZN), the second part of the name is a \"specific name\". In the botanical code (ICNafp), it is a \"specific epithet\". Together, these two parts are referred to as a \"species name\" or \"binomen\" in the zoological code; or \"species name\", \"binomial\", or \"binary combination\" in the botanical code. \"Species name\" is the only term common to the two codes.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Codes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The ICNafp, the plant code, does not allow the two parts of a binomial name to be the same (such a name is called a tautonym), whereas the ICZN, the animal code, does. Thus the American bison has the binomen Bison bison; a name of this kind would not be allowed for a plant.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Codes", "target_page_ids": [ 2652324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The starting points, the time from which these codes are in effect (retroactively), vary from group to group. In botany the starting point will often be in 1753 (the year Carl Linnaeus first published Species Plantarum). In zoology the starting point is 1758 (1 January 1758 is considered the date of the publication of Linnaeus's Systema Naturae, 10th Edition, and also Clerck's Aranei Svecici). Bacteriology started anew, with a starting point on 1 January 1980.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Codes", "target_page_ids": [ 4183, 2011017, 34413, 1478634, 1630541, 58475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 120 ], [ 202, 219 ], [ 225, 232 ], [ 332, 347 ], [ 372, 380 ], [ 398, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unifying the different codes into a single code, the \"BioCode\", has been suggested, although implementation is not in sight. (There is also a published code for a different system of biotic nomenclature which does not use ranks above species, but instead names clades. This is called the PhyloCode.)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Codes", "target_page_ids": [ 6682, 436324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 261, 266 ], [ 288, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As noted above, there are some differences between the codes in the way in which binomials can be formed; for example the ICZN allows both parts to be the same, while the ICNafp does not. Another difference is in the way in which personal names are used in forming specific names or epithets. The ICNafp sets out precise rules by which a personal name is to be converted to a specific epithet. In particular, names ending in a consonant (but not \"er\") are treated as first being converted into Latin by adding \"-ius\" (for a man) or \"-ia\" (for a woman), and then being made genitive (i.e. meaning \"of that person or persons\"). This produces specific epithets like lecardii for Lecard (male), wilsoniae for Wilson (female), and brauniarum for the Braun sisters. By contrast the ICZN does not require the intermediate creation of a Latin form of a personal name, allowing the genitive ending to be added directly to the personal name. This explains the difference between the names of the plant Magnolia hodgsonii and the bird Anthus hodgsoni. Furthermore, the ICNafp requires names not published in the form required by the code to be corrected to conform to it, whereas the ICZN is more protective of the form used by the original author.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Codes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By tradition, the binomial names of species are usually typeset in italics; for example, Homo sapiens. Generally, the binomial should be printed in a font style different from that used in the normal text; for example, \"Several more Homo sapiens fossils were discovered.\" When handwritten, a binomial name should be underlined; for example, Homo sapiens.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Writing binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 682482, 3329659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 101 ], [ 150, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first part of the binomial, the genus name, is always written with an initial capital letter. Older sources, particularly botanical works published before the 1950s, use a different convention. If the second part of the name is derived from a proper noun, e.g. the name of a person or place, a capital letter was used. Thus the modern form Berberis darwinii was written as Berberis Darwinii. A capital was also used when the name is formed by two nouns in apposition, e.g. Panthera Leo or Centaurea Cyanus. In current usage, the second part is never written with an initial capital.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Writing binomial names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When used with a common name, the scientific name often follows in parentheses, although this varies with publication. For example, \"The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is decreasing in Europe.\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Writing binomial names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The binomial name should generally be written in full. The exception to this is when several species from the same genus are being listed or discussed in the same paper or report, or the same species is mentioned repeatedly; in which case the genus is written in full when it is first used, but may then be abbreviated to an initial (and a period/full stop). For example, a list of members of the genus Canis might be written as \"Canis lupus, C. aureus, C. simensis\". In rare cases, this abbreviated form has spread to more general use; for example, the bacterium Escherichia coli is often referred to as just E. coli, and Tyrannosaurus rex is perhaps even better known simply as T. rex, these two both often appearing in this form in popular writing even where the full genus name has not already been given.