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[ { "plaintext": "Kingdom may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A type of monarchy", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Monarchy", "target_page_ids": [ 19013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A realm ruled by:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Monarchy", "target_page_ids": [ 5612299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A king, during the reign of a male monarch", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Monarchy", "target_page_ids": [ 52374650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A queen regnant, during the reign of a female monarch", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Monarchy", "target_page_ids": [ 887147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom (biology), a category in biological taxonomy", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 53664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom (British TV series), a 2007 British television drama starring Stephen Fry", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 10122333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom (American TV series), a 2014 US television drama starring Frank Grillo", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 44010356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom (South Korean TV series), a 2019 South Korean television series", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 54469332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Legendary War, a 2021 South Korean television series", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom (group), a South Korean boy group", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 67306256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom (Koda Kumi album), 2008", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 14384063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom (Bilal Hassani album), 2019", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 60678380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom (Covenant Worship album), 2014", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 48494922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdoms (Life in Your Way album), 2011", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 9843026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdoms (Broadway album), 2009", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 33979747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom (EP), a 1998 EP by Vader", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 42065769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Kingdom\" (Dave Gahan song), 2007", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 12936672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Kingdom\" (Maverick City Music and Kirk Franklin song), 2022", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 70929120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Kingdom\", a song by Battle Beast on their 2013 album Battle Beast", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 42628125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Kingdom\", a song by Susumu Hirasawa on his 1995 album Sim City", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 9203263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Kingdom\", a song by Soulfly on their 2010 album Omen", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 26083278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Kingdom\", a song by Devin Townsend Project on their 2012 album Epicloud", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 35082956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Kingdom\", a song by Wolf & Cub on their 2006 album Vessels", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 10344491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdoms (board game), a board game by Reiner Knizia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 1462292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom (comics), a comic series by Dan Abnett and Richard Elson published in the weekly 2000 AD", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 11783109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom (magazine), an American quarterly", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 26540582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom (manga), a 2006 Japanese manga", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 33790633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kingdom (film), 2019 live action film based on the above", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 58728296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom (video game), a 2015 video game", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Arts and media", "target_page_ids": [ 48445080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Park Yong-Wook, also known as \"Kingdom\", a professional Korean StarCraft player", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 24227412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806–1859), English engineer", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 4482809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Johnny Kingdom (1939–2018), English wildlife filmmaker", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 8104055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roger Kingdom, American hurdler", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 804243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom Holding Company, a Saudi investment company", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 1955519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Kingdom (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3280363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kingdom of God ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 403882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In geometry, confocal means having the same foci: confocal conic sections.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18973446, 1032607, 54142755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 44, 48 ], [ 50, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For an optical cavity consisting of two mirrors, confocal means that they share their foci. If they are identical mirrors, their radius of curvature, Rmirror, equals L, where L is the distance between the mirrors.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4463104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In conic sections, it is said of two ellipses, two hyperbolas, or an ellipse and a hyperbola which share both foci with each other. If an ellipse and a hyperbola are confocal, they are perpendicular to each other.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19008673, 9277, 14052, 76944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 38, 45 ], [ 52, 61 ], [ 186, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In optics, it means that one focus or image point of one lens is the same as one focus of the next lens.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22483, 1032610, 18320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 30, 35 ], [ 100, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Confocal laser scanning microscopy", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1186904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Confocal microscopy", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1186904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] } ]

[ "Elementary_geometry", "Optics" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Szczerbiec () is the ceremonial sword used in the coronations of most Polish monarchs from 1320 to 1764. It now is displayed in the treasure vault of the royal Wawel Castle in Kraków, as the only preserved part of the medieval Polish crown jewels. The sword is noted for its hilt, decorated with magical formulae, Christian symbols, and floral patterns, as well as for the narrow slit in the blade which holds a small shield with the coat of arms of Poland. The name of the sword, derived from the Polish word szczerba (\"gap\", \"notch\", or \"chip\"), may be rendered into English as \"the Notched Sword\" or \"the Jagged Sword\", though the edges of its blade are straight and smooth.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27863, 226191, 26288, 1988124, 16815, 2024733, 10326216, 610722, 22975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 37 ], [ 50, 60 ], [ 70, 85 ], [ 160, 172 ], [ 176, 182 ], [ 227, 246 ], [ 314, 331 ], [ 434, 456 ], [ 499, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A legend links Szczerbiec with King Boleslaus I the Brave who was said to have chipped the sword by hitting it against the Golden Gate of Kiev during his intervention in the Kievan succession crisis in 1018. However, the Golden Gate was only constructed in 1037 and the sword is actually dated to the late 12th or 13th century. It was first used as a coronation sword by Ladislaus the Short in 1320. Looted by Prussian troops in 1795, it changed hands several times during the 19th century until it was purchased in 1884 for the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg. The Soviet Union returned it to Poland in 1928. During the Second World War, Szczerbiec was evacuated to Canada and did not return to Kraków until 1959. In the 20th century, an image of the sword was adopted as a symbol by Polish nationalist and far-right movements.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38999, 2598964, 585629, 3272867, 92302, 371248, 175403, 24320051, 26779, 32927, 5042916, 21748, 221220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 57 ], [ 123, 134 ], [ 138, 142 ], [ 150, 198 ], [ 371, 390 ], [ 410, 417 ], [ 529, 545 ], [ 549, 565 ], [ 571, 583 ], [ 626, 642 ], [ 672, 678 ], [ 797, 808 ], [ 813, 822 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Szczerbiec is a ceremonial sword bearing rich Gothic ornamentation, dated to the mid-13th century. It is classified as a type XII sword with a type pommel and a type 6 crossguard according to the Oakeshott typology, although the blade may have changed its shape due to centuries of corrosion and intensive cleaning before every coronation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 4171369, 894938, 64480, 3490116, 2421843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 33 ], [ 47, 53 ], [ 150, 156 ], [ 170, 180 ], [ 198, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The hilt consists of a round pommel, a flat grip and an arched crossguard. The grip is long, thick, and from wide. It is rectangular in cross-section and its hard edges make it difficult to handle and impractical for fighting, which is indicative of the sword's purely ceremonial usage. The pommel is in diameter and thick, with a chamfered outer ring that is wide. The crossguard forms an arch that is wide in the middle and widens up to at both ends. It is thick near the grip and measures in length along its upper edge.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The pommel and the crossguard are made of silver. The core of the grip is a brass chest encasing the tang of the blade. It was probably made in the 19th century to replace an original organic core, which had decomposed. At the same time the tang was riveted to the top of the pommel. The head of the rivet, which is in diameter, rests atop a rectangular washer measuring .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 1941839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All parts of the hilt are covered with golden plates, which are engraved with sharp or rounded styli and decorated with niello, or black metallic inlay that contrasts against the golden background. Each plate is thick and made of about 18-carat gold. The niello designs include inscriptions written in late Romanesque majuscule (with some uncial additions), Christian symbols, and floral patterns. The floral ornaments are in negative, that is, golden against a black, nielloed background.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 236388, 2039517, 1356272, 2909127, 625125, 100824, 10326216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 100 ], [ 120, 126 ], [ 240, 245 ], [ 308, 318 ], [ 319, 328 ], [ 340, 346 ], [ 359, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the obverse side of the hilt, the pommel bears a large stylized letter T on top of a letter C or G (the latter could be just a decorative element of the letter T) between the Greek letters Α and ω (alpha and omega) surmounted with little crosses. Below the letter T, there is another cross placed within a cloud or flower with twelve petals. On the chamfered edge around this design runs a circular Latin inscription in two rings which reads: Rec figura talet ad amorem regum / et principum iras iudicum (\"This sign rouses the love of kings and princes, the wrath of judges\"). The grip bears the symbols of two of the Four Evangelists: the lion of Saint Mark and the ox of Saint Luke, as well as an Agnus Dei (Lamb of God). The crossguard bears the following Latin inscription: Quicumque hec / nomina Deii secum tu/lerit nullum periculum / ei omnino nocebit (\"Whoever will carry these names of God with him, no danger will harm him\").", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 378212, 715909, 1271408, 7303, 17730, 803132, 39201, 18710, 212235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 14 ], [ 179, 184 ], [ 202, 217 ], [ 242, 247 ], [ 403, 408 ], [ 622, 638 ], [ 652, 662 ], [ 677, 687 ], [ 715, 726 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The reverse side of the pommel is decorated with a vine bush surrounded by a wreath of vine leaves. On the reverse of the grip, there are the eagle of Saint John and the angel of Saint Matthew, and another Agnus Dei. The crossguard bears, above another pattern of vine leaves, an inscription in corrupted Hebrew in Latin script: Con citomon Eeve Sedalai Ebrebel (\"Fervent faith incite the names of God: Sedalai and Ebrehel\"). On the opposite ends of the crossguard, there are again the symbols of Saints John and Matthew.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 16555, 20672, 13450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 161 ], [ 179, 192 ], [ 306, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The circumference of the pommel is decorated with a rhombic pattern, while the upper side of the crossguard – with a similar triangular pattern. The narrow sides of the grip used to be embellished with inscribed silver plates, which, however, were lost in the 19th century. These lost inscriptions are partly known from graphical documentation made by King Stanislaus Augustus's court painter, Johann Christoph Werner, in 1764 and by Jacek Przybylski in 1792. One of the plates had already been broken by that time with only part of the inscription preserved: Liste est glaud... h Bolezlai Duc... (\"This is a sword of... Duke Boleslaus...\"); the inscription on the other plate continued: Cum quo ei D[omi]n[us] SOS [Salvator Omnipotens Salvator] auxiletur ad[ver]sus partes amen (\"With whom is the Omnipotent Lord and Savior, to help him against his enemies. Amen\"). The missing part of the first inscription is only known from an old replica of Szczerbiec which once belonged to the Radziwiłł family (see Historical replicas below). The full inscription read: Iste est gladius Principis et haeredis Boleslai Ducis Poloniae et Masoviae, Lanciciae (\"This is a sword of Hereditary Prince Boleslaus, Duke of Poland, Masovia, and Łęczyca\"). The identity of this Duke Boleslaus is uncertain.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 350061, 1241618, 33543971, 857772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 357, 378 ], [ 984, 1000 ], [ 1213, 1220 ], [ 1226, 1233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Use-wear analysis indicates that the plates on the pommel and the crossguard were made by the same artist, while the plates on the grip were added later. The latter – obverse and reverse – were probably decorated in the same workshop and using the same tools, but by two different craftsmen. Moreover, a side plate with a rhombic pattern was added in the 19th century to replace one of the lost inscribed side plates.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 3649722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preserved images of Szczerbiec from various points in time indicate that the decorative plates were several times dismounted and placed again on the hilt in variable configurations. The current composition, with the symbols of the Evangelists duplicated on each side of the hilt, matches that known from the earliest preserved depiction drafted by Johann Christoph Werner in 1794. It is possible, though, that the original placement of the golden plates was different, with the symbols of Saints John and Matthew on the obverse of the grip, so that each side of the hilt displayed the symbols of all four of the Evangelists.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The blade is long, up to wide (about 5cm from the crossguard) and thick. The fuller is about long and, on average, wide. Metallographic analysis has shown that the blade was forged from unevenly carburized semi-hard bloomery steel. Apart from iron, the material contains, by weight, 0.6 percent of carbon, 0.153 percent of silicon, 0.092 percent of phosphorus, and other elements. Numerous slag inclusions found in the steel are typical for medieval iron smelting technology. Part of the blade was hardened by quenching. Unlike the hilt, the blade would have been fully functional as a weapon of war. The surface of the blade is covered with deep scratches along its length, a result of intensive cleaning from rust before every coronation, probably with sand or brick powder. Inactive spots of corrosion may be also found on the entire surface.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 805988, 2322835, 1278542, 1473011, 14734, 5299, 27114, 23318, 250438, 1166049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 86 ], [ 126, 140 ], [ 200, 210 ], [ 221, 229 ], [ 248, 252 ], [ 303, 309 ], [ 328, 335 ], [ 354, 364 ], [ 395, 399 ], [ 515, 524 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Just below the hilt, there are three perforations in the fuller of the blade. The largest is a rectangular slot that is long and wide. This opening, known in Polish as szczyrba or szczerba, was originally caused by rust and, in the 19th century, polished into a regular shape. A small heraldic shield colored with oil paint is fastened to the slot. It is roughly triangular in shape, with the sides measuring from . The shield, bearing the White Eagle of Poland, was originally attached to the scabbard, or sheath. The Gothic scabbard, with a golden or silver locket and chape, was probably created in 1320 and lost between 1819 and 1874. The shield is the only preserved element of the sheath. It was tilted to the left – from the onlooker's point of view – while it was fastened to the scabbard's locket, but today it is aligned with the blade. The eagle on the red field of the shield is white, with a golden crown, bands across the wings, ring on the tail, and talons. The two other perforations are round holes, apart. The upper one, just below the slot, is in diameter, while the other measures only . They were probably punched in the 19th century to fasten the heraldic shield to the blade.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 610722, 29463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 442, 453 ], [ 496, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Szczerbiec is owned by the Wawel Royal Castle National Art Collection (inventory number 137) in Kraków, the former capital city of Poland. As the only preserved of Polish medieval coronation insignia, it is a prominent part of the museum's Treasury and Armory permanent exhibition. The sword is suspended horizontally inside a glass case in the middle of the Jagiełło and Hedwig Vault located on the ground floor in the northeastern corner of the Wawel Castle.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Location", "target_page_ids": [ 28203357, 16815, 42586, 16419, 1988124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 69 ], [ 96, 102 ], [ 359, 367 ], [ 372, 378 ], [ 447, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historical accounts related to the early history of the Polish coronation sword are scant and often mixed with legend. The earliest known use of the name \"Szczerbiec\" appeared in the Chronicle of Greater Poland at the turn of the 14th century. According to this source, the sword was given to King Boleslaus the Brave (reigned 992–1025) by an angel; Polish kings were supposed to always carry it in battle to triumph over their enemies. During Boleslaus's invasion of Kievan Rus', he hit it against the Golden Gate of Kyiv while capturing the city. It was the notch that appeared on the edge of the blade which gave the sword its name. This account, written three centuries after the events it describes, is implausible not only because of the customary reference to the sword's supernatural origin (compare Excalibur), but also because Boleslaus's intervention in the Kievan succession crisis took place in 1018, or about 19 years before the actual construction of the Golden Gate in 1037.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39770744, 38999, 21486360, 2598964, 585629, 9717, 3272867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 210 ], [ 298, 317 ], [ 468, 479 ], [ 503, 514 ], [ 518, 522 ], [ 808, 817 ], [ 837, 893 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is plausible, though, that Boleslaus did chip his sword by striking it against an earlier gate in Kiev. His great-grandson, Boleslaus the Bold (), hit the Golden Gate with a sword in 1069, which would indicate that it was a customary gesture of gaining control over a city. It is also possible that this sword was preserved as a souvenir of past victories venerated by Boleslaus the Brave's successors. According to Wincenty Kadłubek's Chronicle, Boleslaus Wrymouth () had a favorite sword he called Żuraw or Grus (\"Crane\"). A scribe who copied the chronicle in 1450 added the word Szczurbycz above the word Żuraw, but whether these two swords were one and the same is uncertain.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 29786942, 1216941, 10839337, 60750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 145 ], [ 419, 436 ], [ 439, 448 ], [ 450, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Chronicle of Greater Poland, the sword was kept in the treasury of the Wawel Cathedral. The ultimate fate of the original Szczerbiec is unknown. It may have been taken to Prague, together with other royal insignia, by King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia after his coronation as king of Poland in Gniezno in 1300. What happened with these insignia thereafter remains a mystery. Although Boleslaus the Brave's notched sword has not been preserved and even its very existence is doubtful, its legend had a great impact on Polish historical memory and the treatment of its successor, the modern Szczerbiec.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1132032, 23844, 251548, 60628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 104 ], [ 189, 195 ], [ 241, 265 ], [ 308, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sword currently known as Szczerbiec was forged and decorated in a style characteristic of the late 12th and 13th centuries, so it could not have belonged to any of the three great Boleslauses of the 11th and early 12th centuries. Additionally, it is a purely ceremonial sword which, unlike the original Szczerbiec, was never used in combat. It was originally used as a sword of justice (gladius iustitiae), or insignia of the sovereign's judicial power, by one of the many local dukes during Poland's Age of Fragmentation. A silver plate, now lost, on the sword's grip bore an inscription which indicated a duke by the name Boleslaus as its original owner. An inscription on the Radziwiłłs' replica of Szczerbiec, now also lost, could provide an additional hint as to the duke's identity: \"Boleslaus, Duke of Poland, Masovia, and Łęczyca\" – except that no duke of this name and titles ever existed. Historians have variously identified the duke in question as Boleslaus the Curly (), Boleslaus the Chaste (), Boleslaus I of Masovia () or Boleslaus the Pious of Greater Poland ().", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2692387, 27041853, 33543971, 857772, 374572, 517513, 24872308, 375660, 45367947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 373, 389 ], [ 505, 525 ], [ 821, 828 ], [ 834, 841 ], [ 964, 983 ], [ 988, 1008 ], [ 1013, 1035 ], [ 1043, 1062 ], [ 1066, 1080 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a coronation sword, Szczerbiec was first specifically mentioned by Jan Długosz in his account of the crowning of King Casimir IV (), but it was probably first used in a coronation ceremony by King Ladislaus the Short () in 1320, by which time he had reunited most of the core territories of Poland. If Szczerbiec had previously belonged to his uncle, Boleslaus I of Masovia, or his father-in-law, Boleslaus the Pious, then he could have inherited it. If it had belonged to any of the two Boleslauses who had ruled from Kraków as high dukes of all Poland, then Ladislaus could have simply found it in the Wawel Cathedral. Thereafter, Szczerbiec became an integral part of the Polish Crown Jewels, shared their fate, and was the principal ceremonial sword used in coronations of all Polish kings until 1764, except Jogaila (1386), Stephen Báthory (1576), Stanislaus I Leszczyński (1705), and Augustus III Wettin (1734).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16417, 39064, 92302, 16815, 1132032, 2024733, 26288, 42586, 28407, 148465, 247725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 81 ], [ 121, 131 ], [ 200, 219 ], [ 522, 528 ], [ 607, 622 ], [ 678, 697 ], [ 784, 796 ], [ 816, 823 ], [ 832, 847 ], [ 856, 880 ], [ 893, 912 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Szczerbiec, together with other crown jewels, was removed from the Wawel Hill on several occasions during that period. After his Polish coronation in 1370, King Louis I of Hungary took the crown jewels with him to Buda; his successor on the Hungarian throne, Emperor Sigismund, rendered them to Poland in 1412. On two occasions, in mid-17th and early 18th centuries, they were evacuated across Poland's southern border to protect them from invading Swedish armies. In 1733, during the War of the Polish Succession, supporters of King Stanislaus I concealed the jewels in a Warsaw church for three years to prevent Augustus III from using them in his coronation. In 1764, they were sent to Warsaw again, to be used in a coronation for the last time – that of Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski. They were returned to Kraków afterwards.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1988124, 38740, 95472, 38889, 33514, 148465, 32908, 247725, 350061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 77 ], [ 161, 179 ], [ 214, 218 ], [ 259, 276 ], [ 485, 513 ], [ 534, 546 ], [ 573, 579 ], [ 614, 626 ], [ 758, 789 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During a typical Polish coronation ceremony in the times of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the king-elect received Szczerbiec after his anointment and before being crowned and enthroned. The primate of Poland, that is the archbishop of Gniezno, picked up the unsheathed sword from the altar and handed it to the kneeling king. At the same time, he recited a formula which asked the monarch to use the sword to rule justly, defend the Church, fight evil, protect widows and orphans, and to \"rebuild what is damaged, maintain what is rebuilt, avenge what is unjust, reinforce what is well managed,\" etc. Then, the king handed the sword to the Crown sword-bearer (miecznik koronny), who slid it into the scabbard and passed on to the primate. The primate, aided by the Crown and Lithuanian sword-bearers, fastened the scabbard to the king's belt. The king stood up and, facing onlookers, withdrew Szczerbiec, made three times the sign of the cross with it, and wiped it against his left arm before replacing it in the scabbard. The king's sword-wielding abilities were closely watched by his new subjects during this part of the ritual. When Augustus III betrayed his poor fencing skills at his coronation, nobles joked that they were going to have \"a peaceful lord\". After Szczerbiec, a bishop handed the sovereign the Grunwald Swords symbolizing the monarch's reign over the two constituent nations of the Commonwealth.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 343234, 68676, 1807200, 2040289, 60628, 1343895, 631995, 14077507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 94 ], [ 141, 151 ], [ 181, 190 ], [ 196, 213 ], [ 241, 248 ], [ 666, 674 ], [ 932, 949 ], [ 1322, 1337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout the period from Casimir the Great () to Stanislaus Augustus, Polish crown jewels were commonly believed to date back to the times of Boleslaus the Brave. This conviction helped maintain a sense of continuity of Polish statehood and provide legitimacy for the nation's kings, implicitly making each Polish monarch a successor of the ancient and glorious legacy of the first king of the House of Piast. Accordingly, the coronation sword took over the name and the legend of the original Szczerbiec. The corrosion-induced slit in the blade became associated with the fabled szczerba, or notch that Boleslaus had purportedly made on his sword in Kiev. The power of tradition was so strong that when Stanislaus Augustus's court painter, Marcello Bacciarelli, who had made detailed studies of Polish crown jewels, painted an imaginary portrait of Boleslaus the Brave, he chose to depict Szczerbiec so that its appearance agreed with legend rather than reality. The images of the coronation crown and sword are overall meticulously accurate, but Bacciarelli's Szczerbiec lacks the slit and has a chipped edge instead.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7362, 574823, 60738, 5388833, 28196466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 44 ], [ 251, 261 ], [ 396, 410 ], [ 743, 763 ], [ 984, 1000 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1794, during the failed Kościuszko Uprising which led to the final partition of Poland a year later, Prussian troops captured Kraków. In the following year, on King Frederick William II's orders, the treasure vault of the Wawel Castle was looted and the crown jewels taken to Breslau (now Wrocław in Poland), then to Berlin, and finally to Königsberg (now Kaliningrad in Russia). Between 1809 and 1811 most of the jewels were melted down, but some, including Szczerbiec, were put up for sale. The coronation sword was acquired by the future Russian minister of justice, Prince Dmitry Lobanov-Rostovsky, who probably hoped to resell it to one of Polish aristocrats. In 1819, he approached General Wincenty Krasiński, speaker of the Sejm (parliament) of the \"Congress\" Kingdom of Poland. The prince did not disclose the actual source of the sword and claimed to have bought it in Moscow from an Armenian merchant who had found the weapon somewhere between Belgrade and Rusçuk (now Ruse in Bulgaria) during the recent Russo-Turkish War. Krasiński, who was a known antique weapon collector, suspected it could be Szczerbiec, but asked Prof. Sebastiano Ciampi, a historian of the Warsaw University, for opinion. Ciampi examined the lithography Krasiński had had made of the sword, but was unsure whether it was the actual Szczerbiec. As a consequence, Krasiński declined Lobanov-Rostovsky's offer.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 404193, 1270076, 371248, 213668, 33603, 3354, 40387679, 21253328, 1863135, 28167, 375568, 19004, 55904, 274597, 561861, 11157563, 18426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 46 ], [ 64, 89 ], [ 104, 111 ], [ 168, 188 ], [ 292, 299 ], [ 320, 326 ], [ 359, 370 ], [ 580, 604 ], [ 699, 717 ], [ 734, 738 ], [ 759, 787 ], [ 881, 887 ], [ 957, 965 ], [ 982, 986 ], [ 1018, 1035 ], [ 1179, 1196 ], [ 1231, 1242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lobanov-Rostovsky ultimately sold Szczerbiec to Prince Anatoly Demidov, who kept it together with the rest of the Demidov collection in his Villa San Donato near Florence. In 1870, the sword was bought for 20,000 French francs by Alexander Basilevsky, Russian ambassador to France and great art collector. In 1878, he displayed Szczerbiec at the World's Fair in Paris. By that time, the scabbard had been lost and the sword itself was presented as of Teutonic origin. It was seen by several Polish visitors who speculated whether it could be the Polish coronation sword. In 1884, the entire Basilevsky collection was purchased by Emperor Alexander III of Russia for the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg. Both Polish and other experts at the time expressed doubts as to the authenticity of Szczerbiec held in Russia's largest museum (see Historical replicas below). An international museum congress held in Saint Petersburg in 1913 pronounced the sword a 17th-century replica.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13614850, 21452477, 21443867, 11525, 444835, 402268, 22989, 30776, 1592, 175403, 24320051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 70 ], [ 114, 132 ], [ 140, 156 ], [ 162, 170 ], [ 213, 225 ], [ 346, 358 ], [ 362, 367 ], [ 451, 459 ], [ 638, 661 ], [ 670, 686 ], [ 690, 706 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1917, as a result of the October Revolution, Russia became a communist state. In the aftermath of World War I, Poland reemerged as an independent country in the following year. From 1919 to 1921, the two states fought the Polish–Soviet War which was concluded with the Peace of Riga. Article 11 of the peace treaty required that the Soviet side return all culturally significant collections and items that had been removed from Poland since the First Partition in 1772. A special bilateral committee was set up to carry out the restitution of cultural goods. In 1928, the committee's efforts resulted in the return to Poland of, among other national treasures, Szczerbiec, which, after 133 years, was deposited back in the Wawel Castle.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22661, 4764461, 353000, 380909, 26779, 14666070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 46 ], [ 101, 112 ], [ 225, 242 ], [ 272, 285 ], [ 336, 342 ], [ 448, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 3 September 1939, two days after Germany invaded Poland triggering the Second World War, began the evacuation of the most precious national treasures, including Szczerbiec, from the Wawel Castle. The cargo was transported on barges, wagons, buses and trucks to Romania. From there, it was shipped by sea to France and later to Britain. On the way from Bordeaux to Falmouth, the ship carrying Polish national treasures came under fire from the Luftwaffe. Karol Estreicher, who oversaw the evacuation, decided then to remove Szczerbiec from a chest and sandwich it between two wooden planks, and to attach to them an explanatory message in a bottle – so that in the event that the ship was sunk, at least the coronation sword could be salvaged. When the German bombing of Britain began in July 1940, the valuables were transported aboard the Polish ocean liner MS Batory to Canada and finally deposited at the Polish consulate and then other locations in Ottawa. After the war, one of the custodians of the national treasures, who remained loyal to the London-based Polish government-in-exile, was reluctant to return them to Poland, which had fallen under communist rule and Soviet influence. After lengthy negotiations, the first batch of the most important objects, including Szczerbiec, was ultimately returned in 1959; the rest followed in 1961. Since then, the Polish coronation sword has been on permanent display in the treasure vault of the Wawel Castle.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21212, 4764461, 4097, 73311, 17885, 37335215, 2511505, 57974, 7644654, 22219, 17867, 539820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 43 ], [ 74, 90 ], [ 355, 363 ], [ 367, 375 ], [ 446, 455 ], [ 457, 473 ], [ 630, 649 ], [ 755, 780 ], [ 862, 871 ], [ 956, 962 ], [ 1054, 1060 ], [ 1067, 1093 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A treasury inventory of the Radziwiłł family's Nieśwież Castle (now Nesvizh in Belarus) made in 1740 includes a detailed description of a sword decorated with symbols of the Evangelists and inscriptions identical to those on Szczerbiec. According to the inventory, it was a gift from Crown Prince Jakub Sobieski to Prince Michał Radziwiłł, but the original source of the supposed replica was not given. An inventory made in 1738 of the treasure vault of the Sobieski family's Żółkiew Castle (now Zhovkva in Ukraine) mentions \"an estoc (koncerz) covered with golden plates bearing images of the Four Evangelists; Skanderbek's.\" Based on this record, historian Aleksander Czołowski hypothesized that a replica of Szczerbiec was forged as early as 1457 and awarded to George Kastrioti Skanderbeg, the national leader of Albania, in recognition of his victory over the Ottoman forces (see Battle of Ujëbardha). After King John III Sobieski defeated the Ottomans in the Battle of Vienna in 1683, Albanians presumably returned the sword to him. His son, Jakub, possibly passed it on to Michał Radziwiłł as a present.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Historical replicas", "target_page_ids": [ 1241618, 2242617, 1897080, 48469, 1306028, 21721631, 3155320, 213432, 2099238, 10780405, 22278, 1682841, 48303, 84274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 44 ], [ 47, 62 ], [ 68, 75 ], [ 297, 311 ], [ 322, 338 ], [ 458, 473 ], [ 496, 503 ], [ 529, 534 ], [ 536, 543 ], [ 765, 792 ], [ 865, 872 ], [ 885, 904 ], [ 918, 935 ], [ 965, 981 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are doubts, however, whether the swords known to have been at Żółkiew in 1738 and at Nieśwież two years later, were in fact the same sword. The Radziwiłłs' castle was plundered by the Russian army in 1812 and the subsequent fate of their replica of Szczerbiec is unknown. This fact cast doubts over the authenticity of Szczerbiec held in the Hermitage. Some experts suspected that the sword possessed by the Russian imperial museum was in fact the Nieśwież replica, not part of the original royal insignia.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Historical replicas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another historically notable replica of Szczerbiec was produced probably in Dresden, Saxony, at the time when the original was in Prussian hands. It is modest and inexact; the handle is carved in bovine bone and the niello is imitated with black paint. Designs on the handle are patterned on those of the genuine Szczerbiec, except that the crosses and letters on the pommel were replaced with the coat of arms of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The blade was initially shorter than that of the original, actually typical for a stiletto. It was purchased in Dresden by art historian Edward Rastawiecki, who in 1869 donated it to the archeological collection of the Jagiellonian University of Kraków. The university lost it during the German occupation in World War II. After the war, the replica found itself in the hands of Tadeusz Janowski who smuggled it to the United States in 1947. At around that time, the short stiletto blade was replaced with a long blade of a 16th-century German sword. To imitate Szczerbiec, a slit was cut in the blade and small heraldic shields were attached to it on both sides. During the communist rule in Poland, the Polish American community of Chicago treated the replica as a symbol of Poland's independence. In 1968, it was demonstrated to U.S. Senator Robert F. Kennedy while he was meeting with Polish Americans during his presidential campaign. Janowski returned the sword to the Jagiellonian University in 2003.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Historical replicas", "target_page_ids": [ 37410, 264007, 343234, 1113089, 29907702, 38078, 355133, 387623, 6886, 21131695, 14057669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 83 ], [ 85, 91 ], [ 418, 448 ], [ 532, 540 ], [ 587, 605 ], [ 669, 692 ], [ 1125, 1149 ], [ 1155, 1170 ], [ 1184, 1191 ], [ 1295, 1312 ], [ 1363, 1388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the interwar period, a simplified image of Szczerbiec wrapped three times in a white-and-red ribbon was adopted as a symbol of Polish nationalist organizations led by Roman Dmowski – the Camp of Great Poland (Obóz Wielkiej Polski), the National Party (Stronnictwo Narodowe), and the All-Polish Youth (Młodzież Wszechpolska). Their members wore it as a badge called , or \"Little Sword of [Boleslaus] the Brave\". The symbol was also sewn onto the left sleeve of the sand shirt which was part of the Camp of Great Poland uniform. Among the politicians who wore the badge before World War II were Roman Dmowski, Władysław Grabski, Wojciech Korfanty, Roman Rybarski, and Wojciech Jaruzelski. It was banned in 1938 during the \"Sanation\" period. During World War II, the badge was used by right-wing anti-Nazi and anti-Soviet military resistance groups, the National Armed Forces (Narodowe Siły Zbrojne) and the National Military Organization (Narodowa Organizacja Wojskowa). After the fall of communism in Poland, the Mieczyk Chrobrego symbol was readopted by new or reactivated nationalist and far-right organizations, including League of Polish Families (Liga Polskich Rodzin), All-Polish Youth and the Camp of Great Poland. Additionally, Szczerbiec is the title of a periodical published since 1991 by a minor radical nationalist party, the National Revival of Poland (Narodowe Odrodzenie Polski).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Modern symbolism", "target_page_ids": [ 381489, 14281911, 8881536, 4153339, 38999, 1168220, 642754, 2187442, 51250, 374963, 31045316, 376835, 12154732, 1665978, 221220, 726068, 39001327, 1108038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 183 ], [ 190, 210 ], [ 239, 253 ], [ 286, 302 ], [ 390, 411 ], [ 611, 628 ], [ 630, 647 ], [ 649, 663 ], [ 669, 688 ], [ 724, 732 ], [ 801, 805 ], [ 854, 875 ], [ 908, 938 ], [ 982, 1009 ], [ 1092, 1101 ], [ 1127, 1152 ], [ 1202, 1222 ], [ 1341, 1367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2005, the Polish Football Association, in an attempt to fight racism among Polish football fans, prepared a blacklist of most common racist and fascist symbols to be banned from Polish football stadiums. The catalog, co-authored by independent anti-fascist organization Never Again (Nigdy Więcej), listed the Mieczyk Chrobrego as one of the extreme right symbols that are often displayed at the Polish stadiums. The catalog listed other racist and fascist symbols like the Nazi swastika, the Celtic cross, and the Confederate Flag. After a protest by MEP Sylwester Chruszcz of the League of Polish Families, additional consultations were held with historians, academic researchers and other experts and as a result the symbol is still listed in the catalog of extreme-right symbols banned at Polish football stadiums. It was also banned by UEFA during Euro 2008 and 2012.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Modern symbolism", "target_page_ids": [ 1265430, 25613, 11054, 41612950, 45943, 322740, 189155, 258909, 1806439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 40 ], [ 136, 142 ], [ 147, 154 ], [ 247, 259 ], [ 481, 489 ], [ 495, 507 ], [ 517, 533 ], [ 554, 557 ], [ 558, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The symbolic use of Szczerbiec became a bone of contention again in 2009. After a monument to the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (Ukrayins'ka Povstans'ka Armiya) on the Mountain in southeastern Poland was vandalized, authorities of the Ukrainian city of Lviv demanded the removal of an image of Szczerbiec from the local Polish military cemetery. The Ukrainians, recalling the legendary use of the original sword in a Polish invasion of Kiev, argued it was a Polish nationalist, militaristic and anti-Ukrainian symbol.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Modern symbolism", "target_page_ids": [ 1045217, 49968, 2906063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 122 ], [ 249, 253 ], [ 316, 340 ] ] } ]

[ "Polish_Crown_Jewels", "Medieval_European_swords", "National_symbols_of_Poland", "Individual_weapons" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Pilbara Iron is a wholly owned subsidiary of the multinational Rio Tinto Group, that manages assets for Hamersley Iron Pty Ltd, a wholly owned subsidiary of Rio Tinto, and Robe River Iron Associates, an unincorporated joint venture between Rio (53% and operator since 2000) and three Japanese steel companies Mitsui Iron Ore Development P/L (33%), Nippon Steel Australia P/L (10.5%) and Sumitomo Metal Australia P/L (3.5%).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1097432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All of these companies are involved in the mining of iron ore, predominantly from the Pilbara region of Western Australia.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20381, 145352, 491918, 33613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 49 ], [ 53, 61 ], [ 86, 93 ], [ 104, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2004, Rio Tinto announced that Robe and Hamersley would start merging operations under the new Pilbara Iron entity. The concept had been tested by the formation of Pilbara Rail in 2001, which generated more than $16 million in savings. Pilbara Rail was folded into Pilbara Iron in 2005. Each company continues to market products separately and retains ownership and profits from the underlying mines, as well as strategic development of their own mineral resources.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mine sites currently operating:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Current mine sites", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Brockman 4 mine (2010)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Current mine sites", "target_page_ids": [ 29505200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mesa A mine (2010)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Current mine sites", "target_page_ids": [ 29498292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hope Downs mine (2007)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Current mine sites", "target_page_ids": [ 29505000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hope Downs 4 mine (2014)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Current mine sites", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Eastern Range mine (2004)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Current mine sites", "target_page_ids": [ 29498720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nammuldi mine (2003)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Current mine sites", "target_page_ids": [ 29498110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " West Angelas mine (2002)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Current mine sites", "target_page_ids": [ 29498792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yandicoogina mine (1998)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Current mine sites", "target_page_ids": [ 29504928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mesa J mine (1994)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Current mine sites", "target_page_ids": [ 29498516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marandoo mine (1994)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Current mine sites", "target_page_ids": [ 29498191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brockman mine (1992)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Current mine sites", "target_page_ids": [ 29483147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Channar mine (1990)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Current mine sites", "target_page_ids": [ 29498637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paraburdoo mine (1972)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Current mine sites", "target_page_ids": [ 29498574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mount Tom Price mine (1966)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Current mine sites", "target_page_ids": [ 29498153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All iron ore mined at the sites is transported on the Hamersley & Robe River railway, one of the world's largest privately owned railroads to either the port of Dampier, Western Australia or Cape Lambert near Wickham, Western Australia. From there the ore is shipped across the world, with China and Japan the largest markets as of 2007.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Current mine sites", "target_page_ids": [ 22073343, 409122, 29526274, 2824636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 84 ], [ 161, 187 ], [ 191, 203 ], [ 209, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 1967 - Hamersley Holdings Limited shares list on the ASX", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " May 1974 - Hamersley Europe Pty. Limited incorporated", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Historical events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The film Red Dog, based on stories about an actual wandering dog of the Pilbara region, was made at Hamersley Iron locations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Film Red Dog", "target_page_ids": [ 32635381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pilbara historical timeline", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11928237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pilbara newspapers", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11608458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rio Tinto Iron Ore Official website", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Mining_companies_of_Australia", "Companies_based_in_Perth,_Western_Australia", "Pilbara", "Rio_Tinto_Iron_Ore" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Lullingstone Roman Villa is a villa built during the Roman occupation of Britain, situated in Lullingstone near the village of Eynsford in Kent, south eastern England. The villa is located in the Darent Valley, along with six others, including those at Crofton, Crayford and Dartford. Constructed in the 1st century, perhaps around 80-90 CE, the house was repeatedly expanded and occupied until it was destroyed by fire in the 4th or 5th century. The villa was occupied over various periods within the Romano-British period, but after its destruction, it is only thought to have been reoccupied during the Medieval Times. The occupants were most likely wealthy Romans or native Britons who had adopted Roman customs.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39845, 13525, 1448445, 1240913, 16766, 939950, 1707522, 93950, 1211852, 2208391, 118568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 35 ], [ 53, 80 ], [ 94, 106 ], [ 127, 135 ], [ 139, 143 ], [ 196, 209 ], [ 253, 260 ], [ 262, 270 ], [ 275, 283 ], [ 678, 685 ], [ 694, 715 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some evidence found on site suggests that around 150 CE, the villa was considerably enlarged and may have been used as the country retreat of the governors of the Roman province of Britannia. Two sculpted marble busts found in the cellar may be those of Pertinax, governor in 185-186, and his father-in-law, Publius Helvius Successus. In the 4th century a room, probably already in religious use, was converted to a Christian chapel or house church, much the earliest known in the British Isles.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30874129, 148682, 661652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 190 ], [ 254, 262 ], [ 437, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Anglo-Saxon period, the ruins of a Roman temple-mausoleum on the site of the villa were incorporated into a Christian chapel (Lullingstone Chapel) that was extant at the time of the Norman Conquest, one of the earliest known chapels in the country.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2645367, 68832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 25 ], [ 189, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to the pagan shrine in the villa's chapel and the dining room mosaics, the villa produced significant artistic finds including the Lullingstone Victory Gem and the busts.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest stage of the villa was built around 82 AD. It was situated in an area near to several other villas, and was close to Watling Street, a Roman road by which travellers could move to and from Londinium to Durobrivae, Durovernum Cantiacorum, and the major Roman port of Rutupiæ (i.e., London, Rochester, Canterbury, and Richborough, respectively).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 181811, 25898, 207211, 218768, 9166355, 2614913, 17867, 218768, 48274, 2068611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 144 ], [ 148, 158 ], [ 202, 211 ], [ 215, 225 ], [ 227, 249 ], [ 279, 286 ], [ 294, 300 ], [ 302, 311 ], [ 313, 323 ], [ 329, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Around AD 150 the villa was expanded and a heated bath block with hypocaust was added, but it was later rebuilt around 290 CE after being abandoned for almost a century. Two marble busts from the 2nd century found in the cellar perhaps depict the owners or residents of the villa, which may have been the designated country retreat of the provincial governors. There is some evidence that the busts are those of Pertinax, governor of Britannia in 185-186 (and later Roman emperor), and his father.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 312103, 148682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 75 ], [ 412, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 3rd century, a larger furnace for the hypocaust as well as an expanded bath block were added, as were a temple-mausoleum and a large granary. In the 4th century, the dining room was equipped with a fine mosaic floor with one illustration of Zeus or Jupiter, disguised as a bull, abducting Europa and a second depicting Bellerophon killing the Chimera.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1998254, 61309, 34398, 40255, 47219, 23768767, 88454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 147 ], [ 210, 216 ], [ 248, 252 ], [ 256, 263 ], [ 296, 302 ], [ 326, 337 ], [ 350, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sometime early in the 5th century a fire destroyed the building, and it was abandoned and forgotten until its excavation in the 20th century.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first discovery of the site was made in 1750, when workers fencing a deer park dug post holes through a mosaic floor. While the discovery and some additional evidence was noted, no further excavation took place.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It wasn't until 1939 that the ruins of the villa were rediscovered by E. Greensfield and E. Birchenough when they noticed evidence of Roman walls and mosaic fragments beneath a blown-down tree. In the mid-20th century (1949-1961) the site was finally excavated by multiple teams of archaeologists. Until this first excavation, the villa and the rest of the Lullingstone ruins had remained untouched since its destruction. The ruins themselves were preserved under a specially-designed cover in the 1960s, when the villa was taken over by English Heritage, who opened the ruins to the public. The building began to leak late in the 20th century and required a major £1.8m renovation and display project in 2006 to 2008 so artefacts from the Lullingstone site could be safely displayed within it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18951655, 99308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 282, 296 ], [ 538, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his excavation reports, Lieutenant-Colonel G.W Meates covers the initial excavation of the site including the discovery of the boundaries of the villa, coin and pottery evidence, and various rooms that were discovered. In the earliest two reports, Meates creates a rough timeline of the Lullingstone Villa ranging from the 1st century CE until the Post-Roman periods, including its purposes, room construction, abandonment, and its final destruction. In addition to the timeline and room descriptions, there are also detailed reports of the evidence found such as pottery, coins, and soil and clay levels which indicate the time periods in which the villa is being observed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the original excavations of the site in the 1950s, evidence from various centuries was excavated, creating a timeline for the Villa. The earliest evidence comes from the 1st century CE. Many shards of pottery were found on the slope that the excavation site was located on. The shards found are considered to be hand-made with elements of \"Belgic culture\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the original excavation, the full extent of the house built and maintained during the Flavian dynasty to the Nerva-Antonine dynasty was unknown. However, it is known that the Bath Room and it is possible that the Basement Room was also built during this era. Due to geological evidence such as different layers of clay, it is suggested that the few stairs leading to the basement were built in during this period rather than the originally thought 4th century CE.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 532225, 3008867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 96 ], [ 112, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Based on pottery evidence, it is thought that during the 3rd century CE the Lullingstone Roman Villa was abandoned for at least the first half of the century. Coins found at the site provide evidence that the occupation of the villa resumed sometime during the last half of the third century during the reigns of Claudius II and Allectus. It is thought that the pagan shrine and other Christian rooms were constructed during this era after the period of abandonment. In addition to the Christian elements that were added to the villa, the 3rd century CE was also when some of the villa's main external buildings including the granary and the temple were constructed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 44393, 142522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 313, 324 ], [ 329, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 4th century was an eventful era for the villa including large renovations and it is probable that the fire took place. Some of the renovations of the villa include the designing of the mosaic floor in Room 5 and the construction of another room. In order to date the construction of the mosaic floor in Room 5, excavators used coins depicting Constantine II that were accidentally mixed into the concrete.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 347, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the initial excavation in the 1950s, there was no evidence that suggested occupation of the villa or its site from its destruction until at least the medieval times. From English Heritage, there is documentation of some findings including a \"hanging bowl,\" and other Anglo-Saxon potsherds. This evidence suggests that the site may have been used as burial ground in early Anglo-Saxon Britain.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6385431, 37780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 257 ], [ 270, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rooms 12 and 13, previously known as Rooms 9 and 10 include the dining room, or triclinium, which was situated in the centre of the main building. As the largest room in the villa on the western side, it connected all other rooms to the north and south together via a large verandah. The dining room was highly decorated with a pair of large mosaics on the floor dating to the mid-4th century. One depicts the abduction of the princess Europa by the god Jupiter or Zeus who is disguised as a bull, whilst the other depicts Bellerophon slaying the Chimera, whilst surrounded by four sea creatures, including dolphins. In each of the four corners of the Bellerophon mosaic there is a bust of the seasons personified including winter, spring, summer, and autumn.Surrounding these mosaics were smaller images depicting hearts, crosses and swastikas. Even though these artworks are usually only seen as depictions of myth, it is also thought by some scholars that these works were meant to ward off the Evil Eye. Based on the artwork and the shape of the apse, it is thought that this room was also meant for entertaining. With the measurements of the apse being 6.25 meters by 4.88 meters at its largest points, the dining room was spacious with room to potentially contain a couch. The couch, usually able to seat three people, would have been 1.50 meters to 2 meters in width, and directly facing the mosaic artwork so that it could be viewed in the correct orientation by all visitors.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Rooms", "target_page_ids": [ 2379182, 47219, 40255, 23768767, 88454, 36808, 45943, 251794, 474695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 90 ], [ 437, 443 ], [ 455, 462 ], [ 524, 535 ], [ 548, 555 ], [ 816, 821 ], [ 836, 844 ], [ 999, 1007 ], [ 1051, 1055 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thought to be constructed in the Flavian-Antonine period, the bath wing was renovated and constantly used throughout the villa's existence. After the abandonment of the villa for almost a century, the Bath Wing was renovated, though what type of renovations are not mentioned. During the initial excavations, it was noted that the Bath Wing contained what G.W. Meates called a \"combustion chamber\". This chamber, filled with chalk, also shows evidence of burned charcoal that may have been used for heating.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Rooms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the original excavations of the site, it was thought that during its periods of use that the Basement Room held multiple purposes including as a garden room. It should also be noted that the term 'basement' cannot be interpreted to have the same meaning as the modern word. The walls of the room were highly decorated including orange, red, and green panels. Based on the archaeological and artistic evidence, the original height of the room is thought to have been 8 feet high. When the villa was abandoned, the Basement Room was especially affected. Much of the walls and stairs were stripped of their materials, and were not replaced until the reoccupation of the villa. During the reoccupation, the walls of the Basement Room were redecorated and other details such as pottery were added. Partially destroyed by the fire, parts of the mosaic and the plaster from the room above fell into the Basement Room providing an abundance of intact evidence for the villa which remained untouched until the beginning of the Lullingstone excavations in 1949.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Rooms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One room of the building had been used as both a pagan shrine, and, later, as a Christian chapel, one of the earliest in Britain. Along with the Christian chapel, there were 3 or 4 other rooms that were also used for Christian purposes including a possible Antechamber and a Vestibule.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Rooms", "target_page_ids": [ 23340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The original pagan shrine room was dedicated to local water deities, and a wall painting depicting three water nymphs dating from this period can still be seen in a niche in the room.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Rooms", "target_page_ids": [ 22058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Just after the 3rd century, this niche had been covered over, as the whole room had been redecorated with white plaster painted with red bands, and two busts of male figures had been placed in the room. Some scholars have theorised that at this point the inhabitants focused their worship on household deities and ancestor spirits, largely abandoning the worship of the water deities.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Rooms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 4th century the room above the pagan shrine was apparently converted to Christian use, with painted plaster on the walls, including a row of figures of standing worshipers (orans), and a characteristic Christian Chi-rho symbol. Some of the paintings are now on display in the British Museum.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Rooms", "target_page_ids": [ 18816, 70364, 1977720, 18384, 4675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 127 ], [ 168, 175 ], [ 180, 185 ], [ 219, 226 ], [ 283, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to English Heritage, which maintains the site:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Rooms", "target_page_ids": [ 99308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The overall purpose of the chapel other than worship is not certain, but it is thought that it was used for \"liturgical worship\" such as baptisms. Based on the fact that the Christian artwork was large in size, K.S Painter suggests that the owners of the villa at this time were not only Christians, but also wealthy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Rooms", "target_page_ids": [ 1434196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Romano-Celtic temple-mausoleum complex was constructed around 300 AD to hold the bodies of two young people, those of a male and a female, in lead coffins. Although the young woman's coffin was robbed in antiquity, the other remained in situ and undisturbed, and is now on display at the site.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Rooms", "target_page_ids": [ 6546, 48134, 231168, 1177323, 379978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 13 ], [ 16, 22 ], [ 23, 32 ], [ 197, 203 ], [ 237, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Discovered during the initial excavations by G.W. Meates, the Victory Gem is a \"Roman cornelian intaglio\". Cornelian intaglios like this were normally set in rings, and based on its size, it is thought that its ring was large. Measuring 23 by 19 by 5 mm, it is one of the largest gems ever found in Britain. Considering the potential size of the ring and other remnants of precious metals on the gem such as gold, Martin Henig suggests that the ring was once owned by a man that held both high status and wealth. The gem depicts personified Victory writing a message of triumph on a shield. It is thought that the gem has Greek characteristics as the artwork depicts elements of the goddesses Nike and Aphrodite.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Art and Artefacts", "target_page_ids": [ 11338027, 1174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 694, 698 ], [ 703, 712 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The two marble busts found in the Basement Room are thought to represent Pertinax, governor from 185-186 CE, and his father, Publius Helvius Successus. Some scholars suggest that these two busts provide insight into who occupied the villa in at least the 2nd century. One of the busts is thought to date to the Hadrianic Period. Though they are both quite well-preserved, the second, and larger of the busts was more damaged when it was found during the initial excavations. According to excavation reports, it is not entirely certain why they were placed in the Basement Room. It was noted, however, that after the period of abandonment, those who reoccupied the villa may have decided to keep them for their own purposes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Art and Artefacts", "target_page_ids": [ 148682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "English Heritage site", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Roman_villas_in_Kent", "Buildings_and_structures_in_Sevenoaks_District", "Museums_in_Sevenoaks_District", "Museums_of_ancient_Rome_in_the_United_Kingdom", "Archaeological_museums_in_England", "History_museums_in_Kent", "Christian_buildings_and_structures_in_the_Roman_Empire", "Christianity_in_Roman_Britain", "Roman_religious_sites_in_England", "Houses_completed_in_the_1st_century", "Houses_completed_in_the_4th_century", "4th-century_Christianity", "English_Heritage_sites_in_Kent", "Tourist_attractions_in_Kent", "1st-century_establishments_in_Roman_Britain", "5th-century_disestablishments_in_Roman_Britain" ]

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[ { "plaintext": "The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse are four beings described in the New Testament's Book of Revelation.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse or Four Horsemen may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Four Horsemen (Supreme Court), United States Supreme Court's conservative justices during the New Deal era", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 884036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (blackjack), the four U.S. Army engineers who discovered in the 1950s the first correct Basic Strategy for the casino game of Blackjack", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 52793931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four Horsemen (NASA), senior scientists and consultants to NASA during the Apollo program: Bob Walker, Jim Arnold, Paul Werner Gast, and Gerry Wasserburg", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 34400353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"The Four Horsemen\", a colloquial name given to four prominent proponents of \"New Atheism\": Richard Dawkins, Daniel C. Dennett, Sam Harris, and Christopher Hitchens", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 23083748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four Horsemen (American football), the nickname of the 1924 Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team backfield", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 2349861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Four Horsemen (professional wrestling), a professional wrestling stable", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 1069318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Four Horseman, a contract bridge team founded in 1931 by P. Hal Sims, consisting of Sims, Oswald Jacoby, Willard S. Karn, and David Burnstine", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 6502861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (novel), novel about the First World War by Vicente Blasco Ibáñez (1916) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 40621948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Four Horsemen (poetry), Toronto sound-poetry group formed by Steve McCaffery in 1970", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 41981684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Horsemen of Apocalypse, characters in Marvel's X-Men universe", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 3646769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four Horsemen (Highlander), four immortals from Highlander: The Series", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 15232021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, lead characters in the East of West comic series by Jonathan Hickman and Nick Dragotta", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 40345470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four Knights of the Apocalypse, Japanese manga series by Nakaba Suzuki", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 67044546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (film), a film based on the Blasco Ibáñez novel (1921)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Film and television", "target_page_ids": [ 2137591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 4 Horsemen of the Apocalypse (film), remake of the 1921 film (1962)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Film and television", "target_page_ids": [ 3251187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four of the Apocalypse, a spaghetti western (1975)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Film and television", "target_page_ids": [ 4112362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four Horsemen (film), a documentary film by Ross Ashcroft on the banking system (2012)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Film and television", "target_page_ids": [ 40586994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four Horsemen (Highlander), a group of Immortals on the television show Highlander: The Series", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Film and television", "target_page_ids": [ 15232021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, characters in the 5th season of the TV series Supernatural", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Film and television", "target_page_ids": [ 2170969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Four Horsemen (professional wrestling), a former wrestling stable in the NWA and WCW wrestling organizations", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Film and television", "target_page_ids": [ 1069318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Four Horsemen - a fictitious group of 4 magicians in Now You See Me (film) and Now You See Me 2", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Film and television", "target_page_ids": [ 35699958, 44507471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 78 ], [ 83, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Four Horsemen (band), a hard rock band from Hollywood (1989–1996)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 10473649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Four Horsemen (rap group), formed by Canibus, Killah Priest, Ras Kass, and Kurupt in 1996", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 2089518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"The Four Horsemen (Aphrodite's Child song)\", a song on the Aphrodite's Child album 666 (1972)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 62245550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Four Horsemen\", a song on The Clash album London Calling (1979)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 161277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"The Four Horsemen\" (Metallica song), on the Metallica album Kill 'Em All (1983)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 11184660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Horsemen of the Apocalypse (album), Metallica demo", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 7941386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "4 Horsemen of the Apocalypse, an album by the Bollock Brothers (1985)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 13895643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Four Horsemen (album), by Ultramagnetic MC's (1993)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 9803825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"4 Horsemen of 2012\", a song on the Klaxons EP Xan Valleys (2006) ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 8562193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"4 Horsemen\", a song on the Timbaland album Textbook Timbo (2007)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 401017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Four Horsemen of 2012\", a song on the Klaxons album Myths of the Near Future (2007)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 8408135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"The Four Horsemen\", a song on the Judas Priest album Nostradamus (2008)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 8145298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"The Four Horsemen\", a song on the Rotting Christ album Rituals (2016).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 887495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four Horsemen Studios, a collectible figure design studio and manufacturer", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1044895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (video game), a cancelled video game (2002)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 8196244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, a woodcut by Albrecht Dürer in his series Apocalypse (1498)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 18607662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (painting), a painting by Russian artist Viktor Vasnetsov", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 57003276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Horseman (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6987463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Fourth Horseman (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41956947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four Horsemen of the Infocalypse, term for internet criminals, or the imagery of internet criminals", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16145656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "The stomach is a muscular, hollow organ in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and many other animals, including several invertebrates. The stomach has a dilated structure and functions as a vital organ in the digestive system. The stomach is involved in the gastric phase of digestion, following chewing. It performs a chemical breakdown by means of enzymes and hydrochloric acid.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 152776, 69720, 15223, 165423, 25382172, 789880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 39 ], [ 47, 69 ], [ 122, 134 ], [ 211, 227 ], [ 260, 286 ], [ 298, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In humans and many other animals, the stomach is located between the oesophagus and the small intestine. The stomach secretes digestive enzymes and gastric acid to aid in food digestion. The pyloric sphincter controls the passage of partially digested food (chyme) from the stomach into the duodenum, where peristalsis takes over to move this through the rest of intestines.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 168506, 99610, 1057785, 638449, 534701, 351616, 70184, 156932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 79 ], [ 88, 103 ], [ 126, 142 ], [ 148, 160 ], [ 191, 208 ], [ 258, 263 ], [ 291, 299 ], [ 307, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the human digestive system, the stomach lies between the oesophagus and the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). It is in the left upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity. The top of the stomach lies against the diaphragm. Lying behind the stomach is the pancreas. A large double fold of visceral peritoneum called the greater omentum hangs down from the greater curvature of the stomach. Two sphincters keep the contents of the stomach contained; the lower oesophageal sphincter (found in the cardiac region), at the junction of the oesophagus and stomach, and the pyloric sphincter at the junction of the stomach with the duodenum.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 42193218, 168506, 70184, 99610, 43335523, 67058, 321567, 38300, 40583, 4638658, 8342364, 196850, 168506, 534701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 29 ], [ 60, 70 ], [ 79, 87 ], [ 111, 126 ], [ 142, 161 ], [ 169, 185 ], [ 227, 236 ], [ 270, 278 ], [ 312, 322 ], [ 334, 349 ], [ 370, 387 ], [ 408, 417 ], [ 467, 494 ], [ 582, 599 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The stomach is surrounded by parasympathetic (stimulant) and sympathetic (inhibitor) plexuses (networks of blood vessels and nerves in the anterior gastric, posterior, superior and inferior, celiac and myenteric), which regulate both the secretory activity of the stomach and the motor (motion) activity of its muscles.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 193752, 193753, 103073, 48530, 21435, 168041, 168041, 168041, 168041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 44 ], [ 61, 72 ], [ 85, 93 ], [ 107, 119 ], [ 125, 130 ], [ 139, 147 ], [ 157, 166 ], [ 168, 176 ], [ 181, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because it is a distensible organ, it normally expands to hold about one litre of food. The stomach of a newborn human baby will only be able to retain about 30 millilitres. The maximum stomach volume in adults is between 2 and 4 litres.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In classical anatomy the human stomach is divided into four sections, beginning at the cardia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The cardia is where the contents of the oesophagus empty into the stomach.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The fundus () is formed in the upper curved part.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The body is the main, central region of the stomach.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The pylorus () is the lower section of the stomach that empties contents into the duodenum.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 534701, 70184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 12 ], [ 83, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The cardia is defined as the region following the \"z-line\" of the gastroesophageal junction, the point at which the epithelium changes from stratified squamous to columnar. Near the cardia is the lower oesophageal sphincter. Research has shown that the cardia is not an anatomically distinct region of the stomach but a region of the oesophageal lining damaged by reflux.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 299641, 7124829, 299641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 126 ], [ 140, 159 ], [ 163, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The stomach bed refers to the structures upon which the stomach rests in mammals. These include the tail of the pancreas, splenic artery, left kidney, left suprarenal gland, transverse colon and its mesocolon, and the left crus of diaphragm, and the left colic flexure. The term was introduced around 1896 by Philip Polson of the Catholic University School of Medicine, Dublin. However this was brought into disrepute by surgeon anatomist J Massey.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 38300, 2338832, 17025, 2296, 4510595, 637855, 6919820, 4510589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 121 ], [ 123, 137 ], [ 144, 150 ], [ 157, 173 ], [ 175, 191 ], [ 200, 209 ], [ 219, 241 ], [ 251, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lesser curvature of the human stomach is supplied by the right gastric artery inferiorly and the left gastric artery superiorly, which also supplies the cardiac region. The greater curvature is supplied by the right gastroepiploic artery inferiorly and the left gastroepiploic artery superiorly. The fundus of the stomach, and also the upper portion of the greater curvature, is supplied by the short gastric arteries, which arise from the splenic artery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 4485144, 2841719, 4484570, 4484585, 4485121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 81 ], [ 101, 120 ], [ 214, 241 ], [ 261, 287 ], [ 399, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like the other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, the human stomach walls consist of a mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, subserosa and serosa.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 69447, 6834050, 7130614, 8140477, 1425177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 95 ], [ 97, 106 ], [ 108, 126 ], [ 128, 137 ], [ 142, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The inner part of the lining of the stomach, the gastric mucosa, consists of an outer layer of column-shaped cells, a lamina propria, and a thin layer of smooth muscle called the muscularis mucosa. Beneath the mucosa lies the submucosa, consisting of fibrous connective tissue. Meissner's plexus is in this layer interior to the oblique muscle layer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 8235380, 299641, 483378, 300381, 6031956, 6834050, 228845, 5120707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 63 ], [ 95, 114 ], [ 118, 132 ], [ 154, 167 ], [ 179, 196 ], [ 226, 235 ], [ 251, 276 ], [ 278, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Outside of the submucosa lies another muscular layer, the muscularis externa. It consists of three layers of muscular fibres, with fibres lying at angles to each other. These are the inner oblique, middle circular, and outer longitudinal layers. The presence of the inner oblique layer is distinct from other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, which do not possess this layer. Stomach contains the thickest muscularis layer consisting of three layers, thus maximum peristalsis occurs here.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 7130614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The inner oblique layer: This layer is responsible for creating the motion that churns and physically breaks down the food. It is the only layer of the three which is not seen in other parts of the digestive system. The antrum has thicker skin cells in its walls and performs more forceful contractions than the fundus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 42193218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The middle circular layer: At this layer, the pylorus is surrounded by a thick circular muscular wall, which is normally tonically constricted, forming a functional (if not anatomically discrete) pyloric sphincter, which controls the movement of chyme into the duodenum. This layer is concentric to the longitudinal axis of the stomach.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 534701, 196850, 351616, 70184, 168041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 54 ], [ 205, 214 ], [ 247, 252 ], [ 262, 270 ], [ 304, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Auerbach's plexus (myenteric plexus) is found between the outer longitudinal and the middle circular layer and is responsible for the innervation of both (causing peristalsis and mixing).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 730370, 156932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 164, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The outer longitudinal layer is responsible for moving the bolus towards the pylorus of the stomach through muscular shortening.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To the outside of the muscularis externa lies a serosa, consisting of layers of connective tissue continuous with the peritoneum.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 1425177, 40583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 54 ], [ 118, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mucosa lining the stomach is lined with a number of these pits, which receive gastric juice, secreted by between 2 and 7 gastric glands. Gastric juice is an acidic fluid containing hydrochloric acid and the digestive enzyme pepsin. The glands contains a number of cells, with the function of the glands changing depending on their position within the stomach.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 4733250, 19916686, 169118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 139 ], [ 185, 202 ], [ 228, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Within the body and fundus of the stomach lie the fundic glands. In general, these glands are lined by column-shaped cells that secrete a protective layer of mucus and bicarbonate. Additional cells present include parietal cells that secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor, chief cells that secrete pepsinogen (this is a precursor to pepsin- the highly acidic environment converts the pepsinogen to pepsin), and neuroendocrine cells that secrete serotonin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 501188, 3982, 661769, 306244, 2936115, 169118, 28764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 163 ], [ 168, 179 ], [ 214, 227 ], [ 264, 280 ], [ 282, 292 ], [ 307, 317 ], [ 454, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Glands differ where the stomach meets the esophagus and near the pylorus. Near the junction between the stomach and the oesophagus lie cardiac glands, which primarily secrete mucus. They are fewer in number than the other gastric glands and are more shallowly positioned in the mucosa. There are two kinds - either simple tubular with short ducts or compound racemose resembling the duodenal Brunner's glands. Near the pylorus lie pyloric glands located in the antrum of the pylorus. They secrete mucus, as well as gastrin produced by their G cells.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 168506, 7129850, 7129981, 70184, 1004474, 609099, 2937231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 130 ], [ 315, 329 ], [ 352, 369 ], [ 385, 393 ], [ 394, 410 ], [ 517, 524 ], [ 543, 550 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and nearly 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal stomach. Just over 150 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the stomach compared to other organs, with only some 20 genes being highly specific. The corresponding specific proteins expressed in stomach are mainly involved in creating a suitable environment for handling the digestion of food for uptake of nutrients. Highly stomach-specific proteins include GKN1, expressed in the mucosa; pepsinogen PGC and the lipase LIPF, expressed in chief cells; and gastric ATPase ATP4A and gastric intrinsic factor GIF, expressed in parietal cells.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 23634, 15352893, 169118, 21281347, 8134645, 155750, 306244, 661769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ], [ 492, 496 ], [ 523, 537 ], [ 546, 557 ], [ 572, 583 ], [ 597, 609 ], [ 614, 642 ], [ 657, 670 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early human embryogenesis, the ventral part of the embryo abuts the yolk sac. During the third week of development, as the embryo grows, it begins to surround parts of the sac. The enveloped portions form the basis for the adult gastrointestinal tract. The sac is surrounded by a network of vitelline arteries and veins. Over time, these arteries consolidate into the three main arteries that supply the developing gastrointestinal tract: the celiac artery, superior mesenteric artery, and inferior mesenteric artery. The areas supplied by these arteries are used to define the foregut, midgut, and hindgut. The surrounded sac becomes the primitive gut. Sections of this gut begin to differentiate into the organs of the gastrointestinal tract, and the esophagus, and stomach form from the foregut.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Development", "target_page_ids": [ 12276398, 36624, 1166343, 13042229, 1815738, 1926100, 2332113, 4538873, 4639041, 627221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 28 ], [ 54, 60 ], [ 71, 79 ], [ 294, 322 ], [ 446, 459 ], [ 461, 487 ], [ 493, 519 ], [ 581, 588 ], [ 590, 596 ], [ 602, 609 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the human digestive system, a bolus (a small rounded mass of chewed up food) enters the stomach through the esophagus via the lower esophageal sphincter. The stomach releases proteases (protein-digesting enzymes such as pepsin) and hydrochloric acid, which kills or inhibits bacteria and provides the acidic pH of 2 for the proteases to work. Food is churned by the stomach through muscular contractions of the wall called peristalsis – reducing the volume of the bolus, before looping around the fundus and the body of stomach as the boluses are converted into chyme (partially digested food). Chyme slowly passes through the pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum of the small intestine, where the extraction of nutrients begins.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [ 42193218, 12239033, 789880, 168506, 168506, 57285, 9257, 169118, 19916686, 9028799, 24530, 57285, 156932, 39747, 351616, 534701, 70184, 99610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 29 ], [ 33, 38 ], [ 64, 73 ], [ 111, 120 ], [ 129, 155 ], [ 178, 187 ], [ 207, 213 ], [ 223, 229 ], [ 235, 252 ], [ 278, 286 ], [ 311, 313 ], [ 327, 335 ], [ 426, 437 ], [ 515, 530 ], [ 565, 570 ], [ 630, 647 ], [ 661, 669 ], [ 677, 692 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gastric juice in the stomach also contains pepsinogen. Hydrochloric acid activates this inactive form of enzyme into the active form, pepsin. Pepsin breaks down proteins into polypeptides.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [ 169118, 19916686, 24029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 53 ], [ 55, 72 ], [ 175, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the absorption in the human digestive system is mainly a function of the small intestine, some absorption of certain small molecules nevertheless does occur in the stomach through its lining. This includes:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Water, if the body is dehydrated", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [ 155056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medication, such as aspirin", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [ 1525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amino acids", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [ 1207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 10–20% of ingested ethanol (e.g. from alcoholic beverages)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [ 10048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Caffeine", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [ 6868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " To a small extent water-soluble vitamins (most are absorbed in the small intestine)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [ 32512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The parietal cells of the human stomach are responsible for producing intrinsic factor, which is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12. B12 is used in cellular metabolism and is necessary for the production of red blood cells, and the functioning of the nervous system.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [ 661769, 306244, 14538619, 67158, 21944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 70, 86 ], [ 129, 140 ], [ 216, 230 ], [ 260, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The movement and the flow of chemicals into the stomach are controlled by both the autonomic nervous system and by the various digestive hormones of the digestive system:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [ 166189, 165423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 107 ], [ 127, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other than gastrin, these hormones all act to turn off the stomach action. This is in response to food products in the liver and gall bladder, which have not yet been absorbed. The stomach needs to push food into the small intestine only when the intestine is not busy. While the intestine is full and still digesting food, the stomach acts as storage for food.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [ 17384301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Effects of EGF", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Epidermal growth factor (EGF) results in cellular proliferation, differentiation, and survival. EGF is a low-molecular-weight polypeptide first purified from the mouse submandibular gland, but since then found in many human tissues including the submandibular gland, and the parotid gland. Salivary EGF, which also seems to be regulated by dietary inorganic iodine, also plays an important physiological role in the maintenance of oro-oesophageal and gastric tissue integrity. The biological effects of salivary EGF include healing of oral and gastroesophageal ulcers, inhibition of gastric acid secretion, stimulation of DNA synthesis, and mucosal protection from intraluminal injurious factors such as gastric acid, bile acids, pepsin, and trypsin and from physical, chemical, and bacterial agents.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [ 1228297, 646067, 331749, 14750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ], [ 247, 266 ], [ 276, 289 ], [ 359, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stomach as nutrition sensor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The human stomach can \"taste\" sodium glutamate using glutamate receptors and this information is passed to the lateral hypothalamus and limbic system in the brain as a palatability signal through the vagus nerve. The stomach can also sense, independently of tongue and oral taste receptors, glucose, carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. This allows the brain to link nutritional value of foods to their tastes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [ 62289, 6595686, 200405, 3717, 12126172, 37186, 12950, 5932, 23634, 11042, 21525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 46 ], [ 111, 131 ], [ 136, 149 ], [ 157, 162 ], [ 168, 180 ], [ 200, 211 ], [ 291, 298 ], [ 300, 312 ], [ 316, 323 ], [ 330, 333 ], [ 366, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thyrogastric syndrome ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This syndrome defines the association between thyroid disease and chronic gastritis, which was first described in the 1960s. This term was coined also to indicate the presence of thyroid autoantibodies or autoimmune thyroid disease in patients with pernicious anemia, a late clinical stage of atrophic gastritis. In 1993, a more complete investigation on the stomach and thyroid was published, reporting that the thyroid is, embryogenetically and phylogenetically, derived from a primitive stomach, and that the thyroid cells, such as primitive gastroenteric cells, migrated and specialized in uptake of iodide and in storage and elaboration of iodine compounds during vertebrate evolution. In fact, the stomach and thyroid share iodine-concentrating ability and many morphological and functional similarities, such as cell polarity and apical microvilli, similar organ-specific antigens and associated autoimmune diseases, secretion of glycoproteins (thyroglobulin and mucin) and peptide hormones, the digesting and readsorbing ability, and lastly, similar ability to form iodotyrosines by peroxidase activity, where iodide acts as an electron donor in the presence of H2O2. In the following years, many researchers published reviews about this syndrome.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Function", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A series of radiographs can be used to examine the stomach for various disorders. This will often include the use of a barium swallow. Another method of examination of the stomach, is the use of an endoscope. A gastric emptying scan is considered the gold standard to assess gastric emptying rate.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [ 589950, 589950, 197002, 55472970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 23 ], [ 119, 133 ], [ 198, 207 ], [ 211, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A large number of studies have indicated that most cases of peptic ulcers, and gastritis, in humans are caused by Helicobacter pylori infection, and an association has been seen with the development of stomach cancer.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [ 63791, 1002473, 199665, 261613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 72 ], [ 79, 88 ], [ 114, 133 ], [ 202, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A stomach rumble is actually noise from the intestines.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [ 221221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In humans, many bariatric surgery procedures involve the stomach, in order to lose weight. A gastric band may be placed around the cardia area, which can adjust to limit intake. The anatomy of the stomach may be modified, or the stomach may be bypassed entirely.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [ 11249433, 2275690, 4796780, 781984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 33 ], [ 93, 105 ], [ 182, 220 ], [ 244, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Surgical removal of the stomach is called a gastrectomy, and removal of the cardia area is a called a cardiectomy. \"Cardiectomy\" is a term that is also used to describe the removal of the heart. A gastrectomy may be carried out because of gastric cancer or severe perforation of the stomach wall.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [ 797461, 36808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 55 ], [ 189, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fundoplication is stomach surgery in which the fundus is wrapped around the lower esophagus and stitched into place. It is used to treat gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Clinical significance", "target_page_ids": [ 685154, 196991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 138, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were previously conflicting statements in the academic anatomy community over whether the cardia is part of the stomach, part of the oesophagus or a distinct entity. Modern surgical and medical textbooks have agreed that \"the gastric cardia is now clearly considered to be part of the stomach.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The word stomach is derived from the Latin which has roots from the Greek word stomachos (), ultimately from stoma (), \"mouth\". Gastro- and gastric (meaning \"related to the stomach\") are both derived from the Greek word gaster (, meaning \"belly\").", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 148363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 42 ], [ 69, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the precise shape and size of the stomach varies widely among different vertebrates, the relative positions of the oesophageal and duodenal openings remain relatively constant. As a result, the organ always curves somewhat to the left before curving back to meet the pyloric sphincter. However, lampreys, hagfishes, chimaeras, lungfishes, and some teleost fish have no stomach at all, with the oesophagus opening directly into the intestine. These animals all consume diets that require little storage of food, no predigestion with gastric juices, or both.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other animals", "target_page_ids": [ 20975731, 77662, 490225, 230330, 326787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 304, 311 ], [ 314, 321 ], [ 325, 333 ], [ 336, 344 ], [ 357, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The gastric lining is usually divided into two regions, an anterior portion lined by fundic glands and a posterior portion lined with pyloric glands. Cardiac glands are unique to mammals, and even then are absent in a number of species. The distributions of these glands vary between species, and do not always correspond with the same regions as in humans. Furthermore, in many non-human mammals, a portion of the stomach anterior to the cardiac glands is lined with epithelium essentially identical to that of the oesophagus. Ruminants, in particular, have a complex stomach, the first three chambers of which are all lined with oesophageal mucosa.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other animals", "target_page_ids": [ 18838, 246806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 185 ], [ 528, 536 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In birds and crocodilians, the stomach is divided into two regions. Anteriorly is a narrow tubular region, the proventriculus, lined by fundic glands, and connecting the true stomach to the crop. Beyond lies the powerful muscular gizzard, lined by pyloric glands, and, in some species, containing stones that the animal swallows to help grind up food.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other animals", "target_page_ids": [ 3410, 196020, 14761081, 1454140, 377341 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 7 ], [ 13, 24 ], [ 111, 125 ], [ 190, 194 ], [ 230, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In insects there is also a crop. The insect stomach is called the midgut.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other animals", "target_page_ids": [ 23366462, 23366462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ], [ 66, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Information about the stomach in echinoderms or molluscs can be found under the respective articles.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other animals", "target_page_ids": [ 43143, 19773328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 43 ], [ 48, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gastroesophageal reflux disease", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 196991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Human gastrointestinal microbiota", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3135637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Proton-pump inhibitor", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stomach at the Human Protein Atlas", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Stomach\" article from the Encyclopedia of Nursing & Allied Health, from enotes.com", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Digestion of proteins in the stomach or tiyan", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Site with details of how ruminants process food", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Control of Gastric Emptying ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Stomach", "Abdomen", "Digestive_system", "Organs_(anatomy)" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A marching band is a group of instrumental musicians who perform while marching, often for entertainment or competition. Instrumentation typically includes brass, woodwind, and percussion instruments. Most marching bands wear a uniform, often of a military-style, that includes an associated organization's colors, name or symbol. Most high school marching bands, and some college marching bands, are accompanied by a color guard, a group of performers who add a visual interpretation to the music through the use of props, most often flags, rifles, and sabres.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27406894, 38284, 550223, 4940, 33882, 24638, 40438730, 5689, 3938188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 42 ], [ 43, 51 ], [ 71, 79 ], [ 156, 161 ], [ 163, 171 ], [ 177, 199 ], [ 336, 347 ], [ 373, 380 ], [ 418, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marching bands are generally categorized by function, size, age, instrumentation, marching style, and type of show they perform. In addition to traditional parade performances, many marching bands also perform field shows at sporting events and marching band competitions. Increasingly, marching bands perform indoor concerts that implement many songs, traditions, and flair from outside performances. In some cases, at higher level competitions, bands will be placed into classes based on school size.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24484, 20180, 181592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 162 ], [ 191, 195 ], [ 259, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Percussion and wind instruments were used on the battlefield since ancient times.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 962433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An Iron Age example would be the carnyx.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2246106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The development of the military band from such predecessors was a gradual development of the medieval and early modern period. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 303494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A prototype of the Ottoman military band may be mentioned in the 11th-century Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2913845, 20080644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 40 ], [ 78, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The European tradition of military bands formed in the Baroque period, partly influenced by the Ottoman tradition. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "17th-century traveler Evliya Çelebi noted the existence of 40 guilds of musicians in Istanbul. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10328, 12369, 3391396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ], [ 62, 67 ], [ 85, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 18th century, each regiment in the British Army maintained its own military band. Until 1749 bandsmen were civilians hired at the expense of the colonel commanding a regiment. Subsequently, they became regular enlisted men who accompanied the unit on active service to provide morale enhancing music on the battlefield or, from the late nineteenth century on, to act as stretcher bearers. Instruments during the 18th century included fifes, drums, the oboe (hautbois), French horn, clarinet and bassoon. Drummers summoned men from their farms and ranches to muster for duty. In the chaotic environment of the battlefield, musical instruments were the only means of commanding the men to advance, stand or retire. In the mid 19th century each smaller unit had their own fifer and drummer, who sounded the daily routine. When units massed for battle a band of musicians was formed for the whole.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4887, 22206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 54 ], [ 465, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, modern marching bands are most commonly associated with performing during American football games. The oldest American college marching band, is the University of Notre Dame Band of the Fighting Irish, was founded in 1845 and first performed at a football game in 1887. Many American universities had marching bands before the twentieth century, which were typically associated with military ROTC programs. In 1907, breaking from traditional rank and file marching, the first pictorial formation on a football field was the \"Block P\" created by Paul Spotts Emrick, director of the Purdue All-American Marching Band. Spotts had seen a flock of birds fly in a \"V\" formation and decided that a band could replicate the action in the form of show formations on a field. The first halftime show at an American football game was performed by the University of Illinois Marching Illini, also in 1907, at a game against the University of Chicago.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3434750, 18951490, 146269, 15618921, 166843, 4540948, 872675, 384695, 6286790, 32127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ], [ 96, 113 ], [ 171, 195 ], [ 196, 222 ], [ 414, 418 ], [ 603, 636 ], [ 798, 811 ], [ 862, 884 ], [ 885, 900 ], [ 938, 959 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Appearing at roughly the same time as the field show and pictorial marching formations at universities was the fight song, which today is often closely associated with a university's band. The first university fight song, \"For Boston,\" was created at Boston College. Many more recognizable and popular university fight songs are borrowed and played by high schools across the United States. Four such fight songs commonly used by high schools are the University of Michigan's \"The Victors\", the University of Illinois' \"Illinois Loyalty\", the University of Notre Dame's \"Victory March\", and the United States Naval Academy's \"Anchors Aweigh\". During the 20th century, many marching bands added further pageantry elements, including baton twirlers, majorettes, dance lines, and color guards.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 765082, 1765242, 239811, 31740, 2916638, 384695, 3892198, 146269, 2931543, 59766, 438531, 19158788, 3938188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 121 ], [ 223, 233 ], [ 251, 265 ], [ 451, 473 ], [ 477, 488 ], [ 495, 517 ], [ 520, 536 ], [ 543, 567 ], [ 571, 584 ], [ 595, 622 ], [ 626, 640 ], [ 748, 758 ], [ 777, 789 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After World War I, the presence and quality of marching bands in the American public school system expanded as military veterans with service band experience began to accept music teaching positions within schools across the country, eventually bringing wind music and marching band into both educational curriculum and school culture. With high school programs on the rise, marching bands started to become competitive organizations, with the first national contest being held in 1923 in Chicago, Illinois. State and national contests became common, often featuring parades and mass-band concerts featuring all participating groups. By 1938, competitive band programs had become numerous and widespread, making a national contest too large to manage and leading to multiple state and regional contests in its place. Today, state contests continue to be the primary form of marching band competition in the United States.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 471603, 2025792, 6886, 18618239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 17 ], [ 78, 91 ], [ 174, 188 ], [ 489, 506 ], [ 508, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the inception of Drum Corps International in the 1970s, many marching bands that perform field shows have adopted changes to the activity that parallel developments with modern drum and bugle corps. These bands are said to be corps-style bands. Areas where changes have been adopted from drum corps include:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1141528, 143230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 47 ], [ 176, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marching: instead of a traditional high step, drum corps tend to march with a fluid glide step, also known as a roll step, to keep musicians' torsos completely still. Recently, corps and marching bands have been moving from the glide step to a more straight-leg style. This is a slightly different movement with a similar approach. The biggest difference being a crisp straight leg instead of a noticeable bend in the knee for glide step. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Auxiliaries: adaptation of the flag, rifle, baton and sabre units into auxiliaries, who march with the band and provide visual flair by spinning and tossing flags or mock weapons and using dance in the performance.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3938188, 25456, 4015846, 75971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 36 ], [ 38, 43 ], [ 45, 50 ], [ 55, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Percussion: moving marching timpani and keyboard percussion into a stationary sideline percussion section, or \"pit\", which has since incorporated many different types of percussion instruments such as: tambourines, crash cymbals, suspended cymbals, bass drum and gong sets, chimes, EWI's (electronic woodwind instrument), and most keyboards.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1519260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Competitions: marching band competitions are judged using criteria similar to criteria used in drum corps competitions, with emphasis on individual aspects of the band (captions for music performance, visual performance, percussion, guard (auxiliary), and general effect are standard).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Military bands or corps of drums were historically the first marching bands. Instrumentation in these bands varies but generally consists of brass, woodwinds, and percussion. Due to their original purpose, military marching bands typically march in a forward direction with consistent straight lines. Music is performed at a constant tempo to facilitate the steady marching of the entire military group the band is playing with. The marching step size, or interval, is consistent, and usually at a 6 to 5 (six steps per five yards) or 8 to 5 (eight steps to five yards). This style includes field music units such as drum and bugle corps or bugle bands and/or fanfare bands, pipe bands, and fife and drum corps, as well as police bands of police and fire departments. As a general rule, active duty military marching bands often perform in parades with other military units and march in the same manner as other military personnel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 303494, 17888556, 322208, 28473255, 246328, 1005018, 56094354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 18, 32 ], [ 617, 637 ], [ 660, 672 ], [ 675, 684 ], [ 691, 710 ], [ 723, 734 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The United Kingdom keeps the military-style tradition with many civil and youth bands in all of the UK keeping the military band traditions of the country, either as marching wind bands, Corps of Drums, bugle bands, pipe bands, and in Northern Ireland, fife and drum bands. Examples would be the Royal British Legion bands and the bands of the various UK youth uniformed organizations. Styled on the UK military tradition, Fiji's Military Forces also have a marching band and the military band traditions of the Commonwealth of Nations, by extension, reached almost every country of it with military, school, civil and schools bands styled on the traditions of the British Armed Forces and the armed services of Commonwealth countries which were trained by British military personnel, in combination with local and other foreign traditions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 874843, 10707, 10662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 296, 316 ], [ 423, 427 ], [ 430, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military styled marching bands are present in a number of European countries in tandem with field music formations like France, the Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Portugal, Denmark and Sweden. Also, there are a number of military styled civilian bands in Russia, Belarus, Ukraine and the Baltics, as well as in Spanish-speaking Latin America and Brazil, which also march with field music units due to foreign influences in the band tradition.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Corps style is a competitive style of band, judged in several \"captions\" that include visual analysis, visual proficiency, color guard, music analysis, brass, percussion, and general effect. As a general rule, corps style bands follow the traditions of the modern drum and bugle corps practice in North America and many other countries.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 33280788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Traditional style bands, also known as show bands, are marching bands geared primarily towards crowd entertainment and perform on football fields. Typically, they perform a routine before the game, another at halftime, and sometimes after the game as well. Competitive show bands perform only one show that is continually refined throughout a season, while bands that focus on entertainment rather than competition usually perform a unique show for each game. These shows normally consists of three to five musical pieces accompanied by formations rooted in origin from Patterns in Motion, a book penned by band director William C. \"Bill\" Moffit, bandmaster of Purdue University All-American Marching Band and University of Houston Spirit of Houston.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32440284, 23757, 4540948, 490310, 16973785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 621, 645 ], [ 661, 678 ], [ 679, 705 ], [ 710, 731 ], [ 732, 749 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A recognizable style of show band is the one fielded by historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs). HBCU bands utilize the traditional \"ankle-knee\" high step and music selections are largely based on R&B, hip-hop, and contemporary popular music. In addition to traditional drill formations, HBCU bands feature heavily choreographed dance routines as part of their performances. Many of these bands may have a twirler line or a dancer line, but not necessarily flag twirlers. One of the most notable depictions of HBCU bands is the 2002 film Drumline. The history of African-American marching bands was explored through a 2018 exhibition called \"Marching On: The Politics of Performance\" in New York City. HBCU bands are a significant part of African-American musical culture and HBCU bands often surpass their associated football teams in popularity, a phenomenon that is uncommon among collegiate and high school marching bands. In 1989, as part of the celebrations for the bicentennial of the French Revolution, the Florida A&M University Marching 100, one of the most prolific HBCU bands in the country, was selected as the official representative of the United States in the bicentennial parade.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 63295882, 2997971, 567768, 9130976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 100 ], [ 551, 559 ], [ 1028, 1050 ], [ 1051, 1063 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another style of show band is that used by many of the Big Ten Conference marching bands, a semi-military and semi-corps style. These bands perform a show that is designed to entertain the audience but feature more traditional symphonic styles of music (marches, film scores, jazz, or older pop music) as well as some contemporary music. Big Ten style show bands have been influential in creating some of the earliest marching band innovations, and the style is used in high schools throughout much of the United States.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 78358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most show bands of either type include the traditional military band instrumentation of woodwinds, brass, and battery percussion. Some also include the front ensemble keyboard percussion, and may also incorporate the use of a color guard for flag, and rifle routines as well as a dance line.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carnival bands are a United Kingdom variant of show bands. Carnival bands typically march in time to the music, and may also participate in parades and competitions. They contain brass and percussion, but may or may not use woodwinds.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4940, 24638, 33882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 184 ], [ 189, 199 ], [ 224, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scramble bands (also referred to as 'Scatter' bands) are a variation on show bands. They generally do not march in time with the music, but, as their name implies, scramble from design to design and often incorporate comedic elements into their performances. Most of the bands in the Ivy League use this style, excepting only Cornell University.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 893905, 14975, 7954422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 284, 294 ], [ 326, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The size and composition of a marching band can vary greatly. Some bands have fewer than twenty members, and some have over 500. American marching bands vary considerably in their instrumentation. Some bands omit some or all woodwinds, but it is not uncommon to see piccolos, flutes, soprano clarinets, alto saxophones, and tenor saxophones (woodwinds are not used in drum corps). E♭ clarinets, alto clarinets, bass clarinets, and baritone saxophones are less common, but can be found in some bands. Bassoons and oboes are very seldom found on a field due to the risk of incidental damage, the impracticality of marching with an exposed double reed, and high sensitivity to weather.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instrumentation", "target_page_ids": [ 33882, 82848, 10553, 975498, 556372, 926172, 2643426, 1413424, 399942, 926360, 4207, 22206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 233 ], [ 266, 273 ], [ 276, 281 ], [ 284, 300 ], [ 303, 317 ], [ 324, 339 ], [ 381, 393 ], [ 395, 408 ], [ 411, 424 ], [ 431, 449 ], [ 500, 507 ], [ 513, 517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The brass section usually includes trumpets or cornets; French horns, alto horns, or mellophones; tenor trombones; baritone horns or euphoniums; and tubas or sousaphones. E♭ soprano cornets are sometimes used to supplement or replace the high woodwinds, while the mellophone often is used in place of the French horn. Some especially large bands use flugelhorns and bass trombones. Specially designed versions of the lower brass have been created for use while marching. These are typically wrapped in such a way that allows the bell to face toward the audience at all times. Bands may also modify their instrumentation to remove slide trombones completely and replace them with another instrument, such as a valved trombone or marching baritone horn.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instrumentation", "target_page_ids": [ 4940, 30353, 7100, 11456, 229779, 236022, 29837, 92742, 10371, 7087162, 39752, 7100, 10622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 35, 42 ], [ 47, 53 ], [ 56, 67 ], [ 70, 79 ], [ 85, 95 ], [ 98, 112 ], [ 115, 128 ], [ 133, 142 ], [ 149, 154 ], [ 158, 168 ], [ 182, 188 ], [ 350, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marching percussion (often referred to as the drumline, battery, or back battery) typically includes snare drums, tenor drums, bass drums, and cymbals and are responsible for keeping tempo for the band. All of these instruments have been adapted for mobile, outdoor use. Marching versions of the glockenspiel (bells), xylophone, and marimba are also rarely used by some ensembles. Historically, the percussion section also employed mounted timpani that featured manual controls.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instrumentation", "target_page_ids": [ 1083910, 1083910, 27188, 1588329, 42279, 5671, 52873, 52867, 52871, 140758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 46, 54 ], [ 101, 111 ], [ 114, 124 ], [ 127, 136 ], [ 143, 149 ], [ 296, 308 ], [ 318, 327 ], [ 333, 340 ], [ 440, 447 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For bands that include a front ensemble (also known as the pit or auxiliary percussion), stationary instrumentation may include orchestral percussion such as timpani, tambourines, maracas, cowbells, congas, wood blocks, marimbas, xylophones, bongos, vibraphones, timbales, claves, guiros, and chimes or tubular bells, concert bass drums, and gongs, as well as a multitude of auxiliary percussion equipment, all depending on the instrumentation of the field show. Drum sets, purpose-built drum racks, and other mounted instruments are also placed here. Until the advent of the pit in the early 1980s, many of these instruments were carried on the field by marching percussionists by hand or on mounting brackets. Some bands also include electronic instruments such as synthesizers, electric guitars, and bass guitar, along with the requisite amplification. If double-reed or string instruments are used, they are usually placed here, but even this usage is very rare due to their relative fragility. Unusual percussive instruments are sometimes used, including brake drums, empty propane tanks, trashcans, railroad ties, stomping rigs, and other interesting sounds. In modern marching band, there is a use of amplification of the front ensemble to help balance out the wind and drumline sections. The use of synthesizers and electronics in the front ensemble can not only help the front ensemble, or \"pit\", be heard better by the audience and judges, but it can add soundscapes such as voice-overs to help tell the story of a field show, or to add sound effects (for example, a show about nature could have bird/wind/rain sound samples performed by a front ensemble member playing the synthesizer).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instrumentation", "target_page_ids": [ 1519260, 140758, 29680, 126339, 396024, 471969, 306682, 52871, 52867, 421025, 52872, 322246, 434220, 126842, 166362, 89555, 10791746, 10272, 3916, 9931, 59722, 529780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 39 ], [ 158, 165 ], [ 167, 177 ], [ 180, 186 ], [ 189, 196 ], [ 199, 204 ], [ 207, 217 ], [ 220, 227 ], [ 230, 239 ], [ 242, 247 ], [ 250, 260 ], [ 263, 271 ], [ 273, 279 ], [ 281, 286 ], [ 303, 315 ], [ 342, 346 ], [ 767, 778 ], [ 781, 796 ], [ 803, 814 ], [ 841, 854 ], [ 1060, 1071 ], [ 1105, 1117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A rare inclusion in a marching band that is becoming more popular is the use of electrophones in a marching band. The most common electric instrument seen is a bass guitar, but some schools also use keyboards and lead guitar. To make the electric instruments usable, external power in the stadium is often used, but some groups may use a car-battery mechanism that requires a car battery and a converter to give the instruments and amplifiers remote power. Also, some groups may use a small gasoline-powered generator.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instrumentation", "target_page_ids": [ 10006, 3916, 49842, 440525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 92 ], [ 160, 171 ], [ 199, 208 ], [ 213, 224 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many bands have auxiliaries that add a visual component to the performance. For ceremonial bands, this could be a traditional color guard or honor guard. For drum & bugle corps and corps-style field bands, this could include Dance lines, majorettes, Auxiliary units may be collectively referred to as color guard or visual ensemble.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instrumentation", "target_page_ids": [ 3938188, 143230, 19158788, 3938188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 137 ], [ 158, 176 ], [ 238, 248 ], [ 301, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Auxiliaries may perform as independent groups. In the early 1970s, color guards began to hold their own competitions in the winter (after the American football season, and before the beginning of the summer drum and bugle corps season). These became known as winter guard. There are also numerous dance competitions in the off-season.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instrumentation", "target_page_ids": [ 18951490, 4029918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 159 ], [ 259, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The color guard of a marching band or drum and bugle corps may contain sabers, mock rifles, and tall flags. In modern bands, other props are often used: flags of all sizes, horizontal banners, vertical banners, streamers, pom-poms, even tires, balls, and hula hoops or custom-built props. The color guard may also employ stage dressing such as backdrops, portable flats, or other structures. These can be used simply as static scenery or moved to emphasize drill, and are often used to create a \"backstage\" area to store equipment and hide personnel when necessary.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instrumentation", "target_page_ids": [ 75971, 25456, 11424, 11424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 76 ], [ 84, 89 ], [ 101, 106 ], [ 153, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While military color guards were typically male, band color guards tend to be primarily female, though it is becoming more common for men to join as well. A few independent units are all-male. Guard members nearly always wear a special uniform or costume that is distinctive from that of the band, not necessarily matching in design or color. The men's and women's guard uniforms are usually designed in one of two ways: nearly identically, but with gender-specific parts (i.e. skirts) adapted for the use of the opposite sex; or complimentarily, with the two uniforms designed similarly but with variations in color or form. The color guard uniform, especially in a high school marching band, need not be in school colors; in fact, they rarely are. These uniforms are designed to represent a certain aspect of the halftime show, characterize the guard members through costumes, or tell some sort of story, and can thus be in any design or color (a surprisingly common complaint among the high school audience is that guard uniforms and equipment \"aren't school colors\").", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instrumentation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Indoor color guards have become popular within high schools and universities throughout the United States. These groups perform a theme-based show in competitions after the outdoor marching band season ends. Indoor color guard shows are typically performed in school gymnasiums and are adjudicated.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instrumentation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Irishman Patrick S. Gilmore started the concept of a bandleader. A marching band is typically led by one or more drum majors, also called field commanders, who are usually responsible for conducting the band (sometimes using a large baton or mace, though such tools are used rarely in modern marching bands for conducting) and are commonly referred to as the leader of the band. When there is more than one drum major, one may be the head drum major, who often stands upon an elevated podium located on the 50-yard line while conducting, whereas the other(s) often conduct from convenient angles (should the marching block not be facing forward) and function as an apprentice of sorts. The number of members in the band often determines how many drum majors are needed, based on the complexity of the show (in which case, in a three-person scenario, one stands on the 50-yard line while another stands on the 30-yard line and the third stands on the other 30-yard line), and occasionally, additional individuals may be asked to perform brief conducting duties if beneficial in a particularly tricky part of the show (more often, such people are those on the sidelines or in the pit). The modern-day concept of the drum major has been exponentially expanded upon by George N. Parks, often known as the \"Dynamic Drum Major,\" through his Drum Major Academy. Bands may also be led by a more traditional conductor, especially during field shows, where a stationary conductor on a ladder or platform may be visible throughout the performance. Aural commands—such as vocal orders, clapping, or a whistle—may be used to issue commands as well. In show bands, particularly in HBCU and Big Ten bands, drum majors often have a visual on-field role with a baton or mace, with the job of conducting assigned to the band director(s). In these cases, the number of drum majors is often based on tradition, rather than being in proportion with the number of musicians. For example, the Florida A&M Marching 100 fields one drum major for each president in the university's history. Other leaders within the band may include field lieutenants and captains of sections such as brass, drumline, and woodwinds, and members that lead a section, squad, row, etc.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instrumentation", "target_page_ids": [ 1843814, 4015846, 187092, 199162, 9130976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 124 ], [ 233, 238 ], [ 242, 246 ], [ 1399, 1408 ], [ 1982, 1994 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some bands assign drum majors the dual role of leading and conducting the ensemble on the field. This is most common in traditional military-style groups, such as Texas A&M's Fightin' Texas Aggie Band: the drum majors march with the band, sound whistles to coordinate movement, and use maces to keep time by thrusting them up and down (rather than toward and away from the body, as is typical in American military bands).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instrumentation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The size of the band may not only determine how many drum majors there are, but how many section instructors are needed as well. Section instructors function like the music director but are mainly responsible for teaching members of a given section. Because they are commonly previous members of the section they teach, they can provide better instruction to combine the needs of the show with the characteristics of the given instrument.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instrumentation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As bands require leadership from within as well as from without, section leaders are usually selected from among the members of each instrumental section (a \"section\" comprises all the band members who play the same musical instrument). The section leader is always an experienced band member and is usually selected by the band director (rather than elected or self-appointed) for his or her leadership skills and experience. The section leader is responsible for the minute-to-minute instruction of his or her section members, and reports to the drum majors and the band director. Many larger bands appoint more than one section leader per section, with each having a \"head\" section leader, whether formally or informally designated as such. College-level military bands may use the term \"section sergeant\" or \"section officer\" in place of \"section leader.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instrumentation", "target_page_ids": [ 27406894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The director provides general guidance, selects the repertoire, interprets commentary and evaluations from judges, and auditions or recruits prospective members. What content is not provided by the director may be contracted from arrangers (who compose original works or adapt existing works) and copyists (who reproduce parts of the score), choreographers, and drill designers (primarily for field bands). With the assistance of section instructors, the director also teaches performance techniques—musical, martial, and visual—and assesses the pool of talent, choosing leaders and soloists as needed. The director also selects venues for public performance and oversees the staff that help provide funding and equipment. Many opportunities for member improvement are present: the director may organize clinics with various professionals, send representatives to specialty schools or camps, or plan trips abroad for education or exhibition.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instrumentation", "target_page_ids": [ 438428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Large bands also require many support staff who can move equipment, repair instruments, and uniforms, create and manipulate props used in performances, and provide food, water, and medical assistance. Additional staff may be utilized when the band hosts functions such as competitions and reviews. In high school bands, these activities are usually performed by volunteers, typically parents of band members or the band members of the lower grades. These people are often referred to as runners or boosters. Significant support staff for college bands and independent corps are typically paid by the university or the corps organization, respectively.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Instrumentation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The goal of each band's performance is different. Some aim for maximum uniformity and precision; others—especially scramble bands—want to be as entertaining as possible. Many U.S. university marching bands aim for maximum sound impact on the audience. Some bands perform primarily for the enjoyment of their members. However, there are some common elements in almost all band performances. The following overview is heavily focused on the U.S. marching band tradition.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 893905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The traditional music of the marching band is the military march, but since show bands also evolved from the concert and brass band traditions, music has always been varied. Often, music from other genres is adapted for the specific instrumentation of a marching band.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 4635444, 312722, 5997515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 64 ], [ 109, 116 ], [ 121, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commercial arrangements that are tailored for the average band instrumentation are also available. Many bands typically have a repertoire of traditional music associated with the organization they serve. Some competitive bands use an arrangement of popular music varied for marching band, as well as music from a movie or other such theme. However, the largest and most successful marching bands tend to steer clear of show tunes and popular music, instead preferring compilations or arrangements of classical or traditional concert pieces (i.e. Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring or Puccini's Nessun Dorma) or of entirely new compositions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 2414, 38172, 163417, 12750, 695055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 546, 556 ], [ 559, 577 ], [ 581, 588 ], [ 591, 603 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Music may be memorized, or it may be carried on flip folders, which are held by lyres that clip onto the instruments. Having music memorized is usually considered an advantage for competitive bands, and at competitions, there is usually a penalty for the use of the sheet music on the field written into the scoring rubric. Practically, memorization prevents obstruction of vision caused by the folders. The memorization of music is usually a matter of pride for the marching band, however, bands that regularly pull from expansive libraries and perform dozens of new works each season are more likely to utilize flip folders.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The glide step, also commonly known as the roll step, involves bringing the heel gently to the ground with the toe pointed up, and then rolling forward onto the toes before lifting the foot to continue forward. While marching to the rear, the weight is placed continually on the ball of the foot with the heel elevated. This style is used by both marching bands as well as drum and bugle corps. The style, in comparison to high step, gives drill formations a more fluid appearance, allowing for better control of more difficult formations and various styles of music. With this control also comes the ability to perform a much broader range of tempos. Proper execution of a roll step gives a player marching at 40 beats per minute the same smooth tone as a player marching at 180. The roll step allows for much better control of the upper body, and thus better control of the air support needed for playing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 2988334, 30967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 644, 649 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some bands, and a select few drum and bugle corps, use a bent-knee variant of roll step, usually known simply as bent knee, in which the members roll from heel to toe but lead the next step with the knee instead of the foot, then planting the heel of the next foot by straightening the leg.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The high step is a style of marching used by many colleges and universities, including most bands of HBCUs and the Big Ten. Four primary sub-variants of the high are used:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The ankle-knee step involves bringing the foot up to the inside of the leg to the knee before coming down and forward. This is the style used by most bands from HBCUs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 12030482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The chair step involves lifting the knee until the thighs are parallel to the ground, and with toes pointed downward. When the leg is elevated to its maximum height, a ninety-degree angle exists between the torso and the thigh, as well as between the thigh and shin. The leg is then lowered, and this is repeated in an alternating fashion between the legs. This style is used by many schools in the Big Ten.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 12031023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The extended high step, much like the chair step, involves the thigh being parallel to the ground and perpendicular to the body, but instead with the shin extended outward at a forty-five-degree angle from the body and with toes pointed downward. The leg is then driven quickly back to the ground while the other leg repeats in this fashion.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The \"stop-at-the-top\" is a style similar to the chair step and is currently used only at the University of Wisconsin Marching Band. It involves bringing the leg up so that the thigh is at a 45 degree angle with the ground with the toes pointed as far down as possible. While the chair step is almost always used as merely a special decorative step, stop-at-the-top is the Wisconsin band's default marching style.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 7141636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An integral part of this style of marching is known as stop action, meaning that all movement ceases momentarily at the apex of each step. This requires a band to have a great deal of stamina, though is effective visually. High step marching is often accompanied by a horizontal swing of the player's body or instrument.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When band members are marching in one direction but want to focus their sound in another, they may rotate their bodies at the waist, so that only the upper portion of the body faces in the direction of play. This is known as lateral marching, but is more commonly known as either shifting, traversing, or sliding. A lateral march is not a change in the direction of march, only in the direction the upper body faces. Percussion players, whose large drum harnesses often prevent them from twisting their torsos, and sometimes tuba and sousaphone players, instead uses a crab step when moving sideways. During a crab step, the musician crosses one leg over the other, either marching on the toes or rolling the foot sideways. Percussionists may also substitute roll step when their instruments would interfere with performing the high step.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A true direction change involving the feet moving in a new direction requires either a prep step or a pivot, both of which are sometimes referred to as a flank or “stab”. To perform a prep step, on the last count of movement in the first direction a marcher plants the foot with the heel turned outward at half the angle of the turn desired, with the upper body still facing forward. On the next count, the other foot snaps into position completing the turn. The upper body may or may not turn with the lower body. Some bands plant the heel on the prep step rather than the toe but preserving the angle of the foot. To perform a pivot, the marcher pivots between directions over the ball of the foot on the last count instead of using a prep step.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A back march may be used when the band wishes to move in the opposite direction from where it is projecting its sound. There are several ways to back march, one of which is to walk backward, putting each foot down and rolling from the toe to the heel (the exact reverse of the roll step). Another variation involves marching on the platforms of the feet, dragging the toe of the moving foot on the ground. Backward marching usually employs the same preference for leg straightness as forward marching (if the band marches with legs completely straight while marching forwards, they also do so while marching backward, to preserve uniformity of style). Using peripheral vision to align oneself to formations or field markings is even more important during backward marching.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When a band is not moving, the members may mark time, or march in place. The step used usually resembles the step that is used for marching forward, though mixing a high step mark time with a roll step march (or vice versa) produces an interesting visual effect. For a typical mark time, the foot is raised to the ankle bone of the opposite leg. The toe should not come off the ground and the knee should not come out much past the still-straight leg.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some bands mark time by bringing their feet up to their knee—known as high-mark time. Some bands practice marking time during concert arch with the toes coming off of the ground to give the marcher a greater sense of marching while standing still. The heel should hit the ground on the beat. Some bands forgo marking time and instead come to a complete halt when not marching. Traditionally, the drumline would put their feet in a V-shape and lift their feet fully off the ground a few inches. This is to avoid hitting the drums.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Even when marking time, it is considered good form for all band members to stay in step—that is, step with the same foot at the same time. A large majority of bands step off with, or start marching on, the left foot. Staying in step is generally easier when the band is playing music or when the drums are playing a marching cadence.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When the band and percussion are not playing, rhythm may be maintained in a variety of ways: a drummer may play taps or rim shots, the drum major may clap or use a woodblock, a drum major or band member may vocalize a sharp syllable like \"hit,\" \"hut,\" or \"dut,\" or band members may chant the military call of \"left, left, left right left.\" Band members may count the steps of the move out loud to keep the entire band together. Typically, most moves consist of any number of steps that are a multiples of two or four, due to most marching band music being in even-numbered time signatures. Even-numbered time signatures aid in staying in step because they assign odd-numbered counts to the left foot, and even-numbered counts to the right foot. If a band member is on the wrong foot, for instance, odd on the right foot and even on the left, this is referred to as being out of step. When a band member is completely off tempo, it is referred to as being out of phase.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 30282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 573, 587 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In parades, bands usually line up in a marching block composed of ranks and files. Each member tries to stay within his or her given rank and file, and to maintain even spacing with neighboring musicians. It is traditionally the responsibility of the people at the end of each rank and the front of each file to be in the correct location; this allows other band members to use them as a reference, also known as guiding.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 24484, 3494250, 3501852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ], [ 66, 71 ], [ 76, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Band members also try to keep a constant pace or step size while marching in parade. Step sizes usually vary between 22 and 30 inches (56–76 cm) per stride. A step size of 22.5inches is called an 8-to-5 step because the marcher covers five yards (about 4.6 m) in eight steps. A step size of 30inches is called 6-to-5 because five yards are covered in six steps. Because yard lines on an American football field are five yards apart, exact 8-to-5 and 6-to-5 steps are most useful for field shows.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 14775, 7669, 34242, 18947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 131 ], [ 141, 143 ], [ 240, 244 ], [ 257, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A drum cadence, sometimes called a walk beat or street beat, is usually played when the band is marching, oftentimes alternating with a song, and is typically how a band keeps time while not playing music. Alternatively, a drum or rim shot may be given on the odd beats to keep the band in step. Between songs and cadences, a roll is usually given to indicate what beat in the measure the band is at. Cadence tempo varies from group to group.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 31520211, 30967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 14 ], [ 409, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Minnesota, Upstate New York, and Wisconsin, bands may perform on city streets with compact formation elements, sometimes referred to as a street show. These shows are judged using similar criteria as any other marching band competition. Elements of difficulty increase with street marching competitions because of the varying widths of streets in each community. Street marching is typical for bands who operate during the spring and early summer months. Typically, a band that performs in street marching competitions does not become involved with field marching, and vice versa. Various venues exist for street marching competitions between high school marching bands.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 19590, 447990, 33127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 36, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While playing music during a field show, the band makes a series of formations, called drill, on the field, which may be pictures, geometric shapes, curvilinear designs, or blocks of musicians, although sometimes it may be pure abstract designs using no specific form.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Typically, each band member has an assigned position in each formation. In many show bands and most drum corps, these positions are illustrated in a handheld booklet called a drill book (also known as a dot book). Drill books, or drill charts, show where each person stands during each set of the show. The drill charts include yard lines and hashes as they would be on an actual football field, which shows the band members where to stand relative to the yard lines and hashes. There are many ways of getting from one formation to the next:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 2549220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Each member moves independently—called scattering or scatter drill.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " All members move together without deforming the formation—called floating.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Members stay in their lines and arcs, but slowly deform the formation—sometimes called rotating, expanding, or condensing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Members break into ranks or squads, each of which performs a maneuver (such as a follow-the-leader) which may or may not be scripted. An unscripted move is sometimes called a rank option.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 2918094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Each member performs a specifically scripted move. In these cases, the desired visual effect is often the move itself and not the ending formation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Members at an extended halt perform a stationary visual move, such as a ripple (like \"the wave\") or some sort of choreography, that may propagate throughout the formation of band members", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 181181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Players may point the bells of their instruments in the direction they are moving, or slide (also called traverse) with all the bells facing in the same direction. They may also point it towards the center of the field. Bands that march in time with the music typically also synchronize the direction of individuals' turns and try to maintain even spacing between individuals in formations (called intervals). Sometimes bands specifically have wind players turn their instruments away from the audience to emphasize the dynamics of the music.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Auxiliaries can also add to the visual effect. Backdrops and props (scrims) may be used on the field that fit the theme of the show or the music being performed. In comedic shows, particularly for university bands, an announcer may read jokes or a funny script between songs; formations that are words or pictures (or the songs themselves) may serve as punch lines.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In some marching bands, the drum majors have the option to give out a set of commands to the rest of the band either vocally, by hand command, or by a whistle. These commands originated from the military history of marching band. Different bands might have different sets of procedures such as the number of counts it takes to carry out the command, but the overall result is the same.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " To the ready/Standing by/Rest/Relax: the command tells the band to stand with heads slightly bowed, feet shoulder-width apart. The band often automatically does this when they first march onto a field at the beginning of their show.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Band atten-hut/Band ten-hut/Set: the command that tells the band to go into the position of attention, a military posture. The band usually responds with a loud verbal response, such as \"One!\", \"Hut!\" or \"Hit!\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mark time march: the command tells the band to march in place in rhythm to snare taps, normally before they march off.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Forward march, sometimes forward harch: This command tells the band to begin marching, in time, and in step. They step off on the left foot and end on the right.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 2495854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Detail halt/Band halt: this command tells the band to stop marching. Normally they mark time for two beats, saying \"One, two\" or \"Dut, dut\" on these beats, to ensure they end on the correct foot.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " At ease: this tells the band that they may completely relax.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Parade rest: the command that tells the band to put their feet shoulder wide and join both hands in the front of their body or to put both feet together or in a V-formation and roll their elbows out and put both hands in fists resting on the hip (the upper-body portion is usually only utilized when marching without instruments, sometimes the second option's lower body form and the first option's upper-body form is used).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Left face: the command to turn the band 90 degrees to the left while at the position of attention.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Right face: the command to turn the band 90 degrees to the right while at the position of attention.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " About face: the command to turn the band 180 degrees to the rear while at the position of attention.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Horns up: the command for wind players to bring their instruments to playing position (mouthpiece on or near the mouth).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Horns thrust: this command for wind players instructs the band to bring their horns to a thrust position where their instruments are perpendicular to the ground and their mouthpieces are level with their eyes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Horns carry: this command for wind players instructs the band to put their instrument under their right arm.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dismissed/Fall out: this command generally releases the band either for the day or for another portion of the rehearsal.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " To the left flank: this command turns the band 90 degrees sinistrally while marking time. It is not to be executed until the director/drum major shouts the command \"hut\" or \"march.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " To the right flank: this command turns the band 90 degrees dextrally while marking time. It is not to be executed until the director/drum major shouts the syllable \"hut\" or \"march.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " To the rear: this command turns the band 180 degrees while marking time. It is not to be executed until the director/drum major shouts the syllable \"hut\" or \"march\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dress center/right/left dress: this command has the band bring their hands together at eye-level and to turn their heads toward the center, right, or left of the block (if one is in the center, one simply puts one's head down). While dressing, the band can adjust the block to have better spacing. No commands other than \"Ready front\" (sometimes \"Eyes front\") can be executed while Dressing is in action.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ready front/Eyes front: this command makes a band exit dress center for attention.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cover down: this command tells the band to line up their files and make sure they are straight.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aside from field show and parade, competitions among secondary schools can also have the march off (also concentration block or drill down). This event involves all participants on the field following the commands of the director or a drum major. If a participant makes a mistake, either by execution or wrong timing, then the participant falls out of the field. A winner is crowned when there is only one participant left on the field.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 554992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Each musician in a marching band creates sound waves. The waves from each musician, traveling at the speed of sound, reach the other musicians, field conductors, and listeners at slightly different times. If the distance between musicians is large enough, listeners may perceive waves to be out of phase. Typically, in this case, listeners perceive that one section of the band is playing their parts slightly after another section. This delay effect is informally referred to as ensemble tear or phasing (not to be confused with the music composition technique of the same name).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 18994087, 1869488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 52 ], [ 534, 578 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Consider also that viewers perceive the movement of marchers as light waves. Since light travels faster than sound, viewers may perceive that movement is out of phase with the sound. Sound waves may also reflect off parts of the stadium or nearby buildings.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For example, if two musicians, one standing on the front sideline of the football field and one on the back sideline, begin playing exactly when they see the beat of the conductor's baton or hand, the sound produced by the musician on the front sideline reaches listeners in the stands noticeably before the sound played by the back musician, and the musicians are seen to move before the sound reaches the stands.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ensemble tears can occur when musicians on the field listen to the pit. Because of the way sound waves travel, the sound pit produces first bounces off the back bleachers and then is heard by the ensemble. By the time the ensemble hears them, they are already late in timing. Because of this reason, the norm is to ignore the pit and let them listen to the ensemble for timing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Delay can be reduced in several ways, including:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " using compact formations;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " instructing players to watch field conductors, to get a uniform idea of tempo;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " instructing musicians to make constant adjustments and watch or listen to sources of tempo to make their sound reach the audience at the same time as other musicians;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " instructing players located near the back of the field watch the drum major, and all other players to listen back, playing along with those watching the drum major;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " instructing players to keep track of time and rhythm on their own (internalize the tempo);", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " instructing the percussion to call out counts, or do rimshots (sometimes called cheaters) when they are not playing;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " instructing players to ignore the delay and realize that listeners hear the sound waves in phase. This most often occurs when the band is spread out, but in groups (e.g., the four corners of the football field in 4 groups). In this case, the sound reaches the center of the stadium and the center of the stands at the same moment provided the band members are not correcting for each other.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nearly all marching band personnel wear some kind of uniform. Military-style uniforms are most common, but there are bands that use everything from matching T-shirts and shorts to formal wear. The school or organization's name, symbol, or colors are commonly applied to uniforms. Uniforms may also have substantially different colors on the front and back, so if band members turn suddenly (flank), the audience sees a striking change of color. Band members at many Ivy League schools wear a jacket and tie while performing. The Southern Methodist University band wear a different combination of jackets, vests, ties, shirts, and pants for each half (changing before halftime) of each game and no clothing or uniform combinations are repeated during the marching season. The Alma College Kiltie Marching Band is famous for wearing kilts made of the official Alma College tartan.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 38237, 14975, 479109, 991426, 17214, 349252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 60 ], [ 466, 476 ], [ 529, 558 ], [ 775, 787 ], [ 831, 835 ], [ 871, 877 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The components of a band uniform are numerous. Common design elements include hats (typically shakos, pith helmets, combination hats or other styles of helmets) with feather plumes, capes, gloves, rank cords, and other embellishments. The USC Spirit of Troy Marching Band and Troy University's Sound of the South Marching Band wear traditional Trojan helmets. It is also common for band uniforms to have a stripe down the leg and light-colored shoes, or spats over dark shoes to emphasize the movement of the legs while marching. Similarly, uniforms may feature additional components which highlight movement of the upper body, such as the \"wings\" worn by the University of Minnesota's marching band to highlight flanking movements on the field. Competitive bands, however, many times opt for matching uniforms, especially pants and shoes (usually white or black) to hide the visual effect of members who are out of step as seen from a distance. Occasionally, a band forgoes traditional uniforms in favor of costumes that fit the theme of its field show. The costumes may or may not be uniform throughout the band. This kind of specialized uniform change is usually confined to competitive marching bands.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 1842246, 1237904, 1824234, 32005, 2214568, 677955, 2110806, 7141572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 99 ], [ 102, 113 ], [ 116, 132 ], [ 239, 242 ], [ 243, 257 ], [ 276, 291 ], [ 454, 459 ], [ 660, 683 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Drum Majors, the field commanders and band directors, usually do not wear the regular band uniform, to better distinguish them from the rest of the band. Some wear more formal outfits or costumes that match the theme of the music, or most commonly a differently-designed version of the regular band uniform, often employing different colors (especially white) or features such as capes. Some (especially at the college level) still employ the tall wool-lined shako or much larger bearskin (both often derisively referred to as a \"Q-Tip hat\"). Sousaphone players may use a military-style beret or entirely forgo the use of a head covering, as most hats may be in the way of the bell. Some auxiliary groups use uniforms that resemble gymnastics outfits: Often, these uniforms are themed, drawing inspiration from the music. Many auxiliary groups change the outfits they use from season to season based on the needs of the band, although some that do also have a \"base\" uniform for occasions such as parades or other ceremonies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Performance elements", "target_page_ids": [ 1843814, 987790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 480, 488 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Music for parade and show bands is typically learned separately, in a concert band setting. It may even be memorized before any of the marching steps are learned. When rehearsing drill, positions and maneuvers are usually learned without playing the music simultaneously—a common technique for learning drill is to have members sing their parts or march to a recording produced during a music rehearsal. Many bands learn drill one picture or form at a time, and later combine these and add music.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rehearsals", "target_page_ids": [ 312722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rehearsals may also include physical warm-up (calisthenics, running, etc.), music warm-up (generally consisting of breathing exercises, scales, technical exercises, chorales, and tuning), basics (simple marching in a block to practice proper technique), and sectionals (in which either staff or band members designated section leaders rehearse individual sections).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rehearsals", "target_page_ids": [ 40651, 99485, 20817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 142 ], [ 165, 173 ], [ 179, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When learning positions for drill, an American football field may be divided into a 5-yard grid, with the yard lines serving as one set of guides. The locations where the perpendicular grid lines cross the yard lines sometimes called zero points or gacks, may be marked on a practice field at eight-, four-, or two-step intervals. Alternately, band members may only use field markings—yard lines, the centerline, hash marks, and yard numbers—as guides (but note that different leagues put these markings in different places).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rehearsals", "target_page_ids": [ 18951490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For members to learn their positions more quickly, they may be given drill charts, which map their locations relative to the grid or field markings for each formation. In other groups, spray chalk or colored markers are used to mark the location of each person after each set of drill, with a different color and, sometimes, shape for each move.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rehearsals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some bands use small notebooks, also known as a dot book or drill book, which they hang about their necks, on the drum harness, or around the waist. These contain pages of drill charts, which often either give a picture or list coordinates that band members use to find 'pages' or 'sets' on the field. Coordinates are normally listed in 8-to-5 steps off the front sideline and front and back hashes, along with the number of 8–5 steps off of the yard line listed on each page. Some bands are even using small plastic pouches that hang about their neck on an adjustable strap, which has a zipper pocket for holding drill, flags to mark sets, and a pencil. There is also a clear plastic window in front to display the current part of drill being worked on at that point in time.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rehearsals", "target_page_ids": [ 2549220, 2549220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 56 ], [ 60, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Uniquely, the Fightin’ Texas Aggie Band of Texas A&M University requires its members to create their own reference cards by hand as they learn each new drill. This is due to the band’s traditional straight-line military style, which emphasizes long periods of continuous marching in a single direction at a standard angle, thus requiring members to focus on the uniformity of the entire band rather than their individual position on the field.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rehearsals", "target_page_ids": [ 1267838, 29927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 39 ], [ 43, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Members may also group into squads, ranks, sections, or (especially with scramble bands that primarily form words) letters. Instead of each member having an individual move, moves are then learned on a squad-by-squad (rank-by-rank) basis.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rehearsals", "target_page_ids": [ 893905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most bands meet in the summer, normally in August for summer training, or prior to the specific marching season (known as band camp). This involves learning basic marching fundamentals such as the type of marching step the band uses, commands from the drum major, and how to move on field. The band is also given music to learn for their show. Drill for the show may or may not be provided to learn during band camp. The camp takes place outdoors on the field for marching, and in a band hall for music-only rehearsals. Sectionals, or rehearsals including all of one instrument (e.g. flute sectional), take place during this time. Directors may use time during band camp to place band members in their sections based on playing or marching level and ability. This time can also be used for the potential drum majors to showcase their abilities and for the band director to choose who is head drum major. For bands that require auditions for the band, drumline, or auxiliary, auditions may happen the first few days for placement. Band camp usually lasts 1–2 weeks, but in the case of a more advanced marching band, camp may last up to a month. In most university bands, band camp means an earlier move-in date for university students in the band.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Rehearsals", "target_page_ids": [ 2472100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marching bands serve as entertainment during American football games, which may also be known as pep band. For college and high school marching bands, this is the primary purpose of the ensemble. The home team's band plays the national anthem before kickoff (often as part of a pre-game show), as well as other music while in the stands during the game. Bands cheer with the cheerleaders, and some bands create their cheers. Marching bands then perform a show during halftime. When both teams' bands are present, it is a common protocol for the visiting band to perform first. After halftime, some high school bands use the third quarter of the game to take a break and get food. College bands and some high school bands do not have such breaks but continue playing in the stands during the entirety of the game. The band often stays the entire game, playing the school's fight song and alma mater at the end of the game regardless of the outcome.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "American football games", "target_page_ids": [ 18951490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three National Football League teams designate an official marching band: the Washington Commanders, Buffalo Bills and Baltimore Ravens. Marching bands were once common fare during Super Bowl halftime shows during its earlier years but were later replaced by short stadium rock concerts from high-profile recording artists, some of which have incorporated marching bands into their performances. Marching bands are otherwise uncommon at the professional level.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "American football games", "target_page_ids": [ 21211, 33673, 4315, 4293, 1730307, 163212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 30 ], [ 78, 99 ], [ 101, 114 ], [ 119, 135 ], [ 181, 205 ], [ 265, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In competition, marching bands are usually judged on criteria such as musicality, uniformity, visual impact, artistic interpretation, and the difficulty of the music and drill. Competition exists at all levels but is most common in the U.S. among secondary school bands and drum and bugle corps. Performances designed for a competition setting usually include more esoteric music (including but not limited to adaptations of modern orchestral pieces). Many traditional-style bands compete in contests known as a Battle of the Bands, similar to the Atlanta Classic from the movie Drumline. There are also competitions at the national level, such as the Bands of America (BOA) Grand National Championships through Music for All.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [ 1083910, 1421640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 579, 587 ], [ 652, 674 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although its legitimacy is often called into question, competitive marching band is sometimes considered a sport, due in large part to the physical exertion required in combination with teamwork. Many HBCU marching band fans refer to marching band as marching sport. Sports Illustrated considered the activity a sport in 1987, describing the Drum Corps International World Championships “one of the biggest sporting events of the summer.” In the same article, Sports Illustrated quoted basketball coach Bobby Knight, \"If a basketball team trained as hard as these kids do, it would be unbelievable. I like to take my players [to watch drum corps] to show them what they can accomplish with hard work and teamwork. Besides, once they see them practice 12 hours a day, my players think I’m a helluva lot easier.”", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [ 148956, 4871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 267, 285 ], [ 503, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his presentation to the American College of Sports Medicine's annual meeting in 2009, researcher and exercise physiologist Gary Granata presented research after studying members of the Avon High School Marching Black and Gold, noting \"At the top levels of marching band and drum corps, you get a level of competition and athleticism that is equal to a Division I athletic program.\" Granata further pointed out, \"Performers are constantly moving, and often running, at velocities that reach 180 steps or more per minute while playing instruments that weigh up to 40 pounds.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [ 11040798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Moreover, in an ESPN segment from 2005, researchers from Indiana State University placed devices on Drum Corps members that recorded metabolic rates during performances and practices, utilizing measurements of oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production, and heart rate. The findings were that the performer's metabolic rates matched those of marathon runners halfway through a marathon, while the heart rate was more along the lines of someone who was running a \"400 or 800-meter dash.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [ 77795, 380922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 20 ], [ 57, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spring and early summer parade marching (or street marching) are popular in the northern midwest and Upstate New York, where temperatures are moderate enough for students to march distances in standard uniforms. Performance styles range from traditional block marching to elaborate productions with evolving drill patterns.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some circuits in the United States continue to hold field show competitions during the summer months. Much like drum corps, these bands rehearse and tour full-time for about a month from mid-June to mid-August. Such circuits include the Mid-America Competing Band Directors Association, or MACBDA, and the Catholic Youth Organization circuits.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [ 519863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 306, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Honda Battle of the Bands is an annual marching band exhibition that features performances by HBCU bands. Seemingly contradictory to the name, Honda's \"battle\" is not a competition in the traditional sense. That is, no winner is crowned during the event. Rather, the bands compete for the favor of the audience, each other, and the greater community.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [ 11261583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "WAMSB (World Association of Marching Show Bands) is an international organization holding many competitions throughout the world. Its World Championships are held annually in the summer in a different country. Past host nations include Canada, Brazil, Japan, Malaysia, Denmark, Germany, Italy, & Australia. WAMSB sanctioned events happen in 32 nations.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Central Indiana Track Show Association hosts contests in Indiana during the summer. The championships for CITSA is the Indiana State Fair Band Day competition, held every August at the Indiana State Fair.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [ 50837610, 1318490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 150 ], [ 189, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most high school marching band competitions occur in the fall when the majority of schools begin classes. In the United States, there are two national competition circuits in which bands can compete: Bands of America and the United States Scholastic Band Association (USSBA).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [ 3434750, 1421640, 6711856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 126 ], [ 200, 216 ], [ 225, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The USSBA was formed in 1988 through the help of the Cadets Drum and Bugle Corps. Over 700 high school bands compete during the Fall season with bands of similar size and talent. Each competition provides approximately 40 professional judges who give feedback on the show's programming and design. At the season's end, the top 50 bands are invited to compete in the US Scholastic Band Championship, which is hosted at a college or professional stadium.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bands of America is the other major circuit that conducts several competitions throughout the fall season. Competitions include Regional Championships, held in collegiate stadiums in locations such as Pennsylvania, California, Ohio, Texas, and North Carolina, and Super Regional Championships held in NFL stadiums in cities such as Atlanta, Indianapolis, and St. Louis. The season accumulates with the holding of Grand National Championships, considered the top event for high school marching. Grand Nationals takes place in Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis, Indiana in early to mid-November. The three-day event concludes with the top 12 highest scoring high school bands, out of the more than 90 who participate, performing in Grand National Finals on Saturday night. Due to the stiff competition, with bands traveling to the event from throughout the country, many people consider the champion the best high school marching band in the country. There are no qualifications for any Bands of America events, including Grand Nationals. Admittance is based on a first-come, first-served basis.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [ 2746089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 525, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many states have their own competition circuits, as well as their own rules for competitions in their circuits. Several colleges host annual independent competitions, with varying degrees of prestige—such as the Contest of Champions at Middle Tennessee State University, which is the longest-running high school band contest in the United States.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [ 637662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 236, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To make competitions fair, bands normally split into different classes or divisions based on certain factors. One popular classification system uses the size of the school to split up the competing bands. This is the method used by Bands of America, the Indiana State School Music Association, Kentucky Music Educators Association and the University Interscholastic League. Alternatively, the number of band members determines the class—with the largest bands being Division I, and smaller bands being classified as Division II, III, and IV.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [ 1421640, 2191705, 12321782, 1684701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 232, 248 ], [ 254, 292 ], [ 294, 330 ], [ 339, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Sudler Trophy and Sudler Shields are awards bestowed each year by the John Philip Sousa Foundation on one university marching band and one high school marching band. The awards do not represent the winner of any championship, but rather a band surrounded by great tradition that has become respected nationally. No school may be honored with either award twice while under the same director.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Competition", "target_page_ids": [ 5027752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most marching bands in Canada are organized by the Canadian Band Association or by Canadian universities:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Marching bands outside the U.S.", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Royal Military College of Canada Bands", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Marching bands outside the U.S.", "target_page_ids": [ 27956742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Simon Fraser University Pipe Band ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Marching bands outside the U.S.", "target_page_ids": [ 2001731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Western Mustang Band ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Marching bands outside the U.S.", "target_page_ids": [ 6962076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although many bands have still retained the British tradition for marching bands, most have also adopted the style utilized by their American counterparts. Canadian military bands are often associated with civilian marching bands. Many of the civilian marching bands that exist today, such as the Oshawa Civic Band, The Concert Band of Cobourg and the Toronto Signals Band, have military roots and were formerly Canadian Army bands. In the case of the aforementioned bands, their lineage is shared with the bands of The Ontario Regiment, the 6th Northumberland Militia and the 2nd Armoured Divisional Signals Regiment respectively. In the early to mid 20th century, the Canadian Forces maintained drum and bugle corps, which were similar in instrumentation and organization to civilian marching bands.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Marching bands outside the U.S.", "target_page_ids": [ 34964144, 6964667, 248984, 62710465, 2338743, 182792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 179 ], [ 297, 314 ], [ 336, 343 ], [ 352, 372 ], [ 516, 536 ], [ 670, 685 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Taiwan, the National Marching Band Association is the main organizer of local marching bands in the country. It is currently located at its headquarters in the Neihu District of Taipei City. The Taipei First Girls' High School currently sports one of the most acclaimed marching bands in the country.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Marching bands outside the U.S.", "target_page_ids": [ 25734, 624270, 57648, 7271851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ], [ 163, 177 ], [ 181, 192 ], [ 198, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first marching bands were introduced in Malaysia during the British colonial period and has since grown and increased its importance. The most common are found in the Malaysian Armed Forces, however, in recent years, there has been a rise in the number of show bands and drum corps in the country. Although the Ministry of Education organizes most school marching bands, other organizations have made consistent efforts to organize local marching bands.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Marching bands outside the U.S.", "target_page_ids": [ 19115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Russia, there are not many school or local marching bands in existence, with most being government-sponsored military and police bands, as well as several bands operated by the local governments. The marching bands of the Russian Armed Forces are organized by the Military Band Service in the Ministry of Defence. Also known as Marshiruyushchiye orkestr (loosely translated to Марширующие оркестр, which means Marching Orchestra in Russian), notable Russian marching bands include the Band and Corps of Drums of the Moscow Military Music College, whose cadets are famous for setting the pace for the annual Victory Day Parades on Red Square. These types of bands only came into existence after 1991 when the Soviet Union ceased to exist. During the Soviet era, civilian like marching bands were extremely rare, with one of the only non-military bands having been employed in the late 1930s and early 1940s during National Sports Day parades in the capital of Moscow. Other Russian marching bands include the Drummers Group of the Boarding School for Girls of the Ministry of Defense of Russia and the Moscow & District Pipe Band. The country has hosted many marching band tattoos within the last 70 years, including the Spasskaya Tower Military Music Festival and Tattoo in Moscow and the Amur Waves International Military Bands Festival in Khabarovsk.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Marching bands outside the U.S.", "target_page_ids": [ 25391, 25709, 52952677, 7875884, 54679537, 56527387, 66931, 26779, 19004, 54432078, 19004, 58115436, 56582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ], [ 225, 245 ], [ 267, 288 ], [ 296, 315 ], [ 519, 548 ], [ 610, 629 ], [ 633, 643 ], [ 711, 723 ], [ 962, 968 ], [ 1223, 1273 ], [ 1277, 1283 ], [ 1292, 1340 ], [ 1344, 1354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The traditions of both the Singapore Police Force Band and the Singapore Armed Forces Bands soon inspired the creation of the Singaporean marching band tradition. By the 1960s, school and college marching bands, corps of drums and drum and bugle corps began to be commonplace (the latter in cadet units), as well as bands of youth uniformed organizations and universities, all following the armed forces pattern and British and Malayan (later Malaysian) precedence. The People's Association became the first civilian organization to form a dedicated marching band in 1965-66, and the Ministry of Education followed suit with a teachers' band made up of band instructors. Today the Ministry of Education is responsible for overall control over the school, college, university and polytecnic bands within Singapore, with two dedicated cadet bands.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Marching bands outside the U.S.", "target_page_ids": [ 63399816, 4864727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 54 ], [ 63, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some of Singapore's oldest high school marching bands are from the Raffles' Institution, St. Joseph's Institution, Victoria School, Bukit Panjang Government HS and the Anglo-Chinese School.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Marching bands outside the U.S.", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The SPF has the country's three uniformed pipe bands, the Women's Police, SPF and Gurkha Contingent Pipe Bands, all raised in the late 1960s. Civilian pipe bands were formerly present in the PA, Boys Brigade and the Port of Singapore Authority.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Marching bands outside the U.S.", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Marching Arts", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2499180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tournament of Bands", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13188512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of marching bands", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 49353869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Western Band Association", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4791897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marching (sport)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14760832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Booster Club", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1633847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fanfare", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Types_of_musical_groups", "Marching_bands", "Articles_containing_video_clips", "Military_marching", "Marching" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Cartoon Network Studios is an American animation studio owned by the Warner Bros. Television Studios division of Warner Bros., a subsidiary of Warner Bros. Discovery. The studio is the production arm of Cartoon Network, and started operating on October 21, 1994 as a division of Hanna-Barbera until the latter absorbed into Warner Bros. Animation in 2001. Turner Entertainment Co. did not include the current library from Cartoon Network Studios (as a division of Hanna-Barbera) (including What a Cartoon! and the first season of Dexter's Laboratory). ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4523682, 1051662, 34052, 67824355, 17279743, 56542, 1010164, 411052, 1048323, 99823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 55 ], [ 69, 100 ], [ 113, 125 ], [ 143, 165 ], [ 203, 218 ], [ 279, 292 ], [ 324, 346 ], [ 356, 380 ], [ 490, 505 ], [ 530, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Located in Burbank, California, the studio primarily produces and develops animated programs and shorts for Cartoon Network and later Cartoonito. In the 2010s and beyond, their programs began to expand into their sister companies Adult Swim, TBS, and HBO Max. So far, the company has only produced one theatrically released film, The Powerpuff Girls Movie, distributed by its sister company, Warner Bros. Pictures.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 107608, 66812650, 326292, 31234796, 61240499, 1167226, 61086090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 30 ], [ 134, 144 ], [ 230, 240 ], [ 242, 245 ], [ 251, 258 ], [ 330, 355 ], [ 392, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cartoon Network Studios originated as a division of Hanna-Barbera Cartoons, Inc. that focused on producing original programming for Cartoon Network, including What a Cartoon!, Dexter's Laboratory, Johnny Bravo, and The Powerpuff Girls. Following the 1996 merger of Hanna-Barbera's parent, Turner Broadcasting System with Time Warner, and after being located on Cahuenga Boulevard in Los Angeles since 1963, the Hanna-Barbera studio, its archives, and its extensive animation art collection, were relocated in 1998 to Sherman Oaks Galleria in Sherman Oaks, California, where Warner Bros. Animation was located. This relocation was executed by its chief executive, Jean MacCurdy. On July 21, 1999, Cartoon Network officially started the studio to separate itself from the complete folding of Hanna-Barbera into Warner Bros. Animation that started after the Time Warner merger. Following the death of the studio's co-founder William Hanna in 2001, Cartoon Network Studios took over the animation function of Hanna-Barbera.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 56542, 17279743, 1048323, 99823, 738015, 51679, 332695, 83045, 11690179, 18110, 1872081, 434509, 1010164, 18576830, 896953, 56542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 80 ], [ 132, 147 ], [ 159, 174 ], [ 176, 195 ], [ 197, 209 ], [ 215, 234 ], [ 289, 315 ], [ 321, 332 ], [ 361, 379 ], [ 383, 394 ], [ 517, 538 ], [ 542, 566 ], [ 574, 596 ], [ 663, 676 ], [ 922, 935 ], [ 1005, 1018 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2000, Cartoon Network Studios transferred its production offices to a new facility located at 300 N 3rd St. in Burbank, California, which was the location of a former Pacific Bell telephone exchange. Former DiC and Nickelodeon employees Brian A. Miller and Jennifer Pelphrey have managed the company since it began production in the same year. The current headquarters of the animation studio was christened on May 22, 2000, by veteran animator and animation advisor Joseph Barbera with a bottle of champagne.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 107608, 536576, 365616, 154549, 37930801, 1123637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 133 ], [ 170, 182 ], [ 210, 213 ], [ 218, 229 ], [ 240, 255 ], [ 470, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2002, the studio produced two television pilots for Cartoon Network's late night programming block Adult Swim: Welcome to Eltingville and The Groovenians. Neither of them were picked as full series. Also, the studio released this year its only theatrical film to date: The Powerpuff Girls Movie, based on The Powerpuff Girls, which received positive reviews from critics but performed poorly at the box office. In 2006, Cartoon Network Studios collaborated with sister studio Williams Street for the first time for Korgoth of Barbaria, a television pilot made for Adult Swim, which was also not green-lit as a series.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 326292, 798090, 46997303, 1167226, 51679, 583332, 3384861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 112 ], [ 114, 136 ], [ 141, 156 ], [ 272, 297 ], [ 308, 327 ], [ 479, 494 ], [ 518, 537 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, Cartoon Network Studios began its first foray into live-action with the hybrid series Out of Jimmy's Head, and then its first fully live-action project, Race Against Time and its sequel, Alien Swarm, along with the television pilots Locker 514, Siblings and Stan the Man. The studio's first live-action series Tower Prep would arrive in 2010. Former New Line Television producer Mark Costa was hired to oversee the projects and Cartoon Network Studios' live-action production company Alive and Kicking, Inc.. Incredible Crew was the last series in that genre the studio produced for Cartoon Network. Despite the failure of live-action on the channel, the studio's infrastructure was retained to produce live-action fare for sibling programming block Adult Swim, identifying on-air as Alive and Kicking, along with two other companies (Rent Now Productions and Factual Productions), instead of using the Cartoon Network Studios banner.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 290200, 12356181, 28547427, 5956302, 37952275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 71 ], [ 95, 114 ], [ 321, 331 ], [ 361, 380 ], [ 520, 535 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, Adventure Time premiered on Cartoon Network. It began life as a short featured on Nicktoons' Random! Cartoons that was ultimately not green-lit as a series by that channel. Cartoon Network picked it up later. The show ran until 2018 with 10 seasons and 283 episodes. A film was announced in 2015, but in 2018 Adam Muto said that the film was never officially announced. In 2019, a continuation, titled Distant Lands, was announced for HBO Max with a release in 2020. Also this year, The Cartoonstitute, an incubator series similar to What a Cartoon!, debuted on Cartoon Network Video. The pilots of Regular Show and Uncle Grandpa were presented here among with other shorts, with the Uncle Grandpa pilot also serving as a basis for Secret Mountain Fort Awesome, which preceded the actual series.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9213332, 38313888, 925645, 4437751, 61240499, 16847816, 24553901, 39256445, 29557124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 23 ], [ 71, 78 ], [ 91, 100 ], [ 102, 118 ], [ 445, 452 ], [ 493, 511 ], [ 609, 621 ], [ 626, 639 ], [ 742, 770 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, Cartoon Network Studios produced its first miniseries, Over the Garden Wall. The following year, Long Live the Royals was also premiered.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 42145060, 46599820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 84 ], [ 106, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016, the studio produced two reboots based on The Powerpuff Girls and Ben 10 respectively. Also, the studio produced its first television series based on a series of online shorts, Mighty Magiswords.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 46948831, 51579232, 30037291, 46636592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 32 ], [ 33, 40 ], [ 74, 80 ], [ 185, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, after plans as old as 2002 for a film failed to work, Samurai Jack was revived for a fifth and final season for Adult Swim, to critical acclaim, concluding the series after its cancellation from Cartoon Network in 2004. Also this year, it was announced that Cartoon Network Studios, in collaboration with Studio T, would produce an adult animated series titled Close Enough created by Regular Show creator J. G. Quintel. Originally planned for TBS, the series was eventually dropped from there after the failure of its planned animation block; eventually, in 2019, HBO Max picked it up from TBS.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 452301, 50623032, 62197419, 28464499, 31234796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 75 ], [ 92, 116 ], [ 370, 382 ], [ 415, 428 ], [ 453, 456 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2019, after handling a few episodes of Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law, the second season of Black Dynamite, the above-mentioned fifth season of Samurai Jack and producing the above-mentioned television pilots Welcome to Eltingville, The Groovenians and Korgoth of Barbaria, Cartoon Network Studios produced its first full program for Adult Swim: Primal, an adult animated series from Genndy Tartakovsky. The first five episodes were also packaged for a limited theatrical release as a feature film titled Primal: Tales of Savagery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 418078, 32599350, 61948759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 73 ], [ 96, 110 ], [ 350, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2020, Cartoon Network Studios began to produce content for parent company WarnerMedia's streaming service HBO Max, including Distant Lands, Tig n' Seek and The Fungies!. More recently, Warner Bros. Animation president Sam Register was appointed head of the studio. Amy Friedman was named head of programming for Cartoon Network after Rob Sorcher resigned his roles as head of the studio and chief content officer, and switching to Warner Bros. Television Group for an overall production deal.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 83045, 61240499, 65035332, 62589312, 1260436, 50401855, 1051662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 88 ], [ 109, 116 ], [ 144, 155 ], [ 160, 172 ], [ 222, 234 ], [ 338, 349 ], [ 435, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2021, the studio also announced that they will also be producing preschool content for Cartoonito, Cartoon Network's preschool programming block that would also have their shows on HBO Max. The first series produced by Cartoon Network Studios on Cartoonito is the Craig of the Creek spin-off Jessica's Big Little World. Also this year, Jason DeMarco was named SVP for Anime & Action Series/Longform for Warner Bros. Animation and Cartoon Network Studios.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 66812650, 55810043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 100 ], [ 267, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On May 11, 2022, after Tom Ascheim exited his role as president and departed, the Warner Bros. Global Kids, Young Adults and Classics division was dissolved as part of a restructuring by new owner Warner Bros. Discovery, with its studios including Cartoon Network Studios moved directly under Warner Bros. Television.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 63596170, 1051662, 67824355, 1051662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 34 ], [ 82, 133 ], [ 197, 219 ], [ 293, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This is a list of Cartoon Network Studios/Cartoon Network original shorts that were not pilots.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A direct-to-video production.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 221720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " An adult animated production.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Filmography", "target_page_ids": [ 1939093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of programs broadcast by Cartoon Network", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 287673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of animation studios owned by Warner Bros. Discovery", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 61522893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hanna-Barbera - the former owner and predecessor of Cartoon Network Studios", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 56542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hanna-Barbera Studios Europe - European sister studio of Cartoon Network Studios owned by Warner Bros. Television Studios UK", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30742751, 7743487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 91, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Warner Bros. Animation - sister studio of Cartoon Network Studios", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1010164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Williams Street - sister studio of Cartoon Network Studios", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 583332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of animation studios owned by Paramount Global", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 67891076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nickelodeon Animation Studio - the animation division of Nickelodeon Networks", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2795560, 154549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 58, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CBS Eye Animation Productions - the animation division of CBS Studios", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 68824671, 887316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ], [ 59, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MTV Animation - the animation division of MTV Entertainment Studios", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2331602, 1305297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 43, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rainbow S.p.A. - Italian animation subsidiary 30% stake owned by Paramount International Networks", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1920717, 18330013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 66, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Terrytoons - the predecessor of CBS Eye Animation Productions", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 167970, 68824671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 33, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of animation studios owned by The Walt Disney Company", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37890632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Disney Television Animation - the animation division of Disney Branded Television", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2157619, 3891249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ], [ 57, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 20th Television Animation - the television animation studio of Disney Television Studios and former division of 20th Television", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 46698586, 67117969, 5817689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 64, 89 ], [ 113, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Comcast/NBCUniversal", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 303749, 650407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 9, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Universal Animation Studios - the animation division of Universal Pictures", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39030902, 170326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ], [ 57, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " DreamWorks Animation Television - sister studio of Universal Pictures and the television animation division of DreamWorks Animation", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 63797784, 1509817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ], [ 112, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sony Pictures", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 939909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sony Pictures Animation - the animation division of Sony Pictures Motion Picture Group", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1840243, 3087502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 53, 87 ] ] } ]