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Writing binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 40114, 30467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 564, 580 ], [ 623, 640 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The abbreviation \"sp.\" is used when the actual specific name cannot or need not be specified. The abbreviation \"spp.\" (plural) indicates \"several species\". These abbreviations are not italicised (or underlined). For example: \"Canis sp.\" means \"an unspecified species of the genus Canis\", while \"Canis spp.\" means \"two or more species of the genus Canis\". (These abbreviations should not be confused with the abbreviations \"ssp.\" (zoology) or \"subsp.\" (botany), plurals \"sspp.\" or \"subspp.\", referring to one or more subspecies. See trinomen (zoology) and infraspecific name.)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Writing binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 403300, 185901, 392963, 2783668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 280, 285 ], [ 516, 526 ], [ 532, 540 ], [ 555, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The abbreviation \"cf.\" (i.e. confer in Latin) is used to compare individuals/taxa with known/described species. Conventions for use of the \"cf.\" qualifier vary. In paleontology, it is typically used when the identification is not confirmed. For example, \"Corvus cf. nasicus\" was used to indicate \"a fossil bird similar to the Cuban crow but not certainly identified as this species\". In molecular systematics papers, \"cf.\" may be used to indicate one or more undescribed species assumed related to a described species. For example, in a paper describing the phylogeny of small benthic freshwater fish called darters, five undescribed putative species (Ozark, Sheltowee, Wildcat, Ihiyo, and Mamequit darters), notable for brightly colored nuptial males with distinctive color patterns, were referred to as \"Etheostoma cf. spectabile\" because they had been viewed as related to, but distinct from, Etheostoma spectabile (orangethroat darter). This view was supported in varying degrees by DNA analysis. The somewhat informal use of taxa names with qualifying abbreviations is referred to as open nomenclature and it is not subject to strict usage codes.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Writing binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 1250078, 449104, 30598192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 21 ], [ 327, 337 ], [ 1090, 1107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some contexts the dagger symbol (\"†\") may be used before or after the binomial name to indicate that the species is extinct.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Writing binomial names", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In scholarly texts, at least the first or main use of the binomial name is usually followed by the \"authority\"– a way of designating the scientist(s) who first published the name. The authority is written in slightly different ways in zoology and botany. For names governed by the ICZN the surname is usually written in full together with the date (normally only the year) of publication. The ICZN recommends that the \"original author and date of a name should be cited at least once in each work dealing with the taxon denoted by that name.\" For names governed by the ICNafp the name is generally reduced to a standard abbreviation and the date omitted. The International Plant Names Index maintains an approved list of botanical author abbreviations. Historically, abbreviations were used in zoology too.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Writing binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 391726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 659, 690 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the original name is changed, e.g. the species is moved to a different genus, both codes use parentheses around the original authority; the ICNafp also requires the person who made the change to be given. In the ICNafp, the original name is then called the basionym. Some examples:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Writing binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 569111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 262, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(Plant) Amaranthus retroflexus L.– \"L.\" is the standard abbreviation for \"Linnaeus\"; the absence of parentheses shows that this is his original name.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Writing binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 2855237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(Plant) Hyacinthoides italica (L.) Rothm.– Linnaeus first named the Italian bluebell Scilla italica; that is the basionym. Rothmaler later transferred it to the genus Hyacinthoides.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Writing binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 4365031, 37121309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 29 ], [ 123, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(Animal) Passer domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758)– the original name given by Linnaeus was Fringilla domestica; unlike the ICNafp, the ICZN does not require the name of the person who changed the genus (Mathurin Jacques Brisson) to be given.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Writing binomial names", "target_page_ids": [ 196147, 431512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 26 ], [ 197, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Binomial nomenclature, as described here, is a system for naming species. Implicitly it includes a system for naming genera, since the first part of the name of the species is a genus name. In a classification system based on ranks there are also ways of naming ranks above the level of genus and below the level of species. Ranks above genus (e.g., family, order, class) receive one-part names, which are conventionally not written in italics. Thus the house sparrow, Passer domesticus, belongs to the family Passeridae. Family names are normally based on genus names, although the endings used differ between zoology and botany.