[ "Cartoon_Network_Studios", "1994_establishments_in_California", "American_animation_studios", "Cartoon_Network", "Entertainment_companies_based_in_California", "Companies_based_in_Burbank,_California", "American_companies_established_in_1994", "Mass_media_companies_established_in_1994", "Warner_Bros._Television_Studios", "Warner_Bros._divisions" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In military organizations, a colour guard (or color guard) is a detachment of soldiers assigned to the protection of regimental colours and the national flag. This duty is so prestigious that the military colour is generally carried by a young officer (Ensign), while experienced non-commissioned officers (colour sergeants) are assigned to the protection of the national flag. These NCOs, accompanied sometimes by warrant officers (as is the case in several countries), can be ceremonially armed with either sabres or rifles to protect the colour. Colour guards are generally dismounted, but there are also mounted colour guard formations as well.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 92357, 992975, 625534, 632975, 75971, 25456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 25 ], [ 117, 135 ], [ 253, 259 ], [ 307, 322 ], [ 509, 514 ], [ 519, 524 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As armies became trained and adopted set formations, each regiment's ability to keep its formation was potentially critical to its and therefore its army's success. In the chaos of battle, not least due to the amount of dust and smoke on a battlefield, soldiers needed to be able to determine where their regiment was. Flags and banners have been used by many armies in battle to serve that purpose.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 166653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Regimental flags were generally awarded to a regiment by a head of state during a ceremony and colours may be inscribed with battle honours or other symbols representing former achievements. They were therefore treated with reverence as they represented the honour and traditions of the regiment. The loss of a unit's flag was shameful, and losing that central point of reference could also make the unit break up. Therefore,regiments tended to adopt colour guards, a detachment of experienced or élite soldiers, to protect their colours. As a result, the capture of an enemy's standard was considered as a great feat of arms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1839094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the advent of modern weapons, and subsequent changes in tactics, colours are no longer used in battle but continue to be carried by colour guards at events of formal character.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the Chinese People's Liberation Army, the colour guards include one ensign holding the flag of the People's Liberation Army as the national colour domestically or the flag of China when abroad, and two officers or senior NCOs assisting the ensign holding rifles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 66890, 24930425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 39 ], [ 170, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the parades of the 1950s, this configuration was present in every unit of the PLA up to the parade of 1959, but with the ensign and escorts drawn from individual formations. Today, only honour guards are granted colour guard duty to represent the whole of the PLA. Being the seniormost branch of the PLA, the Ground Forces representative serves as the ensign in the service colour guard, with the officer to his/her right being from the Navy and the officer to their left being from the Air Force. Since 1981, the PLA has continued a tradition of the colour guard detail with the PLA flag leading the Beijing Garrison Honor Guard Battalion in military parades. In December 2017, the Beijing Garrison Colour Guard Company of the People's Armed Police, which is present during flag ceremonies in Tiananmen Square in Beijing carrying the national flag, was officially attached to the honour guard battalion. Its colour guard squad follows the same format as the guard of honor colour guard squad.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 1289647, 51980866, 147372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 312, 325 ], [ 605, 643 ], [ 732, 753 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Taiwan, the colour guard tradition of the Republic of China Armed Forces is modeled on the German, Russian and US practice. Until 1976, each military unit sported a singular stand of colours on parade, as opposed to the honour guard of the ROCAF, which is more aligned with the traditions of the US Joint Service Honour Guard of the Joint Force Headquarters National Capital Region. All colour bearers of formations above company level must be, following US tradition, holding the rank of sergeant or above as a non-commissioned officer, while the colour escorts are lower ranking enlisted personnel. All wear full dress, service dress or battle dress uniforms. Since the National Day parade of 1978, the format of unit colour guards in ROCAF formations of battalion size (and of equivalent formations) is:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 30095, 4803750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 75 ], [ 336, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Left escort", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1st 2 company guidon bearers", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Unit colour", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2nd 2 company guidon bearers ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Right escort", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Brigade-level colours (and above) are guided by the left and right escorts only.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The joint service colour guard of the ROCAF General Headquarters, today as in the past, is similarly composed but is more larger, with its composition being", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Left escort", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Air Force Flag", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Naval Jack", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Army Flag", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Flag of the Republic of China (National Colour)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 184224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Army Honour Guard Unit Colour", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Navy Honour Guard Unit Colour", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Air Force Honour Guard Unit Colour", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Right escort", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Colour guards are used in the military throughout the Commonwealth of Nations, including Australia, Canada, Jamaica, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. A colour guard unit typically consists of the standard-bearer, who is of the rank of second lieutenant or equivalent (pilot officer or sub-lieutenant), positioned in the centre of the colour guard, flanked by two or more individuals, typically armed with rifles or sabres. A colour sergeant major typically stands behind the colours carrying a pace stick. So, the formation (when the colours are combined on parade) is as follows:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 21175158, 4689264, 5042916, 15660, 4913064, 31717, 2035979, 201930, 2891208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 77 ], [ 89, 98 ], [ 100, 106 ], [ 108, 115 ], [ 117, 128 ], [ 138, 152 ], [ 200, 215 ], [ 239, 256 ], [ 498, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Colour Sergeants carrying rifles", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ensigns", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sergeant of the Guard", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Colour Sergeant Major behind the colour", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aside from presenting arms and sabres, colour guards of the Commonwealth of Nations are expected to lower their flags to the ground in full and regular salutes in ceremonies and parades. Civilians should stand during such times and soldiers are expected to salute them when not in formation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 8720975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the British Army, the Royal Air Force, the Royal Marines and the Royal Navy have several types of colours, there are also colour guards for these colours and these colours and their colour guards are as follows:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Queen's Colour – Union Flag (Crimson with insignia and the honours for the Guards Division)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 70760, 1433717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 28 ], [ 76, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Colour Sergeants and Ensign", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " State Colour – Crimson with insignia and the honours and the Royal Cypher at the corners, used only for the Guards Division in ceremonies in the presence of the Queen ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 1433717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Colour Sergeants and Ensign", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Regimental Colour – Union Flag on the canton with the Regimental Arms and honours", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Foot Guards regiments (Union Flag)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 488105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Royal Regiments (navy blue)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Royal Irish Regiment (green)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 1315959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " other regimental colours", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " same as in the Queen's Colour", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Combined Colour Guards (units)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Colour Sergeants, Ensign, Guard Sergeant of the Colours, Colour Sergeant Major", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Queen's Colour – Royal Air Force Ensign with the Sovereign's cypher and the RAF roundel", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 3741568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ensign and Armed escorts", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " RAF Ensign", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Same as Queen's Colour", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Squadron Colour – Air Force blue with the unit insignia and honours", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " same as Queen's Colour", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Combined Colour Guards (units)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Colour Sgts., Ensigns, Guard Sergeant of the Colours, CSM", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the cavalry, the Queen's Standard or Guidon and the Regimental/Squadron Standard or Guidon (for the light cavalry only) are the equivalents to the Queen's and Regimental Colours.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Queen's Standard – Crimson with the Royal coat of arms, the Royal Cypher and the regimental honours", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 5339439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Colour Sergeant/Corporal of Horse, Warrant Officers", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Regimental/Squadron Standard/Guidon – Crimson or scarlet or other colours with the Royal Cypher, the Union Badge, regimental insignia and honours (only guidons are swallow tailed)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " same as in the Queen's Standard/Guidon", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Combined Colour Guards (units)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Colour Corporals/Sergeants, Warrant Officers, Guard Corporal/Sergeant of the Colours, Colours Corporal Major (Household Cavalry), Colours Sergeant Major (other cavalry and armour units)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Colour guards in the artillery units are technically the lead gun's crew and leader (except in the Honourable Artillery Company which uses both guns and Colours) and there are no colour guards in the rifle regiments (nowadays The Rifles), the Royal Gurkha Rifles (which use the Queen's Truncheon) and in the Royal Hospital in Chelsea.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 1609834, 955761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 236 ], [ 243, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All of the RN's Queen's Colours are identical. Within the RN a colour guard unit consists of:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Queen's Colour – White Ensign defaced with the Sovereign's cypher and inscribed with honours", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 556939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ensigns and Escorts", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " White Ensign", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Same as Queen's Colour", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Combined Colour Guards", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Escorts, Ensigns, Guard Sergeant of the Colours, CSM", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Queen's Colour – Union Jack with the Sovereign's cypher and the RM emblem and motto with the \"Gibraltar\" battle honour", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ensigns and Escorts", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Regimental Colour – Union Jack on the canton and dark blue with HM King George IV's cypher and the unit name, and the Sovereign's cypher on the other corners", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ensigns and Escorts", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Combined Colour Guards for the RM", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Escorts, Ensigns, Guard Sergeant of the Colours, CSM", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A French colour guards typically includes one ensign holding the flag of France as the national colour, two non-commissioned officers assisting the ensign, and three enlisted personnel behind to guard the colour.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 70764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The colour guards of France's military academies tend to wear swords; those of NCO schools, other educational institutions and active units carry rifles instead. This design is used in other countries with Francophone populations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "French colour guards render honours on the command of present arms (présentez arme). On command, the 2 NCOs and 3 enlisted will execute present arms, whether it be by presenting their sabre vertically or by putting the right hand over the handle of their weapon while the ensign lowers the national colour/unit colour somewhere close to their legs. On some occasions, the flag is not lowered unless the guard is in the presence of a dignitary (such as the President of the Republic) or a military leader (such as the Chief of the Defence Staff).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 8720975, 242991, 15364275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 66 ], [ 456, 481 ], [ 517, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Indonesia, the Colour guard is known as \"Pataka\" an abbreviation from the Indonesian term Pasukan Tanda Kehormatan which is the term used in various uniformed institutions including the Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI), the Indonesian National Police (Polri), the Municipal Police units, etc. The Pataka consists of white-uniformed 9 to 12 guardsmen which are present during ceremonial events carrying and escorting the Colour of the institution. The Pataka are modeled from the former Dutch practice and is led by a Colour sergeant positioned at the middle of the guard (rear of the ensign), while the ensign who carries the Colour is usually a junior lieutenant (2nd Lieutenant or Ensign). For a battalion level, the Colour is carried by a Sergeant/chief petty officer. In the case of a massed colour guard, the Ensign (1st Lieutenant/Lieutenant (junior grade) rank leads the formation. In the Army, the Horse Cavalry Detachment (Detasemen Kavaleri Berkuda) maintains a mounted colour guard unit.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 14579, 14650, 18251498, 28005626, 992975, 625534, 992975, 161405, 145416, 219424, 524622, 378357, 1711324, 13645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 189, 221 ], [ 233, 259 ], [ 273, 295 ], [ 429, 435 ], [ 612, 618 ], [ 635, 641 ], [ 662, 672 ], [ 707, 716 ], [ 751, 759 ], [ 760, 779 ], [ 831, 845 ], [ 905, 909 ], [ 981, 988 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Colour officer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lead squad carrying the unit colour or national flag", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " One colour sergeant/ensign", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two non-commissioned officers escorting the colour", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Relief squad ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " One replacement colour sergeant/ensign", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two non-commissioned officers", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rear guard squad of three enlisted personnel (2 squads of 3–4 in the Indonesian Marine Corps)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 4484201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The uniform of the colour guard in Indonesia is all-white, wearing a white ceremonial combat helmet similar to the M1 helmet, white full dress uniforms, white leather flag carrier worn by the ensign, and white parade boots. The colour guard from the military or police usually carries the Lee–Enfield or M1 Garand rifle, but sometimes the M16, FN FAL or Pindad SS1 rifle is used.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 988285, 3123693, 144484, 149051, 19901, 94857, 273181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 124 ], [ 132, 150 ], [ 289, 300 ], [ 304, 313 ], [ 339, 342 ], [ 344, 350 ], [ 354, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Mexico, an Escolta de la bandera or Escolta is used to describe colour guards and flag parties in the Spanish language. In Mexico these formations are made up of six individuals: the flag party commander and the escort proper of around 5, following the French practice. In the Mexican Armed Forces, National Guard and state police formations the colour escort squad is made up of:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 3966054, 26825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ], [ 105, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ensign carrying the Flag of Mexico as National Colour (Infantry and other units)/National Standard (Cavalry and Artillery (the latter in the Army only))", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 18955303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2 Escorts", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rear section of 2 escorts", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Mexican schools, during flag ceremonies—or as known in Mexico juramentos a la bandera or honores a la bandera—the school's colour guard march around the schoolyard while the rest of the students and school staff sing the national anthem; once they finish, the pledge of allegiance is recited, even though it's not mandated by law to do so, and finally the colour guard march off.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Normally, the honour of being part of such colour guards—or as known in Mexico escoltas—is bestowed upon disciplined students with high grades in the latest school year (6th grade in elementary schools, 9th grade in middle schools, and 12th grade in high schools). Sometimes, though, students from lower years or with lower grades may be chosen. Some schools only employ female students.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The layout consists of the flag-bearer flanked by two escorts—the right and the left escort—on the rear there are two rearguards and finally to the right escort's right is the commander. Normally the shortest members happen to be the rearguards. They wear their school dress or athletic uniform.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Dutch armed forces have similar ranks corresponding to a colour guard, the vaandrig and kornet (aspirant officers who have not been sworn in yet). The colour guard practice mirrors that of the United Kingdom, with an ensign of second lieutenant rank (or equivalent), armed escorts, and a colour guard commander.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The practices of the colour guards for the armed forces of a number of post-Soviet states in the Commonwealth of Independent States are similar to one another, adopting the practice from the former Soviet Armed Forces. Colour guards from these states are typically composed of a colour officer, one ensign or senior NCO holding the flag of their respective country as the national colour or the unit colour, and two enlisted personnel assisting the ensign. Active units, military academies, and guards of honour carry sabers in the colour guard, if needed, rifles may be substituted. The guard wears full or combat dress uniform.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 1609192, 36870, 3010721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 89 ], [ 97, 131 ], [ 198, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If there are multiple colour guards marching in a parade at the same time, one guard is required to march directly behind the first guard. During the Soviet era, the Soviet flag was never allowed to be paraded by a military colour guard, with military and regimental flags only being paraded in colour guards. On occasion during the Soviet era, the Victory Banner was also used in colour guard teams, with the last known occasions being in 1975, 1977, 1985, 1987 and 1990.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 113586, 5118489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 177 ], [ 349, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, several post-Soviet armed forces have deviated/modified the practices of the former Soviet colour guard; evident with the colour guards of the Turkmen Ground Forces, and the Armed Forces of Ukraine, whose colour guards dip their flags as a form of salute.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 54894803, 42799055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 173 ], [ 183, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The customs practiced by the colour guards of the former Soviet Armed Forces was also adopted by the Mongolian Armed Forces, given the historical relationship between the two countries. Other countries such as Afghanistan, Cuba (replacing the United States practice after 1959), North Korea and Vietnam have adopted this variant of the Soviet system.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 19279, 17448694, 57836785, 73251, 268111, 21263, 32384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 123 ], [ 135, 158 ], [ 210, 221 ], [ 223, 227 ], [ 272, 276 ], [ 279, 290 ], [ 295, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Given a shared heritage with Austria and Turkey plus its own traditions, the modern Serbian Armed Forces maintains a colour guard component. Every unit of the Armed Forces has a colour company that includes the colour company commander and the colour guards; which includes one ensign, usually a subaltern officer, two armed senior NCOs serving as colour escorts, and two honour guard platoons guarding the colour from the rear also armed. Unlike in other countries the colour guard company wears either full or combat dress. The Guard of the Serbian Armed Forces has its colour company wearing dress uniform.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Sweden the colour guard can be composed in three distinct manners: Greater colour guard, smaller colour guard and an officers guard. Each regiment, or military unit that carries a colour, in Sweden sets up its own colour guard. The Swedish military rank of fänrik (and the corresponding cavalry rank of kornet) was originally intended for the holder of the company flag. This duty was considered so prestigious that an officer was necessary to carry it out. Today, it is a regular officer rank.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 4445392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 260, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This is composed of two commissioned officers, called fanförare (ensigns, literally carriers of the colour) and eight enlisted personnel behind the colour or colours. This stems from the time of king Gustavus Adolphus and the Thirty Years' War when all Swedish regiments had eight battalions. Each battalion contributed one soldier to the common colour guard.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 40869264, 30583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 217 ], [ 226, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A smaller colour guard is composed of one commissioned officer and four enlisted soldiers. An officers colour guard is composed of three commissioned officers, one ensign and two officer escorts carrying sabres.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the military of the United States, the colour guard carries the national colour and other flags appropriate to its position in the chain of command. Typically these include a unit flag and a departmental flag (Army, Marines, Navy, Air Force, Space Force or Coast Guard, plus the National Guard Bureau (Army and/or Air Force)). In addition to the flag bearers, who are positioned in the center of the colour guard, there are two or more individuals who carry rifles and or sabres. This is a symbol that the flag (and its nation) will always be protected.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 32212, 992975, 11424, 1434220, 6714405, 798348, 17349325, 797334, 798400, 54465810, 32223, 1429367, 306054, 265572, 25456, 75971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 36 ], [ 67, 82 ], [ 93, 97 ], [ 134, 150 ], [ 178, 182 ], [ 213, 217 ], [ 219, 226 ], [ 228, 232 ], [ 234, 243 ], [ 245, 256 ], [ 260, 271 ], [ 282, 303 ], [ 305, 309 ], [ 317, 326 ], [ 461, 466 ], [ 475, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the U.S., traditionally, the unit's sergeant major is responsible for the safeguarding, care, and display of the organizational colours. The sergeant major is also responsible for the selection, training, and performance of the members. The colour guard consists of enlisted members and is commanded by the senior (colour) Sergeant, who carries the National Colors and gives the necessary commands for movements and rendering honours during drill exercises or parade ceremonies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 288442, 1353018, 219424, 24484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 53 ], [ 269, 277 ], [ 326, 334 ], [ 463, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Being assigned to the colour guard is considered an honour due to the fact that these individuals present and carry the symbols of their unit and country. Depending on the circumstance and subject to the orders of their commander, members may wear full dress or less formal uniforms. It is mandatory for all members of the colour guard to wear headgear, for example, a garrison cap, beret, or service cap. On occasion, certain colour guards can be horse-mounted.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 3123693, 977374, 1778218, 493423, 1824234, 13645, 2729585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 258 ], [ 274, 282 ], [ 369, 381 ], [ 383, 388 ], [ 393, 404 ], [ 448, 453 ], [ 454, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A US colour guard is made up of a \"Color Sergeant\" carrying the National Colours and serves as the unit commander, a unit or command colour bearer, and two colour escorts carrying rifles and/or sabres. If multiple colours are carried, multiple colour bearers may be needed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The U.S. colour guard is formed and marched in one rank at close interval. Since the National Colors must always be in the position of honour on the right, the colour guard must execute a special movement to reverse direction. It does not execute rear march, nor does it execute about face. Rather, it performs a maneuver derived from the standard counter-column command, generally known as counter march or color reverse march, in order to keep the precedence of flags in order.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other drill movements performed by the colour guard include presenting arms, left and right wheel (turns) marches, eyes right (upon passing the reviewing stand during a parade), casing / uncasing the colour, and fixing/unfixing bayonets (by the arms bearers).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 28977, 54507158, 53436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 75 ], [ 178, 206 ], [ 229, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Liberation Day parade]]", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 67268842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The colour guard renders honours when the national anthem is played or sung, when passing in review during a parade, or in certain other circumstances. In these cases, the unit and departmental flags salute by dipping (leaning the flag forward). However, with the exception of a response to a naval salute, the United States national flag renders no salute. This is enshrined in the United States Flag Code and U.S. law.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 1236378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 384, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the U.S. military, individuals or units passing or being passed by uncased (unfurled) colours render honours when outdoors. Individuals who are not part of any formation begin the hand salute when the colours are six paces distant and hold it until they have passed six paces beyond the colours.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Civilians are expected to stand at the position of attention with their right hand placed over their heart for the same period, and the hand salute applies to uniformed organizations as well (specifically the Boy Scouts of America and Girl Scouts of the USA). Since recently, veterans are expected to hand salute the colours too, like their military counterparts including personnel not in uniform.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "By country", "target_page_ids": [ 76511, 295087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 230 ], [ 235, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Guard of honour", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4953598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Presentation of Colours", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 59544559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trooping the Colour", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 385839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Striking the colors", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 823497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Continental Color Guard of The Old Guard", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " MCO P5060.20 US Marine Corps Drill and Ceremonies Manual Chapter 7", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " U. S. Air Force Honor Guard", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " U.S. Coast Guard Ceremonial Honor Guard", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary 11th District Southern Region, Division 12, Flotilla 12-04 Color Guard", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Ceremonies", "Military_traditions", "Guards_of_honour", "Flags", "Military_life", "Police_culture" ]