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other ranks", "target_page_ids": [ 63572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 510, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ranks below species receive three-part names, conventionally written in italics like the names of species. There are significant differences between the ICZN and the ICNafp. In zoology, the only rank below species is subspecies and the name is written simply as three parts (a trinomen). Thus one of the subspecies of the olive-backed pipit is Anthus hodgsoni berezowskii. In botany, there are many ranks below species and although the name itself is written in three parts, a \"connecting term\" (not part of the name) is needed to show the rank. Thus the American black elder is Sambucus nigra subsp. canadensis; the white-flowered form of the ivy-leaved cyclamen is Cyclamen hederifolium f. albiflorum''.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other ranks", "target_page_ids": [ 341034, 27431300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 322, 340 ], [ 667, 688 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Glossary of scientific naming", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 35993661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Botanical name", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1651329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hybrid name (botany)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3124930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of botanists by author abbreviation", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1694330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 377355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of organisms named after famous people", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10016001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of zoologists by author abbreviation", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1991105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Scientific terminology", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19365913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Species description", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24405429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Undescribed taxon", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8435339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Curiosities of Biological Nomenclature", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " NCBI Taxonomy Database", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Biological_nomenclature" ]

[ "binary nomenclature" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Myles Coverdale, first name also spelt Miles (1488 – 20 January 1569), was an English ecclesiastical reformer chiefly known as a Bible translator, preacher and, briefly, Bishop of Exeter (1551–1553). In 1535, Coverdale produced the first complete printed translation of the Bible into English. His theological development is a paradigm of the progress of the English Reformation from 1530 to 1552. By the time of his death, he had transitioned into an early Puritan, affiliated to Calvin, yet still advocating the teachings of Augustine.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3390, 3254755, 8569916, 18974659, 24091, 15930, 2030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 134 ], [ 170, 186 ], [ 285, 292 ], [ 359, 378 ], [ 458, 465 ], [ 481, 487 ], [ 527, 536 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Regarding his probable birth county, Daniell cites John Bale, author of a sixteenth-century scriptorium, giving it as Yorkshire. His birth date is generally regarded as 1488.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life to end of 1528", "target_page_ids": [ 144952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coverdale studied philosophy and theology at Cambridge, becoming bachelor of canon law in 1513. In 1514 John Underwood, a suffragan bishop and archdeacon of Norfolk, ordained him priest in Norwich. He entered the house of the Augustinian friars in Cambridge, where Robert Barnes had returned from Louvain to become its prior. This is thought to have been about 1520–1525.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life to end of 1528", "target_page_ids": [ 25978572, 6469, 37605, 103443, 5997030, 159957, 164193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 54 ], [ 77, 86 ], [ 157, 164 ], [ 189, 196 ], [ 226, 243 ], [ 265, 278 ], [ 297, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Trueman, Barnes returned to Cambridge in the early to mid-1520s. At Louvain Barnes had studied under Erasmus and had developed humanist sympathies. In Cambridge, he read aloud to his students from St. Paul's epistles in translation and taught from classical authors. This undoubtedly influenced them towards Reform. In February 1526, Coverdale was part of a group of friars that travelled from Cambridge to London to present the defence of their superior, after Barnes was summoned before Cardinal Wolsey. Barnes had been arrested as a heretic after being accused of preaching Lutheran views in the church of St Edward King and Martyr, Cambridge on Christmas Eve. Coverdale is said to have acted as Barnes' secretary during the trial. By the standards of the time, Barnes received relatively lenient treatment, being made to do public penance by carrying a faggot to St Paul's Cross. However on 10 June 1539, Parliament passed the Act of Six Articles, marking a turning point in the progress of radical protestantism.