[ "colour guard" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Multi-user software is computer software that allows access by multiple users of a computer. Time-sharing systems are multi-user systems. Most batch processing systems for mainframe computers may also be considered \"multi-user\", to avoid leaving the CPU idle while it waits for I/O operations to complete. However, the term \"multitasking\" is more common in this context.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5309, 16301990, 7878457, 30958, 37285, 20266, 5218, 22393474, 6857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 40 ], [ 72, 76 ], [ 83, 91 ], [ 93, 105 ], [ 143, 159 ], [ 172, 190 ], [ 250, 253 ], [ 278, 281 ], [ 325, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An example is a Unix or Unix-like system where multiple remote users have access (such as via a serial port or Secure Shell) to the Unix shell prompt at the same time. Another example uses multiple X Window sessions spread across multiple terminals powered by a single machine - this is an example of the use of thin client. Similar functions were also available in a variety of non-Unix-like operating systems, such as Multics, VM/CMS, OpenVMS, MP/M, Concurrent CP/M, Concurrent DOS, FlexOS, Multiuser DOS, REAL/32, OASIS, THEOS, PC-MOS, TSX-32 and VM/386.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21347364, 21347057, 77359, 28814, 32035, 34147, 30725, 18847, 315018, 32736, 87780, 87780, 1513755, 18364730, 1513755, 1513755, 1593766, 1593766, 2695900, 11023988, 31890140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 20 ], [ 24, 33 ], [ 96, 107 ], [ 111, 123 ], [ 132, 142 ], [ 198, 206 ], [ 312, 323 ], [ 420, 427 ], [ 429, 435 ], [ 437, 444 ], [ 446, 450 ], [ 452, 467 ], [ 469, 483 ], [ 485, 491 ], [ 493, 506 ], [ 508, 515 ], [ 517, 522 ], [ 524, 529 ], [ 531, 537 ], [ 539, 545 ], [ 550, 556 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some multi-user operating systems such as Windows versions from the Windows NT family support simultaneous access by multiple users (for example, via Remote Desktop Connection) as well as the ability for a user to disconnect from a local session while leaving processes running (doing work on their behalf) while another user logs into and uses the system. The operating system provides isolation of each user's processes from other users, while enabling them to execute concurrently.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18890, 21291483, 16575110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 49 ], [ 68, 78 ], [ 150, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Management systems are implicitly designed to be used by multiple users, typically one system administrator or more and an end-user community.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 221362, 154985, 127759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 87, 107 ], [ 123, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The complementary term, single-user, is most commonly used when talking about an operating system being usable only by one person at a time, or in reference to a single-user software license agreement. Multi-user operating systems such as Unix sometimes have a single user mode or runlevel available for emergency maintenance. Examples of single-user operating systems include MS-DOS, OS/2 and Classic Mac OS.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 49764, 8077602, 1173541, 21291954, 22409, 46728817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 200 ], [ 262, 278 ], [ 282, 290 ], [ 378, 384 ], [ 386, 390 ], [ 395, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AT Multiuser System", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 348917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Multiseat", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4941539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Multiuser DOS Federation (MDOS)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 43790391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Interix in a Multi-User Windows TSE Environment paper about the Unix multi-user model and MS-Windows NT TSE", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 21347364, 18890, 16575110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 69 ], [ 91, 101 ], [ 105, 108 ] ] } ]

[ "Operating_system_technology" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The sousaphone ( ) is a brass instrument in the tuba family. Created around 1893 by J. W. Pepper at the direction of American bandleader John Philip Sousa (after whom the instrument was then named), it was designed to be easier to play than the concert tuba while standing or marching, as well as to carry the sound of the instrument above the heads of the band. Like the tuba, sound is produced by moving air past the lips, causing them to vibrate or \"buzz\" into a large cupped mouthpiece. Unlike the tuba, the instrument is bent in a circle to fit around the body of the musician; it ends in a large, flaring bell that is pointed forward, projecting the sound ahead of the player. Because of the ease of carrying and the direction of sound, it is widely employed in marching bands, as well as various other musical genres. Sousaphones were originally made of brass. Beginning in the mid-20th century, some sousaphones have also been made of lighter materials such as fiberbrass & plastic.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4940, 30961, 8173249, 3434750, 445398, 39753, 6002989, 39748, 214666, 3292, 174431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 40 ], [ 48, 52 ], [ 84, 96 ], [ 117, 125 ], [ 126, 136 ], [ 137, 154 ], [ 479, 489 ], [ 768, 781 ], [ 809, 823 ], [ 861, 866 ], [ 969, 979 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first sousaphone was built by James Welsh Pepper in 1893 at the request of John Philip Sousa, who was dissatisfied with the hélicons in use by the United States Marine Band. Some sources credit C.G. Conn with its construction, because of the first sousaphone he built later in 1898. Sousa wanted a tuba-like instrument that would send sound upward and over the band, much like a concert (upright) tuba. The new instrument had an oversized bell pointing straight up, rather than the directional bell of a normal hélicon.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8173249, 39753, 13862138, 1873976, 1198726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 52 ], [ 79, 96 ], [ 128, 135 ], [ 151, 176 ], [ 198, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sousaphone was initially developed as a concert instrument rather than for marching. Sousa wanted the new instrument for the professional band which he started after leaving the Marines, and this band marched only once. Sousa mainly used sousaphones built by C.G. Conn. Although less balanced on a player's body than a helicon, because of the large spectacular bell high in the air, the sousaphone retained the tuba-like sound by widening the bore and throat of the instrument significantly. Its upright bell led to the instrument being dubbed a \"rain-catcher\". Some versions of this design allowed the bell to also rotate forward, projecting the sound to the front of the band. This bell configuration remained the standard for several decades and is the standard today.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39748, 1873976, 1198726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 87 ], [ 182, 189 ], [ 263, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The instrument proved practical for marching, and by 1908 the United States Marine Band adopted it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Versions with the characteristic extra 90° bend making a forward-facing bell were developed in the early 1900s. Early sousaphones had bells, with bells popular in the 1920s. From the mid-1930s onward, sousaphone bells have been standardized at a diameter of . Some larger sousaphones (Monster, Grand, Jumbo, Giant or Grand Jumbo, depending on brand) were produced in limited quantities.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The sousaphone is a valved brass instrument with the same tube length and musical range as other tubas. The sousaphone's shape is such that the bell is above the tubist's head and projecting forward. The valves are situated directly in front of the musician slightly above the waist and all of the weight rests on the left shoulder. The bell is normally detachable from the instrument body to facilitate transportation and storage. Except for the instrument's general shape and appearance, the sousaphone is technically similar to a tuba.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 1121564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For simplicity and light weight, modern sousaphones almost always use three non-compensating piston valves in their construction, in direct contrast to their concert counterparts' large variation in number, type, and orientation. Both the tuba and sousaphone are semi-conical brass instruments. No valved brass instrument can be entirely conical, since the middle section containing the valves must be cylindrical. While the degree of bore conicity does affect the timbre of the instrument, much as in a cornet and trumpet, or a euphonium and a trombone, the bore profile of a sousaphone is similar to that of most tubas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 1121564, 7100, 30353, 10371, 29837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 105 ], [ 506, 512 ], [ 517, 524 ], [ 531, 540 ], [ 547, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To facilitate making the mouthpiece accessible to players of different height or body shapes, most sousaphones contain a detachable tubing gooseneck which arises from the lead pipe on the upwind side of the valves. One or two slightly-angled bit(s) (short tubing lengths) are inserted into the gooseneck, and then the mouthpiece is inserted into the terminal bit. This arrangement may be adjusted in height and yaw angle to place the mouthpiece comfortably at the player's lips.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Most sousaphones are manufactured from sheet brass, usually yellow or silver, with silver, lacquer, and gold plating options, much like many brass instruments. However, the sousaphone (uniquely) is also commonly seen manufactured from fiberglass, due to its lower cost, greater durability, and significantly lighter weight.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 3292, 174431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 50 ], [ 236, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The weight of a sousaphone can be between and .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Most modern sousaphones are made in the key of (Low B Flat) and like tubas (which are commonly made in pitches of BB, CC, EE, and F) the instrument's part is written in \"concert pitch\", not transposed by key for a specific instrument. Although sousaphones may have a more restricted range than their concert tuba counterpart (most sousaphones have 3 valves instead of 4 to reduce weight), generally they can all play the same music and usually have parts written in the bass clef and the indicated octave is played (unlike double bass or electric bass that sound an octave lower than the indicated note). Many older sousaphones were pitched in the key of E, but current production of sousaphones in that key is limited.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 333274, 49214, 8816, 1663879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 184 ], [ 476, 480 ], [ 524, 535 ], [ 539, 552 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although most major instrument manufacturers have made, and many continue to make, sousaphones, Conn and King (H.N. White) instruments are generally agreed among players to be the standards against which other sousaphones are judged for tone quality and playability. Perhaps the most highly regarded sousaphone ever built is the Conn model 20K, introduced in the mid-1930s and still in production. Some players, especially those who find the 20K too heavy for marching, prefer the slightly smaller King model 1250, first made in the late 1920s and also still in production as model 2350. Historically, Holton, York and Martin sousaphones have also been considered fine horns.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Varieties", "target_page_ids": [ 1198726, 28158021, 2263002, 2662537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 100 ], [ 105, 109 ], [ 605, 611 ], [ 622, 628 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Very large bore (>= 0.750inch) sousaphones, with oversized bells as large as in diameter, were made by Conn (\"Grand Jumbo\" [46K (3-valve) & 48K (4-valve)]) and King (\"Jumbo\" [1265 (3- & 4-valve versions)] & \"Giant\" [1270 (3-valve) & 1271 (4-valve)]) in the mid-1920s and 1930s, and by Martin, York, & Buescher, but they disappeared from the catalogs during the Depression or at the onset of World War II. Because of their weight and cost, few were made and even fewer survive, especially the 4-valve models.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Varieties", "target_page_ids": [ 2662216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 302, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In recent years, sousaphones have been available made of fiberglass reinforced plastics instead of brass. The fiberglass versions are used mainly for marching, with brass instruments being used for all other situations. Fiberglass sousaphones can be found commonly in younger marching bands, such as middle schools, due to their lightened weight load. Depending on the model, the fiberglass version does not have as dark and rich a tone as the brass (King fiberglass sousaphones tended to have smooth fiberglass and a tone somewhat more like a brass sousaphone; Conn fiberglass sousaphones often had rough fiberglass exteriors and a thinner sound; the Conn is also lighter).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Varieties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1920s and 1930s, four-valved sousaphones were often used by professional players, especially E sousaphones; today, however, four-valved B sousaphones are uncommon and are prized by collectors, especially those made by Conn, King (H.N. White), and Holton. Jupiter Company started production of four-valve BB sousaphones in the late 2000s, and Dynasty USA makes a four-valve BB sousaphone as well. Criticisms of the fourth valve on a sousaphone center around additional weight, although the fourth valve improves intonation and facilitates playing of the lower register.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Varieties", "target_page_ids": [ 4735827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 262, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the large size of most sousaphones, the sub-contra register (for which the fourth valve is largely intended) is already covered by alternate resonances, known as \"false tones\" (see Tuba article). Many beginners are not aware of the false-tone resonances on their sousaphones because these notes reside in the sub-contra register, which is nearly impossible for most beginners to access. Some professionals develop a \"raised embouchure\" to securely play these notes. This is where either the upper or lower lip (depending on the player) takes up most of the mouthpiece area. The embouchure provides almost twice the room for vibration of the single lip (compared to the 50–50 embouchure).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Varieties", "target_page_ids": [ 30961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Asian sousaphones made in China and India are gaining popularity in the street band market. In Switzerland and Southern Germany, \"Guggenmusik\" bands often use these instruments that provide great display and passable tone. Most are tuned in E. Brands like Zweiss with older British designs make affordable sousaphones that have broken the €500 barrier. These are mostly in the medium-bell size of . Chinese brands are mostly reverse-engineered models and quite passable.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Varieties", "target_page_ids": [ 26242675, 18935488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 141 ], [ 425, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In large marching bands of the United States, the bell is often covered with a tight fitting cloth, called a sock, which enables the sousaphone section to spell out the school's name, initials, or mascot. The Leland Stanford Junior University Marching Band Tööbz! have a tradition of painting the front surface of their sousaphone bells with a variety of images.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Special effects", "target_page_ids": [ 343692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sousaphone players are also known to perform the 'flaming tubas' in which flash paper is ignited in the bell, thus making it appear as if the musician is breathing fire. David Silverman developed a propane powered flaming sousaphone with a trigger valve to control an array of flame jets across the top of the bell of his horn.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Special effects", "target_page_ids": [ 1347064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Yale Precision Marching Band has made a tradition of setting fire to the tops of the bells of their sousaphones, including in the fall of 1992 when sousaphones served as the \"candles\" of a \"wedding cake\" formed by the band when two band alumni were married during a halftime show. They also utilize what they refer to as the \"Überphone\", a sousaphone that was disassembled from its coiled format and welded back together on a twelve-foot frame to extend straight up from the player's shoulders.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Special effects", "target_page_ids": [ 1840175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Philip Sousa was a benefactor of the University of Illinois music program and a friend of the university's Director of Bands Albert Austin Harding. The Marching Illini became the first band to march in a football halftime show, and were the first band to use sousaphones on the field.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "College marching bands", "target_page_ids": [ 384695, 10855348, 6286790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 64 ], [ 130, 151 ], [ 157, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sousaphone sections of some marching bands have developed specialized performance traditions. The University of California Marching Band Bass section traditionally \"struts\" during the band's pregame show. During the \"strut\" the section separates from the rest of the band, circles the North goal post, and rejoins the band to complete the Script Cal. The University of Southern California Trojan Marching Band sousaphones play John Williams' \"Imperial March\" from Star Wars in single file when crossing streets on their way to and from performances on the USC campus. When The Ohio State University Marching Band performs its traditional Script Ohio formation, a senior sousaphone player dots the \"i\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "College marching bands", "target_page_ids": [ 1847050, 2214568, 154554, 574922, 26678, 5592099, 5592099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 140 ], [ 356, 414 ], [ 432, 445 ], [ 448, 462 ], [ 469, 478 ], [ 579, 618 ], [ 644, 655 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Fightin' Texas Aggie Band sousaphone section (called \"Bass Horns\" within the university but never, ever \"tubas\") execute a distinct two-step and four-step counter-march during marching performances. During halftime performances this is accompanied (specifically for the last rank consisting all of 12 bass horns) by a \"huh! huh!\" from the crowd.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "College marching bands", "target_page_ids": [ 1267838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The University of Delaware Fightin' Blue Hen Marching Band has several traditions involving sousaphone players. During pre-game, they branch off from the rest of the band. From here, the sousaphone players run in a snake around the field jumping to drum line cadence. At most pre-games they act out a skit as well. At post game, \"In My Life\" by The Beatles is played featuring a sousaphone solo while the band sings.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "College marching bands", "target_page_ids": [ 308722, 2249575, 29812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 330, 340 ], [ 345, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sousaphone is an important fixture of the New Orleans brass band tradition and is still used in groups such as the Dirty Dozen Brass Band by Kirk Joseph. Soul Rebels Brass Band from New Orleans features sousaphone player Edward Lee Jr.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Musical genres", "target_page_ids": [ 5997515, 3062311, 3046464, 35295819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 68 ], [ 119, 141 ], [ 145, 156 ], [ 158, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sinaloa, a state of Mexico, has a type of music called Banda Sinaloense, and the sousaphone is used there as a tuba.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Musical genres", "target_page_ids": [ 222251, 3966054, 2733939, 30961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 20, 26 ], [ 55, 71 ], [ 111, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Damon \"Tuba Gooding Jr.\" Bryson from The Roots plays the sousaphone on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Musical genres", "target_page_ids": [ 212126, 212126, 17108989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ], [ 37, 46 ], [ 71, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nat Mcintosh is the sousaphone player and co-founder of Youngblood Brass Band, who play a mixture of traditional New Orleans style brass band music and hip hop.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Musical genres", "target_page_ids": [ 1544784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Lemon Bucket Orkestra, a Canadian self-described \"Balkan-Klezmer-Gypsy-Punk-Super-Party-Band\", features a sousaphone as one of their instruments.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Musical genres", "target_page_ids": [ 34062080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Red Baraat, a Brooklyn-based dhol & brass band that fuses North Indian Bhangra with hip-hop, go-go and jazz music, features John Altieri on sousaphone.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Musical genres", "target_page_ids": [ 8133440, 315378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 29, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Warren G. Harding, the 29th President of the United States, was a sousaphone player who played well enough to join the band celebrating his election.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable players", "target_page_ids": [ 33060, 24113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 28, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jeanie Schroder of the band DeVotchKa plays sousaphone on several of the band's songs.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable players", "target_page_ids": [ 2698786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tuba Gooding Jr. (Damon Bryson) plays sousaphone for The Roots", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable players", "target_page_ids": [ 212126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cornu (horn), an ancient Roman brass instrument that curved around the player's body", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2279289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saxtuba", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20783229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Virginia Tech Music Dictionary: Sousaphone", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " All the Instruments: Sousaphone", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sousaphone History, by Ian Church: Sousaphone-ologist", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "American_musical_instruments", "B-flat_instruments", "John_Philip_Sousa", "Marching_band_instruments", "Tubas" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "John Philip Sousa ( ; November 6, 1854– March 6, 1932) was a Portuguese-American composer and conductor of the late Romantic era known primarily for American military marches. He is known as \"The March King\" or the \"American March King\", to distinguish him from his British counterpart Kenneth J. Alford. Among his best-known marches are \"The Stars and Stripes Forever\" (National March of the United States of America), \"Semper Fidelis\" (official march of the United States Marine Corps), \"The Liberty Bell\", \"The Thunderer\", and \"The Washington Post\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25916, 4635444, 1095798, 666918, 3434750, 31503758, 17349325, 199476, 9139155, 670774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 128 ], [ 167, 174 ], [ 286, 303 ], [ 339, 368 ], [ 393, 417 ], [ 421, 435 ], [ 460, 486 ], [ 490, 506 ], [ 510, 523 ], [ 531, 550 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa began his career playing violin and studying music theory and composition under John Esputa and George Felix Benkert. His father enlisted him in the United States Marine Band as an apprentice in 1868. He left the band in 1875, and over the next five years, he performed as a violinist and learned to conduct. In 1880 he rejoined the Marine Band, and he served there for 12 years as director, after which he was hired to conduct a band organized by David Blakely, P.S. Gilmore's former agent. Blakely wanted to compete with Gilmore. From 1880 until his death, he focused exclusively on conducting and writing music. Sousa aided in the development of the sousaphone, a large brass instrument similar to the helicon and tuba.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1873976, 3058685, 39752, 13862138, 30961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 180 ], [ 469, 481 ], [ 659, 669 ], [ 711, 718 ], [ 723, 727 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon the outbreak of World War I, Sousa was awarded a wartime commission of lieutenant commander to lead the Naval Reserve Band in Illinois. He then returned to conduct the Sousa Band until he died in 1932. In the 1920s, he was promoted to the permanent rank of lieutenant commander in the naval reserve.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Philip Sousa was born in Washington, D.C., the third of ten children of João António de Sousa (John Anthony Sousa) (September 22, 1824– April 27, 1892), who was born in Spain to Portuguese parents, and his wife Maria Elisabeth Trinkhaus (May 20, 1826– August 25, 1908), who was German and from Bavaria. He began his music education under the tuition of John Esputa Sr., who taught him solfeggio. This was short-lived, however, because of the teacher's frequent bad temper. His real music education began in 1861 or 1862 as a pupil of John Esputa Jr., the son of his previous teacher under whom Sousa studied violin, piano, flute, several brass instruments, and singing. Esputa shared his father's bad temper, and the relationship between teacher and pupil was often strained, but Sousa progressed very rapidly and was also found to have perfect pitch. He wrote his first composition, \"An Album Leaf\", during this period, but Esputa dismissed it as \"bread and cheese\", and the composition was subsequently lost. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 108956, 3764, 95323, 41879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 46 ], [ 299, 306 ], [ 390, 399 ], [ 842, 855 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His father was a trombonist in the Marine Band, and he enlisted Sousa in the United States Marine Corps as an apprentice at age 13 to keep him from joining a circus band. In the same year, he began studying music under George Felix Benkert. Sousa was enlisted under a minority enlistment, meaning that he would not be discharged until his 21st birthday.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa completed his apprenticeship in 1875 and began performing on the violin. He then joined a theatrical pit orchestra where he learned to conduct. He returned to the Marine Band as its head in 1880 and remained as its conductor until 1892. He led \"The President's Own\" band under five presidents from Rutherford B. Hayes to Benjamin Harrison. His band played at the inaugural balls of James A. Garfield in 1881 and Benjamin Harrison in 1889. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 19729241, 7766419, 21214635, 21212197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 304, 323 ], [ 327, 344 ], [ 369, 405 ], [ 418, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The marching brass bass or sousaphone is a modified helicon created in 1893 by Philadelphia instrument maker J. W. Pepper at Sousa's request, using several of his suggestions in its design. He wanted a tuba that could sound upward and over the band whether its player was seated or marching. C.G. Conn recreated the instrument in 1898, and this was the model that Sousa preferred to use.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 39752, 13862138, 8173249, 30961, 1198726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 37 ], [ 52, 59 ], [ 109, 121 ], [ 202, 206 ], [ 292, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa organized The Sousa Band the year that he left the Marine Band, and it toured from 1892 to 1931 and performed at 15,623 concerts, both in America and around the world, including at the World Exposition in Paris and at the Royal Albert Hall in London. In Paris, the Sousa Band marched through the streets to the Arc de Triomphe, one of only eight parades that the band marched in during its 40 years.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 308868, 179238, 2482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 191, 207 ], [ 228, 245 ], [ 317, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1868, Sousa enlisted in the Marine Corps at age 13 as an apprentice musician (his rank listed as \"boy\"). He left the Marine Corps in 1875. His second period of service began in 1880 and continued until 1892. During this period, Sousa led the Marine Band through its development into the country's premier military band. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Columbia Phonograph Company produced 60 recordings of the Marine Band conducted by Sousa, which led to his national fame. In July 1892, Sousa requested a discharge from the Marine Corps to pursue a financially promising civilian career as a band leader. He conducted a farewell concert at the White House on July 30, 1892, and was discharged from the Marine Corps the next day.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 165108, 33057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ], [ 297, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Naval Reserve on May 31, 1917, shortly after the United States declared war on Germany and entered World War I. He was 62 years old, the mandatory retirement age for Navy officers. During the war, he led the Navy Band at the Great Lakes Naval Station near Chicago, and he donated all of his naval salary except a token $1 per month to the Sailors' and Marines' Relief Fund. He was discharged from active duty after the end of the war in November 1918 and returned to conducting his own band. In the early 1920s, he was promoted to lieutenant commander in the Naval Reserve but did not return to active duty. He frequently wore his Navy uniform during performances for the remainder of his life.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 1420852, 282291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 156 ], [ 271, 296 ], [ 465, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For his service during the war, Sousa received the World War I Victory Medal and was elected as a Veteran Companion of the Military Order of Foreign Wars. He was also a member of the New York Athletic Club and Post 754 of the American Legion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 875488, 11680581, 420854, 305976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 76 ], [ 123, 153 ], [ 183, 205 ], [ 226, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On December 30, 1879, Sousa married Jane van Middlesworth Bellis (1862–1944), and their children were John Philip, Jr. (April 1, 1881 – May 18, 1937), Jane Priscilla (August 7, 1882 – October 28, 1958), and Helen (January 21, 1887 – October 14, 1975). All were buried in the John Philip Sousa plot in the Congressional Cemetery. Jane was descended from Adam Bellis who served in the New Jersey troops during the American Revolutionary War.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 412, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On March 15, 1881, the \"March King\" was initiated to the Scottish Rite Freemasonry in the Hiram Lodge No. 10, Washington, DC and later became Master Mason for 51 years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 28278, 28278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 82 ], [ 142, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Late in his life, Sousa lived in Sands Point, New York. He died of heart failure at age 77 on March 6, 1932, in his room at the Abraham Lincoln Hotel in Reading, Pennsylvania. He had conducted a rehearsal of \"The Stars and Stripes Forever\" the previous day with the Ringgold Band as its guest conductor. He is buried in Washington, D.C.'s Congressional Cemetery. His house Wildbank has been designated as a National Historic Landmark, although it remains a private home and is not open to the public.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 126789, 70254390, 131393, 666918, 1198428, 13118806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 54 ], [ 128, 149 ], [ 153, 174 ], [ 209, 238 ], [ 339, 361 ], [ 373, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa has surviving descendants today; one of his great-grandsons, John Philip Sousa IV, works as a political activist for the Republican Party.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa was decorated with the palms of the Order of Public Instruction of Portugal and the Order of Academic Palms of France. He also received the Royal Victorian Medal from King Edward VII of the United Kingdom in December 1901 for conducting a private birthday concert for Queen Alexandra.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Honors", "target_page_ids": [ 37618890, 6312638, 2484763, 46721, 48918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 69 ], [ 90, 113 ], [ 146, 167 ], [ 173, 188 ], [ 274, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1922, he accepted the invitation of the national chapter to become an honorary member of Kappa Kappa Psi, the national honorary band fraternity. In 1932, he was initiated as an honorary member of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia, a national fraternity for men in music, by the fraternity's Alpha Xi chapter at the University of Illinois.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Honors", "target_page_ids": [ 2732630, 22877878, 384695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 107 ], [ 199, 220 ], [ 306, 328 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The World War II Liberty ship was named in his honor. The Marine Band possesses the ship's bell, using it in performances of the \"Liberty Bell March\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Honors", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 198201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 17, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1952, 20th Century Fox honored Sousa in their Technicolor feature film Stars and Stripes Forever with Clifton Webb portraying him. It was loosely based on Sousa's memoirs Marching Along.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Honors", "target_page_ids": [ 170318, 12037272, 154682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 25 ], [ 74, 99 ], [ 105, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1987, an act of Congress named \"The Stars and Stripes Forever\" as the national march of the United States.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Honors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2012, a crater on the planet Mercury was named in his honor.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Honors", "target_page_ids": [ 70141199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was posthumously enshrined in the Hall of Fame for Great Americans in 1976.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Honors", "target_page_ids": [ 2679649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa was a member of the Sons of the Revolution, Military Order of Foreign Wars, American Legion, Freemasons, and the Society of Artists and Composers. He was also a member of the Salmagundi, Players, Musicians, New York Athletic, Lambs, Army and Navy and the Gridiron clubs of Washington.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Memberships", "target_page_ids": [ 14959349, 11680581, 305976, 11227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 48 ], [ 50, 80 ], [ 82, 97 ], [ 99, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa wrote over 130 marches, 15 operettas, 5 overtures, 11 suites, 24 dances, 28 fantasies, and countless arrangements of nineteenth-century western European symphonic works.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 39353, 44133, 190256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 41 ], [ 46, 54 ], [ 60, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa wrote over 130 marches, published by Harry Coleman of Philadelphia, Carl Fischer Music, the John Church Company, and the Sam Fox Publishing Company, the last association beginning in 1917 and continuing until his death. Some of his more well-known marches include:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 14349025, 12233949, 26968690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 92 ], [ 98, 117 ], [ 127, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Review\" (1873) (Sousa's first published march)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Gladiator March\" (1886)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 11082277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Semper Fidelis\" (1888) (Official March of the United States Marine Corps)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 31503758, 17349325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 16 ], [ 48, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Washington Post\" (1889)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 670774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Thunderer\" (1889)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 9139155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Loyal Legion March\" (1890)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"High School Cadets\" (1890)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 14635149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Liberty Bell\" (1893) (later used as the credits theme for Monty Python's Flying Circus TV series)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 199476, 23372115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 18 ], [ 64, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Manhattan Beach March\" (1893)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 9137293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"King Cotton\" (1895)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 17820689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Stars and Stripes Forever\" (1896) (National March of the United States)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 666918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"El Capitan\" (1896)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 9137400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Hands Across the Sea\" (1899)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 653240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Hail to the Spirit of Liberty\" March (1900)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Invincible Eagle\" (1901) (dedicated to Pan-American Buffalo Exposition) (Interim United States Space Force Anthem)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 220890, 54465810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 72 ], [ 83, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Imperial Edward\" March (1902) Dedicated to King Edward VII of the United Kingdom", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 62982064, 46721, 31717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 17 ], [ 45, 60 ], [ 68, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Fairest of the Fair\" (1908)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 1927089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Glory of the Yankee Navy\" (1909)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Columbia's Pride\" (1914)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 62953405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"U.S. Field Artillery\" (1917) (modified version \"The Army Goes Rolling Along\" is the official song of the U.S. Army)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 9138777, 2478688, 32087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 22 ], [ 50, 77 ], [ 107, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Anchor & Star\" (1918) Dedicated \"To the U.S. Navy\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 62951446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Who's Who in Navy Blue\" (1920) (composed at the request of the United States Naval Academy class of 1920 and dedicated to Tecumseh, a bronze reproduction of the figurehead of the U.S.S. Delaware that occupies a key place at the Academy)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 59766, 200966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 92 ], [ 124, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Gallant Seventh\" (1922)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 9139130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Dauntless Battalion\" (1923) (written in honor of the cadets of Pennsylvania Military College, now Widener University in Chester, PA) ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 1354218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Nobles of the Mystic Shrine\" (1923)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Black Horse Troop\" (1924) (written in honor of Troop A, 107th Cavalry, Ohio National Guard).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Pride of the Wolverines\" (1926)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Minnesota March\" (1927)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 6909323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"New Mexico March\" (1928)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Salvation Army March\" (1930) (dedicated to the Salvation Army's 50th anniversary in the U.S.)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa wrote marches for several American universities, including the University of Minnesota, University of Illinois, University of Nebraska, Kansas State University, Marquette University, Pennsylvania Military College (Widener University), and the University of Michigan.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 416813, 384695, 327937, 16855, 741372, 1354218, 31740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 92 ], [ 94, 116 ], [ 118, 140 ], [ 142, 165 ], [ 167, 187 ], [ 220, 238 ], [ 249, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa wrote many notable operettas, including:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Désirée (1883)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 12121697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " El Capitan (1896)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 9137400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Charlatan (1898), also known as The Mystical Miss, lyrics by Sousa", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 49806923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chris and the Wonderful Lamp (1899)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 30208269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marches and waltzes have been derived from many of these stage-works. Sousa also composed the music for six operettas that were either unfinished or not produced: The Devils' Deputy, Florine, The Irish Dragoon, Katherine, The Victory, and The Wolf.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In addition, Sousa wrote a march based on themes from Gilbert and Sullivan's comic opera The Mikado, the elegant overture Our Flirtations, several musical suites, etc. He frequently added Sullivan opera overtures or other Sullivan pieces to his concerts.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 13021, 46747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 74 ], [ 89, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was quoted saying, \"My religion lies in my composition\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa ranked as one of the all-time great trapshooters and was enshrined in the Trapshooting Hall of Fame. He organized the first national trapshooting organization, a forerunner to today's Amateur Trapshooting Association (ATA). He also wrote numerous articles about trapshooting. He was a regular competitor representing the Navy in trapshooting competitions, particularly against the Army. Records indicate that he registered more than 35,000 targets during his shooting career. \"Let me say that just about the sweetest music to me is when I call, 'pull,' the old gun barks, and the referee in perfect key announces, 'dead'.\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Hobbies, writing, and recording", "target_page_ids": [ 1301141, 13268362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 54 ], [ 190, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his 1902 novella The Fifth String, a virtuoso violinist makes a deal with the Devil for a magic violin with five strings. The first four strings excite the emotions of Pity, Hope, Love, and Joy, but the fifth string, made from the hair of Eve, will cause the player's death once played. The violinist wins the love of the woman he desires, but out of jealous suspicion, she commands him to play the death string, which he does. He published Pipetown Sandy in 1905, which includes a satirical poem titled \"The Feast of the Monkeys\". He wrote a 40,000-word story entitled \"The Transit of Venus\" in 1920. He also wrote the booklet \"A manual for trumpet and drum\", published by the Ludwig Drum Company with advice for playing drums and trumpet. An early version of the trumpet solo to \"Semper Fidelis\" was included in this volume.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Hobbies, writing, and recording", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa held a very low opinion of the emerging recording industry. He derided recordings as \"canned music\", a reference to the early wax cylinder records that came in can-like cylindrical cardboard boxes. He argued to a congressional hearing in 1906:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Hobbies, writing, and recording", "target_page_ids": [ 125659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa's antipathy to recording was such that he did not conduct his band when it was being recorded. Nevertheless, the band made numerous recordings, the earliest being issued on cylinders by several companies, followed by many recordings on discs by the Berliner Gramophone Company and its successor, the Victor Talking Machine Company (later RCA Victor). The Berliner recordings were conducted by Henry Higgins (one of Sousa's cornet soloists) and Arthur Pryor (Sousa's trombone soloist and assistant conductor). Sousa claimed that he had \"never been in the gramophone company's office in my life\". Sousa did conduct a few of the Victor recordings, but most were conducted by Pryor, Herbert L. Clarke, Edwin H. Clarke, Walter B. Rogers (who had also been a cornet soloist with Sousa), Rosario Bourdon, Josef Pasternack, or Nathaniel Shilkret. Details of the Victor recordings are available in the external link below to the EDVR.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Hobbies, writing, and recording", "target_page_ids": [ 181542, 177232, 177256, 1864988, 4209364, 39579845, 13987790, 6879490, 1178548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 255, 274 ], [ 306, 336 ], [ 344, 354 ], [ 450, 462 ], [ 685, 702 ], [ 721, 737 ], [ 787, 802 ], [ 804, 820 ], [ 825, 843 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa also appeared with his band in newsreels and on radio broadcasts, beginning with a 1929 nationwide broadcast on NBC. In 1999, \"Legacy\" Records released some of his historic recordings on CD.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Hobbies, writing, and recording", "target_page_ids": [ 21780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even after his death, Sousa continues to be remembered as \"The March King\" through the John Philip Sousa Foundation. The non-profit organization, founded in 1981, recognizes one superior student in marching band for \"musicianship, dependability, loyalty, and cooperation.\" The John Philip Sousa Foundation provides awards, scholarships, and projects such as The Sudler Trophy, The Sudler Shield, The Sudler Silver Scroll, The Sudler Flag of Honor, The Historic Roll of Honor, The Sudler Cup, The Hawkins Scholarship, National Young Artists, The National Community Band, and The Junior Honor Band Project. He won many honorable awards across his lifetime.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "John Philip Sousa Award", "target_page_ids": [ 5027752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sousa Archives and Center for American Music", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28775116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Academy of Music/Riviera Theatre", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34259693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Bell (tuba player)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9320160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Philip Sousa Bridge", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2006224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Patrick Gilmore", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3058685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 75 years after death here, Sousa sells out the Abe – Reading Eagle Newspaper", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Congressional hearing: in Copyright's Communication Policy by Professor Tim Woo, University of Virginia, May 2004– Caution, 560k PDF.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 59801, 24077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 104 ], [ 130, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Berger, Kenneth W. The March King and His Band : The Story of John Philip Sousa. New York: Exposition Press, 1957.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bierley, Paul E. John Philip Sousa: A Descriptive Catalog of His Works. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bierley, Paul E. John Philip Sousa: American Phenomenon. Miami, FL: Warner Bros. Publications, 2001.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bierley, Paul E. The Incredible Band of John Philip Sousa Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2006.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Delaplaine, Edward S. John Philip Sousa and the National Anthem. Frederick, MD: Great Southern Press, 1983.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Heslip, Malcolm. Nostalgic Happenings in the Three Bands of John Philip Sousa. Westerville, OH: Integrity Press, 1992.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lingg, Ann M. John Philip Sousa. New York: Holt, 1954.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Newsom, Jon, ed. Perspectives on John Philip Sousa. Washington: Library of Congress, 1983.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Proksch, Bryan, ed. A Sousa Reader: Essays, Interviews, and Clippings. Chicago: GIA, 2017", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Warfield, Patrick. Making the March King: John Philip Sousa's Washington Years, 1854–1893 (University of Illinois Press; 2013) 331 pages; scholarly biography", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bierley, Paul E. The Works of John Philip Sousa Columbus, OH: Integrity Press, 1984.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa, John Philip. Marching Along: Recollections of Men, Women and Music. Edited by Paul E. Bierley. Boston: Hale, Cushman & Flint, 1928, rev. 1994.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa, John Philip. National, Patriotic and Typical Airs of All Lands. N.Y.: Da Capo Press, 1977.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sousa, John Philip. Through the Year with Sousa: Excerpts from the Operas, Marches, Miscellaneous Compositions, Novels, Letters, Magazine Articles, Songs, Sayings and Rhymes of John Philip Sousa. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell &, 1910.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Warfield, Patrick, ed. (2010). John Philip Sousa: Six Marches. Music of the United States of America (MUSA) vol 21. Madison, Wisconsin: A-R Editions.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Articles", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bennett, Jeb. \"John Philip Sousa: 100th Anniversary.\" Marine Corps Gazette 64, no. 10 (1980): 31–34.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 16731721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bierley, Paul E. \"Sousa: America's Greatest Composer?\" Musical Journal 25, no. 1 (1967): 83–87.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bierley, Paul E. \"Sousa on Programming.\" Instrumentalist, December 1973.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bierley, Paul E. \"Sousa's Mystery March.\" Instrumentalist, February 1966.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dvorak, Raymond F. \"Recollections of Sousa's March Performances.\" School Musician, Director and Teacher, December 1969.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Evenson, Orville. \"The March Style of Sousa.\" Instrumentalist, November 1954.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fennell, Frederick. \"Sousa: Still a Somebody.\" Instrumentalist, March 1982.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gaydos, Jeff. \"Stars and Stripes and Sousa Forever!\" Bandwagon, June 1980.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Goldberg, Isaac. \"Sousa.\" American Mercury 27 (1932): 193–200.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Goldman, Richard Franko. \"John Philip Sousa.\" HiFi/Stereo Review 19, no. 1 (1967): 35–47.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gordon, Marjorie M. \"John Philip Sousa: A Centennial-Year Salute to the March King.\" Musical Journal 11, no. 11 (1954): 28–34.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Heney, John J. \"On the Road with the Sousa Band.\" School Musician, Director and Teacher, 1976.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Howard, George S. \"A New Era for Brass: Sousa's Role.\" Music Journal, January 1966.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Intravaia, Lawrence J. \"Wind Band Scoring Practices of Gilmore and Sousa.\" School Musician, Director and Teacher 36, no. 7 (March 1965): 62–63.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Larson, Cedric. \"John Philip Sousa as an Author.\" Etude, August 1941.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mangrum, Mary Gailey. \"I Remember Sousa.\" Instrumentalist 24, no. 5 (1969): 38–41.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mangrum, Mary Gailey. \"Sousa the Patriot.\" Instrumentalist 24, no. 6 (1970): 33–35.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Marek, George Richard. \"John Philip Sousa.\" HiFi/Musical America 23, no. 11 (1973): 57–61.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mathews, William Smith Babcock. \"An Interview with John Philip Sousa.\" Music: A Monthly Magazine 9 (1896): 487–92.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mayer, Francis N. \"John Philip Sousa: His Instrumentation and Scoring.\" Music Educator's Journal, January 1960.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Peterson, O. A. \"The Human Side of Sousa.\" Musical Messenger, May 1916.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pleasants, Henry. \"A Look at Sousa: Ormandy and Critics.\" International Herald Tribune (Paris Edition), December 1969.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Sousa and His Mission.\" Music: A Monthly Magazine 16 (July 1899): 272–76.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Sousa as He Is.\" Music: A Monthly Magazine 14 (May 1899).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Sousa's New Marine Band.\" Musical Courier, November 9, 1892.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stoddard, Hope. \"Sousa: Symbol of an Era.\" International Musician, December 1948.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thomson, Grace F. \"Memories of the March King.\" Musical Journal 22, no. 5 (1964): 27–49.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Trimborn, Thomas J. \"In the Footsteps of Sousa.\" Instrumentalist 35, no. 4 (1980): 10–13.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wimbush, Roger. \"Sousa at the \"Proms\"\" Monthly Musical Record 68:238–40.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dissertations", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bly, Leon Joseph. \"The March in American Society.\" Diss., University of Miami, 1977.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bowie, Gordon W. \"R. B. Hall and the Community Bands of Maine.\" Diss., University of Maine, 1993.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carpenter, Kenneth William. \"A History of the United States Marine Band.\" Diss., University of Iowa, 1971.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Church, Charles Fremont. \"The Life and Influence of John Philip Sousa.\" Diss., Ohio State University, 1942.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Darling, Matthew H. \"A Study and Catalogue of the Solos Composed, Arranged, and Transcribed for Xylophone and Band by John Joseph Heney (1902–1978), Percussionist (1926–31) and Xylophone Soloist (1931) with the John Philip Sousa Band.\" Diss., University of Arizona, 1998.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hemberger, Glen J. \"Selected Songs for Chamber Winds and Soprano: Rediscovering a Forgotten Repertoire of John Philip Sousa.\" Diss., University of North Texas, 2001.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hester, Michael E. \"A Study of the Saxophone Soloists Performing with the John Philip Sousa Band, 1893–1930.\" Diss., University of Arizona, 1995.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jorgensen, Michael R. \"John Philip Sousa's Operetta El Capitan: A Historical, Analytical, and Performance Guide.\" Diss., Ball State University, 1995.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Korzun, Jonathan Nicholas. \"The Orchestral Transcriptions for Band of John Philip Sousa: a Description and Analysis.\" Diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1994.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Kreitner, Mona Bulpitt. \"'A Splendid Group of American Girls': The Women Who Sang with the Sousa Band.\" Diss., University of Memphis, 2007.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Norton, Pauline Elizabeth Hosack. \"March Music in Nineteenth Century America.\" Diss., University of Michigan, 1983.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stacy, William Barney. \"John Philip Sousa and His Band Suites.\" Diss., University of Colorado, 1973.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Summers, C. Oland. \"The Development of Original Band Scoring from Sousa to Husa.\" Diss., Ball State University, 1986.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Warfield, Patrick. \"\"Salesman of Americanism, Globetrotter and Musician\" the Nineteenth-century John Philip Sousa; 1854–1893.\" Diss., Indiana University, 2003.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Whisler, John A. \"The Songs of John Philip Sousa.\" Diss., Memphis State University, 1975.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wright, Maurice. \"The Fifth String: an Opera in One Act.\" Diss., Columbia University, 1989.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "John Philip Sousa papers, 1695–1966 at the United States Marine Band Library and Archives in Washington, D.C.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "John Philip Sousa Collection, 1854–2005, The March King: John Philip Sousa digital collection, and the Dodrill – Sousa sheet music collection at the Library of Congress", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 18944081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Sousa Archives and Center for American Music. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2011.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John Philip Sousa recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 65508873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 82 ] ] } ]