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life to end of 1528", "target_page_ids": [ 10152, 1084026, 18974659, 31035, 19116750, 816282, 14634128, 59952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 121 ], [ 140, 148 ], [ 321, 327 ], [ 502, 517 ], [ 622, 658 ], [ 870, 876 ], [ 880, 895 ], [ 944, 963 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Barnes was burned at the stake on 30 July 1540, at Smithfield, along with two other reformers. Also executed that day were three Roman Catholics, who were hanged, drawn and quartered.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life to end of 1528", "target_page_ids": [ 186876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coverdale probably met Thomas Cromwell some time before 1527. A letter survives showing that later, in 1531, he wrote to Cromwell, requesting his guidance on his behaviour and preaching; also stating his need for books. By Lent 1528, he had left the Augustinians and, wearing simple garments, was preaching in Essex against transubstantiation, the veneration of sacred images, and Confession to a Priest. At that date, such views were very dangerous, for the future course of the religious revolution that began during the reign of Henry VIII was as yet very uncertain. Reforms, both of the forms proposed by Lollardy, and those preached by Luther, were being pursued by a vigorous campaign against heresy. Consequently, towards the end of 1528, Coverdale fled from England to the Continent.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life to end of 1528", "target_page_ids": [ 48701, 30907, 29250, 5589718, 18616, 7567080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 38 ], [ 325, 343 ], [ 349, 376 ], [ 382, 392 ], [ 611, 619 ], [ 643, 649 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1528 to 1535 Coverdale spent most of his time in continental Europe, mainly in Antwerp. Celia Hughes believes that upon arriving there, he rendered considerable assistance to William Tyndale in his revisions and partial completion of his English versions of the Bible. In 1531, Tyndale spoke to Stephen Vaughan of his poverty and the hardships of exile, although he was relatively safe in the English House in Antwerp, where the inhabitants supposedly enjoyed diplomatic immunity. But in the spring of 1535 a \"debauched and villainous young Englishman wanting money\" named Henry Phillips insinuated himself into Tyndale's trust. Phillips had gambled away money from his father and had fled abroad. He promised the authorities of the Holy Roman Emperor that he would betray Tyndale for cash. On the morning of 21 May 1535, having arranged for the imperial officers to be ready, Phillips tricked Tyndale into leaving the English House, whereupon he was immediately seized. Tyndale languished in prison throughout the remainder of 1535 and despite attempts to have him released, organised by Cromwell through Thomas Poyntz at the English House, Tyndale was strangled and burned at the stake in October 1536. Meanwhile Coverdale continued his work alone to produce what became the first complete English Bible in print, namely the Coverdale Bible. Not yet proficient in Hebrew or Greek, he used Latin, English and German sources plus the translations of Tyndale himself.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "First exile: 1528", "target_page_ids": [ 32149462, 37669, 22860554, 50853, 5431765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 91 ], [ 180, 195 ], [ 300, 315 ], [ 738, 756 ], [ 1332, 1347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1534 Canterbury Convocation petitioned Henry VIII that the whole Bible might be translated into English. Consequently, in 1535, Coverdale dedicated this complete Bible to the King. After much scholarly debate, it is now considered very probable that the place of printing of the Coverdale Bible was Antwerp. The printing was financed by Jacobus van Meteren. The printing of the first edition was finished on 4 October 1535. Coverdale based the text in part on Tyndale's translation of the New Testament (following Tyndale's November 1534 Antwerp edition) and of those books which were translated by Tyndale: the Pentateuch, and the Book of Jonah. Other Old Testament books he translated from the German of Luther and others. Based on Coverdale's translation of the Book of Psalms in his 1535 Bible, his later Psalter has remained in use in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer to the present day, and is retained with various minor corrections in the 1926 Irish Book of Common Prayer, the 1928 US Episcopal Book of Common Prayer, and the 1962 Canadian Book of Common Prayer, etc.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Coverdale's translation of the Bible: 1535", "target_page_ids": [ 32149462, 159752, 21433, 30343, 4451, 22326, 24203, 390503, 70560769, 70381937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 302, 309 ], [ 340, 359 ], [ 492, 505 ], [ 615, 625 ], [ 635, 648 ], [ 656, 669 ], [ 776, 782 ], [ 812, 819 ], [ 847, 873 ], [ 1035, 1070 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1537 the Matthew Bible was printed, also in Antwerp, at the expense of Richard Grafton and Edward Whitchurch who issued it in London. It comprised Tyndale's Pentateuch; a version of Joshua 2 and Chronicles translated from the Hebrew, probably by Tyndale and not previously published; the remainder of the Old Testament from Coverdale; Tyndale's New Testament from 1535. It was dedicated to Henry VIII who licensed it for general reading. \"Thomas Matthew\", the supposed editor, was an alias for John Rogers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further translations, 1537–1539", "target_page_ids": [ 159780, 1078533, 27646346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 25 ], [ 74, 89 ], [ 94, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Matthew Bible was theologically controversial. Furthermore it bore evidence of its origin from Tyndale. If Henry VIII had become aware of this, the position of Cromwell and Cranmer would have been precarious. Consequently in 1538 Coverdale was sent to Paris by Cromwell to superintend the printing of the planned \"Great Bible\". François Regnault, who had supplied all English service books from 1519 to 1534, was selected as the printer because his typography was more sumptuous than that available in England. According to Kenyon, the assent of the French king was obtained. In May 1538 printing began. Nevertheless, a coalition of English bishops together with French theologians at the Sorbonne interfered with the operations and the Pope issued an edict that the English Bibles should be burned and the presses stopped. Some completed sheets were seized, but Coverdale rescued others, together with the type, transferring them to London. Ultimately, the work was completed in London by Grafton and Whitchurch.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further translations, 1537–1539", "target_page_ids": [ 22989, 176326, 3320653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 256, 261 ], [ 318, 329 ], [ 693, 701 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also in 1538, editions were published, both in Paris and in London, of a diglot (dual-language) New Testament. In this, Coverdale compared the Latin Vulgate text with his own English translation, in parallel columns on each page.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further translations, 1537–1539", "target_page_ids": [ 32576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An injunction was issued by Cromwell in September 1538, strengthening an earlier one that had been issued but widely ignored in 1536. This second injunction firmly declared opposition to \"pilgrimages, feigned relics, or images, or any such superstitions\" whilst correspondingly placing heavy emphasis on scripture as \"the very lively word of God\". Coverdale’s Great Bible was now almost ready for circulation and the injunction called for the use of \"one book of the whole Bible of the largest volume\" in every English church. However at the time insufficient Great Bibles were actually printed in London so an edition of the Matthew Bible that had been re-edited by Coverdale started to be used. The laity were also intended to learn other core items of worship in English, including the Creed, the Lord's Prayer and the Ten Commandments.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further translations, 1537–1539", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In February 1539, Coverdale was in Newbury communicating with Thomas Cromwell. The printing of the London edition of the Great Bible was in progress. It was finally published in April of the same year. John Winchcombe, son of \"Jack O'Newbury\", a famous clothier, served as a confidential messenger to Coverdale who was performing an ecclesiastical visitation. Coverdale commended Winchcombe for his true heart towards the King's Highness and in 1540, Henry VIII granted to Winchcombe the manor of Bucklebury, a former demesne of Reading Abbey.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further translations, 1537–1539", "target_page_ids": [ 125325, 48701, 5364137, 517810, 64116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 42 ], [ 62, 77 ], [ 227, 241 ], [ 497, 507 ], [ 529, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also from Newbury, Coverdale reported to Cromwell via Winchcombe about breaches in the king's laws against papism, sought out churches in the district where the sanctity of Becket was still maintained, and arranged to burn primers and other church books which had not been altered to match the king's proceedings.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further translations, 1537–1539", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sometime between 1535 and 1540 (the exact dates being uncertain), separate printings were made of Coverdale's translations into English of the psalms. These first versions of his psalm renditions were based mainly or completely upon his translation of the Book of Psalms in the 1535 Coverdale Bible.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further translations, 1537–1539", "target_page_ids": [ 24203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the final years of the decade, the conservative clerics, led by Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, were rapidly recovering their power and influence, opposing Cromwell's policies. On 28 June 1539 the Act of Six Articles became law, ending official tolerance of religious reform. Cromwell was executed on 28 July 1540. This was close to the date of the burning of Coverdale's Augustinian mentor Robert Barnes. Cromwell had protected Coverdale since at least 1527 and the latter was obliged to seek refuge again.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further translations, 1537–1539", "target_page_ids": [ 262155, 59952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 83 ], [ 215, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 1540 there was a second edition of the Great Bible, this time with a prologue by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer. For this reason, the Great Bible is sometimes known as Cranmer’s Bible although he had no part in its translation. According to Kenyon, there were seven editions in total, up until the end of 1541, with the later versions including some revisions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Second exile: 1540–1547", "target_page_ids": [ 176326, 30502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 59 ], [ 120, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before leaving England, Coverdale married Elizabeth Macheson (d. 1565), a Scotswoman of noble family who had come to England with her sister and brother-in-law as religious exiles from Scotland. They went first to Strasbourg, where they remained for about three years. He translated books from Latin and German and wrote an important defence of Barnes. This is regarded as his most significant reforming statement apart from his Bible prefaces. He received the degree of DTh from Tübingen and visited Denmark, where he wrote reforming tracts. In Strasbourg he befriended Conrad Hubert, Martin Bucer's secretary and a preacher at the church of St Thomas. Hubert was a native of Bergzabern (now Bad Bergzabern) in the duchy of Palatine Zweibrücken. In September 1543, on the recommendation of Hubert, Coverdale became assistant minister in Bergzabern as well as schoolmaster in the town's grammar school. During this period, he opposed Martin Luther's attack on the Reformed view of the Lord's Supper. He also began to learn Hebrew, becoming competent in the language, as had been Tyndale.