[ "John_Philip_Sousa", "1854_births", "1932_deaths", "19th-century_American_composers", "19th-century_classical_composers", "19th-century_conductors_(music)", "20th-century_American_composers", "20th-century_American_conductors_(music)", "20th-century_American_male_musicians", "20th-century_classical_composers", "American_classical_tubists", "American_male_classical_composers", "American_male_conductors_(music)", "American_musical_theatre_composers", "American_operetta_composers", "American_people_of_German_descent", "American_people_of_Portuguese_descent", "American_people_of_Spanish_descent", "American_Romantic_composers", "Burials_at_the_Congressional_Cemetery", "Classical_musicians_from_Washington,_D.C.", "Concert_band_composers", "Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans_inductees", "Male_musical_theatre_composers", "Male_operetta_composers", "March_musicians", "Members_of_The_Lambs_Club", "Military_music_composers", "Military_personnel_from_Washington,_D.C.", "People_from_Sands_Point,_New_York", "Ragtime_composers", "Trap_and_double_trap_shooters", "United_States_Marine_Band_musicians", "United_States_Marine_Corps_officers", "United_States_military_musicians", "United_States_Navy_Band_musicians", "United_States_Navy_officers", "United_States_Navy_personnel_of_World_War_I", "United_States_Navy_reservists", "Vaudeville_performers" ]

[ "John Phillip Sousa", "John Philip Sousa I" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Kazimierz Funk (; February 23, 1884 – November 19, 1967), commonly anglicized as Casimir Funk, was a Polish-American biochemist generally credited with being among the first to formulate (in 1912) the concept of vitamins, which he called \"vital amines\" or \"vitamines\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8569916, 306081, 32512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 77 ], [ 117, 127 ], [ 212, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After reading an article by the Dutchman Christiaan Eijkman that indicated that persons who ate brown rice were less vulnerable to beri-beri than those who ate only the fully milled product, Funk tried to isolate the substance responsible, and he succeeded. Because that substance contained an amine group, he called it \"vitamine\". It was later to be known as vitamin B3 (niacin), though he thought that it would be thiamine (vitamin B1) and described it as \"anti-beri-beri-factor\". In 1911 he published his first paper in English, on dihydroxyphenylalanine. Funk was sure that more than one substance like Vitamin B1 existed, and in his 1912 article for the Journal of State Medicine, he proposed the existence of at least four vitamins: one preventing beriberi (“antiberiberi”); one preventing scurvy (“antiscorbutic”); one preventing pellagra (“antipellagric”); and one preventing rickets (“antirachitic”). From there, Funk published a book, The Vitamines, in 1912, and later that year received a Beit Fellowship to continue his research.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Achievements", "target_page_ids": [ 240829, 438696, 5759935, 1412, 71591616, 30500, 5759935, 28266, 355776, 25987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 59 ], [ 96, 106 ], [ 131, 140 ], [ 294, 299 ], [ 372, 378 ], [ 416, 424 ], [ 754, 762 ], [ 796, 802 ], [ 837, 845 ], [ 884, 891 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Funk proposed the hypothesis that other diseases, such as rickets, pellagra, coeliac disease, and scurvy could also be cured by vitamins.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Achievements", "target_page_ids": [ 63526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Funk was an early investigator of the problem of pellagra. He suggested that a change in the method of milling corn was responsible for the outbreak of pellagra, but no attention was paid to his article on this subject.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Achievements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The \"e\" at the end of \"vitamine\" was later removed, when it was realized that vitamins need not be nitrogen-containing amines.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Achievements", "target_page_ids": [ 1412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He postulated the existence of other essential nutrients, which became known as vitamins B1, B2, C, and D.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Achievements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1936 he determined the molecular structure of thiamine, though he was not the first to isolate it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Achievements", "target_page_ids": [ 30500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Funk also conducted research into hormones, diabetes, peptic ulcers, and the biochemistry of cancer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Achievements", "target_page_ids": [ 13311, 40017873, 63791, 105219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 41 ], [ 44, 52 ], [ 54, 66 ], [ 93, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After returning to the United States, in 1940 he became president of the Funk Foundation for Medical Research. He spent his last years studying the causes of neoplasms (\"cancers\").", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Achievements", "target_page_ids": [ 1236730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America (PIASA) annually honors Polish-American scientists with the Casimir Funk Natural Sciences Award. Past winners have included Nobel Laureate Roald Hoffmann, Aleksander Wolszczan, Hilary Koprowski, Peter T. Wolczanski, Wacław Szybalski, Zbyszek Darzynkiewicz and Benoit Mandelbrot.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Funk Award", "target_page_ids": [ 5042803, 26514, 400370, 1063891, 7639481, 612107, 53951391, 3999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 52 ], [ 192, 206 ], [ 208, 228 ], [ 230, 246 ], [ 248, 267 ], [ 269, 285 ], [ 287, 308 ], [ 313, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harow, Benjamin CASIMIR FUNK-Pioneer in Vitamins and Hormones. Dodd, Mead & Company, New York, N. Y., 1955. 209 pages.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Biography", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Review of Harow's biography at pubmedcentral, pdf", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Biography at FAQs, nutrition accessed Dec 2006.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Funk, Casimir\", Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. 5, Detroit, Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008 pp.208–9. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 19 July 2012.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Vitamins – Jewish Discoverer\" , (2017).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1884_births", "1967_deaths", "American_biochemists", "University_of_Bern_alumni", "Jewish_chemists", "Jewish_biologists", "Polish_biologists", "Polish_chemists", "People_from_Warsaw", "Scientists_from_New_York_(state)", "Jewish_American_scientists", "American_people_of_Polish-Jewish_descent", "Vitamin_researchers" ]

[ "Kazimierz Funk", "Kazimieras Funkas" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Adnams is a regional brewery founded in 1872 in Southwold, Suffolk, England, by George and Ernest Adnams. It produces cask ale and bottled beers. Annual production is around 85,000 barrels.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19555342, 82056, 26089, 594043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ], [ 48, 57 ], [ 118, 126 ], [ 181, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, the company established the Copper House distillery for the production of gin, vodka and whisky.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39761, 12988, 32787, 33153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 60 ], [ 83, 86 ], [ 88, 93 ], [ 98, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest recorded brewing on the Adnams site was in 1396 by Johanna de Corby.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Sole Bay Brewery in Southwold was purchased in 1872 by George and Ernest Adnams. The company was incorporated in 1890, and has remained independent since then, producing a range of beers for distribution mainly in East Anglia. The Adnams family was joined in 1902 by Pierse Loftus, who brought strategic vision, technical expertise and sound financial principles, building the base on which succeeding generations have been able to build. Adnams is now a PLC, with numerous shareholders, but still has family representation on the board, with Jonathan Adnams as Chairman.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 46379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The yeast used by Adnams was sourced from Morgans brewery of Norwich in 1942.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 34385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until 1953 and from 1970 to 2006, casks of Adnams ale were delivered to the six pubs of Southwold by horse and dray; the tradition ended when a new distribution depot was built three miles from the brewery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 24578, 403005, 1525255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 84 ], [ 111, 115 ], [ 148, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The company founded a charity, The Adnams Charity, in 1990 to celebrate its centenary as a public company. A percentage of the company's annual profits is used to support worthwhile causes within a 25-mile radius of Southwold.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1993, Adnams Extra won the Champion Beer of Britain, an award presented by the Campaign for Real Ale at the annual Great British Beer Festival. Adnams remains committed to brewing cask ale and operating non-themed pubs. Cask ale is available in all its 70 pubs, and it supplies more than 1000 other outlets direct. New fermenting vessels were installed in March 2001 to cope with demand, and the brewhouse was completely re-equipped in July 2006, making it one of the most energy efficient in Europe.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2838379, 6060, 2723647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 54 ], [ 82, 103 ], [ 118, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the beginning of 2004, Adnams purchased land in neighbouring village of Reydon to expand its business with a new distribution centre, designed by architect Jeremy Blake, which was nominated for the 2007 RICS East of England Award for Sustainability. Adnams was awarded a Queen's Award for Enterprise in the sustainable development category in 2005.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 830985, 1133571, 30872348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 81 ], [ 206, 210 ], [ 274, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The distribution centre features the UK's largest living roof known as the Sky Garden which is made up of a variety of sedum species. Not only does this help to insulate the building, but the water stored in the sedum plants is also harvested and used to flush the staff toilets and clean company vehicles. This, combined with the solar panels and the environmental construction have meant the energy bills have been cut by half.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 192025, 709394, 3507365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 61 ], [ 119, 124 ], [ 331, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2009, Adnams signed a five-year agreement to supply Ipswich Town FC with beers at their Portman Road stadium, replacing the 14-year-old association with Greene King.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 352843, 1338681, 1106782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 75 ], [ 96, 108 ], [ 161, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010 Carl's Copper Pot still and Rectifying columns were installed and put in operation in November of that same year for the production of Gin, Vodka & Whisky.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In early 2019, Adnams launched a new English cider called Wild Wave.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19614253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adnams produce regular cask ale, seasonal beer, bottled beer, \"international\" beer and \"commemorative\" beers and cider :", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [ 46256361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Broadside, a 4.7% abv premium bitter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Explorer, a 4.3% golden bitter that was introduced in 2004 as a summer seasonal; it became a regular beer in February 2006", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ghost Ship, a 4.5% abv pale ale, previously available May through to October but available year-round from March 2012 and is very flavoursome according to Neil Sharman.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ghost Ship Alcohol Free, a 0.5% version of their Ghost Ship pale ale. Produced through reverse osmosis.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sole Star, a low alcohol (2.7% abv) amber ale, introduced December 2011 and delisted shortly afterwards, it remains available in bottles. Reintroduced in 2017 at 0.9% abv and claimed to have the same taste as the original.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Southwold Bitter, a 3.7% abv session bitter. This was renamed from plain \"Bitter\" and the packaging redesigned in May 2011.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Topaz Gold, a 4.0% abv pale golden ale, brewed with Australian hop varieties, introduced August 2012", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Spindrift, a 5.0% abv golden bitter introduced in 2006", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "English Red Ale, a 4.5% abv ale, available November to December, brewed with English Admiral hops.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Extra, 4.3% abv. Available in April. Winner of the Champion Beer of Britain award in 1993.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [ 2838379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fat Sprat, a 3.8% abv Amber summer beer, brewed with Pale Ale malted barley, Munich, Cara and Black malt, with Columbus, English Goldings, Cascade and Chinook hops; introduced in May 2013.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Kristal White Ale, a 4.2% abv golden wheat beer, available February to Easter, brewed with malted wheat, barley and German Noble Hops.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "May Day, a 5.0% abv golden ale, available April and May, is made with East Anglian Pale Ale malt, and hopped with First Gold", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mild, 3.2% abv. Available in March and May.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Old Ale, a 4.1% \"cold weather beer\", introduced October 2006, and available October to January", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Oyster Stout, a 4.3% abv winter stout, available February and March, is made from East Anglian Pale Ale Malt, Crystal Malt, Chocolate Malt, roasted Barley and English Golding hops", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Regatta, a 4.3% abv golden ale for summer, is available May through to August", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tally Ho, a 7.0% barley wine, limited availability in December", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Yuletide, a 4.5% abv Christmas beer, available from November to December, is brewed with Maris Otter, Chocolate and Amber Malts and Boadicea & Chinook Hops", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jester, a 4.8% abv single hop golden beer brewed with Pale Ale Malt and hopped with a new British hop called Jester.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Broadside, a 6.3% bottled strong ale", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ease Up I.P.A, a 4.6% session beer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "East Green, a 4.3%, a carbon neutral beer with a lighter bottle made with 15% recycled glass", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [ 351661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Explorer, a 5.5% bottled ale which, like the cask Explorer, is a blend of English and American styles", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gun Hill, a 4.0% bottled dark mild", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lighthouse, a 3.4% bottled traditional pale ale named after Southwold lighthouse; recipe based on an award-winning beer that used to be brewed called 'Champion Pale Ale'", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [ 145768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spindrift, a 5.0% abv golden bitter, in bottles from 2010.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tally Ho, a bottled version of the barley wine which, at 7.2%, is slightly stronger than its cask equivalent", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Bitter (formerly Suffolk Strong Ale) 4.5% bottled version of the retired cask Extra", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From time to time, Adnams produce limited brews of specialty beers, either in the styles of non-UK beers, or using special international ingredients. These beers are usually available only from selected outlets. Past and current international beers have included:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "American Style IPA, a 4.8% abv cask beer using Californian yeast and American hop varieties", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Belgian Style Abbey Ale, a 5.0% abv cask beer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dutch Style Bokbier, a 5.3% abv cask beer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "New Zealand Pale Ale, a 4.0% abv cask beer brewed using Nelson Sauvin hops from New Zealand", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Spiced Winter Beer, a 4.0% abv cask beer incorporating cinnamon, juniper and other spices", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Adnams have a long history of producing limited and one-off special beers to commemorate events of local or national importance. These are generally available for a limited period in bottles, and in cask at a few selected outlets. Recent beers include:-", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Diamond Ale, a 4.1% abv beer, brewed with Pale Ale and Premium Cara malts, with Sovereign hops and locally sourced honey, produced to celebrate the 2012 Diamond Jubilee of HM Queen Elizabeth II", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [ 25249479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flame Runner, a 3.9% abv beer with spices and citrus, to celebrate the 2012 London Olympics and the Olympic Torch Relay through Southwold", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [ 2176142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Royal Wedding Ale, a 4.1% abv ale with Heather Honey, brewed for the wedding in 2011 of HRH Prince William and Catherine Middleton", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Beers", "target_page_ids": [ 29620212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The company branched out to distilling when they installed an 800 litre copper pot still with 42 plated rectifying columns, they acquired from Carl in 2010.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distillery", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The capacity was expanded in 2015 with two extra pot stills.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distillery", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The product line holds a wide variety of gin, vodka and whisky. For their whisky range different mash-bills (100% malted barley; 75% rye, 25% barley; 100% rye, 60% malted wheat, 10% malted oats, 30% malted barley) are used.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distillery", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some less common products of the distiller are, a Bierbrand Spirit of Broadside, two Absinth expressions: Verte & Rouge but also non grain products like brandy is made from locally grown apples, or grapes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distillery", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Official website", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Brewery tours from the official website", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Description of the environmentally friendly distribution center from Hoare Lea", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 11321849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adnams Cellar and Kitchen stores", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Companies_based_in_Suffolk", "Food_and_drink_companies_established_in_1872", "Gins", "Vodkas", "Distilleries_in_England", "Breweries_in_England", "British_companies_established_in_1872", "1872_establishments_in_England", "Southwold" ]

[ "Adnams Brewing", "Adnams", "Adnams Brewery", "Adnams. Southwold" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Norman Percevel Rockwell (February 3, 1894 – November 8, 1978) was an American painter and illustrator. His works have a broad popular appeal in the United States for their reflection of the country's culture. Rockwell is most famous for the cover illustrations of everyday life he created for The Saturday Evening Post magazine over nearly five decades. Among the best-known of Rockwell's works are the Willie Gillis series, Rosie the Riveter,", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18985287, 510910, 16767599, 791407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 208 ], [ 294, 319 ], [ 404, 417 ], [ 426, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Problem We All Live With, Saying Grace, and the Four Freedoms series. He is also noted for his 64-year relationship with the Boy Scouts of America (BSA), during which he produced covers for their publication Boys' Life, calendars, and other illustrations. These works include popular images that reflect the Scout Oath and Scout Law such as The Scoutmaster, A Scout Is Reverent and A Guiding Hand, among many others.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32871777, 41274209, 16805114, 76511, 1496761, 2223165, 3563293, 42945542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ], [ 30, 42 ], [ 52, 65 ], [ 129, 150 ], [ 212, 222 ], [ 312, 322 ], [ 327, 336 ], [ 345, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rockwell was a prolific artist, producing more than 4,000 original works in his lifetime. Most of his surviving works are in public collections. Rockwell was also commissioned to illustrate more than 40 books, including Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn as well as painting the portraits for Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon, as well as those of foreign figures, including Gamal Abdel Nasser and Jawaharlal Nehru. His portrait subjects included Judy Garland. One of his last portraits was of Colonel Sanders in 1973. His annual contributions for the Boy Scouts calendars between 1925 and 1976 (Rockwell was a 1939 recipient of the Silver Buffalo Award, the highest adult award given by the Boy Scouts of America), were only slightly overshadowed by his most popular of calendar works: the \"Four Seasons\" illustrations for Brown & Bigelow that were published for 17 years beginning in 1947 and reproduced in various styles and sizes since 1964. He created artwork for advertisements for Coca-Cola, Jell-O, General Motors, Scott Tissue, and other companies. Illustrations for booklets, catalogs, posters (particularly movie promotions), sheet music, stamps, playing cards, and murals (including \"Yankee Doodle Dandy\" and \"God Bless the Hills\", which was completed in 1936 for the Nassau Inn in Princeton, New Jersey) rounded out Rockwell's oeuvre as an illustrator.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 46379460, 14311, 8182, 5119376, 54533, 25473, 51879, 16243, 58719, 26889895, 3288017, 5193082, 8108444, 84658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 230 ], [ 235, 251 ], [ 301, 311 ], [ 313, 320 ], [ 322, 329 ], [ 335, 340 ], [ 389, 407 ], [ 412, 428 ], [ 461, 473 ], [ 508, 523 ], [ 647, 667 ], [ 838, 853 ], [ 1294, 1304 ], [ 1308, 1329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rockwell's work was dismissed by serious art critics in his lifetime. Many of his works appear overly sweet in the opinion of modern critics, especially the Saturday Evening Post covers, which tend toward idealistic or sentimentalized portrayals of American life. This has led to the often deprecatory adjective \"Rockwellesque\". Consequently, Rockwell is not considered a \"serious painter\" by some contemporary artists, who regard his work as bourgeois and kitsch. Writer Vladimir Nabokov stated that Rockwell's brilliant technique was put to \"banal\" use, and wrote in his novel Pnin: \"That Dalí is really Norman Rockwell's twin brother by in babyhood.\" He is called an \"illustrator\" instead of an artist by some critics, a designation he did not mind, as that was what he called himself.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 58031, 98141, 32442, 941838, 40112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 443, 452 ], [ 457, 463 ], [ 472, 488 ], [ 579, 583 ], [ 591, 595 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his later years, however, Rockwell began receiving more attention as a painter when he chose more serious subjects such as the series on racism for Look magazine. One example of this more serious work is The Problem We All Live With, which dealt with the issue of school racial integration. The painting depicts a young black girl, Ruby Bridges, flanked by white federal marshals, walking to school past a wall defaced by racist graffiti. This 1964 painting was displayed in the White House when Bridges met with President Barack Obama in 2011.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5557770, 32871777, 911131, 1143659, 98221, 33057, 534366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 164 ], [ 207, 235 ], [ 274, 292 ], [ 335, 347 ], [ 366, 382 ], [ 482, 493 ], [ 526, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Norman Rockwell was born on February 3, 1894, in New York City, to Jarvis Waring Rockwell and Anne Mary \"Nancy\" Rockwell, born Hill. His father was a Presbyterian and his mother was an Episcopalian; two years after their engagement, he converted to the Episcopal faith. His earliest American ancestor was John Rockwell (1588–1662), from Somerset, England, who immigrated to colonial North America, probably in 1635, aboard the ship Hopewell and became one of the first settlers of Windsor, Connecticut. He had one brother, Jarvis Waring Rockwell Jr., older by a year and a half. Jarvis Waring Sr. was the manager of the New York office of a Philadelphia textile firm, George Wood, Sons & Company, where he spent his entire career.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 645042, 24403, 1214, 51763, 21139, 108740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 62 ], [ 150, 162 ], [ 185, 197 ], [ 337, 345 ], [ 383, 396 ], [ 481, 501 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rockwell transferred from high school to the Chase Art School at the age of 14. He then went on to the National Academy of Design and finally to the Art Students League. There, he was taught by Thomas Fogarty, George Bridgman, and Frank Vincent DuMond; his early works were produced for St. Nicholas Magazine, the Boy Scouts of America (BSA) magazine Boys' Life, and other youth publications. As a student, Rockwell had some small jobs, including one as a supernumerary at the Metropolitan Opera. His first major artistic job came at age 18, illustrating Carl H. Claudy's book Tell Me Why: Stories about Mother Nature.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1127199, 3715459, 7306063, 8040319, 2632528, 76511, 1496761, 7965724, 216641, 33900636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 129 ], [ 149, 168 ], [ 210, 225 ], [ 231, 251 ], [ 287, 308 ], [ 314, 335 ], [ 351, 361 ], [ 456, 469 ], [ 477, 495 ], [ 555, 569 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After that, Rockwell was hired as a staff artist for Boys' Life. In this role, he received 50 dollars' compensation each month for one completed cover and a set of story illustrations. It is said to have been his first paying job as an artist. At 19, he became the art editor for Boys' Life, published by the Boy Scouts of America. He held the job for three years, during which he painted several covers, beginning with his first published magazine cover, Scout at Ship's Wheel, which appeared on the Boys' Life September 1913 edition.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rockwell's family moved to New Rochelle, New York, when Norman was 21 years old. They shared a studio with the cartoonist Clyde Forsythe, who worked for The Saturday Evening Post. With Forsythe's help, Rockwell submitted his first successful cover painting to the Post in 1916, Mother's Day Off (published on May 20). He followed that success with Circus Barker and Strongman (published on June 3), Gramps at the Plate (August 5), Redhead Loves Hatty Perkins (September 16), People in a Theatre Balcony (October 14), and Man Playing Santa (December 9). Rockwell was published eight times on the Post cover within the first year. Ultimately, Rockwell published 323 original covers for The Saturday Evening Post over 47 years. His Sharp Harmony appeared on the cover of the issue dated September 26, 1936; it depicts a barber and three clients, enjoying an a cappella song. The image was adopted by SPEBSQSA in its promotion of the art.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 127575, 184579, 146779, 2411, 165101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 39 ], [ 111, 121 ], [ 817, 823 ], [ 855, 865 ], [ 897, 905 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rockwell's success on the cover of the Post led to covers for other magazines of the day, most notably the Literary Digest, the Country Gentleman, Leslie's Weekly, Judge, Peoples Popular Monthly and Life magazine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1907261, 19107236, 25384178, 187479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 122 ], [ 128, 145 ], [ 147, 162 ], [ 199, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Rockwell's tenure began with The Saturday Evening Post in 1916, he left his salaried position at Boys' Life, but continued to include scouts in Post cover images and the monthly magazine of the American Red Cross. He resumed work with the Boy Scouts of America in 1926 with production of his first of fifty-one original illustrations for the official Boy Scouts of America annual calendar, which still may be seen in the Norman Rockwell Art Gallery at the National Scouting Museum in Cimarron, New Mexico.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 5142199, 125857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 461, 485 ], [ 489, 509 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During World War I, he tried to enlist into the U.S. Navy but was refused entry because, at , he was eight pounds underweight for someone tall. To compensate, he spent one night gorging himself on bananas, liquids and doughnuts, and weighed enough to enlist the next day. He was given the role of a military artist, however, and did not see any action during his tour of duty.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1943, during World War II, Rockwell painted the Four Freedoms series, which was completed in seven months and resulted in him losing fifteen pounds. The series was inspired by a speech by Franklin D. Roosevelt, wherein Roosevelt described and articulated Four Freedoms for universal rights. Rockwell then painted Freedom from Want, Freedom of Speech, Freedom of Worship and Freedom from Fear.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 16805114, 10979, 10980, 16881504, 16880703, 16880874, 15235594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 64 ], [ 191, 212 ], [ 258, 271 ], [ 316, 333 ], [ 335, 352 ], [ 354, 372 ], [ 377, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The paintings were published in 1943 by The Saturday Evening Post. Rockwell used the Pennell shipbuilding family from Brunswick, Maine as models for two of the paintings, Freedom from Want and A Thankful Mother, and would combine models from photographs and his own vision to create his idealistic paintings. The United States Department of the Treasury later promoted war bonds by exhibiting the originals in sixteen cities. Rockwell considered Freedom of Speech to be the best of the four.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 401486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 369, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "That same year, a fire in his studio destroyed numerous original paintings, costumes, and props. Because the period costumes and props were irreplaceable, the fire split his career into two phases, the second phase depicting modern characters and situations. Rockwell was contacted by writer Elliott Caplin, brother of cartoonist Al Capp, with the suggestion that the three of them should make a daily comic strip together, with Caplin and his brother writing and Rockwell drawing. King Features Syndicate is reported to have promised a $1,000 per week deal, knowing that a Capp–Rockwell collaboration would gain strong public interest. The project was ultimately aborted, however, as it turned out that Rockwell, known for his perfectionism as an artist, could not deliver material so quickly as would be required of him for a daily comic strip.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 2861375, 3012, 5704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 292, 306 ], [ 330, 337 ], [ 402, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the late 1940s, Norman Rockwell spent the winter months as artist-in-residence at Otis College of Art and Design. Students occasionally were models for his Saturday Evening Post covers. In 1949, Rockwell donated an original Post cover, April Fool, to be raffled off in a library fund raiser.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1577828, 510910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 119 ], [ 163, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1959, after his wife Mary died suddenly from a heart attack, Rockwell took time off from his work to grieve. It was during that break that he and his son Thomas produced Rockwell's autobiography, My Adventures as an Illustrator, which was published in 1960. The Post printed excerpts from this book in eight consecutive issues, the first containing Rockwell's famous Triple Self-Portrait.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rockwell's last painting for the Post was published in 1963, marking the end of a publishing relationship that had included 321 cover paintings. He spent the next 10 years painting for Look magazine, where his work depicted his interests in civil rights, poverty, and space exploration.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 5557770, 28431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 198 ], [ 268, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1966, Rockwell was invited to Hollywood to paint portraits of the stars of the film Stagecoach, and also found himself appearing as an extra in the film, playing a \"mangy old gambler\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 12784585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1968, Rockwell was commissioned to do an album cover portrait of Mike Bloomfield and Al Kooper for their record, The Live Adventures of Mike Bloomfield and Al Kooper.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 599555, 612254, 13237045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 83 ], [ 88, 97 ], [ 116, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1969, as a tribute on the 75th anniversary of Rockwell's birth, officials of Brown & Bigelow and the Boy Scouts of America asked Rockwell to pose in Beyond the Easel, the calendar illustration that year.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1969 the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation commissioned Rockwell to paint the Glen Canyon Dam.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 388065, 344815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 39 ], [ 75, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His last commission for the Boy Scouts of America was a calendar illustration entitled The Spirit of 1976, which was completed when Rockwell was 82, concluding a partnership which generated 471 images for periodicals, guidebooks, calendars, and promotional materials. His connection to the BSA spanned 64 years, marking the longest professional association of his career. His legacy and style for the BSA has been carried on by Joseph Csatari.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 3895239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 428, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For \"vivid and affectionate portraits of our country\", Rockwell was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the United States of America's highest civilian honor, in 1977 by President Gerald Ford. Rockwell's son, Jarvis, accepted the award.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 22873, 5030380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 109 ], [ 187, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rockwell died on November 8, 1978, of emphysema at age84 in his Stockbridge, Massachusetts, home. First Lady Rosalynn Carter attended his funeral.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 50762105, 241367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 47 ], [ 109, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rockwell married his first wife, Irene O'Connor, on July 1, 1916. Irene was Rockwell's model in Mother Tucking Children into Bed, published on the cover of The Literary Digest on January 19, 1921. The couple divorced on January 13, 1930.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1907261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Depressed, he moved briefly to Alhambra, California as a guest of his old friend Clyde Forsythe. There he painted some of his best-known paintings including The Doctor and the Doll. While there he met and married schoolteacher Mary Barstow on April 17, 1930. The couple returned to New York shortly after their marriage. They had three children: Jarvis Waring, Thomas Rhodes, and Peter Barstow. The family lived at 24 Lord Kitchener Road in the Bonnie Crest neighborhood of New Rochelle, New York.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 107595, 2783502, 127575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 51 ], [ 361, 374 ], [ 474, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rockwell and his wife were not regular church attendees, although they were members of St. John's Wilmot Church, an Episcopal church near their home, where their sons were baptized. Rockwell moved to Arlington, Vermont, in 1939 where his work began to reflect small-town life. He would later be joined by his good friend, John Carlton Atherton.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 17588732, 1214, 260208, 64104550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 111 ], [ 116, 125 ], [ 200, 209 ], [ 322, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1953, the Rockwell family moved to Stockbridge, Massachusetts, so that his wife could be treated at the Austen Riggs Center, a psychiatric hospital at 25 Main Street, close to where Rockwell set up his studio. Rockwell also received psychiatric treatment, seeing the analyst Erik Erikson, who was on staff at Riggs. Erikson told biographer Laura Claridge that he painted his happiness, but did not live it. On August 25, 1959, Mary died unexpectedly of a heart attack.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 116699, 10808888, 437099, 27190374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 64 ], [ 107, 126 ], [ 278, 290 ], [ 343, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rockwell married his third wife, retired Milton Academy English teacher, Mary Leete \"Mollie\" Punderson (1896–1985), on October 25, 1961. His Stockbridge studio was located on the second floor of a row of buildings. Directly underneath Rockwell's studio was, for a time in 1966, the Back Room Rest, better known as the famous \"Alice's Restaurant\". During his time in Stockbridge, chief of police William Obanhein was a frequent model for Rockwell's paintings.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 494001, 514263, 3159792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 55 ], [ 326, 344 ], [ 395, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1961 until his death, Rockwell was a member of the Monday Evening Club, a men's literary group based in Pittsfield, Massachusetts. At his funeral, five members of the club served as pallbearers, along with Jarvis Rockwell.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 116694, 796118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 134 ], [ 187, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A custodianship of his original paintings and drawings was established with Rockwell's help near his home in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and the Norman Rockwell Museum still is open today year-round. The museum's collection includes more than 700 original Rockwell paintings, drawings, and studies. The Rockwell Center for American Visual Studies at the Norman Rockwell Museum is a national research institute dedicated to American illustration art.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 116699, 1275956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 120 ], [ 145, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rockwell's work was exhibited at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in 2001. Rockwell's Breaking Home Ties sold for $15.4 million at a 2006 Sotheby's auction. A 12-city U.S. tour of Rockwell's works took place in 2008.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 104933, 8240460, 541267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 65 ], [ 86, 104 ], [ 138, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2008, Rockwell was named the official state artist of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The 2013 sale of Saying Grace for $46 million (including buyer's premium) established a new record price for Rockwell. Rockwell's work was exhibited at the Reading Public Museum and the Church History Museum in 2013–2014.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 41274209, 15540950, 12998123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 121 ], [ 248, 269 ], [ 278, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 1981, Rockwell's painting Girl at Mirror was used for the cover of Prism's fifth studio album Small Change.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 579163, 43517388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 76 ], [ 98, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rockwell is among the figures depicted in Our Nation's 200th Birthday, The Telephone's 100th Birthday (1976) by Stanley Meltzoff for Bell System which Meltzoff based on Rockwell's 1948 painting The Gossips.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 374909, 2193804, 19913909, 21347591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 70 ], [ 72, 102 ], [ 113, 129 ], [ 134, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the film Empire of the Sun, a young boy (played by Christian Bale) is put to bed by his loving parents in a scene also inspired by a Rockwell painting—a reproduction of which is later kept by the young boy during his captivity in a prison camp (\"Freedom from Fear\", 1943).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 146077, 331124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 30 ], [ 55, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The 1994 film Forrest Gump includes a shot in a school that re-creates Rockwell's \"Girl with Black Eye\" with young Forrest in place of the girl. Much of the film drew heavy visual inspiration from Rockwell's art.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 41528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Film director George Lucas owns Rockwell's original of \"The Peach Crop\", and his colleague Steven Spielberg owns a sketch of Rockwell's Triple Self-Portrait. Each of the artworks hangs in the respective filmmaker's work space. Rockwell is a major character in an episode of Lucas' The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, \"Passion for Life,\" portrayed by Lukas Haas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 11857, 26940, 76749, 1547551, 620803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ], [ 92, 108 ], [ 242, 257 ], [ 282, 316 ], [ 351, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Museum director Thomas S. Buechner said that Rockwell's art is important for standing the test of time, \"When the last half century is explored by the future, a few paintings will continue to communicate with the same immediacy and veracity they have today.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 27768278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2005, May Corporation, that previously bought Marshall Field's from Target Corp., was bought by Federated Department Stores. After the sale, Federated discovered that Rockwell's The Clock Mender displayed in the store was a reproduction. Rockwell had donated the painting, which depicts a repairman setting the time on one of the Marshall Field and Company Building clocks, and was depicted on the cover of the November 3, 1945 Saturday Evening Post, to the store in 1948. Target had since donated the original to the Chicago History Museum.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 976662, 18581242, 276760, 16031168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 66 ], [ 72, 84 ], [ 100, 127 ], [ 334, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " On an anniversary of Norman Rockwell's birth, on February 3, 2010, Google featured Rockwell's iconic image of young love \"Boy and Girl Gazing at the Moon\", which is also known as \"Puppy Love\", on its home page. The response was so great that day that the Norman Rockwell museum's servers were overwhelmed by the volume of traffic.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Dreamland\", a track from Canadian alternative rock band Our Lady Peace's 2009 album Burn Burn, was inspired by Rockwell's paintings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 167409, 520626, 20501999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 52 ], [ 58, 72 ], [ 86, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The cover for the Oingo Boingo album Only a Lad is a parody of the Boy Scouts of America 1960 official handbook cover illustrated by Rockwell.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 157376, 1529751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 31 ], [ 38, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lana Del Rey named her sixth studio album, Norman Fucking Rockwell! (2019), after Rockwell.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 33209238, 58518535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 44, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Scout at Ship's Wheel (first published magazine cover illustration, Boys' Life, September 1913)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 1496761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Santa and Scouts in Snow (1913)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Boy with Baby Carriage (1916; first Saturday Evening Post cover)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 510910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Circus Barker and Strongman (1916)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gramps at the Plate (1916)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Redhead Loves Hatty Perkins (1916)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " People in a Theatre Balcony (1916)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tain't You (1917; first Life magazine cover)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 187479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cousin Reginald Goes to the Country (1917; first Country Gentleman cover)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 19107236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Santa and Expense Book (1920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mother Tucking Children into Bed (1921; first wife Irene is the model)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " No Swimming (1921)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Santa with Elves (1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Love Song (1926, Ladies Home Journal)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 37118304, 392058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 22, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Doctor and Doll (1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Deadline (1938)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Girl Reading the Post (1941) - In 1943, Rockwell gifted this painting to Walt Disney whose daughter, Diane Disney Miller, gifted it to The Norman Rockwell Museum at Stockbridge in 2000.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Four Freedoms (1943)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 16805114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Freedom of Speech (1943)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 16880703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Freedom of Worship (1943)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 16880874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Freedom from Want (1943)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 16881504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Freedom from Fear (1943)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 15235594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rosie the Riveter (1943)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 791407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " We, Too, Have a Job to Do (1944)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 48926986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Going and Coming (1947)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tough Call ( 1948)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 54008851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The New Television Set (1949)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Saying Grace (1951)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 41274209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Waiting for the Vet (1952)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Young Lady with a Shiner (1953)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Walking to Church (1953)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 41381351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Girl at Mirror (1954)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Breaking Home Ties (1954)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 8240460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Marriage License (1955)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Scoutmaster (1956)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 42945542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Rookie (1957)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 52665591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Runaway (1958)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Before and After (1958)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Family Tree (1959)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Triple Self-Portrait (1960)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Golden Rule (1961)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Connoisseur (1962)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Problem We All Live With (1964)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 32871777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Murder in Mississippi (1965)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 64605936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Southern Justice (Murder in Mississippi) (1965)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 64605936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " New Kids in the Neighborhood (1967)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Russian Schoolroom (1967)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 11193873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Spirit of 1976 (1976) (stolen in 1978, recovered in 2001 by the FBI's Robert King Wittman)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Major works", "target_page_ids": [ 21166891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rockwell provided illustrations for several film posters during his career.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Film posters and album cover", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Adventures of Marco Polo (1938)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Film posters and album cover", "target_page_ids": [ 5819636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Magnificent Ambersons (1942)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Film posters and album cover", "target_page_ids": [ 3509771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Song of Bernadette (1943)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Film posters and album cover", "target_page_ids": [ 77672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Along Came Jones (1945)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Film posters and album cover", "target_page_ids": [ 12706080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Razor's Edge (1946)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Film posters and album cover", "target_page_ids": [ 6000549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cinderfella (1960)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Film posters and album cover", "target_page_ids": [ 3373525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stagecoach (1966)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Film posters and album cover", "target_page_ids": [ 12784585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He designed an album cover for The Live Adventures of Mike Bloomfield and Al Kooper (1969). He was also commissioned by English musician David Bowie to design the cover artwork for his 1975 album Young Americans, but the offer was retracted after Rockwell informed him he would need at least half a year to complete a painting for the album.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Film posters and album cover", "target_page_ids": [ 13237045, 8786, 1261545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 83 ], [ 137, 148 ], [ 196, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Norman Rockwell Museum in Stockbridge, Massachusetts", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Displays", "target_page_ids": [ 1275956, 116699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 27, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rockwell Collection at the National Museum of American Illustration", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Displays", "target_page_ids": [ 10797842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rockwell illustrations for The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn at the Mark Twain Museum in Hannibal MO.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Displays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Norman Rockwell World War II posters, hosted by the University of North Texas Libraries Digital Collections", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Displays", "target_page_ids": [ 179976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Norman Rockwell and the Art of Scouting at the National Scouting Museum, Irving, Texas", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Displays", "target_page_ids": [ 5142199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Norman Rockwell Exhibit in Arlington, Vermont", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Displays", "target_page_ids": [ 260208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Society of Illustrators Hall of Fame, first inductee 1958", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Honors", "target_page_ids": [ 5776258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " J. C. Leyendecker, Rockwell's predecessor and stylistic inspiration", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2271230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " James K. Van Brunt, a frequent model for Rockwell", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22917328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Obanhein, another one of Rockwell's models who would later become famous elsewhere", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3159792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Norman Rockwell's World... An American Dream, a 1972 short documentary film", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17590247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Collection of mid-twentieth century advertising featuring Norman Rockwell illustrations from the TJS Labs Gallery of Graphic Design", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Booknotes interview with Laura Claridge on Norman Rockwell: A Life, December 2, 2001, C-SPAN", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 77799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 93 ] ] } ]

[ "Norman_Rockwell", "1894_births", "1978_deaths", "20th-century_American_painters", "20th-century_male_artists", "Album-cover_and_concert-poster_artists", "American_magazine_illustrators", "American_male_painters", "American_people_of_English_descent", "Art_Students_League_of_New_York_alumni", "Artists_from_New_York_City", "Artists_from_New_Rochelle,_New_York", "Burials_in_Massachusetts", "Culture_of_New_Rochelle,_New_York", "Deaths_from_emphysema", "Film_poster_artists", "Members_of_the_Salmagundi_Club", "Military_personnel_from_New_Rochelle,_New_York", "Parsons_School_of_Design_alumni", "People_from_Stockbridge,_Massachusetts", "Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom_recipients", "Scouting_in_popular_culture", "The_Saturday_Evening_Post_people", "United_States_Navy_personnel_of_World_War_I", "United_States_Navy_sailors", "Vermont_culture" ]

[ "Norman Perceval Rockwell", "Norman Percevel Rockwell", "Rockwell" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Millennium Dome was the original name of the large dome-shaped building on the Greenwich Peninsula in South East London, England, which housed a major exhibition celebrating the beginning of the third millennium. It is the eighth largest building in the world by usable volume. The exhibition was open to the public from 1 January to 31 December 2000. The project and exhibition were highly political and attracted barely half of the 12 million customers its sponsors forecasted, and so were deemed a failure by the press. All the original exhibition elements were sold or dismantled.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 167258, 563035, 36858819, 23443424, 344164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 59 ], [ 83, 102 ], [ 106, 123 ], [ 199, 215 ], [ 227, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a 2005 report, the cost of the Dome and surrounding land (which increased to 170 acres from the initial offering of the 48 acres enclosed by the Dome) and managing the Dome until the deal was closed was £28.7 million. The value of the 48 acres occupied by the Dome was estimated at £48 million, which could have been realised by demolishing the structure, but it was considered preferable to preserve the Dome. The structure itself still exists and is now a key exterior feature of The O2.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10172085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 485, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Prime Meridian passes the western edge of the Dome and the nearest London Underground station is North Greenwich on the Jubilee line.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 50225, 210617, 333702, 92601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 71, 97 ], [ 101, 116 ], [ 124, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The dome is one of the largest of its type in the world. Externally, it appears as a large white marquee with twelve yellow support towers, one for each month of the year, or each hour of the clock face, representing the role played by Greenwich Mean Time. In plan view it is circular, ( for each day in a standard year) in diameter. It has become one of the United Kingdom's most recognisable landmarks, and can be easily identified on satellite images of London. Its exterior is reminiscent of the Dome of Discovery built for the Festival of Britain in 1951.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 235363, 12701, 2654362, 66154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 104 ], [ 237, 256 ], [ 502, 519 ], [ 534, 553 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The architect was Richard Rogers and the contractor was a joint venture company, McAlpine/Laing Joint Venture (MLJV) formed between Sir Robert McAlpine and Laing Management. The building structure was engineered by Buro Happold, and the entire roof structure weighs less than the air contained within the building. Although referred to as a dome it is \"not a dome in the structural sense [...] In this building, a dome-shaped cable network is supported on a ring of [...] masts\". It has been disparagingly referred to as the Millennium Tent.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 486217, 10265961, 7749572, 167258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 32 ], [ 132, 151 ], [ 215, 227 ], [ 341, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The canopy is high in the middle – for each week of the year and is made of durable and weather-resistant PTFE-coated glass fibre fabric panels (original plans to use PVC-coated polyester fabric were dropped after protest led by Greenpeace), with each of the 72 segments containing two panels. Its symmetry is interrupted by a hole through which a ventilation shaft from the Blackwall Tunnel rises. Six segments were destroyed during Storm Eunice on 18 February 2022.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 30791, 157606, 51892, 12233, 333720, 70072824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 112 ], [ 120, 131 ], [ 190, 196 ], [ 231, 241 ], [ 377, 393 ], [ 436, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Built in 15 months, the dome structure was delivered under budget, at a cost of £43m.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The critic Jonathan Meades has scathingly referred to the Millennium Dome as a \"Museum of Toxic Waste\", and apart from the dome itself, the project included the reclamation of the entire Greenwich Peninsula. The land was previously derelict and contaminated by toxic sludge from East Greenwich Gas Works that operated from 1889 to 1985. The clean-up operation was seen by the then Deputy Prime Minister Michael Heseltine as an investment that would add a large area of useful land to the crowded capital.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 16135, 579223, 31402001, 360865, 64044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ], [ 161, 172 ], [ 279, 303 ], [ 381, 402 ], [ 403, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Dome project was conceived, originally on a somewhat smaller scale, under John Major's Conservative government, as a Festival of Britain or World's Fair-type showcase to celebrate the third millennium. The incoming Labour government elected in 1997 under Tony Blair greatly expanded the size, scope and funding of the project, and construction began in June 1997. It also significantly increased expectations of what would be delivered. Just before its opening Blair claimed the Dome would be \"a triumph of confidence over cynicism, boldness over blandness, excellence over mediocrity\". In the words of BBC correspondent Robert Orchard, \"the Dome was to be highlighted as a glittering New Labour achievement in the next election manifesto\", but criticised in the 2001 Conservative Party manifesto as \"banal, anonymous and rootless\", and lacking \"a sense of Britain's history or culture\". Following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, a member of the Dome's board suggested the project be refashioned and extended \"to accommodate, for example, a hospital, businesses, charities, private residences, and the whole thing named 'the Princess Diana Centre. The idea was later scrapped.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Background to the Dome project", "target_page_ids": [ 15898, 32113, 18663932, 66154, 50268, 23443424, 19279158, 9746077, 3301347, 19344654, 207372, 4786934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 88 ], [ 91, 103 ], [ 104, 114 ], [ 121, 140 ], [ 144, 156 ], [ 188, 204 ], [ 219, 225 ], [ 226, 236 ], [ 259, 269 ], [ 607, 610 ], [ 689, 699 ], [ 908, 941 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before its opening, the Dome was excoriated in Iain Sinclair's diatribe, Sorry Meniscus – Excursions to the Millennium Dome (Profile Books: London 1999, ), which forecast the hype, the associated political posturing, and the eventual disillusion. The post-exhibition plan had been to convert the Dome into a European football stadium which would last for 25 years: Charlton Athletic at one point considered a possible move but instead chose to redevelop their own stadium. Local team Fisher Athletic were at one time interested in moving to the Dome, but they were considered to have too small a fan base to make this feasible. The Dome was planned to take over the functions performed by the London Arena after its closure. This is the function which The O2 Arena has now undertaken.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Background to the Dome project", "target_page_ids": [ 553665, 6720, 2567803, 2304979, 9936031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 60 ], [ 365, 382 ], [ 484, 499 ], [ 693, 705 ], [ 752, 764 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After a private opening on the evening of 31 December 1999, including a New Year's Eve celebration attended by Queen Elizabeth II, the Millennium Experience at the Dome was open to the public for the whole of 2000, and contained a large number of attractions and exhibits.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 277922, 12153654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 86 ], [ 111, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The interior space was subdivided into 14 zones (with the lead designers of the zones):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Who we are:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Body, sponsored by Boots, supported by L'Oréal and Roche (Branson Coates Architecture)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 32185609, 728579, 17611093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 24 ], [ 39, 46 ], [ 58, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mind, sponsored by BAE Systems and Marconi (Office of Zaha Hadid)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 200128, 1160936, 513402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 31 ], [ 36, 43 ], [ 55, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Faith comprised 5 sections: History of Christianity, Making of Key Life Experiences, How Shall I live?, Night Rain (a contemplation area designed by James Turrell), and Faith Festivals Calendar (Eva Jiricna Architects with Jasper Jacobs Associates)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 14117, 1442889, 1380297, 3456795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 52 ], [ 119, 132 ], [ 150, 163 ], [ 196, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Self Portrait, sponsored by Marks & Spencer (Caribiner with Lorenzo Apicella at Pentagram), sculpture design by Gerald Scarfe", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 154557, 210404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 44 ], [ 113, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "What we do:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Work, sponsored by Manpower Inc. (WORK)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 935342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Learning, sponsored by Tesco (WORK)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 98356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rest (Richard Rogers Partnership)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 486217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Play (Land Design Studio)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Talk, sponsored by BT Group (Imagination Group)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 4642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Money, sponsored by the City of London (Caribiner with Bob Baxter at Amalgam)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 367477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Journey, sponsored by Ford Motor Company (Imagination Group)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 30433662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Where we live:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shared Ground, made from recycled card, sponsored by Camelot Group plc (WORK)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 620812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Living Island (WORK)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Home Planet, sponsored by British Airways and BAA plc (Park Avenue Productions)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 3970, 621759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 42 ], [ 47, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Surrounded by the zones was a performance area in the centre of the dome. With music composed by Peter Gabriel and an acrobatic cast of 160, the Millennium Dome Show was performed 999 times over the course of the year. Throughout the year, the specially-commissioned film Back & Forth was shown in Skyscape (a separate cinema on the site sponsored by BSkyB). There was also the McDonald's Our Town Story project in which each Local Education Authority in the UK was invited to perform a show of their devising which characterised their area and its people.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 55896, 4408034, 321943, 2480627, 1037558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 110 ], [ 145, 165 ], [ 352, 357 ], [ 379, 389 ], [ 427, 452 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As well as the above, the first ever series of Techno Games was filmed there and shown on BBC Two the same year.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 2246789, 160949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 59 ], [ 90, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were a number of other attractions both in and outside of The Dome. Inside the Dome there was a play area named Timekeepers of the Millennium (featuring the characters Coggsley and Sprinx), The Millennium Coin Minting Press in association with the Royal Mint, the 1951 Festival of Britain Bus, and the Millennium Star Jewels (focus of the failed Millennium Diamond heist.) Outside was the Millennium Map (thirteen metres; 43' high), the Childhood Cube, Looking Around (a hidden installation), Greenwich Pavilion, the Hanging Gardens at the front of the Dome, as well as a number of other art installations and sculptures.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 274396, 66154, 181828, 20300907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 254, 264 ], [ 275, 294 ], [ 308, 330 ], [ 352, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two of the remaining art installations form the start of The Line, a modern art trail connecting the O2 to the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 2496293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The project was largely reported by the press to have been a failure. During 2000, the organisers repeatedly asked for, and received, more cash from the Millennium Commission, the Lottery body which supported it. Numerous changes at management and Board level, before and during the exhibition, had only limited, if any, results. Jennifer Page was sacked as chief executive of the New Millennium Experience Company just one month after the dome's opening. Press reports suggested that the then Prime Minister Tony Blair personally placed a high priority on making the Dome a success. But part of the problem was that the financial predictions were based on an unrealistically high forecast of visitor numbers at 12 million. During the 12 months it was open there were approximately 6.5 million visitors – significantly fewer than the approximately 10 million paying visitors that attended the Festival of Britain, which only ran from May to September. Empire Exhibition, Scotland 1938, held in Glasgow, attracted more than 12 million visitors, being open May to October. Unlike the press, visitor feedback was extremely positive. It was the most popular tourist attraction in 2000. Second was the London Eye; third was Alton Towers, which had been first in 1999.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 4049775, 18617706, 66154, 6215015, 30372, 354032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 174 ], [ 330, 343 ], [ 893, 912 ], [ 952, 984 ], [ 1197, 1207 ], [ 1219, 1231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the UK National Audit Office, the total cost of The Dome at the liquidation of the New Millennium Experience Company in 2002 was £789 million, of which £628 million was covered by National Lottery grants and £189 million through sales of tickets etc. A surplus of £25 million over costs meant that the full lottery grant was not required. However, the £603 million of lottery money was still £204 million in excess of the original estimate of £399 million required, due to the shortfall in visitor numbers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Millennium Experience", "target_page_ids": [ 574414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Dome was, however, still of interest to the press, the government's difficulties in selling it being the subject of much critical comment. The amount spent on maintaining the closed building was also criticised. Shortly after it had closed, Lord Falconer reported that The Dome was costing over £1million per month to maintain.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The aftermath", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Following closure of the Dome, some Zones were dismantled by the sponsoring organisations, but much of the content was auctioned. This included a number of artworks specially commissioned from contemporary British artists. A piece by Gavin Turk was sold for far below his then auction price, though Turk stated that he did not think the piece had worked. The Timekeepers of the Millennium attraction was acquired by the Chessington World of Adventures theme park in Surrey. A unique record of the memorabilia and paraphernalia of the Millennium Experience is held by a private collector in the United States. Many of the fixtures and fittings were also purchased by Paul Scally, chairman of Gillingham F.C., for the club's stadium.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 826678, 1255817, 48189, 1206147, 165278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 234, 244 ], [ 420, 451 ], [ 466, 472 ], [ 666, 677 ], [ 691, 706 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the ongoing debate about the Dome's future use, the Dome opened again during December 2003 for the Winter Wonderland 2003 experience. The event, which featured a large funfair, ice rink, and other attractions, culminated in a laser and firework display on New Year's Eve. It also served as the venue for a number of free music festivals organised by the Mayor of London under the \"Respect\" banner.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 504805, 17556, 59493, 40338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 183 ], [ 234, 239 ], [ 244, 252 ], [ 362, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over the 2004 Christmas period, part of the main dome was used as a shelter for the homeless and others in need, organised by the charity Crisis after superseding the London Arena, which had previously hosted the event. In 2005, when work began for the redevelopment of the Dome, the London Arena hosted the event again.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 3174859, 2304979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 144 ], [ 167, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By late 2000, a proposal had been made for a high-tech business park to be erected under the tent area, creating an \"indoor city\" complete with streets, parks, and buildings. The business park was actually the original 1996 proposal for the site of the peninsula before the plans for the Millennium Dome were proposed.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The aftermath", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2001, it was announced that Meridian Delta Ltd had been chosen by the government to develop the Dome as a sports and entertainment centre, and to develop housing, shops and offices on of surrounding land. It also hoped to relocate some of London's tertiary education establishments to the site. Meridian Delta is backed by the American billionaire Philip Anschutz, who has interests in oil, railways, and telecommunications, as well as a string of sports-related investments.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 483648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 361, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A report in 2005 by the House of Commons Public Accounts Committee found that the cost of the process of selling the Dome and surrounding land (which increased to 170 acres from the initial offering of the 48 acres enclosed by the Dome) and managing the Dome until the deal was closed was £28.7 million. £33 million were expected to be returned to the taxpayer by 2009. The value of the 48 acres occupied by the Dome was estimated at £48 million, which could have been realised by demolishing the structure, but it was considered preferable to preserve the Dome.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The aftermath", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The dome was publicly renamed as The O2 on 31 May 2005, in a £6 million-per-year deal with telecommunications company O2 plc, now a subsidiary of Telefónica Europe. This announcement, which presaged a major redevelopment of the site that retained little beyond the shell of the dome, gave publicity to the dome's transition into an entertainment district including an indoor arena, a music club, a cinema, an exhibition space and bars and restaurants. This redevelopment was undertaken by the dome's new owners, the Anschutz Entertainment Group, to a design by HOK SVE and Buro Happold. It cost £600 million, and the resulting venue opened to the public on 24 June 2007, with a concert by rock band Bon Jovi.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 10172085, 485162, 1049165, 1474806, 7749572, 63123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 39 ], [ 146, 163 ], [ 516, 544 ], [ 561, 568 ], [ 573, 585 ], [ 699, 707 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 2012 Summer Olympics, the artistic gymnastics events, along with the medal rounds of basketball, were held at The O2. It also held wheelchair basketball events during the 2012 Summer Paralympics. For sponsorship reasons, during those times the arena was temporarily renamed the North Greenwich Arena.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 2176142, 497457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 31 ], [ 182, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Issues related to the Dome damaged the political careers of government ministers Peter Mandelson and John Prescott. The scheme was seen as an early example of what some saw as Tony Blair's often excessive optimism, who stated at the Dome's opening: \"In the Dome we have a creation that, I believe, will truly be a beacon to the world\". The fact that Mandelson's grandfather was Herbert Morrison—who as a minister had been involved with the Festival of Britain—was often drawn on for negative comparisons.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Effects on political careers", "target_page_ids": [ 216970, 186797, 3301347, 32506670, 66154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 96 ], [ 101, 114 ], [ 176, 186 ], [ 378, 394 ], [ 440, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994: Millennium Commission established by Prime Minister John Major and handed over to Deputy Prime Minister Michael Heseltine.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [ 15898, 64044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 68 ], [ 110, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1 March 1995: chief executive Jennie Page appointed.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [ 18617706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "19 June 1996: Greenwich Peninsula site selected over Birmingham by the Millennium Commission. The Birmingham NEC, Pride Park in Derby and Bromley-by-Bow in East London were the other locations on the final short list.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [ 382118, 18727355, 375450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 112 ], [ 128, 133 ], [ 138, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "December 1996: Government decides to support the project with public money after being unable to raise private capital.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "19 June 1997: New Prime Minister Tony Blair visits Greenwich to announce that the Millennium Dome has been saved. The decision was taken only after a difficult Cabinet debate which lasted for more than an hour.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [ 3301347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "20 June 1997: Tony Blair appointed Peter Mandelson to the role of Minister for the Millennium after his announcement that the beleaguered £580 million dome would go ahead.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [ 216970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "June 1997: Construction begins.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "10 January 1998: Creative director Stephen Bayley quits the project. He is said to have been at \"loggerheads\" with Peter Mandelson as to who was in charge with the project.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [ 2811477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "23 December 1998: Peter Mandelson resigns from government after a financial scandal.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "4 January 1999: Lord Falconer of Thoroton replaces Mandelson.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [ 244860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "May 1999: The Jubilee Line Extension opens, putting the Dome on the London Underground. This too is seen as disorderly, opening 14 months late and with station facilities not yet complete (e.g. lifts for wheelchair access).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [ 387652, 17839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 36 ], [ 68, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "22 June 1999: structure of Dome completed.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "31 December 1999: the BBC Balloon is seen flying during \"2000 Today\" on BBC One, and used throughout 2000.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [ 1832550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "31 December 1999 and 1 January 2000: VIP guests are kept waiting outside for hours because of a ticketing problem.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 January 2000: Dome structure opens to public as the Millennium Dome containing an exhibition to celebrate the third millennium.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "5 February 2000: Chief executive Jennie Page sacked and replaced by Pierre-Yves Gerbeau.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [ 5708124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "26 July 2000: Culture, Media and Sport Select Committee publishes adverse report on Dome's management.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "7 November 2000: Thieves break into the diamond exhibit during opening hours but are foiled by waiting police. Four men are jailed for the attempted robbery on 18 February 2002.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [ 20300907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "9 November 2000: National Audit Office publishes report blaming unrealistic attendance targets for the Dome's financial problems.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [ 574414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "14 November 2000: Michael Heseltine (MP for Henley), the Dome's original political supporter, states \"I have seen the inside story, and of course, with hindsight, all of us would do it differently\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "31 December 2000: Dome closed to the public, having attracted just over six million visitors. The initial projected figure was twelve million.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "27 February 2001 – 2 March 2001: One Amazing Auction Sale: Four-day public auction with 17,000 lots of Dome/NMEC items, managed by auctioneer Henry Butcher.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [ 62912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "18 December 2001: Announcement of sale of site to Meridian Delta Ltd, who planned to turn it into a 20,000-seat sports and entertainment venue. Houses and offices to be built on the surrounding land, subject to the consent of the London Borough of Greenwich.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "6 December 2003: opening of Winter Wonderland.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "25 May 2005: Anschutz Entertainment Group sells the naming rights to the former Millennium Dome to O2 plc, a British mobile phone company.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chronology of the project", "target_page_ids": [ 485162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Within the foundations of the Dome in 1998, a time capsule was buried by Katy Hill and Richard Bacon, two of the then-current presenters of the long running BBC children's programme Blue Peter. The capsule was due to be opened in 2050, but was accidentally unearthed and damaged in 2017 during construction work. It was originally intended to be reburied once it had been repaired, but was instead opened and its contents taken on a tour of the UK. It was subsequently stored in the National Archives until 2050 alongside a new Diamond Time Capsule celebrating the show's 60th anniversary.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1316910, 1071374, 293394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 83 ], [ 88, 101 ], [ 183, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Dome was featured in a chase sequence of the 1999 James Bond film The World Is Not Enough, culminating in Bond rolling down the roof of the Dome.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 15604, 166121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 65 ], [ 71, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Since its construction in 1999, it has been a prominent feature in the title sequence of the popular soap opera EastEnders, having been built in that area of London. During a climactic scene in October 1999, involving an argument and fight between Grant and Phil Mitchell, the Dome was a part of the background as the scene took place directly on the opposite side of the river.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 9995, 2528289, 2402234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 123 ], [ 249, 254 ], [ 259, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The song \"Silvertown Blues\" from Mark Knopfler's 2000 album Sailing to Philadelphia deals with the construction of The Dome.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 199158, 360519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 47 ], [ 61, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A 2000 episode of sitcom My Family sees father Ben try to recall occasions he has taken his son Michael anywhere; Michael reminds him of when he was taken to the Millennium Dome, for which Ben apologises for.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 412841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Two books about the attempted robbery of the De Beers diamonds from the Dome were published in 2004: Diamond Geezers – The Inside Story of the Crime of the Millennium () written by Kris Hollington, published by Michael O'Mara Books Ltd, and Dome Raiders – How Scotland Yard Foiled the Greatest Robbery of All Time () written by Jon Shatford and William Doyle, published by Virgin Books.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 53713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2005, the Dome was featured in a task on The Amazing Race 7, in which contestants had to drive an AEC Routemaster double-decker bus through the structure's car park.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1391252, 84168, 902183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 63 ], [ 102, 117 ], [ 118, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gideon's Daughter is a 2006 BBC television drama written and directed by Stephen Poliakoff, stars Bill Nighy as a publicist working to promote the Dome in the run-up to its grand opening. Emily Blunt plays the titular daughter who is disdainful of the project, while Miranda Richardson plays Gideon's love interest whose simple observations about his life – and the Dome – reshape Gideon's life. Both Nighy and Blunt received Golden Globe Awards for their performances. The show won a Peabody Award in April 2007.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1945651, 462858, 463533, 1054604, 20192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 74, 91 ], [ 99, 109 ], [ 189, 200 ], [ 268, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Millennium Bridge, London", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 69169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Slice of Reality", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31717127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tensile architecture", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 947383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crossings of the River Thames", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 401351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tunnels underneath the River Thames", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 486438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aerial view of the Millennium Dome Bing Maps", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aerial view of the Millennium Dome Google Maps", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Millennium Dome: A Collection Dome2000 – One individual's collection of Millennium Dome objects", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Photos from Ground Up (1997–2000) O2MillenniumDome.co.uk – Early website devoted to the Millennium Dome with pictures from ground excavation through the build", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Greenwich MM — MEX — The Dome — The O2 On-going site that documents the run up to the MEX including details of various planning meetings and, now, to the O2", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Millennium Dome, London Paul's Panoramas – Panoramic view of the Dome interior during the 2000 exhibition (requires java-enabled browser)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Cultural_and_educational_buildings_in_London", "Buildings_and_structures_in_the_Royal_Borough_of_Greenwich", "History_of_the_Royal_Borough_of_Greenwich", "Tensile_membrane_structures", "Buildings_and_structures_celebrating_the_third_millennium", "Buildings_and_structures_completed_in_1999", "Richard_Rogers_buildings", "High-tech_architecture", "Domes", "Redevelopment_projects_in_London", "Event_venues_established_in_1999", "Articles_containing_video_clips", "1999_establishments_in_England" ]