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Second exile: 1540–1547", "target_page_ids": [ 37407, 30061, 36852497, 153642, 4366065, 3862491, 511373, 7567080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 214, 224 ], [ 480, 488 ], [ 571, 584 ], [ 586, 598 ], [ 693, 707 ], [ 725, 745 ], [ 887, 901 ], [ 934, 947 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward VI (1547–53) was only 9 years old when he succeeded his father on 28 January 1547. For most of his reign he was being educated, whilst his uncle, Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford, acted as Lord Protector of the Realm and Governor of the King's Person. Immediately upon receiving these appointments he became Duke of Somerset.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Return to England; Bishop of Exeter, 1548–1553", "target_page_ids": [ 10245, 72188, 53495, 293137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 153, 189 ], [ 200, 227 ], [ 319, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coverdale did not immediately return to England, although the prospects looked better for him. Religious policy followed that of the chief ministers and during Edward's reign this moved towards Protestantism. However in March 1548 he wrote to John Calvin that he was now returning, after eight years of exile for his faith. He was well received at the court of the new monarch. He became a royal chaplain in Windsor, and was appointed almoner to the queen dowager, Catherine Parr. At Parr's funeral in September 1548, Coverdale delivered what would later be said to have been his \"1st Protestant sermon\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Return to England; Bishop of Exeter, 1548–1553", "target_page_ids": [ 15930, 47406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 243, 254 ], [ 465, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 10 June 1549, the Prayer Book Rebellion broke out in Devon and Cornwall. There, Coverdale was directly involved in preaching and pacification attempts. Recognising the continuing unpopularity of the Book of Common Prayer in such areas, the Act of Uniformity had been introduced, making the Latin liturgical rites unlawful from Whitsunday 1549 onward. The west-country rebels complained that the new English liturgy was \"but lyke a Christmas game\" – men and women should form separate files to receive communion, reminding them of country dancing. The direct spark of rebellion occurred at Sampford Courtenay where, in attempting to enforce the orders, an altercation led to a death, with a proponent of the changes being run through with a pitchfork.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Return to England; Bishop of Exeter, 1548–1553", "target_page_ids": [ 446321, 4953, 3582577, 4125341, 99811, 447077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 42 ], [ 202, 223 ], [ 243, 260 ], [ 293, 315 ], [ 330, 337 ], [ 592, 610 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unrest was said also to have been fuelled by several years of increasing social dissatisfaction. Lord John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford was sent by the Lord Protector to put down the rapidly spreading rebellion and Coverdale accompanied him as chaplain. The Battle of Sampford Courtenay effectively ended the rebellion by the end of August. However Coverdale remained in Devon for several more months, helping to pacify the people and doing the work that properly belonged to the Bishop of Exeter. The incumbent, John Vesey, was eighty-six, and had not stirred from Sutton Coldfield in Warwickshire, his birthplace and long-term residence.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Return to England; Bishop of Exeter, 1548–1553", "target_page_ids": [ 259087, 22832226, 3095012, 367167, 383648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 135 ], [ 258, 286 ], [ 514, 524 ], [ 567, 583 ], [ 587, 599 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coverdale spent Easter 1551 in Oxford with the Florentine-born Augustinian reformer Peter Martyr Vermigli. At that time, Martyr was Regius Professor of divinity, belonging to Magdalen College. He had been assisting Cranmer with a revision of the Anglican prayer book. Coverdale attended Martyr's lectures on the Epistle to the Romans and Martyr called him a \"a good man who in former years acted as parish minister in Germany\" who now \"labours greatly in Devon in preaching and explaining the Scriptures\". He predicted that Coverdale would become Bishop of Exeter and this took place on 14 August 1551 when John Vesey was ejected from his see.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Return to England; Bishop of Exeter, 1548–1553", "target_page_ids": [ 103174, 128099, 3254755, 3095012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 105 ], [ 175, 191 ], [ 547, 563 ], [ 607, 617 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward VI died of tuberculosis on 6 July 1553. Shortly before, he had attempted to deter a Roman Catholic revival by switching the succession from Mary daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon to Lady Jane Grey. However his settlement of the succession lasted barely a fortnight. After a brief struggle between the opposing factions, Mary was proclaimed Queen of England on 19 July. The renewed danger to reformers such as Coverdale was obvious. He was summoned almost immediately to appear before the Privy Council and on 1 September he was placed under house arrest in Exeter. On 18 September, he was ejected from his see and Vesey, now ninety and still in Warwickshire, was reinstated. Following an intervention by his brother-in-law, chaplain to the king of Denmark, Coverdale and his wife were permitted to leave for that country. They then went on to Wesel, and finally back to Bergzabern.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Third exile, 1553–1559", "target_page_ids": [ 30653, 20713, 4380457, 652321, 76972, 534437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 30 ], [ 147, 198 ], [ 202, 216 ], [ 509, 522 ], [ 769, 776 ], [ 865, 870 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 24 October 1558, Coverdale received leave to settle in Geneva. Commenting on his contribution to the Geneva Bible (the exact details of which are scarce), Daniell says: \"Although his Hebrew, and ... now his Greek, could not match the local scholars' skills, Coverdale would no doubt have special things to offer as one who nearly two dozen years before had first translated the whole Bible ... the only Englishman to have done so, and then revised it under royal authority for the successive editions of the Great Bible.\" On 29 November 1558 Coverdale was godfather to John Knox's son. On 16 December he became an elder of the English church in Geneva, and participated in a reconciling letter from its leaders to other English churches on the continent.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Third exile, 1553–1559", "target_page_ids": [ 173400, 37252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 116 ], [ 572, 581 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 1559, Coverdale and his family returned to London, where they lodged with the Duchess of Suffolk, whom they had known at Wesel. He was appointed as preacher and tutor to her children. He wrote to William Cole in Geneva, saying that the duchess had \"like us, the greatest abhorrence of the ceremonies\" (meaning the increasing reversion to the use of vestments).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "London, 1559–1569", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "His stance on vestments was one of the reasons why he was not reinstated to his bishopric. However Hughes believes that it is likely that in his own opinion, he felt too elderly to undertake the responsibility properly. From 1564 to 1566, he was rector of St Magnus the Martyr in the City of London near London Bridge. Coverdale’s first wife, Elizabeth, died early in September 1565, and was buried in St Michael Paternoster Royal, City of London, on the 8th. On 7 April 1566 he married his second wife, Katherine, at the same church. After the summer of 1566, when he had resigned his last living at St Magnus, Coverdale became popular in early Puritan circles, because of his quiet but firm stance against ceremonies and elaborate clerical dress. Due to his opposition to official church practices, he died in poverty aged 80 or 81 on 20 January 1569, in London and was buried at St Bartholomew-by-the-Exchange with a multitude of mourners present. When that church was demolished in 1840 to make way for the new Royal Exchange, his remains were moved to St Magnus, where there is a tablet in his memory on the east wall, close to the altar. Coverdale left no will and on 23 January 1569 letters of administration were granted to his second wife, Katherine. Daniell says that it appears that he has no living descendants.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "London, 1559–1569", "target_page_ids": [ 1202546, 6883, 98370, 8666603, 24091, 17867, 9463644, 421601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 256, 276 ], [ 284, 298 ], [ 304, 317 ], [ 402, 430 ], [ 646, 653 ], [ 857, 863 ], [ 882, 912 ], [ 1015, 1029 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coverdale's legacy has been far-reaching, especially that of his first complete English Bible of 1535.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For the 400th anniversary of the Authorised King James Bible, in 2011, the Church of England issued a resolution, which was endorsed by the General Synod. Starting with the Coverdale Bible, the text included a brief description of the continuing significance of the Authorised King James Bible (1611) and its immediate antecedents:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 16767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Coverdale Bible (1535)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 5431765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Matthew Bible (1537)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 159780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Great Bible (1539)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 176326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Geneva Bible (1557, the New Testament; 1560, the whole Bible)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 173400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Bishops' Bible (1568)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 174117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Rheims-Douai Bible (1582, the New Testament; 1609-1610, the whole Bible)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 424499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Authorised King James Bible (1611)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 16767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As indicated above, Coverdale was involved with the first four of the above. He was partially responsible for Matthew's Bible. In addition to those mentioned above, he produced a diglot New Testament in 1538. He was extensively involved with editing and producing the Great Bible. He was also part of the group of \"Geneva Exiles\" who produced the Geneva Bible – the edition preferred, some ninety-five years later, by Oliver Cromwell's army and his Parliamentarians.