[ "The Dome", "Cineworld Cinema The O2 Greenwich", "Vue The O2 North Greenwich", "The O2", "O2 Arena Greenwich" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Jacques René Chirac (, , ; 29 November 193226 September 2019) was a French politician who served as President of France from 1995 to 2007. Chirac was previously Prime Minister of France from 1974 to 1976 and from 1986 to 1988, as well as Mayor of Paris from 1977 to 1995.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33841029, 24899, 218751, 3186556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 85 ], [ 100, 119 ], [ 161, 185 ], [ 238, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After attending the , Chirac began his career as a high-level civil servant, entering politics shortly thereafter. Chirac occupied various senior positions, including Minister of Agriculture and Minister of the Interior. In 1981 and 1988, he unsuccessfully ran for President as the standard-bearer for the conservative Gaullist party Rally for the Republic. Chirac's internal policies initially included lower tax rates, the removal of price controls, strong punishment for crime and terrorism, and business privatisation. After pursuing these policies in his second term as Prime Minister, he changed his views. He argued for different economic policies and was elected president in 1995, with 52.6% of the vote in the second round, beating Socialist Lionel Jospin, after campaigning on a platform of healing the \"social rift\" (). Chirac's economic policies, based on , allowing for state-directed investment, stood in opposition to the policies of the United Kingdom under the ministries of Margaret Thatcher and John Major, which Chirac described as \"Anglo-Saxon ultraliberalism\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3366756, 871703, 1229204, 1997697, 323422, 323430, 1185519, 24661, 210522, 458496, 67519, 11931761, 15898, 250762, 93088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 190 ], [ 195, 219 ], [ 224, 228 ], [ 233, 237 ], [ 319, 327 ], [ 334, 356 ], [ 436, 450 ], [ 508, 521 ], [ 637, 654 ], [ 684, 688 ], [ 752, 765 ], [ 994, 1011 ], [ 1016, 1026 ], [ 1055, 1066 ], [ 1067, 1082 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was also known for his stand against the American-led invasion of Iraq, his recognition of the collaborationist French Government's role in deporting Jews, and his reduction of the presidential term from 7 years to 5 through a referendum in 2000. At the 2002 French presidential election, he won 82.2% of the vote in the second round against the far-right candidate, Jean-Marie Le Pen, and was the last president to be re-elected until 2022. During his second term, he had a very low approval rating and was considered one of the least popular presidents in modern French political history.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5043324, 20599016, 35349246, 7438956, 147060, 221220, 49955, 53992315, 67476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 73 ], [ 98, 132 ], [ 143, 157 ], [ 230, 248 ], [ 257, 290 ], [ 349, 358 ], [ 370, 387 ], [ 439, 443 ], [ 568, 592 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2011, the Paris court declared Chirac guilty of diverting public funds and abusing public confidence, giving him a two-year suspended prison sentence.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jacques René Chirac was born on 29 November 1932 in the 5th arrondissement of Paris. He was the son of Abel François Marie Chirac (1898–1968), a successful executive for an aircraft company, and Marie-Louise Valette (1902–1973), a housewife. His grandparents were all teachers from in . His great-grandparents on both sides were peasants in the rural south-western region of the .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 89841, 68282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 83 ], [ 330, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Chirac, his name \"originates from the , that of the troubadours, therefore that of poetry\". He was a Catholic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac was an only child (his elder sister, Jacqueline, died in infancy nearly ten years before his birth). He was educated in Paris at the , a private school. He then attended the and the . After his , behind his father's back he went off to serve for three months as a sailor on a coal-transport.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac played rugby union for Brive's youth team, and also played at university level. He played no. 8 and second row. At age 18, his ambition was to become a ship's captain.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 25405, 1526431, 771803, 771803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 25 ], [ 30, 35 ], [ 97, 102 ], [ 107, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At age 16, Chirac wanted to learn Sanskrit and found a white Russian Sanskrit teacher in Paris who ended up teaching him Russian; by age 17 Chirac was almost fluent in Russian. Inspired by Charles de Gaulle, Chirac started to pursue a civil service career in the 1950s. During this period, he joined the French Communist Party, sold copies of , and took part in meetings of a communist cell. In 1950, he signed the Soviet-inspired Stockholm Appeal for the abolition of nuclear weapons – which led him to be questioned when he applied for his first visa to the United States.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 27698, 3457, 51255, 319197, 3891313, 21785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 42 ], [ 55, 68 ], [ 189, 206 ], [ 304, 326 ], [ 431, 447 ], [ 469, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1953, after graduating from the , he attended a non-credit course at Harvard University's summer school, before entering the , which trains France's top civil servants, in 1957.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 18426501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, Chirac worked at Anheuser-Busch in St. Louis, Missouri.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 310845, 27687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 53 ], [ 57, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac trained as a reserve military officer in armoured cavalry at Saumur. He then volunteered to fight in the Algerian War, using personal connections to be sent despite the reservations of his superiors. His superiors did not want to make him an officer because they suspected he had communist leanings. In 1965, he became an auditor in the Court of Auditors.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 1559537, 74393, 82430, 1618081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 64 ], [ 68, 74 ], [ 112, 124 ], [ 344, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 1962, Chirac was appointed head of the personal staff of Prime Minister Georges Pompidou. This appointment launched Chirac's political career. Pompidou considered Chirac his protégé, and referred to him as \"my bulldozer\" for his skill at getting things done. The nickname caught on in French political circles, where it also referred to his abrasive manner. As late as the 1988 presidential election, Chirac maintained this reputation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [ 251592, 227112, 1997697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 97 ], [ 183, 190 ], [ 388, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At Pompidou's suggestion, Chirac ran as a Gaullist for a seat in the National Assembly in 1967. He was elected deputy for his home Corrèze , a stronghold of the left. This surprising victory in the context of a Gaullist ebb permitted him to enter the government as Minister of Social Affairs. Although Chirac was well-situated in de Gaulle's entourage, being related by marriage to the general's sole companion at the time of the Appeal of 18 June 1940, he was more of a \"Pompidolian\" than a \"Gaullist\". When student and worker unrest rocked France in May 1968, Chirac played a central role in negotiating a truce. Then, as state secretary of economy (1968–1971), he worked closely with Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, who headed the ministry of economy and finance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [ 323422, 299616, 90525, 3372886, 210897, 311205, 79474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 50 ], [ 69, 86 ], [ 131, 138 ], [ 265, 291 ], [ 430, 447 ], [ 552, 560 ], [ 687, 711 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After some months in the ministry for Relations with Parliament, Chirac's first high-level post came in 1972 when he became Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development under Pompidou, who had been elected president in 1969, after de Gaulle retired. Chirac quickly earned a reputation as a champion of French farmers' interests, and first attracted international attention when he assailed U.S., West German, and European Commission agricultural policies which conflicted with French interests.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [ 3366756, 33166, 9974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 147 ], [ 397, 408 ], [ 414, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 27 February 1974, after the resignation of Raymond Marcellin, Chirac was appointed Minister of the Interior. On 21 March 1974, he cancelled the SAFARI project due to privacy concerns after its existence was revealed by . From March 1974, he was entrusted by President Pompidou with preparations for the presidential election then scheduled for 1976. These elections were moved forward because of Pompidou's sudden death on 2 April 1974.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [ 972588, 871703, 2832727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 63 ], [ 86, 110 ], [ 147, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac vainly attempted to rally Gaullists behind Prime Minister Pierre Messmer. Jacques Chaban-Delmas announced his candidacy in spite of the disapproval of the \"Pompidolians\". Chirac and others published the call of the 43 in favour of Giscard d'Estaing, the leader of the non-Gaullist part of the parliamentary majority. Giscard d'Estaing was elected as Pompidou's successor after France's most competitive election campaign in years. In return, the new president chose Chirac to lead the cabinet.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [ 231087, 585154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 79 ], [ 81, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Valéry Giscard d'Estaing became president, he nominated Chirac as prime minister on 27 May 1974, to reconcile the \"Giscardian\" and \"non-Giscardian\" factions of the parliamentary majority. At the age of 41, Chirac stood out as the very model of the ('young wolves') of French politics, but he was faced with the hostility of the \"Barons of Gaullism\" who considered him a traitor for his role during the previous presidential campaign. In December 1974, he took the lead of the Union of Democrats for the Republic (UDR) against the will of its more senior personalities.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [ 79474, 218751, 396489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 29 ], [ 71, 85 ], [ 482, 517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As prime minister, Chirac quickly set about persuading the Gaullists that, despite the social reforms proposed by President Giscard, the basic tenets of Gaullism, such as national and European independence, would be retained. Chirac was advised by Pierre Juillet and Marie-France Garaud, two former advisers of Pompidou. These two organised the campaign against Chaban-Delmas in 1974. They advocated a clash with Giscard d'Estaing because they thought his policy bewildered the conservative electorate.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [ 33954662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 267, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Citing Giscard's unwillingness to give him authority, Chirac resigned as Prime Minister in 1976. He proceeded to build up his political base among France's several conservative parties, with a goal of reconstituting the Gaullist UDR into a Neo-Gaullist group, the Rally for the Republic (RPR). Chirac's first tenure as prime minister was also an arguably progressive one, with improvements in both the minimum wage and the social welfare system carried out during the course of his premiership.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [ 323422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 240, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After his departure from the cabinet, Chirac wanted to gain the leadership of the political right, to gain the French presidency in the future. The RPR was conceived as an electoral machine against President Giscard d'Estaing. Paradoxically, Chirac benefited from Giscard's decision to create the office of mayor in Paris, which had been in abeyance since the 1871 Commune, because the leaders of the Third Republic (1871–1940) feared that having municipal control of the capital would give the mayor too much power. In 1977, Chirac stood as a candidate against Michel d'Ornano, a close friend of the president, and he won. As mayor of Paris, Chirac's political influence grew. He held this post until 1995.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [ 44341731, 59134, 227177, 25159682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 307, 312 ], [ 365, 372 ], [ 401, 415 ], [ 562, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac supporters point out that, as mayor, he provided programmes to help the elderly, people with disabilities, and single mothers, and introduced the street-cleaning Motocrotte, while providing incentives for businesses to stay in Paris. His opponents contend that he installed \"clientelist\" policies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early political career", "target_page_ids": [ 28189567, 30230830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 179 ], [ 282, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1978, Chirac attacked the pro-European policy of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing (VGE), and made a nationalist turn with the December 1978 Call of Cochin, initiated by his counsellors Marie-France Garaud and Pierre Juillet, which had first been called by Pompidou. Hospitalised in after a car crash, he declared that \"as always about the drooping of France, the pro-foreign party acts with its peaceable and reassuring voice\". He appointed Yvan Blot, an intellectual who would later join the National Front, as director of his campaigns for the 1979 European election.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governmental opposition", "target_page_ids": [ 631596, 79474, 2676289, 33954662, 11139751, 67119, 10898819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 41 ], [ 52, 76 ], [ 135, 149 ], [ 180, 199 ], [ 437, 446 ], [ 489, 503 ], [ 542, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the poor results of the election, Chirac broke with Garaud and Juillet. Vexed Marie-France Garaud stated: \"We thought Chirac was made of the same marble of which statues are carved in, we perceive he's of the same faience bidets are made of.\" His rivalry with Giscard d'Estaing intensified. Although it has been often interpreted by historians as the struggle between two rival French right-wing families (the Bonapartists, represented by Chirac, and the Orleanists, represented by VGE), both figures in fact were members of the liberal, Orleanist tradition, according to historian Alain-Gérard Slama. But the eviction of the Gaullist barons and of President Giscard d'Estaing convinced Chirac to assume a strong neo-Gaullist stance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governmental opposition", "target_page_ids": [ 455915, 319653, 1022309, 202834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 227 ], [ 228, 233 ], [ 416, 427 ], [ 461, 470 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac made his first run for president against Giscard d'Estaing in the 1981 election, thus splitting the centre-right vote. He was eliminated in the first round with 18% of the vote. He reluctantly supported Giscard in the second round. He refused to give instructions to the RPR voters but said that he supported the incumbent president \"in a private capacity\", which was interpreted as almost de facto support of the Socialist Party's (PS) candidate, François Mitterrand, who was elected by a broad majority.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governmental opposition", "target_page_ids": [ 1229204, 39565408, 37998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 86 ], [ 421, 436 ], [ 455, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Giscard has always blamed Chirac for his defeat. He was told by Mitterrand, before his death, that the latter had dined with Chirac before the election. Chirac told the Socialist candidate that he wanted to \"get rid of Giscard\". In his memoirs, Giscard wrote that between the two rounds, he phoned the RPR headquarters. He passed himself off, as a right-wing voter, by changing his voice. The RPR employee advised him \"certainly do not vote Giscard!\" After 1981, the relationship between the two men became tense, with Giscard, even though he had been in the same government coalition as Chirac, criticising Chirac's actions openly.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governmental opposition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After the May 1981 presidential election, the right also lost the subsequent legislative election that year. However, as Giscard had been knocked out, Chirac appeared as the principal leader of the right-wing opposition. Due to his attacks against the economic policy of the Socialist government, he gradually aligned himself with prevailing economically liberal opinion, even though it did not correspond with Gaullist doctrine. While the far-right National Front grew, taking advantage of the proportional representation electoral system which had been introduced for the 1986 legislative elections, he signed an electoral pact with the Giscardian (and more or less Christian Democratic) party Union for French Democracy (UDF).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governmental opposition", "target_page_ids": [ 5793637, 23573352, 23298, 5743198, 323466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 97 ], [ 342, 362 ], [ 495, 522 ], [ 574, 600 ], [ 696, 722 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the RPR/UDF right-wing coalition won a slight majority in the National Assembly in the 1986 election, Mitterrand (PS) appointed Chirac prime minister (though many in Mitterrand's inner circle lobbied him to choose Jacques Chaban-Delmas instead). This unprecedented power-sharing arrangement, known as cohabitation, gave Chirac the lead in domestic affairs. However, it is generally conceded that Mitterrand used the areas granted to the President of the Republic, or \"reserved domains\" of the Presidency, Defence and Foreign Affairs, to belittle his Prime Minister.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governmental opposition", "target_page_ids": [ 5743198, 585154, 542178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 105 ], [ 219, 240 ], [ 306, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac's cabinet sold many public companies, renewing the liberalisation initiated under Laurent Fabius's Socialist government of 1984–1986, and abolished the solidarity tax on wealth (ISF), a symbolic tax on those with high value assets introduced by Mitterrand's government. Elsewhere, the plan for university reform (plan Devaquet) caused a crisis in 1986 when a student called Malik Oussekine was killed by the police, leading to massive demonstrations and the proposal's withdrawal. It has been said during other student crises that this event strongly affected Jacques Chirac, who was afterwards careful about possible police violence during such demonstrations (e.g., maybe explaining part of the decision to \"promulgate without applying\" the First Employment Contract (CPE) after large student demonstrations against it).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governmental opposition", "target_page_ids": [ 24661, 189004, 318911, 1047694, 41973110, 41972961, 166029, 4436270, 4435691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 43 ], [ 58, 72 ], [ 89, 103 ], [ 159, 183 ], [ 325, 333 ], [ 381, 396 ], [ 625, 640 ], [ 750, 775 ], [ 788, 816 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of his first acts concerning foreign policy was to call back Jacques Foccart (1913–1997), who had been de Gaulle's and his successors' leading counsellor for African matters, called by journalist Stephen Smith the \"father of all \"networks\" on the continent, at the time [in 1986] aged 72.\" Foccart, who had also co-founded the Gaullist SAC militia (dissolved by Mitterrand in 1982 after the Auriol massacre) along with Charles Pasqua, and who was a key component of the system, was again called to the Elysée Palace when Chirac won the 1995 presidential election. Furthermore, confronted by anti-colonialist movements in New Caledonia, Prime Minister Chirac ordered a military intervention against the separatists in the Ouvéa cave, leading to the deaths of 19 militants. He allegedly refused any alliance with Jean-Marie Le Pen's .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governmental opposition", "target_page_ids": [ 4164984, 24113630, 3387490, 3387490, 573549, 320314, 302084, 21342, 577922, 49955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 80 ], [ 200, 213 ], [ 340, 343 ], [ 395, 410 ], [ 423, 437 ], [ 507, 520 ], [ 596, 622 ], [ 626, 639 ], [ 707, 736 ], [ 816, 833 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac ran against Mitterrand for a second time in the 1988 election. Heobtained 20 percent of the vote in the first round, but lost the second with only 46 percent. He resigned from the cabinet and the right lost the next legislative election.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governmental opposition", "target_page_ids": [ 1997697, 5664311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 68 ], [ 218, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For the first time, his leadership over the RPR was challenged. Charles Pasqua and Philippe Séguin criticised his abandonment of Gaullist doctrines. On the right, a new generation of politicians, the \"renovation men\", accused Chirac and Giscard of being responsible for the electoral defeats. In 1992, convinced a candidate could not become president whilst advocating anti-European policies, he called for a \"yes\" vote in the referendum on the Maastricht Treaty, against the opinion of Pasqua, Séguin and a majority of the RPR voters, who chose to vote \"no\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governmental opposition", "target_page_ids": [ 573549, 1615074, 20803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 78 ], [ 83, 98 ], [ 445, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While he still was mayor of Paris (since 1977), Chirac went to Abidjan () where he supported President Houphouët-Boigny (1960–1993), although the latter was being called a \"thief\" by the local population. Chirac then declared that multipartism was a \"kind of luxury\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governmental opposition", "target_page_ids": [ 21371767, 418109, 233475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 70 ], [ 93, 119 ], [ 231, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nevertheless, the right won the 1993 legislative election. Chirac announced that he did not want to come back as prime minister as his previous term had ended with his unsuccessful run for the presidency against Mitterrand who was still President at this point.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governmental opposition", "target_page_ids": [ 5649270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac instead suggested the appointment of Edouard Balladur, who had promised that he would not run for the presidency against Chirac in 1995. However, benefiting from positive polls, Balladur decided to be a presidential candidate, with the support of a majority of right-wing politicians. Balladur broke from Chirac along with a number of friends and allies, including Charles Pasqua, Nicolas Sarkozy, etc., who supported his candidacy. A small group of would remain with Chirac, including Alain Juppé and Jean-Louis Debré. When Nicolas Sarkozy became president in 2007, Juppé was one of the few to serve in François Fillon's government.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governmental opposition", "target_page_ids": [ 434932, 557007, 434931, 1512904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 60 ], [ 388, 403 ], [ 494, 505 ], [ 510, 526 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1995 presidential campaign, Chirac criticised the \"sole thought\" () of neoliberalism represented by his challenger on the right and promised to reduce the \"social fracture\", placing himself more to the centre and thus forcing Balladur to radicalise himself. Ultimately, he obtained more votes than Balladur in the first round (20.8 percent), and then defeated the Socialist candidate Lionel Jospin in the second round (52.6 percent).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 458496, 93088, 15611519, 39565408, 67519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 37 ], [ 82, 95 ], [ 249, 259 ], [ 375, 384 ], [ 395, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac was elected on a platform of tax cuts and job programmes, but his policies did little to ease the labour strikes during his first months in office. On the domestic front, neo-liberal economic austerity measures introduced by Chirac and his conservative prime minister Alain Juppé, including budgetary cutbacks, proved highly unpopular. At about the same time, it became apparent that Juppé and others had obtained preferential conditions for public housing, as well as other perks. At the year's end Chirac faced major workers' strikes which turned, in November–December 1995, into a general strike, one of the largest since May 1968. The demonstrations were largely pitted against Juppé's plan for pension reform, and ultimately led to his dismissal.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 434931, 8489694, 41138909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 275, 286 ], [ 520, 542 ], [ 591, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shortly after taking office, Chiracundaunted by international protests by environmental groupsinsisted upon the resumption of nuclear tests at Mururoa Atoll in French Polynesia in 1995, a few months before signing the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. Reacting to criticism, Chirac said, \"You only have to look back at 1935...There were people then who were against France arming itself, and look what happened.\" On 1 February 1996, Chirac announced that France had ended \"once and for all\" its nuclear testing and intended to accede to the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 589091, 10737, 7851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 156 ], [ 160, 176 ], [ 218, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elected as President of the Republic, he refused to discuss the existence of French military bases in Africa, despite requests by the Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The French Army thus remained in Côte d'Ivoire as well as in Omar Bongo's Gabon.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 37707412, 250002, 392403, 12027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 153 ], [ 162, 189 ], [ 252, 262 ], [ 265, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to 1995, the French government had maintained that the French Republic had been dismantled when Philippe Pétain instituted a new French State during World War II and that the Republic had been re-established when the war was over. It was not for France, therefore, to apologise for the roundup of Jews for deportation that happened while the Republic had not existed and was carried out by a state, Vichy France, which it did not recognise. President François Mitterrand had reiterated this position: \"The Republic had nothing to do with this. I do not believe France is responsible,\" he said in September 1994.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 5843419, 66083, 32927, 20599016, 37998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 76 ], [ 102, 117 ], [ 155, 167 ], [ 405, 417 ], [ 457, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac was the first President of France to take responsibility for the deportation of Jews during the Vichy regime. In a speech made on 16 July 1995 at the site of the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup, where 13,000 Jews had been held for deportation to concentration camps in July 1942, Chirac said, \"France, on that day, committed the irreparable\". Those responsible for the roundup were \"4,500 policemen and gendarmes, French, under the authority of their leaders [who] obeyed the demands of the Nazis. ... the criminal folly of the occupiers was seconded by the French, by the French State\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 5004143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1997, Chirac dissolved parliament for early legislative elections in a gamble designed to bolster support for his conservative economic program. But instead, it created an uproar, and his power was weakened by the subsequent backlash. The Socialist Party (PS), joined by other parties on the left, soundly defeated Chirac's conservative allies, forcing Chirac into a new period of cohabitation with Jospin as prime minister (1997–2002), which lasted five years.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 6570635, 542178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 299 ], [ 384, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cohabitation significantly weakened the power of Chirac's presidency. The French president, by a constitutional convention, only controls foreign and military policy— and even then, allocation of funding is under the control of Parliament and under the significant influence of the prime minister. Short of dissolving parliament and calling for new elections, the president was left with little power to influence public policy regarding crime, the economy, and public services. Chirac seized the occasion to periodically criticise Jospin's government.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 219364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His position was weakened by scandals about the financing of RPR by Paris municipality. In 2001, the left, represented by Bertrand Delanoë (PS), won a majority on the city council of the capital. Jean Tiberi, Chirac's successor at the Paris city hall, was forced to resign after having been put under investigations in June 1999 on charges of in the HLMs of Paris affairs (related to the illegal financing of the RPR). Tiberi was finally expelled from the Rally for the Republic, Chirac's party, on 12 October 2000, declaring to the magazine on 18 November 2000: \"Jacques Chirac is not my friend anymore\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 573561, 99993, 573742, 2018948, 323430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 86 ], [ 122, 138 ], [ 196, 207 ], [ 351, 354 ], [ 457, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the publication of the Jean-Claude Méry by on 22 September 2000, in which Jean-Claude Méry, in charge of the RPR's financing, directly accused Chirac of organizing the network, and of having been physically present on 5 October 1986, when Méry gave in cash 5 million Francs, which came from companies who had benefited from state deals, to Michel Roussin, personal secretary () of Chirac, Chirac refused to attend court in response to his summons by judge Eric Halphen, and the highest echelons of the French justice system declared that he could not be inculpated while in office.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 10815, 4447641, 6300279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 274, 279 ], [ 347, 361 ], [ 463, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his two terms, he increased the Elysee Palace's total budget by 105 percent (to €90million, whereas 20 years before it was the equivalent of €43.7million). He doubled the number of presidential cars – to 61 cars and seven scooters in the Palace's garage. He hired 145 extra employees – the total number of the people he employed simultaneously was 963.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As the Supreme Commander of the French armed forces, he reduced the military budget, as did his predecessor. At the end of his first term it accounted for three percent of GDP. In 1997 the aircraft carrier Clemenceau was decommissioned after 37 years of service, with her sister ship Foch decommissioned in 2000 after 37 years of service, leaving the French Navy with no aircraft carrier until 2001, when Charles de Gaulle was commissioned. He also reduced expenditure on nuclear weapons and the French nuclear arsenal was reduced to include 350 warheads, compared to the Russian nuclear arsenal of 16,000 warheads. He also published a plan to reduce the number of fighters the French military had by 30.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 1326883, 1326950, 639127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 216 ], [ 284, 288 ], [ 405, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After François Mitterrand left office in 1995, Chirac began a rapprochement with NATO by joining the Military Committee and attempting to negotiate a return to the integrated military command, which failed after the French demand for parity with the United States went unmet. The possibility of a further attempt foundered after Chirac was forced into cohabitation with a Socialist-led cabinet between 1997 and 2002, then poor Franco-American relations after the French UN veto threat over Iraq in 2003 made transatlantic negotiations impossible.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 19998453, 28324003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 119 ], [ 164, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 25 July 2000, as Chirac and the first lady were returning from the G7 Summit in Okinawa, Japan, they were placed in a dangerous situation by Air France Flight 4590 after they landed at Charles de Gaulle International Airport. The first couple were in an Air France Boeing 747 taxiing toward the terminal when the jet had to stop and wait for Flight 4590 to take off. The departing plane, an Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde, ran over a strip of metal on takeoff puncturing its left fuel tank and sliced electrical wires near the left landing gear. The sequence of events ignited a large fire and caused the Concorde to veer left on its takeoff roll. As it reached takeoff speed and lifted off the ground, it came within 30 feet of hitting Chirac's 747. The photograph of Flight 4590 ablaze, the only picture taken of the Concorde on fire, was taken by passenger Toshihiko Sato on Chirac's jetliner.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 3178995, 408120, 7045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 79 ], [ 144, 166 ], [ 394, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the age of 69, Chirac faced his fourth presidential campaign in 2002. He received 20% of the vote in the first ballot of the presidential elections in April 2002. It had been expected that he would face incumbent prime minister Lionel Jospin (PS) in the second round of elections; instead, Chirac faced far-right politician Jean-Marie Le Pen of the National Front (FN), who came in 200,000 votes ahead of Jospin. All parties other than the National Front (except for ) called for opposing Le Pen, even if it meant voting for Chirac. The 14-day period between the two rounds of voting was marked by demonstrations against Le Pen and slogans such as \"Vote for the crook, not for the fascist\" or \"Vote with a clothespin on your nose\". Chirac won re-election by a landslide, with 82 percent of the vote on the second ballot. However, Chirac became increasingly unpopular during his second term. According to a July 2005 poll, 37 percent judged Chirac favourably and 63 percent unfavorably. In 2006, The Economist wrote that Chirac \"is the most unpopular occupant of the Elysée Palace in the fifth republic's history.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 147060, 67519, 49955, 67119, 50449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 150 ], [ 231, 244 ], [ 327, 344 ], [ 352, 366 ], [ 998, 1011 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the left-wing Socialist Party was in thorough disarray following Jospin's defeat, Chirac reorganised politics on the right, establishing a new party – initially called the Union of the Presidential Majority, then the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP). The RPR had broken down; a number of members had formed Eurosceptic breakaways. While the Giscardian liberals of the Union for French Democracy (UDF) had moved to the right, the UMP won the parliamentary elections that followed the presidential poll with ease.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 56522, 323434, 10037, 323466, 3821408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 125 ], [ 220, 248 ], [ 312, 323 ], [ 373, 399 ], [ 446, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During an official visit to Madagascar on 21 July 2005, Chirac described the repression of the 1947 Malagasy uprising, which left between 80,000 and 90,000 dead, as \"unacceptable\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 18964, 1596338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 38 ], [ 100, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite past opposition to state intervention the Chirac government approved a €2.8billion aid package to troubled manufacturing giant Alstom. In October 2004, Chirac signed a trade agreement with PRC President Hu Jintao where Alstom was given €1billion in contracts and promises of future investment in China.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 141976, 217089, 151210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 141 ], [ 176, 191 ], [ 211, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 14 July 2002, during Bastille Day celebrations, Chirac survived an assassination attempt by a lone gunman with a rifle hidden in a guitar case. The would-be assassin fired a shot toward the presidential motorcade, before being overpowered by bystanders. The gunman, Maxime Brunerie, underwent psychiatric testing; the violent far-right group with which he was associated, , was thence administratively dissolved.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 3936, 2141225, 2564913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 36 ], [ 206, 215 ], [ 269, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Along with Vladimir Putin (whom he called \"a personal friend\"), Hu Jintao, and Gerhard Schröder, Chirac emerged as a leading voice against George W. Bush and Tony Blair in 2003 during the organisation and deployment of American and British forces participating in a military coalition to forcibly remove the government of Iraq controlled by the Ba'ath Party under the leadership of Saddam Hussein that resulted in the 2003–2011 Iraq War.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 32817, 151210, 23306893, 3414021, 3301347, 199161, 581159, 7515928, 166957, 29490, 5043324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 25 ], [ 64, 73 ], [ 79, 95 ], [ 139, 153 ], [ 158, 168 ], [ 266, 284 ], [ 288, 303 ], [ 322, 326 ], [ 345, 357 ], [ 382, 396 ], [ 428, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite British and American pressure, Chirac threatened to veto, at that given point, a resolution in the UN Security Council that would authorise the use of military force to rid Iraq of alleged weapons of mass destruction, and rallied other governments to his position. \"Iraq today does not represent an immediate threat that justifies an immediate war\", Chirac said on 18 March 2003. Future Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin acquired much of his popularity for his speech against the war at the United Nations (UN).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 31956, 155177, 164662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 126 ], [ 181, 224 ], [ 410, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Togo's leader Gnassingbé Eyadéma's death on 5 February 2005, Chirac gave him tribute and supported his son, Faure Gnassingbé, who has since succeeded his father.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 30138, 367043, 1470456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 10 ], [ 20, 38 ], [ 114, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 19 January 2006, Chirac said that France was prepared to launch a nuclear strike against any country that sponsors a terrorist attack against French interests. He said his country's nuclear arsenal had been reconfigured to include the ability to make a tactical strike in retaliation for terrorism.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 36880, 19522363, 499076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 83 ], [ 120, 136 ], [ 185, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac criticized the Israeli offensive into Lebanon on 14 July 2006. However, Israeli Army Radio later reported that Chirac had secretly told Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert that France would support an Israeli invasion of Syria and the overthrow of the government of President Bashar al-Assad, promising to veto any moves against Israel in the United Nations or European Union. Whereas the disagreement on Iraq had caused a rift between Paris and Washington, recent analysis suggests that both governments worked closely together on the Syria file to end the Syrian occupation of Lebanon, and that Chirac was a driver of this diplomatic cooperation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 6299613, 848569, 7515849, 364813, 9317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 52 ], [ 166, 177 ], [ 227, 232 ], [ 282, 297 ], [ 367, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2006, the G8 met to discuss international energy concerns. Despite the rising awareness of global warming issues, the G8 focused on \"energy security\" issues. Chirac continued to be the voice within the G8 summit meetings to support international action to curb global warming and climate change concerns. Chirac warned that \"humanity is dancing on a volcano\" and called for serious action by the world's leading industrialised nations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 59755, 5042951, 9560337, 5042951, 32571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 20 ], [ 99, 113 ], [ 141, 156 ], [ 288, 302 ], [ 358, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Chirac's death in 2019, the street leading to the Louvre Abu Dhabi was named Jacques Chirac Street in November 2019 in celebration of Chirac's efforts to bolster links between France and the United Arab Emirates during his presidency.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 13651538, 69328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 72 ], [ 197, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac espoused a staunchly pro-Moroccan policy, and the already established pro-Moroccan French stances vis-à-vis the Western Sahara conflict were strengthened during his presidential tenure.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 4255996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac requested the Landau-report (published in September 2004) and combined with the Report of the Technical Group on Innovative Financing Mechanisms formulated upon request by the Heads of State of Brazil, Chile, France and Spain (issued in December 2004), these documents present various opportunities for innovative financing mechanisms while equally stressing the advantages (stability and predictability) of tax-based models. The UNITAID project was born. Today the organisation's executive board is chaired by Marisol Touraine.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 10981378, 20488738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 437, 444 ], [ 518, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 29 May 2005, a referendum was held in France to decide whether the country should ratify the proposed treaty for a Constitution of the European Union (TCE). The result was a victory for the No campaign, with 55 percent of voters rejecting the treaty on a turnout of 69 percent, dealing a devastating blow to Chirac and the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) party, and to part of the centre-left which had supported the TCE. Following the referendum defeat, Chirac replaced his Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin with Domenique de Villepin. In an address to the nation, Chirac declared that the new cabinet's top priority was to curb unemployment, which was consistently hovering above 10 percent, calling for a \"national mobilisation\" to that effect.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 51582, 234500, 323434, 164664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 28 ], [ 118, 152 ], [ 326, 354 ], [ 496, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following major student protests in spring 2006, which followed civil unrest in autumn 2005 after the death of two young boys in Clichy-sous-Bois, one of the poorest communes in Paris' suburbs, Chirac retracted the proposed First Employment Contract (CPE) by \"promulgating [it] without applying it\", an unheard-of – and, some claim, illegal – move intended to appease the protesters while giving the appearance of not making a regarding the contract, and therefore to continue his support for his Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 4435691, 3052270, 3061595, 4436270, 164662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 47 ], [ 64, 76 ], [ 129, 145 ], [ 224, 249 ], [ 513, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early September 2005, Chirac suffered an event that his doctors described as a \"vascular incident\". It was officially reported as a \"minor stroke\" or a mild stroke (also known as a transient ischemic attack). He recovered and returned to his duties soon afterward.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 625404, 31621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 148 ], [ 184, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a pre-recorded television broadcast aired on 11 March 2007, he announced, in a widely predicted move, that he would not choose to seek a third term as president. (In 2000 the constitution had been amended to reduce the length of the presidential term to five years, so his second term was shorter than his first.) \"My whole life has been committed to serving France, and serving peace\", Chirac said, adding that he would find new ways to serve France after leaving office. He did not explain the reasons for his decision. He did not, during the broadcast, endorse any of the candidates running for election, but did devote several minutes of his talk to a plea against extremist politics that was considered a thinly disguised invocation to voters not to vote for Jean-Marie Le Pen and a recommendation to Nicolas Sarkozy not to orient his campaign so as to include themes traditionally associated with Le Pen.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Presidency (1995–2007)", "target_page_ids": [ 49955, 557007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 767, 784 ], [ 809, 824 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shortly after leaving office, he launched the Fondation Chirac in June 2008. Since then it has been striving for peace through five advocacy programmes: conflict prevention, access to water and sanitation, access to quality medicines and healthcare, access to land resources, and preservation of cultural diversity. It supports field projects that involve local people and provide concrete and innovative solutions. Chirac chaired the jury for the Prize for Conflict Prevention awarded every year by his foundation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-presidency and death", "target_page_ids": [ 17873059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a former President of France, he was entitled to a lifetime pension and personal security protection, and was an ex officio member for life of the Constitutional Council. He sat for the first time on the council on 15 November 2007, six months after leaving the presidency. Immediately after Sarkozy's victory, Chirac moved into a duplex on the in Paris lent to him by the family of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri. During the Didier Schuller affair, the latter accused Hariri of having participated in illegal funding of the RPR's political campaigns, but the judge closed the case without further investigations.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-presidency and death", "target_page_ids": [ 1141259, 2507238, 394985, 323430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 172 ], [ 335, 341 ], [ 419, 431 ], [ 543, 546 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Volume 2 of his memoirs published in June 2011, Chirac mocked his successor Nicolas Sarkozy as \"irritable, rash, impetuous, disloyal, ungrateful, and un-French\". Chirac wrote that he considered firing Sarkozy previously, and conceded responsibility in allowing Jean-Marie Le Pen to advance in 2002. A poll conducted in 2010 suggested Chirac was the most admired political figure in France, while Sarkozy was 32nd.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-presidency and death", "target_page_ids": [ 557007, 49955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 94 ], [ 264, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 11 April 2008, Chirac's office announced that he had undergone successful surgery to fit a pacemaker.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-presidency and death", "target_page_ids": [ 80732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac suffered from frail health and memory loss in later life. In February 2014 he was admitted to hospital because of pains related to gout. On 10 December 2015, Chirac was hospitalised in Paris for undisclosed reasons, although his state of health did not \"give any cause for concern\", he remained for about a week in ICU. According to his son-in-law Frederic Salat-Baroux, Chirac was again hospitalised in Paris with a lung infection on 18 September 2016.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-presidency and death", "target_page_ids": [ 55584, 6332859, 47580423, 964371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 142 ], [ 322, 325 ], [ 355, 376 ], [ 424, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac died at his home in Paris on 26 September 2019, surrounded by his family. A requiem mass was held at Saint-Sulpice on 30 September, celebrated by Michel Aupetit, Archbishop of Paris, and attended by representatives from about 175 countries, included 69 past and present heads of state, government and international organizations. Notable names included António Guterres, Jean-Claude Juncker, Jens Stoltenberg, Vladimir Putin, Sergio Mattarella, Frank-Walter Steinmeier, Charles Michel, Viktor Orbán, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, Saad Hariri, Borut Pahor, Salome Zourabichvili, Tony Blair, Jean Chrétien, Vaira Vike-Freiberga, Bill Clinton, Hamid Karzai, Dai Bingguo plus many ministers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-presidency and death", "target_page_ids": [ 184798, 2935826, 55885666, 1770626, 471806, 393865, 192080, 32817, 13947321, 2897286, 14865236, 750582, 376619, 2020700, 1473688, 15173078, 3301347, 75626, 319793, 3356, 80949, 17915797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 95 ], [ 108, 121 ], [ 153, 167 ], [ 169, 188 ], [ 360, 376 ], [ 378, 397 ], [ 399, 415 ], [ 417, 431 ], [ 433, 450 ], [ 452, 475 ], [ 477, 491 ], [ 493, 505 ], [ 507, 527 ], [ 529, 540 ], [ 542, 553 ], [ 555, 575 ], [ 577, 587 ], [ 589, 602 ], [ 604, 624 ], [ 626, 638 ], [ 640, 652 ], [ 654, 665 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The day was declared a national day of mourning in France and a minute of silence was held nationwide at 15:00. Following the public ceremony, Chirac was buried at Montparnasse Cemetery, with only close family in attendance. Andorra announced three days of national mourning. Lebanon has declared the day of the ex-president's funeral national day of mourning.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-presidency and death", "target_page_ids": [ 2111211, 23560670, 600, 17771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 47 ], [ 164, 185 ], [ 225, 232 ], [ 276, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac was a major supporter of the nation's film industry.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Because of Jacques Chirac's long public career, he was often parodied or caricatured: Young Jacques Chirac is the basis of a young, dashing bureaucrat character in the 1976 Asterix comic strip album Obelix and Co., proposing methods to quell Gallic unrest to elderly, old-style Roman politicians. Chirac was also featured in as an overexcited, jumpy character.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2101, 2839568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 180 ], [ 199, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jacques Chirac was a favorite character of , a satiric latex puppet show. He was originally portrayed as a rather likeable, though overexcited, character; following the corruption allegations, however, he was depicted as a kind of dilettante and incompetent who pilfered public money and lied through his teeth. His character for a while developed a superhero alter ego, ('super liar') to get him out of embarrassing situations. Because of his alleged improprieties, he was lambasted in a song ('Chirac in prison') by French punk band , with a video clip made by the .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 156593, 43076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 72 ], [ 350, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was given the Ig Nobel prize for peace, for commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of Hiroshima with atomic bomb tests in the Pacific (1996).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 15207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles Fathy appears as Chirac in the Oliver Stone film W. Marc Rioufol plays him in Richard Loncraine's 2010 film The Special Relationship.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 21486951, 15352210, 5471638, 17100023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 51 ], [ 57, 59 ], [ 86, 103 ], [ 116, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bernard Le Coq portrays Chirac in and The Conquest by Xavier Durringer.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 37677541, 47569135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 39, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the invitation of Saddam Hussein (then vice-president of Iraq, but de facto dictator), Chirac made an official visit to Baghdad in 1975. Saddam approved a deal granting French oil companies a number of privileges plus a 23-percent share of Iraqi oil. As part of this deal, France sold Iraq the Osirak MTR nuclear reactor, designed to test nuclear materials.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 29490, 7515928, 209438, 4492, 4191587, 22151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 35 ], [ 60, 64 ], [ 70, 87 ], [ 123, 130 ], [ 297, 303 ], [ 308, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Israeli Air Force alleged that the reactor's imminent commissioning was a threat to its security, and pre-emptively bombed the Osirak reactor on 7 June 1981, provoking considerable anger from French officials and the United Nations Security Council.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 177619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Osirak deal became a controversy again in 2002–2003, when an international military coalition led by the United States invaded Iraq and forcibly removed Hussein's government from power. France led several other European countries in an effort to prevent the invasion. The Osirak deal was then used by parts of the American media to criticise the Chirac-led opposition to starting a war in Iraq, despite French involvement in the Gulf War.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 5215751, 3891386, 183867, 182000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 97 ], [ 123, 135 ], [ 361, 397 ], [ 433, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac has been named in several cases of alleged corruption that occurred during his term as mayor, some of which have led to felony convictions of some politicians and aides. However, a controversial judicial decision in 1999 granted Chirac immunity while he was president of France. He refused to testify on these matters, arguing that it would be incompatible with his presidential functions. Investigations concerning the running of Paris's city hall, the number of whose municipal employees increased by 25% from 1977 to 1995 (with 2,000 out of approximately 35,000 coming from the region where Chirac had held his seat as deputy), as well as a lack of financial transparency () and the communal debt, were thwarted by the legal impossibility of questioning him as president.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 11293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The conditions of the privatisation of the Parisian water system acquired very cheaply by the and the , then directed by Jérôme Monod, a close friend of Chirac, were also criticised. Furthermore, the satirical newspaper revealed the astronomical \"food expenses\" paid by the Parisian municipality (€15million a year according to the ), expenses managed by Roger Romani (who allegedly destroyed all archives of the period 1978–93 during night raids in 1999–2000). Thousands of people were invited each year to receptions in the Paris city hall, while many political, media and artistic personalities were hosted in private flats owned by the city.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 24661, 51386663, 20169760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ], [ 122, 134 ], [ 357, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac's immunity from prosecution ended in May 2007, when he left office as president. In November 2007 a preliminary charge of misuse of public funds was filed against him. Chirac is said to be the first former French head of state to be formally placed under investigation for a crime. On 30 October 2009, a judge ordered Chirac to stand trial on embezzlement charges, dating back to his time as mayor of Paris.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 209411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 350, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 7 March 2011, he went on trial on charges of diverting public funds, accused of giving fictional city jobs to 28 activists from his political party while serving as the mayor of Paris (1977–95). Along with Chirac, nine others stood trial in two separate cases, one dealing with fictional jobs for 21 people and the other with jobs for the remaining seven. The President of Union for a Popular Movement, who later served as France's Minister of Foreign Affairs, Alain Juppé, was sentenced to a 14-month suspended prison sentence for the same case in 2004.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 3186556, 323434, 434931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 186 ], [ 376, 404 ], [ 464, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 15 December 2011, Chirac was found guilty and given a suspended sentence of two years. He was convicted of diverting public funds, abuse of trust and illegal conflict of interest. The suspended sentence meant he did not have to go to prison, and took into account his age, health, and status as a former head of state. He did not attend his trial, since medical doctors deemed that his neurological problems damaged his memory. His defence team decided not to appeal.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During April and May 2006, Chirac's administration was beset by a crisis as his chosen Prime Minister, Dominique de Villepin, was accused of asking Philippe Rondot, a top level French spy, for a secret investigation into Villepin's chief political rival, Nicolas Sarkozy, in 2004. This matter has been called the second Clearstream Affair. On 10 May 2006, following a Cabinet meeting, Chirac made a rare television appearance to try to protect Villepin from the scandal and to debunk allegations that Chirac himself had set up a Japanese bank account containing 300million francs in 1992 as Mayor of Paris. Chirac said that \"The Republic is not a dictatorship of rumours, a dictatorship of calumny.\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 164662, 4966727, 557007, 1227223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 124 ], [ 148, 163 ], [ 255, 270 ], [ 320, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1956, Chirac married Bernadette Chodron de Courcel, with whom he had two daughters: (4 March 195814 April 2016) and Claude (born 6 December 1962). Claude was a long-term public relations assistant and personal adviser to her father, while Laurence, who suffered from anorexia nervosa in her youth, did not participate in her father's political activities. Chirac was the grandfather of Martin Rey-Chirac by the relationship of Claude with French judoka Thierry Rey. A former Vietnamese refugee, Anh Dao Traxel, is a foster daughter of Jacques and Bernadette Chirac.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 1311685, 456253, 24389, 26534334, 15601, 18022215, 2305956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 53 ], [ 120, 126 ], [ 174, 190 ], [ 271, 287 ], [ 450, 456 ], [ 457, 468 ], [ 499, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac remained married, but had several other relationships.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chirac was a close friend of actor Gregory Peck.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 77491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1954, Chirac presented The Development of the Port of New-Orleans, a short geography/economic thesis to the (), which he had entered three years before. The 182-page typewritten work, supervised by Professor Jean Chardonnet, is illustrated by photographs, sketches and diagrams.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Academic works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " President of the French Republic: 1995–2007. Reelected in 2002.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Member of the Constitutional Council of France: Since 2007.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 1141259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prime minister: 1974–76 (Resignation) / 1986–88.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Minister of Interior: March–May 1974.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development: 1972–74.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Minister of Relation with Parliament: 1971–72.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Secretary of State for Economy and Finance: 1968–71.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Secretary of State for Social Affairs: 1967–68.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Member of European Parliament: 1979–80 (Resignation). Elected in 1979.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 9581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elected in 1967, reelected in 1968, 1973, 1976, 1981, 1986, 1988, 1993: Member for Corrèze: March–April 1967 (became Secretary of State in April 1967), reelected in 1968, 1973, but he remained a minister in 1976–1986 (became Prime Minister in 1986), 1988–95 (resigned to become President of the French Republic in 1995).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 90525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " President of the General Council of Corrèze: 1970–1979. Reelected in 1973, 1976.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " General councillor of Corrèze: 1968–88. Reelected in 1970, 1976, 1982.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mayor of Paris: 1977–95 (Resignation, became President of the French Republic in 1995). Reelected in 1983, 1989.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Councillor of Paris: 1977–1995 (Resignation). Reelected in 1983, 1989.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Municipal councillor of Sainte-Féréole: 1965–77. Reelected in 1971.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 15573066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " President of the Rally for the Republic: 1976–94 (Resignation).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Political career", "target_page_ids": [ 323430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(27 May 1974 – 25 August 1976)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jacques Chirac – Prime Minister", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jean Sauvagnargues – Minister of Foreign Affairs", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 1621831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – Minister of Defence", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Michel Poniatowski – Minister of the Interior", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 5996087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jean-Pierre Fourcade – Minister of Economy and Finance", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 20236577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michel d'Ornano – Minister of Industry, Tourism, Posts, and Telecommunications", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 25159682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michel Durafour – Minister of Employment and Social Affairs", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 17683631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jean Lecanuet – Minister of Justice", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 4497906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " René Haby – Minister of National Education", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 19593353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Simone Veil – Minister of Health", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 574751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – Minister of Agriculture", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " – Minister of External Trade", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Robert Galley – Minister of Equipment", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 36262722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – Minister of Trade and Craft", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pierre Abelin – Minister of Cooperation", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 25499790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jean-Jacques Servan-Schreiber – Minister of Reforms", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 1727287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – Minister of Quality of Life", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(20 March 1986 – 12 May 1988)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jacques Chirac – Prime Minister", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jean-Bernard Raimond – Minister of Foreign Affairs", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 595573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " André Giraud – Minister of Defence", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Charles Pasqua – Minister of the Interior", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 573549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Édouard Balladur – Minister of State, Minister of Economy, Finance, and Privatisation", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 434932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alain Madelin – Minister of Industry, Tourism, Posts, and Telecommunications", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 215910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Philippe Séguin – Minister of Employment and Social Affairs", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 1615074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Albin Chalandon – Minister of Justice", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 19593083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " René Monory – Minister of National Education", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 9248249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " François Léotard – Minister of Culture and Communications", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 8593847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " François Guillaume – Minister of Agriculture", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 20222877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bernard Pons – Minister of Overseas Departments and Territories", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 27572029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pierre Méhaignerie – Minister of Housing, Equipment, Regional Planning, and Transport", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 9086814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " André Rossinot – Minister for Relations with Parliament", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 19844608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michel Aurillac – Minister of Cooperation", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ministries", "target_page_ids": [ 54609984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " , Paris, ed. Stock, 1978", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Paris, ed. La Table ronde, 1978", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (With Alain Berger), Paris, ed. Albatros, 1984", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Paris, ed. Albin Michel, 1988", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Paris, ed. NiL, 1994", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Paris, ed. NiL Éditions, 1995", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Paris, ed. Odile Jacob, 2006", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Paris, ed. Presses universitaires du Nouveau Monde, 2007", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Paris, ed. Odile Jacob, 2007", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Paris, ed. Desclée de Brouwer, 2008", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Paris, ed. NiL, 2009", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Paris, ed. NiL Éditions, 2011", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " List of national leaders", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 380398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1995 French presidential election", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 458496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Musée du Président Jacques Chirac", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30299683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5455300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Allport, Alan. Jacques Chirac (Infobase Publishing, 2007), short biography excerpt", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bell, David et al. eds. Biographical Dictionary of French Political Leaders Since 1870 (1990) pp 82–86.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bell, David. Presidential Power in Fifth Republic France (2000) pp 211–40.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bell, David S., Erwin C. Hargrove, and Kevin Theakston. \"Skill in context: A comparison of politicians.\" Presidential Studies Quarterly 29.3 (1999): 528–548; comparison of George Bush (US), John Major (UK), and Jacques Chirac.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chafer, Tony. \"Chirac and ‘’: No longer a family affair.\" Modern & Contemporary France 13.1 (2005): 7-23. online ", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Drake, Helen. \"Jacques chirac's balancing acts: The French right and Europe.\" South European Society & Politics 10.2 (2005): 297–313.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Elgie, Robert. \": studying the 1997–2002 experience.\" Modern & Contemporary France (2002) 10#3 pp 297–31, in English.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gaffney, John. \"The Mainstream Right: Chirac and Balladur.\" in French Presidentialism and the Election of 1995 (Routledge, 2018) pp.99–115.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gaffney, John. \"Protocol, Image, and Discourse in Political leadership Competition: the case of prime minister Lionel Jospin, 1997-2002.\" Modern & Contemporary France 10.3 (2002): 313–323.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gaffney, John, ed. The French presidential and legislative elections of 2002 (Routledge, 2018).", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Knapp, Andrew. \"Jacques Chirac: Surviving without Leading?.\" in David Bell and John Gaffney, eds. The presidents of the French Fifth Republic (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2013). pp 159–180.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Levy, Jonah, Alistair Cole, and Patrick Le Galès. \"From Chirac to Sarkozy. A New France.\" Developments in French politics 4 (2008): 1-21.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Maclean, Mairi. Economic Management and French Business: From de Gaulle to Chirac (Springer, 2002).", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Milzow, Katrin. National interests and European integration: Discourse and politics of Blair, Chirac and Schroeder (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012).", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nester, William R. \"President Chirac.\" in Nester, De Gaulle’s Legacy (Palgrave Macmillan 2014) pp.151–172.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wilsford, David, ed. Political leaders of contemporary Western Europe: a biographical dictionary (Greenwood, 1995) pp 63–70.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chirac, Jacques. My Life in Politics (2012).", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Emmanuel Hecht, Thierry Vey, , , ", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, ", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Frederic Lepage, ", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 15107997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jacques Chirac, , , ", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Some of Jacques Chirac's quotations", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

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[ "Jacques René Chirac" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The history of Sweden can be traced back to the melting of the Northern Polar Ice Caps. From as early as 12000BC, humans have inhabited this area. Throughout the Stone Age, between 8000BC and 6000BC, early inhabitants used stone-crafting methods to make tools and weapons for hunting, gathering and fishing as means of survival. Written sources about Sweden before AD1000 are rare and short, usually written by outsiders. It was not until the 14th century that longer historical texts were produced in Sweden. It is therefore usually accepted that Swedish recorded history, in contrast with pre-history, starts around the 11th century, when sources are common enough that they can be contrasted with each other.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1127684, 29219, 5058739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 86 ], [ 162, 171 ], [ 351, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The modern Swedish state was formed over a long period of unification and consolidation. Historians have set different standards for when it can be considered complete, resulting in dates from the 6th to 16th centuries. Some common laws were present from the second half of the 13th century. At this time, Sweden consisted of most of what is today the southern part of the country (except for Scania, Blekinge, Halland and Bohuslän), as well as parts of modern Finland. Over the following centuries, Swedish influence would expand into the North and East, even if borders were often ill-defined or nonexistent.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16749103, 24071774, 131927, 190241, 10577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 393, 399 ], [ 401, 409 ], [ 411, 418 ], [ 423, 431 ], [ 461, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 14th century, Sweden was becoming increasingly intertwined with Denmark and Norway, with the three eventually uniting in the Kalmar Union. During the following century, a series of rebellions lessened Sweden's ties to the union, sometimes even leading to the election of a separate Swedish king. The fighting reached a climax following the Stockholm Bloodbath in 1520, a mass execution of accused heretics orchestrated by Christian II of Denmark. One of the few members of the most powerful noble families not present, Gustav Vasa, was able to raise a new rebellion and eventually was crowned King in 1523. His reign proved lasting and marked the end of Sweden's participation in the Kalmar Union. Gustav Vasa furthermore encouraged Protestant preachers, finally breaking with the papacy and establishing the Lutheran Church in Sweden, seizing Catholic Church property and wealth.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16800, 29113, 150846, 49109, 606848, 37857, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 149 ], [ 352, 371 ], [ 434, 457 ], [ 531, 542 ], [ 793, 799 ], [ 821, 836 ], [ 856, 871 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 17th century, after winning wars against Denmark-Norway, Russia, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden emerged as a great power by taking direct control of the Baltic region. Sweden's role in the Thirty Years' War determined the political and religious balance of power in Europe. The Swedish state expanded enormously into the modern Estonia and Latvia, northern Germany, and several regions that to this day are part of Sweden.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21485871, 8527874, 343234, 30583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 66 ], [ 68, 74 ], [ 84, 114 ], [ 216, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before the end of the 17th century, a secret alliance was formed between Denmark-Norway, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russia against Sweden. This coalition acted at the start of the 18th century when Denmark-Norway and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth launched surprise attacks on Sweden. In 1721, Russia and its allies won the war against Sweden. As a result, Russia was able to annex the Swedish territories of Estonia, Livonia, Ingria, and Karelia. This effectively put an end to the Swedish Empire, and crippled her Baltic Sea power. Sweden joined in the Enlightenment culture of the day in the arts, architecture, science, and learning. Between 1570 and 1800, Sweden experienced two periods of urban expansion. Finland was lost to Russia in a war in 1808–1809.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21485871, 343234, 8527874, 21485871, 343234, 42141656, 18448, 238040, 583806, 21173183, 3335, 30758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 87 ], [ 89, 119 ], [ 125, 131 ], [ 207, 221 ], [ 230, 260 ], [ 422, 429 ], [ 431, 438 ], [ 440, 446 ], [ 452, 459 ], [ 496, 510 ], [ 529, 539 ], [ 568, 581 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 19th century, Finland and the remaining territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were lost. Sweden's last war was the Swedish–Norwegian War (1814). Sweden was victorious in this war, leading to the Danish king being forced to cede Norway to Sweden. Norway was then forced to enter into a personal union with Sweden that lasted until 1905. Since 1814, Sweden has been at peace, adopting a non-aligned foreign policy in peacetime and neutrality in wartime. During World War I, Sweden remained neutral, but let the Germans travel in the country. Post-war prosperity provided the foundations for the social welfare policies characteristic of modern Sweden. During World War II, Sweden once again remained neutral, avoiding the fate of occupied Norway.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10577, 2293357, 475807, 68702564, 4764461, 247817, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 34 ], [ 137, 165 ], [ 307, 321 ], [ 407, 418 ], [ 481, 492 ], [ 615, 629 ], [ 679, 691 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The country attempted to stay out of alliances and remain officially neutral during the entire Cold War, and declined to join NATO. The social democratic party held government for 44 years (1932–1976). The 1976 parliamentary elections brought a liberal/right-wing coalition to power. During the Cold War, Sweden was suspicious of the superpowers, but this sentiment lessened as the situation progressed, and Sweden continued to remain neutral.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 325329, 21133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 103 ], [ 126, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sweden has a large number of petroglyphs (hällristningar in Swedish), with the highest concentration in the province of Bohuslän and the northern part of the county of Kalmar, also called \"Tjust\". The earliest images can be found in the province of Jämtland, dating from 5000 BC. They depict wild animals such as elk, reindeer, bears and seals. 2300–500 BC was the most intensive carving period, with carvings of agriculture, warfare, ships, domesticated animals, etc. Petroglyphs with themes have also been found in Bohuslän, dating from 800 to 500 BC.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Prehistoric Sweden before AD 800", "target_page_ids": [ 5058739, 305738, 190241, 132018, 1039788, 190814, 190241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 29, 39 ], [ 120, 128 ], [ 168, 174 ], [ 189, 194 ], [ 249, 257 ], [ 517, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For centuries, the Swedes were merchant seamen well known for their far-reaching trade. During the 11th and 12th centuries, Sweden gradually became a unified Christian kingdom that later included Finland. Until 1060, the kings of Uppsala ruled most of modern Sweden except for the southern and western coastal regions, which remained under Danish rule until the 17th century. After a century of civil wars, a new royal family emerged, which strengthened the power of the crown at the expense of the nobility, while giving the nobles privileges such as exemption from taxation in exchange for military service. Sweden never had a fully developed feudal system, and its peasants were never reduced to serfdom. The Vikings from Sweden partly took part in the raids of the Western and Southern regions of Europe, but mainly traveled east to Russia, Constantinople and the Muslim world (Serkland). The large Russian mainland and its many navigable rivers offered good prospects for merchandise and plundering. During the 9th century, extensive Scandinavian settlements began on the east side of the Baltic Sea.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Viking Period and Middle Ages: 800–1500", "target_page_ids": [ 31784, 11298, 134258, 2182286, 3335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 230, 237 ], [ 645, 658 ], [ 699, 706 ], [ 882, 890 ], [ 1094, 1104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The conversion from Norse paganism to Christianity was a complex, gradual, and at times violent (see Temple at Uppsala) process. The main early source of religious influence was England, due to interactions between Scandinavians and Saxons in the Danelaw, and with Irish missionary monks. German influence was less obvious in the beginning, despite an early missionary attempt by Ansgar, but gradually emerged as the dominant religious force in the area, especially after the Norman conquest of England. Despite the close relations between Swedish and Russian aristocracy (see also Rus'), there is no direct evidence of Orthodox influence.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Viking Period and Middle Ages: 800–1500", "target_page_ids": [ 627183, 449659, 9316, 153473, 27850, 64946, 3753513, 11867, 2544, 68832, 1105607, 21485652, 10186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 34 ], [ 101, 118 ], [ 178, 185 ], [ 215, 228 ], [ 233, 239 ], [ 247, 254 ], [ 265, 287 ], [ 289, 295 ], [ 380, 386 ], [ 476, 502 ], [ 552, 571 ], [ 582, 586 ], [ 620, 628 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Around the year 1000, Olof Skötkonung became the first known king to rule both Svealand and Götaland. Historical details about early medieval kings are obscure, and even the dates of their reigning periods remain unclear. In the 12th century, Sweden was still undergoing dynastic struggles between the Erik and Sverker clans. Svealand and the Swedes were usually more supportive of the Erik dynasty and Götaland and Geats more supportive of the Sverker dynasty, which wanted friendlier relations with Denmark. This further divided the country between parties because the ruler was not clear. The country elected their king from each district by selecting 12 people from the local nobles, who then elected the king at the Stones of Mora. The divide ended when a third clan married into the Erik clan and founded the Bjelbo dynasty. This dynasty gradually consolidated a pre-Kalmar-Union Sweden to a strong state. Sweden was likely not unified until the middle of the 13th century.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Viking Period and Middle Ages: 800–1500", "target_page_ids": [ 255539, 190853, 190877, 1919533, 918435, 1714874, 2224570, 16800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 37 ], [ 79, 87 ], [ 92, 100 ], [ 302, 306 ], [ 311, 318 ], [ 721, 735 ], [ 815, 821 ], [ 873, 885 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1332 the king of Denmark, Christopher II, died as a \"king without a country\" after he and his older brother and predecessor had divided Denmark into smaller polities. King Magnus took advantage of his neighbours' weakness, purchasing lands for the eastern Danish provinces for 6500kg of silver, which included Scania. On 21 July 1336, Magnus was crowned king of Norway and Sweden in Stockholm. Scania was later reconquered by the Danish king Valdemar in 1360.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Viking Period and Middle Ages: 800–1500", "target_page_ids": [ 504037, 203043, 16749103, 203050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 43 ], [ 175, 181 ], [ 313, 319 ], [ 445, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the early Middle Ages, the Swedish kingdom also expanded to control Norrland and Finland. This expansion sparked tension with the Russian states, a tension that was to continue throughout Swedish history.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Viking Period and Middle Ages: 800–1500", "target_page_ids": [ 190885, 10577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 83 ], [ 88, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Black Death and internal power struggles in Sweden, Queen Margaret I of Denmark united the Nordic countries in the Union of Kalmar in 1397, with the approval of the Swedish nobility.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Viking Period and Middle Ages: 800–1500", "target_page_ids": [ 4501, 58726, 16800, 242912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ], [ 68, 89 ], [ 125, 140 ], [ 175, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 16th century, Gustav Vasa (1490–1560) fought for an independent Sweden, crushing an attempt to restore the Union of Kalmar and laying the foundation for modern Sweden. At the same time, he broke with the papacy and established the Lutheran Church in Sweden.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern Sweden: 1523–1611", "target_page_ids": [ 49109, 606848, 37857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ], [ 211, 217 ], [ 238, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Union's final disintegration in the early 16th century brought on a long-lived rivalry between Norway and Denmark on one side and Sweden on the other. The Catholic bishops had supported the Danish King Christian II, but he was overthrown by Gustavus Vasa, and Sweden became independent again. Gustavus used the Protestant Reformation to curb the power of the church and was crowned as King Gustavus I in 1523. In 1527, he persuaded the Riksdag of Västerås (comprising the nobles, clergy, burghers, and freehold peasants) to confiscate church lands, which comprised 21% of the farmland. Gustavus took the Lutheran reformers under his protection and appointed his men as bishops. Gustavus suppressed aristocratic opposition to his ecclesiastical policies and efforts at centralization.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern Sweden: 1523–1611", "target_page_ids": [ 150846, 49109, 37857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 218 ], [ 245, 258 ], [ 315, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tax reforms took place in 1538 and 1558, whereby multiple complex taxes on independent farmers were simplified and standardized throughout the district; tax assessments per farm were adjusted to reflect an ability to pay. Crown tax revenues increased, but more importantly, the new system was perceived as fairer and more acceptable. A war with Luebeck in 1535 resulted in the expulsion of the Hanseatic traders, who previously had had a monopoly of foreign trade. With its own businessmen in charge, Sweden's economic strength grew rapidly, and by 1544 Gustavus controlled 60% of the farmlands in all of Sweden. Sweden now built the first modern army in Europe, supported by a sophisticated tax system and government bureaucracy. Gustavus proclaimed the Swedish crown hereditary and the house of Vasa ruled Sweden (1523–1654) and Poland (1587–1668).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern Sweden: 1523–1611", "target_page_ids": [ 14105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 394, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 16th and 17th centuries, the kings demanded ever increasing taxes and military conscription, emphasizing the need for defense. However the money and manpower were used for offensive warfare. Indeed, when there seemed to be a real threat of invasion in 1655–1660, King Charles X Gustav asked the people to give more and to manage their own defences. Finally a balance was reached that provided a well supplied aggressive foreign policy. During the 17th century, after winning wars against Denmark, Russia, and Poland, Sweden (with scarcely more than 1 million inhabitants) emerged as a great power by taking direct control of the Baltic region, which was Europe's main source of grain, iron, copper, timber, tar, hemp, and furs.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early Modern Sweden", "target_page_ids": [ 104942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 274, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sweden had first gained a foothold on territory outside its traditional provinces in 1561, when Estonia opted for vassalage to Sweden during the Livonian War. While, in 1590, Sweden had to cede Ingria and Kexholm to Russia, and Sigismund tried to incorporate Swedish Estonia into the Duchy of Livonia, Sweden gradually expanded at the eastern Baltic during the following years. In a series of Polish–Swedish War (1600–1629) and the Russo-Swedish Ingrian War, Gustavus Adolphus retook Ingria and Kexholm (formally ceded in the Treaty of Stolbovo, 1617) as well as the bulk of Livonia (formally ceded in the Treaty of Altmark, 1629).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early Modern Sweden", "target_page_ids": [ 42141656, 1300500, 2584875, 238040, 453133, 52608, 42141656, 1263461, 7302090, 808359, 40869264, 654581, 234767, 6982736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 103 ], [ 145, 157 ], [ 182, 193 ], [ 194, 200 ], [ 205, 212 ], [ 228, 237 ], [ 259, 274 ], [ 284, 300 ], [ 393, 423 ], [ 446, 457 ], [ 459, 476 ], [ 526, 544 ], [ 567, 582 ], [ 606, 623 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sweden's role in the Thirty Years' War determined the political as well as the religious balance of power in Europe. From bridgeheads in Stralsund (1628) and Pomerania (1630), the Swedish army advanced to the south of the Holy Roman Empire, and in a side theater of the war deprived Denmark–Norway of Danish Estonia, Jämtland, Gotland, Halland, Härjedalen, Idre and Särna, became exempt from the Sound Dues, and established claims to Bremen-Verden, all of which was formalized in the Treaty of Brömsebro (1645). In 1648, Sweden became a guarantor power for the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War and left her with the additional dominions of Bremen-Verden, Wismar and Swedish Pomerania. From 1638 Sweden also held the colony of New Sweden, along the Delaware River in North America.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early Modern Sweden", "target_page_ids": [ 30583, 8238932, 19873509, 13277, 1854241, 1867634, 190814, 284507, 131927, 191036, 128259, 3972465, 739383, 408067, 23850, 73672, 234754, 37146, 52616, 21139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 38 ], [ 137, 153 ], [ 158, 174 ], [ 222, 239 ], [ 255, 273 ], [ 301, 315 ], [ 317, 325 ], [ 327, 334 ], [ 336, 343 ], [ 345, 355 ], [ 357, 371 ], [ 396, 406 ], [ 434, 447 ], [ 484, 503 ], [ 561, 580 ], [ 677, 683 ], [ 688, 705 ], [ 748, 758 ], [ 770, 784 ], [ 788, 801 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1655, in the Second Northern War, Charles X Gustav of Sweden invaded and occupied western Poland–Lithuania, the eastern half of which was already occupied by Russia. The rapid Swedish advance became known in Poland as the Swedish Deluge. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania became a Swedish fief, the Polish–Lithuanian regular armies surrendered and the Polish King John II Casimir Vasa fled to the Habsburgs. The Deluge lasted for five years and took a great toll on Poland and Lithuania, with some historians crediting this invasion as the start of the downfall of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The country was devastated, treasures stolen, and insurmountable loss of lives occurred.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early Modern Sweden", "target_page_ids": [ 373210, 207244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 35 ], [ 362, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sweden was able to establish control of the Eastern bank of the Sound, formalised in the Treaty of Roskilde (1658), and gain recognition of her southeastern dominions by the European great powers in the Treaty of Oliva (1660); but Sweden was barred from further expansion at the Southern coast of the Baltic. Sweden came out of the Scanian War with only minor losses largely due to France forcing Sweden's adversaries into the treaties of Fontainebleau (1679) (confirmed at Lund) and Saint-Germain (1679).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early Modern Sweden", "target_page_ids": [ 55268, 247331, 372836, 383570, 2338903, 5843419, 26294716, 22847960, 24499807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 69 ], [ 89, 107 ], [ 183, 195 ], [ 203, 218 ], [ 332, 343 ], [ 382, 388 ], [ 439, 459 ], [ 471, 478 ], [ 484, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following period of peace allowed Charles XI of Sweden to reform and stabilise the realm. He consolidated the finances of the Crown by the great reduction of 1680; further changes were made in finance, commerce, national maritime and land armaments, judicial procedure, church government and education.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early Modern Sweden", "target_page_ids": [ 104943, 10412376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 58 ], [ 143, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Russia, Saxony–Poland, and Denmark–Norway pooled their power in 1700 and attacked the Swedish empire. Although the young Swedish King Charles XII (1682–1718; reigned 1697–1718) won spectacular victories in the early years of the Great Northern War, most notably in the stunning success against the Russians at the Battle of Narva (1700), his plan to attack Moscow and force Russia into peace proved too ambitious.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early Modern Sweden", "target_page_ids": [ 21173183, 104944, 48757, 140536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 100 ], [ 134, 145 ], [ 229, 247 ], [ 314, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Russians won decisively at the Battle of Poltava in June 1709, capturing much of the exhausted Swedish army. Charles XII and the remnants of his army were cut off from Sweden and fled south into Ottoman territory, where he remained three years. He overstayed his welcome, refusing to leave until the Ottoman Empire joined him in a new war against Tsar Peter I of Russia. He established a powerful political network in Constantinople, which included even the mother of the sultan. Charles's persistence worked, as Peter's army was checked by Ottoman troops. However, Turkish failure to pursue the victory enraged Charles and from that moment his relations with the Ottoman administration soured. During the same period, the behavior of his troops worsened and turned disastrous. Lack of discipline and contempt for the locals soon created an unbearable situation in Moldavia. The Swedish soldiers behaved badly, destroying, stealing, raping, and killing. Meanwhile, back in the north, Sweden was invaded by its enemies; Charles returned home in 1714, too late to restore his lost empire and impoverished homeland; he died in 1718. In the subsequent peace treaties, the allied powers, joined by Russia and Great Britain-Hanover, ended Sweden's reign as a great power. Russia now dominated the north. The war-weary Riksdag asserted new powers and reduced the crown to a constitutional monarchy, with power held by a civilian government controlled by the Riksdag. A new \"Age of Freedom\" opened, and the economy was rebuilt, supported by large exports of iron and lumber to Britain. The Riksdag developed into an active parliament. This tradition continued into the nineteenth century, laying the basis for the transition towards a modern democracy.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early Modern Sweden", "target_page_ids": [ 156029, 22278, 44356, 46007, 158651, 217496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 52 ], [ 304, 318 ], [ 356, 363 ], [ 869, 877 ], [ 1316, 1323 ], [ 1471, 1485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The reign of Charles XII (1697–1718) has stirred up great controversy. Historians have puzzled over why this military genius overreached and greatly weakened Sweden. Although most early-19th-century historians tended to follow Voltaire's lead in bestowing extravagant praise on the warrior-king, others have criticised him as a fanatic, a bully, and a bloodthirsty warmonger. A more balanced view suggests a highly capable military ruler whose oft-reviled peculiarities seemed to have served him well, but who neglected his base in Sweden in pursuit of foreign adventure. Slow to learn the limits of Sweden's diminished strength, a party of nobles, who called themselves the \"Hats\", dreamed of revenge on Russia and ruled the country from 1739 to 1765; they engaged in wars in 1741, 1757, 1788, and 1809, with more or less disastrous results as Russian influence grew after every Swedish defeat.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early Modern Sweden", "target_page_ids": [ 32375, 463528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 227, 235 ], [ 676, 680 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sweden joined in the Enlightenment culture of the day in the arts, architecture, science, and learning. A new law in 1766 established for the first time the principle of freedom of the press, a notable step towards liberty of political opinion. The Academy of Science was founded in 1739 and the Academy of Letters, History, and Antiquities in 1753. The outstanding cultural leader was Carl Linnaeus (1707–78), whose work in biology and ethnography had a major impact on European science.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early Modern Sweden", "target_page_ids": [ 30758, 5233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 34 ], [ 386, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following half a century of parliamentary domination came the reaction from the monarchy. King Gustav III (1746–1792) came to the throne in 1771, and in 1772 led a coup d'état, with French support, that established him as an \"enlightened despot\", who ruled at will. The Age of Freedom and party politics was over. Precocious and well educated, he became a patron of the arts and music. His edicts reformed the bureaucracy, repaired the currency, expanded trade, and improved defense. The population had reached two million and the country was prosperous, although rampant alcoholism was a growing social problem. Gustav III weakened the nobility and promoted numerous major social reforms. He felt the Swedish monarchy could survive and flourish by achieving a coalition with the newly emerged middle classes against the nobility. He personally disliked the French Revolution, but decided to promote additional anti-feudal reforms to strengthen his hand among the middle classes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early Modern Sweden", "target_page_ids": [ 23686385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Gustav made war on Russia and did poorly, he was assassinated by a conspiracy of nobles who were angry that he tried to restrict their privileges for the benefit of the peasants. Under the successor, King Gustav IV, Sweden joined various coalitions against Napoleon but was badly defeated and lost much of its territory, especially Finland and Pomerania. The king was overthrown by the army, which in 1810 decided to bring in one of Napoleon's marshals, Jean Bernadotte, as the heir apparent.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early Modern Sweden", "target_page_ids": [ 104462, 45420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 220 ], [ 236, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sweden experimented briefly with overseas colonies, including \"New Sweden\" in Colonial America and the \"Swedish Gold Coast\" in present-day Ghana, which began in the 1630s. Sweden purchased the small Caribbean island of Saint Barthélemy from France in 1784, then sold it back in 1878; the population had included slaves until they were freed by the Swedish government in 1847.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early Modern Sweden", "target_page_ids": [ 37146, 282220, 4730592, 12067, 30307259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 73 ], [ 78, 94 ], [ 104, 122 ], [ 139, 144 ], [ 219, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1570 and 1800, Sweden experienced two periods of urban expansion, c. 1580–1690 and in the mid-18th century, separated by relative stagnation from the 1690s to about 1720. The initial phase was the more active, including an increase in the percentage of urban dwellers in Stockholm – a pattern comparable to increasing urban populations in other European capital and port cities – as well as the foundation of a number of small new towns. The second period of urban growth began around 1750 in response to shifts in Swedish trade patterns from the Baltic to the North Atlantic. It was characterised by increasing populations in the small towns of the north and west.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Early Modern Sweden", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Finland was lost to Russia in a war that lasted from February 1808 to September 1809. As a result of the peace agreement, Finland became a Grand Duchy and thus was officially ruled by the Tsar of Russia though it was not strictly part of Russia. Humanitarian aid from England did not succeed in preventing Sweden from adopting more Napoleon-friendly policies after the Swedish coup d'état in 1809.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "19th century", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1810, French Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's top generals, was elected as Charles XIV John of Sweden (1818–44) by the Riksdag. He had a Jacobin background and was well-grounded in revolutionary principles, but put Sweden in the coalition that opposed Napoleon. In 1813, his forces joined the allies against Napoleon and defeated the Danes at Bornhöved. In the Treaty of Kiel, Denmark ceded mainland Norway to the Swedish king. Norway, however, declared its independence, adopted a constitution and chose a new king. Sweden invaded Norway to enforce the terms of the Kiel treaty in the last war Sweden has fought. After brief fighting, the peace established a personal union between the two states. Even though they shared the same king, Norway was largely independent of Sweden, except Sweden controlled foreign affairs. The king's rule was not well received and when Sweden refused to allow Norway to have its own diplomats, Norway rejected the King of Sweden in 1905 and selected its own king.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "19th century", "target_page_ids": [ 38585, 38585, 69880, 21738816, 490013, 1756439, 2293357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 48 ], [ 97, 123 ], [ 330, 338 ], [ 365, 374 ], [ 383, 397 ], [ 467, 492 ], [ 642, 656 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During Charles XIV's reign, the first stage of the Industrial Revolution reached Sweden. This first take-off was founded on rural forges, textile proto-industries and sawmills.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "19th century", "target_page_ids": [ 14914, 1943311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 72 ], [ 138, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The popularity of Charles XIV decreased for a time in the 1830s, culminating in the Rabulist riots in 1838 after the Lèse-majesté conviction of the journalist Magnus Jacob Crusenstolpe, and some calls for his abdication.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "19th century", "target_page_ids": [ 32744272, 934323, 30863745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 98 ], [ 117, 129 ], [ 159, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 19th century was marked by the emergence of a liberal opposition press, the abolition of guild monopolies in trade and manufacturing in favor of free enterprise, the introduction of taxation and voting reforms, the installation of a national military service, and the rise in the electorate of three major party groups: the Social Democratic Party, the Liberal Party, and the Conservative Party.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "19th century", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sweden, much like Japan at the same time, transformed from a stagnant rural society to a vibrant industrial society between the 1860s and 1910. The agricultural economy shifted gradually from a communal village to a more efficient private farm-based agriculture. There was less need for manual labor on the farm so many went to the cities and a million Swedes emigrated to the United States between 1850 and 1890. Many returned and brought word of the higher productivity of American industry, this stimulating faster modernization.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "19th century", "target_page_ids": [ 27751221, 1907371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 40 ], [ 353, 390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1873, Sweden and Denmark formed the Scandinavian Monetary Union.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "19th century", "target_page_ids": [ 76972, 311625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 27 ], [ 39, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The late 19th century saw the emergence of an opposition press, the abolition of guild monopolies on craftsmen and the reform of taxation. Two years of military service was made compulsory for young men although there was no warfare.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "19th century", "target_page_ids": [ 12369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The steady decline of death rates in Sweden began about 1810. For men and women of working age, the death rate trend diverged, however, leading to increased excess male mortality during the first half of the century. There were very high rates of infant and child mortality before 1800. Among infants and children between the ages of one and four, smallpox peaked as a cause of death in the 1770–1780s and declined afterward. Mortality also peaked during this period due to other air-, food-, and waterborne diseases, but these declined as well during the early 19th century. The decline of several diseases during this time created a more favorable environment that increased children's resistance to disease and dramatically lowered child mortality.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "19th century", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The introduction of compulsory gymnastics in Swedish schools in 1880 rested partly on a long tradition, from Renaissance humanism to the Enlightenment, of the importance of physical as well as intellectual training. More immediately, the promotion of gymnastics as a scientifically sound form of physical discipline coincided with the introduction of conscription, which gave the state a strong interest in educating children physically as well as mentally for the role of citizen soldiers. Skiing is a major recreation in Sweden and its ideological, functional, ecological, and social impact has been great on Swedish nationalism and consciousness. Swedes perceived skiing as virtuous, masculine, heroic, in harmony with nature, and part of the country's culture. A growing awareness of strong national sentiments and an appreciation of natural resources led to the creation of the Swedish Ski Association in 1892 in order to combine nature, leisure, and nationalism. The organization focused its efforts on patriotic, militaristic, heroic, and environmental Swedish traditions as they relate to ski sports and outdoor life.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "19th century", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With a broader voting franchise, the nation saw the emergence of three major party groups – Social Democrat, Liberal, and Conservative. The parties debated further expansion of the voting franchise. The Liberal Party, based on the middle class, put forth in 1907 a program for local voting rights later accepted in the Riksdag. The majority of Liberals wanted to require some property ownership before a man could vote, while the Social Democrats called for total male suffrage without property limitations. The strong farmer representation in the Second Chamber of the Riksdag maintained a conservative view, but their decline after 1900 gradually ended opposition to full suffrage.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 202978, 217366, 202985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 107 ], [ 109, 116 ], [ 122, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Religion maintained a major role but public school religious education changed from the drill in the Lutheran catechism to biblical-ethical studies.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sweden was neutral in World War I, although the Swedish government was sympathetic to both sides at different times during the conflict, even briefly occupying the Åland islands jointly with the Germans. At first, the Swedish government flirted with the possibility of changing their neutral stance to side with the Central Powers, and made concessions to them including mining the Öresund straits to close them to Allied warships wishing to enter the Baltic. Later the Swedish signed agreements allowing trade with the Allied powers and limiting trade with Central Powers, though this brought about the fall of the government of Hjalmar Hammarskjöld.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 6673, 2437325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 33 ], [ 316, 330 ], [ 630, 650 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the First World War and the 1920s, its industries expanded to meet the European demand for Swedish steel, ball bearings, wood pulp, and matches. Post-war prosperity provided the foundations for the social welfare policies characteristic of modern Sweden.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 198101, 247817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 125 ], [ 205, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sweden created a successful model of social democracy because of the unique way in which Sweden's labor leaders, politicians, and classes cooperated during the early development of Swedish democracy. Sweden's socialist leaders chose a moderate, reformist political course with broad-based public support. This helped Sweden avoid the severe extremist challenges and political and class divisions that plagued many European countries that attempted to develop social democratic systems after 1911. By dealing early, cooperatively, and effectively with the challenges of industrialization and its impact on Swedish social, political, and economic structures, Swedish social democrats were able to create one of the most successful social democratic systems in the world, including both a welfare state and extensive protections of civil liberties.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When the Social Democratic Party came into power in 1932, its leaders introduced a new political decision-making process, which later became known as \"the Swedish model\" or the Folkhemmet (The People's Home). The party took a central role, but tried as far as possible to base its policy on mutual understanding and compromise. Different interest groups were always involved in official committees that preceded government decisions.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 5533355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 177, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Foreign policy concerns in the 1930s centered on Soviet and German expansionism, which pursuing abortive efforts at Nordic defense co-operation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 26896, 23711165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 116, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sweden followed a policy of armed neutrality during World War II, although thousands of Swedish volunteers fought in the Winter War with Finland against the Soviets. Sweden did permit German troops to pass through its territory to and from occupation duties in Norway, and supplied the Nazi regime with steel and ball-bearings.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 489133, 32927, 33924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 44 ], [ 52, 64 ], [ 121, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The dominant historiography for decades after the war ignored the Holocaust and used what it called the \"small state realist\" argument. It held that that neutrality and co-operation with Germany were necessary for survival since Germany was vastly more powerful, concessions were limited and were only made when the threat was too great. Neutrality was bent but not broken; national unity was paramount; and in any case, Sweden had the neutral right to trade with Germany. Germany needed Swedish iron, and Sweden had nothing to gain and much to lose from an invasion. The nation was run by a national unity government, which included all major parties in the Riksdag except the communist party. Its key leaders included Prime Minister Per Albin Hansson, King Gustav V, and Foreign Minister Christian Günther.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 10396793, 174042, 104658, 1129203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 75 ], [ 735, 752 ], [ 754, 767 ], [ 790, 807 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Humanitarian aid to Jews facing the Holocaust was the mission of Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg. As the secretary of the 1944 Swedish delegation to Hungary, to co-ordinate humanitarian relief for the Jews of Europe during the Jewish Holocaust. He helped to rescue tens of thousands of Jews in Nazi-occupied Hungary in late 1944. He disappeared in January 1945, and probably died in a Soviet prison in 1947.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 171653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sweden was one of the first non-participants of World War II to join the United Nations (in 1946). Apart from this, the country tried to stay out of alliances and remained officially neutral during the entire Cold War, never joining NATO.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 31769, 325329, 21133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 60 ], [ 73, 87 ], [ 209, 217 ], [ 233, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The social democratic party held government for 44 years (1932–1976). They spent much of the 1950s and 1960s building Folkhemmet (The People's Home), the Swedish welfare state. Sweden's industry had not been damaged by the war and it was in a position to help re-build Northern Europe in the decades following 1945. This led to an economic upswing in the post-war era that made the welfare system feasible. However, by the 1970s, the economies of the rest of Western Europe were prosperous and growing rapidly, while the Swedish economy stagnated. Many economists blamed its large tax funded public sector.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 5533355, 222839, 334803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 128 ], [ 162, 175 ], [ 592, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1976, the social democrats lost their majority. The 1976 parliamentary elections brought a liberal/right-wing coalition to power. Over the next six years, four governments ruled and fell, composed by all or some of the parties that had won in 1976. The fourth liberal government in these years came under fire by Social Democrats and trade unions and the Moderate Party, culminating in the Social Democrats regaining power in 1982.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the Cold War Sweden maintained a dual approach, publicly the strict neutrality policy was forcefully maintained, but unofficially strong ties were kept with the U.S., Norway, Denmark, West Germany, and other NATO countries. Swedes hoped that the U.S. would use conventional and nuclear weapons in case of a Soviet attack on Sweden. A strong ability to defend against an amphibious invasion was maintained, complete with Swedish-built warplanes, but there was no long-range bombing capability.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 284003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 1960s, U.S. nuclear submarines armed with mid-range Polaris A-1 nuclear missiles were deployed not far from the Swedish west coast. Range and safety considerations made this a good area from which to launch a retaliatory nuclear strike on Moscow. The U.S. secretly provided Sweden with a military security guarantee, promising to provide military force in aid of Sweden in case of Soviet aggression. As part of the military cooperation, the U.S. provided much help in the development of the Saab 37 Viggen, as a strong Swedish air force was seen as necessary to keep Soviet anti-submarine aircraft from operating in the missile launch area. In return, Swedish scientists at the Royal Institute of Technology made considerable contributions to enhancing the targeting performance of the Polaris missiles.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 588250, 24787, 88124, 25609, 24787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 42 ], [ 65, 72 ], [ 504, 518 ], [ 691, 720 ], [ 799, 806 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On February 28, 1986, the Social Democratic leader Prime Minister Olof Palme was assassinated. The murderer was never found. Shocked Swedes worried whether the nation had lost its innocence.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 54132, 4510706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 76 ], [ 81, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1995, a few years after the end of the Cold War, Sweden became a member of the European Union and the old term \"policy of neutrality\" fell out of use. In a referendum held in 2003, the majority voted not to adopt the Euro as the country's official currency. Foreign Minister Anna Lindh was murdered just before the referendum.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 9317, 371196, 11159436, 9472, 315471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 96 ], [ 160, 170 ], [ 179, 183 ], [ 221, 225 ], [ 279, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1980s, Sweden attempted to preserve its model of capitalism plus a generous welfare state through what it called a \"bridging policy.\" Unintended consequences resulted in the 1990s. There was an economic crisis with high unemployment and several banks and companies going bankrupt. There was high inflation as well as overheated real estate and financial markets and a negative real rate of interest. After 1991, these factors caused a recession with high unemployment. There were political reverberations and business called for neoliberal government policies. By 2000, however, the positive trends dominated. Compared to the rest of Europe, unemployment in Sweden was low, while economic growth has been high, inflation low, the budget in balance, and the balance of payments positive.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "20th century", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Lönnroth (1998) in the 19th century and early 20th century, Swedish historians saw their writing in terms of literature and storytelling, rather than analysis and interpretation. Harald Hjärne (1848–1922) pioneered modern historical scholarship. In 1876, he attacked the traditional myths of the social and legal conditions of ancient Greece and Rome inherited from the classical authors. He was inspired by German scholar Barthold Georg Niebuhr (1776–1831), a founder of modern German historiography. As a professor of history at Uppsala University, Hjärne became a spokesman for the Conservative Party and the Swedish monarchy by 1900. Hjärne had an enormous influence on his students and, indeed, on an entire generation of historians, who mostly became political conservatives and nationalists. Another movement emerged at Lund University around 1910, where critical scholars began using the source critics' methods to the early history of Scandinavia. The brothers Lauritz Weibull and Curt Weibull were the leaders, and they had followers at Lund and Göteborg universities. The result was a half-century of often embittered controversy between traditionalists and revisionists that lasted until 1960. There was a blurring of the ideological fronts resulting from experiences during and after World War II. In the meantime, in the general expansion of university education in the postwar period, history was generally neglected. Only through the activities of the National Research Council of the Humanities and the dedicated efforts of certain ambitious university professors created some expansion of historical scholarship. After 1990, there were signs of revival in historiography, with a strong new emphasis on 20th-century topics, as well as the application of social history and computerized statistical techniques to the demographic history of ordinary villagers before 1900.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [ 29790745, 204651, 31801, 17843, 5086880, 1771929, 222291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 205 ], [ 436, 458 ], [ 544, 562 ], [ 840, 855 ], [ 983, 998 ], [ 1003, 1015 ], [ 1784, 1798 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Lars Magnusson, social history is a specialty inside economic history. Three major themes are the standard of living by strata during industrialization; the history of work; and social issues in preindustrial society and the transition to industrialism.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Flag of Sweden", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 70793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Foreign relations of Sweden", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Denmark", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 54327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Europe", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Finland", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Germany", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Norway", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 56140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Russia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Scandinavia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2119964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Sweden (1772–1809)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 217498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the European Union", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of prime ministers of Sweden", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20115995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Swedish monarchs", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Swedish people", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 88257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Military history of Sweden", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7054055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Political unions involving Sweden", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 487079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kalmar Union", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Union between Sweden and Norway", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 217537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Politics of Sweden", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 67670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Privy Council of Sweden", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 192463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Riksdag of the Estates", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 170320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sami history", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 691642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Andersson, Ingvar. A History of Sweden (1956) online edition", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Derry, Thomas Kingston. A History of Scandinavia: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Iceland. (1979). 447 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Grimberg, Carl. A History of Sweden (1935) online free", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Heckscher, Eli F. An economic history of Sweden (1963) online free to borrow", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kent, Neil. A Concise History of Sweden (2008), 314 pp. excerpt and text search", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lagerqvist, Christopher, Reformer och Revolutioner. En kort introduktion till Sveriges ekonomiska historia, 1750–2010 (Lund 2013).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magnusson, Lars. An Economic History of Sweden (2000) online edition", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Moberg, Vilhelm, and Paul Britten Austin. A History of the Swedish People: Volume 1: From Prehistory to the Renaissance, (2005); A History of the Swedish People: Volume II: From Renaissance to Revolution (2005)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 32179379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nordstrom, Byron J. The History of Sweden (2002) excerpt and text search; also full text online free to borrow", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Scott, Franklin D. Sweden: The Nation's History (1988), survey by leading scholar; excerpt and text search", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sprague, Martina. Sweden: An Illustrated History (2005) excerpt and text search", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Warme, Lars G., ed. A History of Swedish Literature. (1996). 585 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Forte, Angelo. Oram, Richard. Pedersen, Frederik. Viking Empires. (2005)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hudson, Benjamin. Viking Pirates and Christian Princes: Dynasty, Religion, and Empire in North America. (2005).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Moberg, Vilhelm, and Paul Britten Austin. A History of the Swedish People: Volume 1: From Prehistory to the Renaissance. (2005) online free to borrow", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Österberg, Eva. Mentalities and Other Realities: Essays in Medieval and Early Modern Scandinavian History. Lund U. Press, 1991. 207 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Österberg, Eva and Lindström, Dag. Crime and Social Control in Medieval and Early Modern Swedish Towns. (1988). 169 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Porshnev, B. F. and Paul Dukes, eds. Muscovy and Sweden in the Thirty Years' War, 1630–1635. (1996). 256 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 37559026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roberts, Michael. The Early Vasas: A History of Sweden 1523–1611. (1968)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Roberts, Michael. From Oxenstierna to Charles XII. Four Studies. (1991). 203 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Roberts, Michael. The Swedish Imperial Experience, 1560–1718. (1979). 156 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thunberg, Carl L. Särkland och dess källmaterial. (2011)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Barton, H. Arnold. Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era, 1760–1815 (1986)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Barton, Sunbar P. Bernadotte: Prince and King, 1810–1844 (1925), standard scholarly history", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chatterton, Mark. Saab: The Innovator. (1980). 160 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Frängsmyr, Tore, ed. Science in Sweden: The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1739–1989. (1989). 291 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fry, John A., ed. Limits of the Welfare State: Critical Views on Post-War Sweden. (1979). 234 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gustavson, Carl G. The Small Giant: Sweden Enters the Industrial Era. (1986). 364 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hodgson, Antony. Scandinavian Music: Finland and Sweden. (1985). 224 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hoppe, Göran and Langton, John. Peasantry to Capitalism: Western Östergötland in the Nineteenth Century. (1995). 457 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Janson, Florence Edith. The background of Swedish immigration, 1840–1930 (1931; reprinted 1970), Push factors in Sweden causing migration to USA. online", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jonas, Frank. Scandinavia and the Great Powers in the First World War (2019) online review", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lagerqvist, Christopher, Reformer och Revolutioner. En kort introduktion until Sveriges ekonomiska historia, 1750–2010 (Lund 2013).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lewin, Leif. Ideology and Strategy: A Century of Swedish Politics. (1988). 344 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Metcalf, Michael F., ed. The Riksdag: A History of the Swedish Parliament. (1987). 347 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Misgeld, Klaus; Molin, Karl; and Amark, Klas. Creating Social Democracy: A Century of the Social Democratic Labor Party in Sweden. (1993). 500 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Moberg, Vilhelm, and Paul Britten Austin. A History of the Swedish People: Volume II: From Renaissance to Revolution (2005)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Olsen, Gregg M. \"Half Empty or Half Full? the Swedish Welfare State in Transition.\" Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology. v. 16 #2 (1999) pp.241+. online edition", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Olson, Kenneth E. The history makers: The press of Europe from its beginnings through 1965 (LSU Press, 1966) pp.33–49", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Palmer, Alan. Bernadotte: Napoleon's Marshal, Sweden's King. (1991). 285 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pred, Allan. Lost Words and Lost Worlds: Modernity and the Language of Everyday Life in Late Nineteenth-Century Stockholm. (1990). 298 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pred, Allan Richard. Place, Practice and Structure: Social and Spatial Transformation in Southern Sweden, 1750–1850. (1986). 268 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Roberts, Michael. The Age of Liberty: Sweden, 1719–1772. (1986). 233 pp. online", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sejersted, Francis. The Age of Social Democracy: Norway and Sweden in the Twentieth Century (Princeton University Press; 2011); 543 pp; Traces the history of the Scandinavian social model as it developed after the separation of Norway and Sweden in 1905.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Söderberg, Johan et al. A Stagnating Metropolis: The Economy and Demography of Stockholm, 1750–1850. (1991). 234 pp.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Waldenström, Daniel. \"The national wealth of Sweden, 1810–2014\" Scandinavian Economic History Review 64#1 (2016) pp.36–54 ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Metcalf, Michael F. \"The first 'modern' party system?: Political parties, Sweden's Age of liberty and the historians.\" Scandinavian Journal of History 2.1–4 (1977): 265–287.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Olsson, Ulf. \"Fluctuat nec mergitur: Economic history in Sweden at the turn of the century 2000.\" Scandinavian Economic History Review 50.3 (2002): 68–82.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Söderberg, Johan. \"Economic History in Sweden: Some Recent Research Trends “.\" NEHA Bulletin 9.1 (1995): 21–23.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thomson, Erik. \"Beyond the Military State: Sweden’s Great Power Period in Recent Historiography.\" ''History Compass' 9.4 (2011): 269–283. online", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Historical Monetary Statistics of Sweden 1668–2008", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " History of Sweden: Primary Documents", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Historical Atlas of Sweden", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " US Department of State entry on Sweden", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "History_of_Sweden" ]