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 159780, 173400, 22413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 125 ], [ 347, 359 ], [ 418, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coverdale's translation of the Psalms (based on Luther's version and the Latin Vulgate) have a particular importance in the history of the English Bible. His translation is still used in the Anglican Book of Common Prayer. It is the most familiar translation for many in the Anglican Communion worldwide, particularly those in collegiate and cathedral churches. Many musical settings of the psalms also make use of the Coverdale translation. For example Coverdale's renderings are used in Handel's Messiah, based on the Prayer Book Psalter rather than the King James Bible version.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 24203, 4953, 149131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 37 ], [ 200, 221 ], [ 489, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His translation of the Roman Canon is still used in some Anglican and Anglican Use Roman Catholic churches.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 4543180, 671673, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 34 ], [ 70, 82 ], [ 83, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Less well known is Coverdale’s early involvement in hymn books. Celia Hughes believes that in the days of renewed biblical suppression after 1543, the most important work of Coverdale, apart from his principal Bible translation, was his Ghostly Psalms and Spiritual Songs . This she calls \"the first English hymn book\" and \"the only one until the publication of the collection by Sternhold and Hopkins.\" (This was more than twenty years later). The undated print probably was done parallel to his Bible translation in 1535. Coverdale’s first three hymns are based on the Latin Veni Creator Spiritus, preceding its other English translations such as that of 1625 by Bishop J. Cosin by more than ninety years. However, the majority of the hymns are based on the Protestant hymnbooks from Germany, particularly Johann Walter's settings of Martin Luther's hymns such as Ein feste Burg. Coverdale intended his \"godly songs\" for \"our young men ... and our women spinning at the wheels.\" Thus Hughes argues that he realised that for the less-privileged, his scriptural teaching could be learnt and retained more readily by song rather than by direct access to the Bible, which could often be prohibited. However, his hymnbook also ended up on the list of forbidden books in 1539, and only one complete copy of it survives which is today held in Queen's College, Oxford. Two fragments survived as binding material and are now in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, and in the Beinecke Library at Yale.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 7121792, 6642501, 7567080, 449304, 128372, 86728, 243345, 34273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 578, 599 ], [ 809, 822 ], [ 837, 850 ], [ 867, 881 ], [ 1341, 1364 ], [ 1428, 1452 ], [ 1465, 1481 ], [ 1485, 1489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coverdale is honoured, together with William Tyndale, with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on 6 October. His extensive contacts with English and Continental Reformers was integral to the development of successive versions of the Bible in the English language.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 37669, 180283, 6054604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 52 ], [ 61, 70 ], [ 78, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Remains of Myles Coverdale: Containing Prologues to the Translation of the Bible, Treatise on Death, Hope of the Faithful, Exhortation to the Carrying of Christ's Cross, Exposition Upon the Twenty-Second Psalm, Confutation of the Treatise of John Standish, Defence of a Certain Poor Christian Man, Letters, Ghostly Psalms and Spiritual Songs. (1846)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Writings and Translations of Myles Coverdale: The Old Faith, A Spiritual and Most Precious Pearl, Fruitful Lessons, A Treatise on the Lord's Supper, Order of the Church in Denmark, Abridgment of the Enchiridion of Erasmus (1844)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Memorials Of The Right Reverend Father In God Myles Coverdale, Sometime Lord Bishop Of Exeter; Who First Translated The Whole Bible Into English: Together With Divers Matters Relating To The Promulgation Of The Bible, In The Reign Of Henry The Eighth (1838)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Letters Of The Martyrs: Collected And Published In 1564 With A Preface By Miles Coverdale (1838)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Psalms", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timeline of the English Reformation", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1871784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Censorship of the Bible § England", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60176824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coverdale Bible online", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Royal Berkshire History: Miles Coverdale (1488–1569)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1480s_births", "1569_deaths", "Alumni_of_the_University_of_Cambridge", "Translators_of_the_Bible_into_English", "Bishops_of_Exeter", "People_from_Newbury,_Berkshire", "People_from_Coverdale", "16th-century_English_bishops", "Anglican_saints", "15th-century_English_people", "Marian_exiles", "16th-century_English_Puritan_ministers", "Anglican_biblical_scholars", "15th-century_Anglican_theologians", "16th-century_Anglican_theologians" ]

[ "Miles Coverdale", "John Hollybush", "Jhon Hollybush" ]