[ "Swedish history", "Sweden's history" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The European Union is a geo-political entity covering a large portion of the European continent. It is founded upon numerous treaties and has undergone expansions and secessions that have taken it from six member states to 27, a majority of the states in Europe.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9317, 163225, 9239, 10890716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 24, 37 ], [ 77, 95 ], [ 206, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apart from the ideas of federation, confederation, or customs union such as Winston Churchill's 1946 call for a \"United States of Europe\", the original development of the European Union was based on a supranational foundation that would \"make war unthinkable and materially impossible\" and reinforce democracy amongst its members as laid out by Robert Schuman and other leaders in the Schuman Declaration (1950) and the Europe Declaration (1951). This principle was at the heart of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) (1951), the Treaty of Paris (1951), and later the Treaty of Rome (1958) which established the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC). The ECSC expired in 2002, while the EAEC maintains a distinct legal identity despite sharing members and institutions.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 156371, 227091, 5864, 33265, 15546705, 934155, 374183, 2452550, 25124345, 9577, 191934, 78006, 9578, 223239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 34 ], [ 36, 49 ], [ 54, 67 ], [ 76, 93 ], [ 113, 136 ], [ 201, 214 ], [ 345, 359 ], [ 385, 404 ], [ 420, 438 ], [ 486, 519 ], [ 539, 561 ], [ 577, 591 ], [ 621, 648 ], [ 663, 695 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Maastricht Treaty (1992) created the European Union with its pillars system, including foreign and home affairs alongside the European Community. This in turn led to the creation of the single European currency, the euro (launched 1999). The Maastricht Treaty has been amended by the treaties of Amsterdam (1997), Nice (2001) and Lisbon (2007).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20803, 9317, 1034422, 9578, 9472, 525207, 76429, 21222104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 41, 55 ], [ 65, 79 ], [ 130, 148 ], [ 216, 224 ], [ 300, 309 ], [ 318, 322 ], [ 334, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The known world in Ancient Greece was differentiated into three landmasses Asia, \"Libya\" (Africa) and Europe, giving rise to identifying the European landmass as a coherent area, a continent.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development of Europe as a region", "target_page_ids": [ 66540, 689, 6645651, 5334607, 9239, 19630739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 33 ], [ 75, 79 ], [ 82, 87 ], [ 90, 96 ], [ 102, 108 ], [ 181, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The European landmass was populated and territorialized by many long before its conceptualization as a coherent continent. But the Roman Empire, an empire built on the Hellenistic world and Alexandrian Empire, Ancient Egypt, the Levant and North Africa, became the first state to control the whole Mediterranean Basin and also large parts, particularly the Southern and Western parts of the European landmass. This historic prominence in the Mediterranean Basin and Europe has been invoked by states that came after it, claiming succession to Roman authority and to legitimate their rule over lands throughout the former Roman eucomene, and therefore also in Europe, particularly in Western Europe, the lands of the later Western Roman Empire of latin Rome. The latter established Western Europe as a coherent and independent political area of Europe, which has taken sometimes prominence, as simply the West, over the concept of Europe. Similarly other concepts for Europe as a coherent political space have been used, such as for example Frangistan.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development of Europe as a region", "target_page_ids": [ 25507, 455379, 42012, 874, 18138, 21714, 2454408, 410666, 33800, 803597, 504379, 17730, 25458, 21208200, 16075781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 143 ], [ 168, 185 ], [ 190, 208 ], [ 210, 223 ], [ 229, 235 ], [ 240, 252 ], [ 298, 317 ], [ 358, 366 ], [ 371, 384 ], [ 628, 636 ], [ 723, 743 ], [ 747, 752 ], [ 753, 757 ], [ 901, 909 ], [ 1041, 1051 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The claims for the succession of the control over the West, after the fall of Western Rome in 476 developed into the concept of translatio imperii (\"transfer of rule\") through the King of Italy, enabling claims by the Goths, Lombards, Frankish Empire (481/800–843) and Holy Roman Empire (800/962–1806).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development of Europe as a region", "target_page_ids": [ 923406, 262830, 434937, 12641, 18011, 303481, 13277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 97 ], [ 128, 146 ], [ 180, 193 ], [ 218, 223 ], [ 225, 233 ], [ 235, 250 ], [ 269, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Furtherore, during and after the Roman Empire the concept renovatio imperii (\"restoration of the empire\") was employed, particularly in the forms of the religiously inspired Imperium Christianum (\"christian empire\"), and later the Reichsidee (\"imperial idea\"), to establish and sustain a coherent political region. As such the position and extand of influence of the Papacy over a range of European lands has been a force, while not exclusively European, capable of rallying European powers under a common Christian identity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development of Europe as a region", "target_page_ids": [ 62347996, 13393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 75 ], [ 367, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "That said some European powers, such as France (after the installment of the Holy Roman Empire with East Francia), England, the Dutch Republic, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, with Prussia, or the Swedish Empire and Denmark–Norway also challenged the Papal, the Western Roman authority, through the Western Schism, the Italian Wars and Protestant Reformation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development of Europe as a region", "target_page_ids": [ 5843419, 13277, 1722738, 9316, 52626, 343234, 371248, 21173183, 21485871, 543939, 239500, 37857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 46 ], [ 77, 94 ], [ 100, 112 ], [ 115, 122 ], [ 128, 142 ], [ 148, 178 ], [ 185, 192 ], [ 201, 215 ], [ 220, 234 ], [ 303, 317 ], [ 323, 335 ], [ 340, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Greek Eastern Rome, also called Byzantine Empire, remained long after the dissolution of the Western Roman Empire, sustaining a coherent political space also over large areas of Europe, particularly of (South-) Eastern Europe, or simply the East, giving rise to the other mayor particular Europe. With the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453, the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Tsardom, and ultimately the Empire (1547–1917), with Moscow as the so-called Third Rome, used claims of inheritance of the eastern Roman Empire to legitimate their rule over larger areas of Europe, though not exclusively.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development of Europe as a region", "target_page_ids": [ 16972981, 37403, 18984987, 102674, 22278, 8527874, 20611504, 62150459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ], [ 215, 229 ], [ 241, 249 ], [ 310, 342 ], [ 356, 370 ], [ 379, 394 ], [ 415, 421 ], [ 464, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "But also other polities of Europe have established, independently from Rome and Byzantine, their European realms, such as a range of pre-Roman or pre-Christian Greek, Germanic, Celtic, Slavic and Hungarian powers, Khanates, or Al-Andalus and the Sicilian Emirate.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Development of Europe as a region", "target_page_ids": [ 1019827, 6158721, 355643, 4025585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 23 ], [ 214, 221 ], [ 227, 237 ], [ 246, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The original development of the European Union was based on a supranational foundation that would \"make war unthinkable and materially impossible\" ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideas of European unity before 1948", "target_page_ids": [ 934155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A peaceful means of some consolidation of European territories used to be provided by dynastic unions; less common were country-level unions, such as the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Austro-Hungarian Empire.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideas of European unity before 1948", "target_page_ids": [ 3452626, 343234, 2983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 100 ], [ 154, 184 ], [ 189, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle of 1818, Tsar Alexander, as the most advanced internationalist of the day, suggested a kind of permanent European union and even proposed the maintenance of international military forces to provide recognised states with support against changes by violence.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideas of European unity before 1948", "target_page_ids": [ 591918, 27126603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 42 ], [ 44, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pan-European political thought truly emerged during the 19th century, inspired by the liberal ideas of the French and American Revolutions. The following Napoleonic Wars and First French Empire (1804–1815), brought down the Holy Roman Empire, enabled nationalism and following the Congress of Vienna, the ideals of internationalism like with Immanuel Kant and European unity flourished across the continent, especially in the writings of Wojciech Jastrzębowski (1799–1882) or Giuseppe Mazzini (1805–1872). The term United States of Europe () was used at that time by Victor Hugo (1802–1885) during a speech at the International Peace Congress held in Paris in 1849:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideas of European unity before 1948", "target_page_ids": [ 11188, 1973, 45420, 21418258, 13277, 21748, 44628, 14631, 1505133, 36948, 15546705, 42146, 2952925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 113 ], [ 118, 137 ], [ 154, 169 ], [ 174, 193 ], [ 224, 241 ], [ 251, 262 ], [ 281, 299 ], [ 342, 355 ], [ 438, 460 ], [ 476, 492 ], [ 515, 538 ], [ 567, 578 ], [ 614, 642 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the interwar period, the consciousness that national markets in Europe were interdependent though confrontational, along with the observation of a larger and growing US market on the other side of the ocean, nourished the urge for the economic integration of the continent. In 1920, advocating the creation of a European economic union, the British economist John Maynard Keynes wrote that \"a Free Trade Union should be established ... to impose no protectionist tariffs whatever against the produce of other members of the Union.\" During the same decade, the Austrian Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, in light of the dissolution of the Habsburg Empire, imaginrd as one of the first a modern political union of Europe and founded the Pan-Europa Movement. His ideas influenced his contemporaries, among whom was then-Prime Minister of France Aristide Briand. In 1929, the latter gave a speech in favour of a European Union before the assembly of the League of Nations, the precursor of the United Nations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideas of European unity before 1948", "target_page_ids": [ 900011, 19804420, 37973, 187221, 42869603, 1041515, 864624, 218751, 192258, 17926, 31769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ], [ 328, 342 ], [ 366, 385 ], [ 567, 575 ], [ 576, 606 ], [ 643, 658 ], [ 740, 759 ], [ 822, 846 ], [ 847, 862 ], [ 955, 972 ], [ 995, 1009 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "World War II from 1939 to 1945 demonstrated more than ever the horrors of war, but particularly also of extremism, of exhilarating discrimination and of genocide. As with devastating wars before, there was a desire to ensure it could never happen again, particularly with the war bringing the world nuclear weapons. Most European countries failed to maintain their Great Power status, with the exception of the Soviet Union, which became a superpower after World War II and maintained that status for 45 years. This left two rival ideologically opposed superpowers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideas of European unity before 1948", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 428002, 21785, 372836, 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 104, 113 ], [ 299, 314 ], [ 365, 376 ], [ 411, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After World War I, but particularly following World War II, internationalism was gaining, with the creation of the Bretton Woods System in 1944, the United Nations in 1945 and the French Union (19461958), the latter directing decolonization by possibly integrating its colonies into a European community.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideas of European unity before 1948", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 38777061, 395888, 31769, 206159, 302084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 17 ], [ 60, 76 ], [ 115, 135 ], [ 149, 163 ], [ 180, 192 ], [ 226, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In this light European integration was already viewed by its proponents as an antidote to the extreme nationalism which had devastated parts of the continent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideas of European unity before 1948", "target_page_ids": [ 683704, 166280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 34 ], [ 94, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With war still raging, the Ventotene prison Manifesto of 1941 by Altiero Spinelli propagated European integration through the Italian Resistance and after 1943 through the European Federalist Movement. In March 1943, in a radio address, the United Kingdom's leader Sir Winston Churchill spoke warmly of \"restoring the true greatness of Europe\" once victory had been achieved, and mused on the post-war creation of a \"Council of Europe\" which would bring the European nations together to build peace.in 1943 for a post-war \"Council of Europe\" After the war on 19 September 1946 Chruchill went further as a civilian, after leaving his office, at the University of Zürich, calling for a United States of Europe. Coincidentally parallel to his speech the Hertenstein Congress in the Lucerne Canton was being held, resulting in the Union of European Federalists. Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, who successfully established during the interwar period the oldest organization for European integration, the Paneuropean Union, founded in June 1947 the European Parliamentary Union (EPU).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideas of European unity before 1948", "target_page_ids": [ 5694129, 1979104, 883438, 2448558, 31717, 33265, 314803, 15546705, 69161018, 5224463, 1548275, 42869603, 900011, 864624, 19788515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 53 ], [ 65, 81 ], [ 126, 144 ], [ 172, 200 ], [ 241, 255 ], [ 269, 286 ], [ 648, 668 ], [ 684, 707 ], [ 751, 771 ], [ 772, 793 ], [ 827, 856 ], [ 858, 888 ], [ 930, 945 ], [ 1000, 1017 ], [ 1044, 1072 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Allied Powers decided during the war at the 1943 Moscow Conference to establish the European Advisory Commission in 1944, which resulted with the end of the war 1945 in the Allied Control Council. To ensure Germany could never threaten the peace again, its heavy industry was partly dismantled (See: Allied plans for German industry after World War II) and its main coal-producing regions were detached (Saarland, Silesia), or put under international control (Ruhr area).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideas of European unity before 1948", "target_page_ids": [ 2198844, 4502413, 3692244, 19278647, 7237748, 27123, 378862, 95327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 48, 70 ], [ 88, 116 ], [ 177, 199 ], [ 304, 355 ], [ 408, 416 ], [ 418, 425 ], [ 464, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to different post-war security concerns the United Kingdom and France signed in March 1947 the Dunkirk Treaty. Immediately following the February 1948 coup d'état by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia the London Six-Power Conference was held, resulting in the creation of the International Authority for the Ruhr and the Soviet Union leaving the Allied Control Council. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ideas of European unity before 1948", "target_page_ids": [ 5843419, 18822142, 13965819, 422214, 40230130, 14744768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 73 ], [ 99, 113 ], [ 141, 166 ], [ 174, 207 ], [ 212, 239 ], [ 283, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The year 1948 marked the beginning of the institutionalised modern European integration. With the start of the Cold War, the Treaty of Brussels was signed in 1948 establishing the Western Union (WU) as the first organisation, followed by the International Authority for the Ruhr. In the same year, the Organization for European Economic Co-operation, the predecessor of the OECD, was also founded to manage the Marshall Plan. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Initial years (1948–57)", "target_page_ids": [ 325329, 3728496, 28411563, 14744768, 33853117, 19766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 119 ], [ 125, 143 ], [ 180, 193 ], [ 242, 278 ], [ 303, 350 ], [ 412, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A pivotal moment in European integration was the Hague Congress of May 1948, as it led to the creation of the European Movement International, the College of Europe and most importantly to the founding of the Council of Europe on the 5th of May 1949 (today its Europe day). The Council of Europe was the first institution to bring the sovereign nations of Europe together, raising great hopes and fevered debates in the following two years for further European integration. It has since been a broad forum to further cooperation and shared issues, achieving things like the 1950 signed European Convention on Human Rights.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Initial years (1948–57)", "target_page_ids": [ 1031879, 923790, 1399702, 5865, 442094, 9830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 63 ], [ 110, 141 ], [ 147, 164 ], [ 209, 226 ], [ 261, 271 ], [ 586, 621 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Essential for the actual birth of the institutions of the EU was the 9th of May 1950 Schuman Declaration (on the day after the fifth Victory Day, today's Europe day – of the EU). On the basis of that speech, France, Italy, the Benelux countries (Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg) together with West Germany signed the Treaty of Paris (1951) creating the European Coal and Steel Community the following year; this took over the role of the International Authority for the Ruhr and lifted some restrictions on German industrial productivity. It gave birth to the first institutions, such as the High Authority (now the European Commission) and the Common Assembly (now the European Parliament). The first presidents of those institutions were Jean Monnet and Paul-Henri Spaak respectively. The founding fathers of the European Union understood that coal and steel were the two industries essential for waging war, and believed that by tying their national industries together, a future war between their nations became much less likely. Backed by the Marshall Plan with large funds coming from the United States since 1948, the ECSC became a milestone organization, enabling European economic development and integration and being the origin of the main institutions of the EU such as the European Commission and Parliament.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Initial years (1948–57)", "target_page_ids": [ 2452550, 215257, 442094, 4170, 17515, 33166, 191934, 9577, 14744768, 9974, 9581, 336275, 162364, 13488874, 19766, 9974, 9581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 104 ], [ 133, 144 ], [ 154, 164 ], [ 227, 234 ], [ 271, 281 ], [ 297, 309 ], [ 321, 343 ], [ 357, 390 ], [ 442, 478 ], [ 620, 639 ], [ 674, 693 ], [ 744, 755 ], [ 760, 776 ], [ 795, 833 ], [ 1052, 1065 ], [ 1290, 1309 ], [ 1314, 1324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The formation of the European Coal and Steel Community was advanced by American Secretary of State George C. Marshall. His namesake plan to rebuild Europe in the wake of World War II contributed more than $100 billion in today's dollars to the Europeans, helping to feed Europeans, deliver steel to rebuild industries, provide coal to warm homes, and construct dams to help provide power. In doing so, the Marshall Plan encouraged the integration of European powers into the European Coal and Steel Community, the precursor to present-day European Union, by illustrating the effects of economic integration and the need for coordination. The potency of the Marshall Plan caused former German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt to remark in 1997 that \"America should not forget that the development of the European Union is one of its greatest achievements. Without the Marshall Plan it perhaps would never have come to that.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Initial years (1948–57)", "target_page_ids": [ 3434750, 36623, 19766, 41901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 79 ], [ 99, 117 ], [ 123, 154 ], [ 703, 717 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paralleling Schuman, the Pleven Plan of 1951 tried, but failed to tie the institutions of the developing European community under the European Political Community, which was to include the also proposed European Defence Community, an alternative to West Germany joining NATO which was established 1949 unter under the Truman Doctrine.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Initial years (1948–57)", "target_page_ids": [ 336251, 443795, 336251, 33166, 21133, 88556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ], [ 134, 162 ], [ 203, 229 ], [ 249, 261 ], [ 270, 274 ], [ 318, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1954 the Western European Union was founded, after NATO took over competences from the WU and West Germany joined. The develobing block prompted the Soviet Union to form the Warsaw Pact in 1955, allowing it to enforce its standing in Eastern Europe. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Initial years (1948–57)", "target_page_ids": [ 33607, 26779, 33622, 37403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 34 ], [ 152, 164 ], [ 177, 188 ], [ 237, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The attempt to turn the Saar protectorate into a \"European territory\" was rejected by a referendum in 1955. The Saar was to have been governed by a statute supervised by a European Commissioner reporting to the Council of Ministers of the Western European Union.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Initial years (1948–57)", "target_page_ids": [ 1664815, 33607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 41 ], [ 239, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the failed attempts at creating defence (European Defence Community) and political communities (European Political Community), leaders met at the Messina Conference and established the Spaak Committee which produced the Spaak report. The report was accepted at the Venice Conference (29 and 30 May 1956), which decided to organise an Intergovernmental Conference. The Intergovernmental Conference on the Common Market and Euratom focused on economic unity, leading to the Treaties of Rome being signed in 1957 - this established the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) among the members.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Initial years (1948–57)", "target_page_ids": [ 15379867, 15395929, 15430521, 15411335, 160455, 15401392, 78006, 9578, 223239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 170 ], [ 191, 206 ], [ 226, 238 ], [ 271, 288 ], [ 340, 368 ], [ 374, 435 ], [ 478, 494 ], [ 539, 566 ], [ 581, 613 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The two new communities were created separately from ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The executives of the new communities were called Commissions, as opposed to the \"High Authority\". The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein (Hallstein Commission) and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand (Armand Commission) and then Étienne Hirsch. Euratom would integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union between members.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1958–1972: Three communities", "target_page_ids": [ 241331, 5188432, 7812872, 10330887, 12458318, 22153, 5864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 242, 258 ], [ 260, 280 ], [ 308, 320 ], [ 322, 339 ], [ 350, 364 ], [ 401, 415 ], [ 446, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout the 1960s tensions began to show with France seeking to limit supranational power and rejecting the membership of the United Kingdom. However, in 1965 an agreement was reached to merge the three communities under a single set of institutions, and hence the Merger Treaty was signed in Brussels and came into force on 1 July 1967 creating the European Communities. Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission (Rey Commission).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1958–1972: Three communities", "target_page_ids": [ 1033202, 414741, 171911, 24468, 5188509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 268, 281 ], [ 353, 373 ], [ 375, 383 ], [ 384, 397 ], [ 427, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the political progress of the Communities was hesitant in the 1960s, this was a fertile period for European legal integration. Many of the foundational legal doctrines of the Court of Justice were first established in landmark decisions during the 1960s and 1970s, above all in the Van Gend en Loos decision of 1963 that declared the \"direct effect\" of European law, that is to say, its enforceability before national courts by private parties. Other landmark decisions during this period included Costa v ENEL, which established the supremacy of European law over national law and the \"Dairy Products\" decision, which declared that general international law principles of reciprocity and retaliation were prohibited within the European Community. All three of these judgments were made after the appointment of French judge Robert Lecourt in 1962, and Lecourt appears to have become a dominant influence on the Court of Justice over the 1960s and 1970s.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1958–1972: Three communities", "target_page_ids": [ 14580233, 276436, 11219282, 16715981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 288, 304 ], [ 359, 371 ], [ 504, 516 ], [ 831, 845 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After much negotiation, and following a change in the French Presidency, Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom (with Gibraltar) eventually joined the European Communities on 1 January 1973. This was the first of several enlargements which became a major policy area of the Union (see: Enlargement of the European Union).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "1973–1993: Enlargement to Delors", "target_page_ids": [ 24899, 7607314, 324164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 71 ], [ 119, 128 ], [ 287, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1979, the European Parliament held its first direct elections by universal suffrage. 410 members were elected, who then elected the first female President of the European Parliament, Simone Veil.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "1973–1993: Enlargement to Delors", "target_page_ids": [ 9581, 220636, 764167, 574751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 32 ], [ 68, 86 ], [ 148, 184 ], [ 186, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A further enlargement took place in 1981 with Greece joining on 1 January, six years after applying. In 1982, Greenland voted to leave the Community after gaining home rule from Denmark (See also: Special member state territories and the European Union). Spain and Portugal joined (having applied in 1977) on 1 January 1986 in the third enlargement.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "1973–1993: Enlargement to Delors", "target_page_ids": [ 12118, 20446702, 174102, 544390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 119 ], [ 120, 148 ], [ 163, 172 ], [ 197, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Recently appointed Commission President Jacques Delors (Delors Commission) presided over the adoption of the European flag by the Communities in 1986. In the first major revision of the treaties since the Merger Treaty, leaders signed the Single European Act in February 1986. The text dealt with institutional reform, including extension of community powers – in particular in regarding foreign policy. It was a major component in completing the single market and came into force on 1 July 1987.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "1973–1993: Enlargement to Delors", "target_page_ids": [ 165718, 1633310, 10025, 43650454, 652069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 54 ], [ 56, 73 ], [ 109, 122 ], [ 182, 194 ], [ 239, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1987 Turkey formally applied to join the Community and began the longest application process for any country. After the 1988 Polish strikes and the Polish Round Table Agreement, the first small signs of opening in Central Europe appeared. The opening of a border gate between Austria and Hungary at the Pan-European Picnic on August 19, 1989 then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer a GDR and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. Otto von Habsburg and Imre Pozsgay saw the event as an opportunity to test Mikhail Gorbachev`s reaction to an opening of the Iron Curtain. In particular, it was examined whether Moscow would give the Soviet troops stationed in Hungary the command to intervene. But with the mass exodus at the Pan-European Picnic, the subsequent hesitant behavior of the Socialist Unity Party of East Germany and the non-intervention of the Soviet Union broke the dams. So the bracket of the Eastern Bloc was broken and as a result the Berlin Wall fell together with the whole Iron Curtain. Germany reunified and the door to enlargement to the former Eastern Bloc was opened (See also: Copenhagen Criteria).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "1973–1993: Enlargement to Delors", "target_page_ids": [ 11125639, 23172237, 632986, 13361301, 97477, 148301, 13211074, 20979, 18953051, 60906, 3722, 61103, 97477, 415928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 14 ], [ 123, 142 ], [ 151, 179 ], [ 306, 325 ], [ 445, 457 ], [ 477, 494 ], [ 499, 511 ], [ 552, 569 ], [ 602, 614 ], [ 831, 868 ], [ 996, 1007 ], [ 1059, 1068 ], [ 1111, 1123 ], [ 1146, 1165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With a wave of new enlargements on the way, the Maastricht Treaty was signed on 7 February 1992 which established the European Union when it came into force the following year.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "1973–1993: Enlargement to Delors", "target_page_ids": [ 20803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 1 November 1993, under the third Delors Commission, the Maastricht Treaty became effective, creating the European Union with its pillar system, including foreign and home affairs alongside the European Community. The 1994 European elections were held resulting in the Party of European Socialists maintaining their position as the largest party in Parliament. The Council proposed Jacques Santer as Commission President but he was seen as a second choice candidate, undermining his position. Parliament narrowly approved Santer but his commission gained greater support, being approved by 416 votes to 103. Santer had to use his new powers under Maastricht to flex greater control over his choice of Commissioners. They took office on 23 January 1995.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1993–2004: Creation", "target_page_ids": [ 1633310, 20803, 9317, 1034422, 9578, 9736512, 24083, 273450, 24468, 917000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 53 ], [ 59, 76 ], [ 108, 122 ], [ 132, 145 ], [ 196, 214 ], [ 220, 243 ], [ 271, 299 ], [ 384, 398 ], [ 402, 422 ], [ 535, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 30 March 1994, accession negotiations concluded with Austria, Sweden and Finland. Meanwhile, Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein joined the European Economic Area (which entered into force on 1 January 1994), an organisation that allowed European Free Trade Association states to enter the Single European Market. The following year, the Schengen Agreement came into force between seven members, expanding to include nearly all others by the end of 1996. The 1990s also saw the further development of the euro. 1 January 1994 saw the second stage of the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union begin with the establishment of the European Monetary Institute and at the start of 1999 the euro as a currency was launched and the European Central Bank was established. On 1 January 2002, notes and coins were put into circulation, replacing the old currencies entirely.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1993–2004: Creation", "target_page_ids": [ 26964606, 5058739, 10577, 21241, 14531, 17810, 95363, 9580, 1954570, 179592, 9472, 26267738, 813834, 9474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 63 ], [ 65, 71 ], [ 76, 83 ], [ 96, 102 ], [ 104, 111 ], [ 116, 129 ], [ 141, 163 ], [ 239, 270 ], [ 291, 313 ], [ 339, 357 ], [ 506, 510 ], [ 555, 604 ], [ 641, 668 ], [ 738, 759 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1990s, the conflicts in the Balkans gave impetus to developing the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). The EU failed to react during the beginning of the conflict, and UN peacekeepers from the Netherlands failed to prevent the Srebrenica massacre (July 1995) in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the largest mass murder in Europe since the Second World War. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) finally had to intervene in the war, forcing the combatants to the negotiation table. The early foreign policy experience of the EU led to foreign policy being emphasised in the Treaty of Amsterdam (which created the High Representative).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1993–2004: Creation", "target_page_ids": [ 435497, 165304, 15652027, 814723, 3463, 21133, 21710997, 525207, 750942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 46 ], [ 83, 117 ], [ 191, 206 ], [ 250, 269 ], [ 285, 307 ], [ 375, 409 ], [ 432, 452 ], [ 595, 614 ], [ 634, 653 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, any success was overshadowed by the budget crisis in March 1999. The Parliament refused to approve the Commission's 1996 community's budget on grounds of financial mismanagement, fraud and nepotism. With Parliament ready to throw them out, the entire Santer Commission resigned. The post-Delors mood of euroscepticism became entrenched with the Council and Parliament constantly challenging the Commission's position in coming years.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1993–2004: Creation", "target_page_ids": [ 3508373, 917000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 148 ], [ 260, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the following elections, the Socialists lost their decades-old majority to the new People's Party and the incoming Prodi Commission was quick to establish the new European Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF). Under the new powers of the Amsterdam Treaty, Prodi was described by some as the 'First Prime Minister of Europe'. On 4 June, Javier Solana was appointed Secretary General of the Council and the strengthened High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy admitted the intervention in Kosovo – Solana was also seen by some as Europe's first Foreign Minister. The Nice Treaty was signed on 26 February 2001 and entered into force on 1 February 2003 which made the final preparations before the 2004 enlargement to 10 new members.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1993–2004: Creation", "target_page_ids": [ 294038, 727249, 1175590, 508247, 391110, 750942, 317153, 76429, 21133193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 26 ], [ 86, 100 ], [ 118, 134 ], [ 166, 192 ], [ 327, 340 ], [ 409, 471 ], [ 557, 573 ], [ 579, 590 ], [ 709, 743 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 10–13 June 2004, the 25 member states participated in the largest trans-national election in history (with the second largest democratic electorate in the world). The result of the sixth Parliamentary election was a second victory for the European People's Party-European Democrats group. It also saw the lowest voter turnout of 45.5%, the second time it had fallen below 50%. On 22 July 2004, José Manuel Barroso was approved by the new Parliament as the next Commission President. However, his new team of 25 Commissioners faced a tougher road. With Parliament raising objections to a number of his candidates he was forced to withdraw his selection and try once more. The Prodi Commission had to extend their mandate to 22 November after the new line-up of commissioners was finally approved.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "2004–2007: The great enlargement and consolidation", "target_page_ids": [ 433911, 9866, 549462, 354436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 212 ], [ 242, 284 ], [ 315, 328 ], [ 397, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A proposed constitutional treaty was signed by plenipotentiaries from EU member states on 28 October 2004. The document was ratified in most member states, including two positive referendums. The referendums that were held in France and the Netherlands failed however, killing off the treaty. The European Council agreed that the constitution proposal would be abandoned, but most of its changes would be retained in an amending treaty. On 13 December 2007 the treaty was signed, containing opt-outs for the more eurosceptic members and no state-like elements. The Lisbon treaty finally came into force on 1 December 2009. It created the post of President of the European Council and significantly expanded the post of High Representative. After much debate about what kind of person should be President, the European Council agreed on a low-key personality and chose Herman Van Rompuy while foreign policy-novice Catherine Ashton became High Representative.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "2004–2007: The great enlargement and consolidation", "target_page_ids": [ 234500, 954324, 1545884, 1542517, 13705897, 10037, 361380, 750942, 7742342, 523522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 32 ], [ 47, 64 ], [ 196, 232 ], [ 237, 252 ], [ 491, 499 ], [ 513, 524 ], [ 646, 679 ], [ 719, 738 ], [ 868, 885 ], [ 914, 930 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2009 elections again saw a victory for the European People's Party, despite losing the British Conservatives who formed a smaller eurosceptic European Conservatives and Reformists grouping with other anti-federalist right wing parties. Parliament's presidency was once again divided between the People's Party and the Socialists, with Jerzy Buzek elected as the first President of the European Parliament from an ex-communist country.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "2004–2007: The great enlargement and consolidation", "target_page_ids": [ 5966954, 727249, 32113, 23193233, 735823, 764167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 47, 70 ], [ 91, 112 ], [ 146, 183 ], [ 339, 350 ], [ 372, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Barroso was nominated by the Council for a second term and received backing from EPP who had declared him as their candidate before the elections. However, the Socialists and Greens led the opposition against him despite not agreeing on an opposing candidate. Parliament finally approved Barroso II, though once more several months behind schedule.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "2004–2007: The great enlargement and consolidation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, the fifth enlargement completed with the accession of Romania and Bulgaria on 1 January 2007. Also, in 2007 Slovenia adopted the euro, Malta and Cyprus in 2008 and Slovakia in 2009.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "2004–2007: The great enlargement and consolidation", "target_page_ids": [ 24299732, 25445, 3415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 40 ], [ 63, 70 ], [ 75, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However trouble developed with existing members as the eurozone entered its first recession in 2008. Members cooperated and the ECB intervened to help restore economic growth and the euro was seen as a safe haven, particularly by those outside such as Iceland. With the risk of a default in Greece, Ireland, Portugal and other members in late 2009–10, eurozone leaders agreed to provisions for loans to member states who could not raise funds. Accusations that this was a U-turn on the EU treaties, which rule out any bail out of a euro member in order to encourage them to manage their finances better, were countered by the argument that these were loans, not grants, and that neither the EU nor other Member States assumed any liabilities for the debts of the aided countries. With Greece struggling to restore its finances, other member states also at risk and the repercussions this would have on the rest of the eurozone economy, a loan mechanism was agreed. The crisis also spurred consensus for further economic integration and a range of proposals such as a European Monetary Fund or federal treasury.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "2008–2016: European crisis", "target_page_ids": [ 184391, 26152387, 27146868, 31277859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 63 ], [ 291, 350 ], [ 785, 826 ], [ 1067, 1089 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The European Union received the 2012 Nobel Peace Prize for having \"contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy and human rights in Europe.\" The Nobel Committee stated that \"that dreadful suffering in World War II demonstrated the need for a new Europe [...] today war between Germany and France is unthinkable. This shows how, through well-aimed efforts and by building up mutual confidence, historical enemies can become close partners.\" The Nobel Committee's decision was subject to considerable criticism.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "2008–2016: European crisis", "target_page_ids": [ 33355059, 1413039, 3946927, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 54 ], [ 141, 163 ], [ 170, 185 ], [ 226, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 1 July 2013, Croatia joined the EU, and on 1 January 2014 the French Indian Ocean territory of Mayotte was added as an outermost region.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "2008–2016: European crisis", "target_page_ids": [ 4638190, 14580, 19211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 37 ], [ 72, 84 ], [ 98, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 23 June 2016, the citizens of the United Kingdom voted to withdraw from the European Union in a referendum and subsequently became the first and to date only member to trigger Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU). The vote was in favour of leaving the EU by a margin of 51.9% in favour to 48.1% against. The UK's withdrawal was completed on 31 January 2020.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "2016–2020: Brexit", "target_page_ids": [ 41688778, 4917774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 93 ], [ 179, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the economic crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic the EU leaders agreed for the first time to emit common debt to finance the European Recovery Program called Next Generation EU (NGEU).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "2020–2022: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic", "target_page_ids": [ 63462234, 62750956, 64171051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ], [ 40, 57 ], [ 167, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 24 February 2022, after massing in the borders of Ukraine, the Russian Armed Forces undertook an attempt for a full-scale invasion of Ukraine.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "2022–present: Impact of the Russo-Ukrainian War", "target_page_ids": [ 25709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The European Union imposed heavy sanctions on Russia and agreed on a pooled military aid package to Ukraine for lethal weapons funded via the European Peace Facility off-budget instrument. Likewise, neighbouring EU member countries received a mass influx of Ukrainian refugees fleeing the conflict over the course of the first weeks of the war. The conflict exposed the EU energy dependency on Russia, deemed as a supplier \"explicitly\" threatening the EU. This development injected a sense of urgency in the switch towards alternative energy suppliers and further development of clean energy sources.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "2022–present: Impact of the Russo-Ukrainian War", "target_page_ids": [ 43449324, 165304, 70199806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 52 ], [ 142, 165 ], [ 243, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timeline of European Union history", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11736039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Enlargement of the European Union", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 324164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the euro", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8459263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the Common Security and Defence Policy", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 57262814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of European Councils", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11948277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of presidents of the institutions of the European Union", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13520015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Founding fathers of the European Union", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13488874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the European Union in Brussels", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9981557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the location of EU institutions", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9441774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Europe", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " House of European History", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33375331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Virtual Centre for Knowledge on Europe Multimedia source collections on EU History", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6054434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wider European history between World War II and the fall of Communism in Europe 1945–1992", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " End of World War II in Europe", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 360422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cold War", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 325329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Revolutions of 1989", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4584893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " German reunification", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 61103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yugoslavia and the European Economic Community", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 57801200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Breakup of Yugoslavia", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2060900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wider European history after the creation of the European Union", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Maastricht Treaty", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the European Union (1993–2004)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17751345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the European Union (since 2004)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26787108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eurozone", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 184391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2006 Montenegrin independence referendum", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4144616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence from Serbia", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15796209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " European sovereign-debt crisis", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26152387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anderson, P. The New Old World (Verso 2009) ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Berend, Ivan T. The History of European Integration: A New Perspective. (Routledge, 2016).", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 29265987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Blair, Alasdair. The European Union since 1945 (Routledge, 2014).", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chaban, N. and M. Holland, eds. Communicating Europe in Times of Crisis: External Perceptions of the European Union (2014).", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dedman, Martin. The origins and development of the European Union 1945-1995: a history of European integration (Routledge, 2006).", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " De Vries, Catherine E. \"Don't Mention the War! Second World War Remembrance and Support for European Cooperation.\" JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies (2019).", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 67267218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dinan, Desmond. Europe recast: a history of European Union (2nd ed. Palgrave Macmillan), 2004 excerpt.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fimister, Alan. Robert Schuman: Neo-Scholastic Humanism and the Reunification of Europe (2008) ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Heuser, Beatrice. Brexit in History: Sovereignty or a European Union? (2019) excerpt also see online review", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hobolt, Sara B. \"The Brexit vote: a divided nation, a divided continent.\" Journal of European Public Policy (2016): 1–19.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 54784267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jorgensen, Knud Erik, et al., eds. The SAGE Handbook of European Foreign Policy (Sage, 2015).", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kaiser, Wolfram. \"From state to society? The historiography of European integration.\" in Michelle Cini, and Angela K. Bourne, eds. Palgrave Advances in European Union Studies (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2006). pp 190–208.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 17227315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kaiser, Wolfram, and Antonio Varsori, eds. European Union history: themes and debates (Springer, 2016).", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Koops, TJ. and G. Macaj. The European Union as a Diplomatic Actor (2015).", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " McCormick, John. Understanding the European Union: a concise introduction (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 6818053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May, Alex. Britain and Europe since 1945 (1999). ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Marsh, Steve, and Hans Mackenstein. The International Relations of the EU (Routledge, 2014).", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Milward, Alan S. The Reconstruction of Western Europe: 1945–51 (Univ. of California Press, 1984)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 43546550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Patel, Kiran Klaus, and Wolfram Kaiser. \"Continuity and change in European cooperation during the twentieth century.\" Contemporary European History 27.2 (2018): 165–182. online", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Young, John W. Britain, France, and the unity of Europe, 1945–1951 (Leicester University, 1984).", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " History of the EU Official Europa website", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " CLIOH-WORLD CLIOH-WORLD: Network of Universities supported by the European Commission (LLP-Erasmus) for the researching, teaching and learning of the history of the EU, including History of EU Integration, EU-Turkey dialogue, and linking to world history.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An Outline of the Emergence of the European Union", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "History_of_the_European_Union" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Erich Ernst Paul Honecker (; 25 August 1912 – 29 May 1994) was a German communist politician who led the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) from 1971 until shortly before the fall of the Berlin Wall in October 1989. He held the posts of General Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) and Chairman of the National Defence Council; in 1976, he replaced Willi Stoph as Chairman of the State Council, the official head of state. As the leader of East Germany, Honecker had close ties to the Soviet Union, which maintained a large army in the country.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 55959, 13058, 61917089, 60906, 14046564, 429865, 9912084, 13456, 26779, 635307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 92 ], [ 133, 145 ], [ 182, 205 ], [ 269, 301 ], [ 312, 352 ], [ 375, 386 ], [ 390, 419 ], [ 434, 447 ], [ 511, 523 ], [ 542, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Honecker's political career began in the 1930s when he became an official of the Communist Party of Germany, a position for which he was imprisoned by the Nazis. Following World War II, he was freed by the Soviet army and relaunched his political activities, founding the SED's youth organisation, the Free German Youth, in 1946 and serving as the group's chairman until 1955. As the Security Secretary of the SED Central Committee, he was the prime organiser of the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961 and, in this function, bore administrative responsibility for the \"order to fire\" along the Wall and the larger inner German border.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 265557, 21212, 32927, 286993, 3722, 947625, 849186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 107 ], [ 155, 160 ], [ 172, 184 ], [ 302, 319 ], [ 483, 494 ], [ 570, 583 ], [ 615, 634 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1970, Honecker initiated a political power struggle that led, with support of Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, to him replacing Walter Ulbricht as General Secretary of the SED and chairman of the National Defence Council. Under his command, the country adopted a programme of \"consumer socialism\" and moved towards the international community by normalizing relations with West Germany and also becoming a full member of the UN, in what is considered one of his greatest political successes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 50151, 58548, 188480, 61086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 110 ], [ 129, 144 ], [ 320, 343 ], [ 347, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Cold War tensions eased in the late 1980s with the advent of perestroika and glasnost—the liberal reforms introduced by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev—Honecker refused all but cosmetic changes to the East German political system. He cited the continual hardliner attitudes of Kim Il-sung and Fidel Castro, whose respective regimes of North Korea and Cuba had been critical of reforms. As anti-government protests grew, Honecker begged Gorbachev to intervene with the Soviet army to suppress the protests to maintain communist rule in East Germany as Moscow had done with Czechoslovakia in the Prague Spring of 1968 and with the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, but Gorbachev refused. Honecker was forced to resign by the SED Politburo in October 1989 in a bid to improve the government's image in the eyes of the public; the effort was unsuccessful, and the regime would collapse entirely the following month.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 325329, 24143, 12607, 20979, 2238501, 19718837, 38301, 21255, 5042481, 23821, 351949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 64, 75 ], [ 80, 88 ], [ 137, 154 ], [ 204, 232 ], [ 280, 291 ], [ 296, 308 ], [ 338, 349 ], [ 354, 358 ], [ 597, 610 ], [ 632, 660 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following German reunification in 1990, Honecker sought asylum in the Chilean embassy in Moscow, but was extradited back to Germany in 1992, after the fall of the Soviet Union, to stand trial for his role in the human rights abuses committed by the East German government. However, the proceedings were abandoned, as Honecker was suffering from terminal liver cancer. He was freed from custody to join his family in exile in Chile, where he died in May 1994.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 61103, 40494892, 13831, 12284396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ], [ 151, 175 ], [ 212, 231 ], [ 354, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Honecker was born in Neunkirchen, in what is now Saarland, to Wilhelm Honecker (1881–1969), a coal miner and political activist, and his wife Caroline Catharine Weidenhof (1883–1963). The couple, married in 1905, had six children: Katharina (Käthe, 1906–1925), Wilhelm (Willi, 1907–1944), Frieda (1909–1974), Erich, Gertrud (1917–2010) and Karl-Robert (1923–1947). Erich, their fourth child, was born on 25 August 1912 during the period in which the family resided on Max-Braun-Straße, before later moving to Kuchenbergstraße 88 in the present-day Neunkirchen city district of Wiebelskirchen.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Childhood and youth", "target_page_ids": [ 4402289, 27123, 4402289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ], [ 49, 57 ], [ 577, 591 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After World War I, the Territory of the Saar Basin was occupied by France. This change from the strict rule of to French military occupation provided the backdrop for what Wilhelm Honecker understood as proletarian exploitation, and introduced young Erich to communism. After his tenth birthday in 1922, Erich Honecker became a member of the Spartacus League's children's group in Wiebelskirchen. Aged 14 he entered the KJVD, the Young Communist League of Germany, for whom he later served the organisation's leader of Saarland from 1931.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Childhood and youth", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 5108238, 44379525, 1110985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 17 ], [ 23, 50 ], [ 343, 359 ], [ 431, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Honecker did not find an apprenticeship immediately after leaving school, but instead worked for a farmer in Pomerania for almost two years. In 1928 he returned to Wiebelskirchen and began a traineeship as a roofer with his uncle, but quit to attend the International Lenin School in Moscow and Magnitogorsk after the KJVD handpicked him for a course of study there. There, sharing a room with Anton Ackermann, he studied under the cover name \"Fritz Malter\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Childhood and youth", "target_page_ids": [ 24261, 2386632, 1366896, 1214571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 118 ], [ 254, 280 ], [ 295, 307 ], [ 394, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1930, aged 18, Honecker entered the KPD, the Communist Party of Germany. His political mentor was Otto Niebergall, who later represented the KPD in the Reichstag. After returning from Moscow in 1931 following his studies at the International Lenin School, he became the leader of the KJVD in the Saar region. After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, Communist activities within Germany were only possible undercover; the Saar region however still remained outside the German Reich under a League of Nations mandate. Honecker was arrested in Essen, Germany but soon released. Following this he fled to the Netherlands and from there oversaw KJVD's activities in Pfalz, Hesse and Baden-Württemberg.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Opposition to the Nazis and imprisonment", "target_page_ids": [ 265557, 2386632, 1110985, 3796622, 27123, 291222, 173973, 21148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 74 ], [ 231, 257 ], [ 287, 291 ], [ 322, 351 ], [ 424, 435 ], [ 471, 483 ], [ 544, 549 ], [ 608, 619 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Honecker returned to the Saar in 1934 and worked alongside Johannes Hoffmann on the campaign against the region's re-incorporation into Germany. A referendum on the area's future in January 1935 however saw 90.73% vote in favour of reunifying with Germany. Like 4,000 to 8,000 others, Honecker then fled the region, initially relocating to Paris.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Opposition to the Nazis and imprisonment", "target_page_ids": [ 35045882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 28 August 1935 he illegally travelled to Berlin under the alias \"Marten Tjaden\", with a printing press in his luggage. From there he worked closely together with KPD official Herbert Wehner in opposition/resistance to the Nazi state. On 4 December 1935 Honecker was detained by the Gestapo and until 1937 remanded in Berlin's Moabit detention centre. On 3 July 1937 he was sentenced to ten years imprisonment for the \"preparation of high treason alongside the severe falsification of documents\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Opposition to the Nazis and imprisonment", "target_page_ids": [ 403130, 573879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 192 ], [ 329, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Honecker spent the majority of his incarceration in the Brandenburg-Görden Prison, where he also carried out tasks as a handyman. In early 1945 he was moved to the Barnimstraße Women's Prison in Berlin due to good behaviour and to be put to work repairing the bomb-damaged building, as he was a skilled roofer. During an Allied bombing raid on 6 March 1945 he managed to escape and hid himself at the apartment of Lotte Grund, a female prison guard. After several days she persuaded him to turn himself in and his escape was then covered up by the guard. Honecker spent most of his time in prison under solitary confinement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Opposition to the Nazis and imprisonment", "target_page_ids": [ 26577380, 265564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 81 ], [ 604, 624 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the liberation of the prisons by advancing Soviet troops on 27 April 1945, Honecker remained in Berlin. His \"escape\" from prison and his relationships during his captivity later led to him experiencing difficulties within the Socialist Unity Party, as well as straining his relations with his former inmates. In later interviews and in his personal memoirs, Honecker falsified many of the details of his life during this period. Material from the East German State Security Service has been used to allege that, to be released from prison, Honecker offered the Gestapo evidence incriminating fellow imprisoned Communists, claimed he had renounced Communism \"for good\", and was willing to serve in the German army.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Opposition to the Nazis and imprisonment", "target_page_ids": [ 291145, 60906, 29452, 12899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 62 ], [ 232, 253 ], [ 453, 487 ], [ 567, 574 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 1945 Honecker was \"picked up\" by chance in Berlin by Hans Mahle and taken to the Ulbricht Group, a collective of exiled German communists that had returned from the Soviet Union to Germany after the end of the Nazi regime. Through Waldemar Schmidt, Honecker befriended Walter Ulbricht, who had not been aware of him at that point. Honecker's future role in the group was still undecided until well into the summer months, as he had yet to face a party process. This ended in a reprimand due to his \"undisciplined conduct\" in fleeing from prison at the start of the year, an action which was debated upon, potentially jeopardizing the other (communist) inmates.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war return to politics", "target_page_ids": [ 71083587, 9515774, 58548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 70 ], [ 88, 102 ], [ 276, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1946, Honecker became the co-founder of the Free German Youth (FDJ), whose chairmanship he also undertook. After the formation of the SED, the Socialist Unity Party, in April 1946 through a merger of the KPD and SPD, Honecker swiftly became a leading party member and took his place in the party's Central Committee.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war return to politics", "target_page_ids": [ 286993, 60906, 265557, 60585, 38280862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 64 ], [ 146, 167 ], [ 207, 210 ], [ 215, 218 ], [ 301, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 7 October 1949, the German Democratic Republic was formed with the adoption of a new constitution, establishing a political system similar to that of the Soviet Union. Within the state's socialist single party government, Honecker determinedly resumed his political career and the following year was nominated as a candidate for the Politbüro of the SED's Central Committee. As President of the Free German Youth movement, he organised the inaugural \"Deutschlandtreffen der Jugend\" in East Berlin in May 1950 and the 3rd World Festival of Youth and Students in 1951, although the latter was beset with organisational problems.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war return to politics", "target_page_ids": [ 299494, 26779, 24752, 3868076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 100 ], [ 157, 169 ], [ 336, 345 ], [ 520, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the internal party unrest following the suppressed uprising of June 1953, Honecker sided with First Secretary Walter Ulbricht, despite the majority of the Politburo attempting to depose Ulbricht in favour of Rudolf Herrnstadt. Honecker himself though faced questioning from party members about his inadequate qualifications for his position. On 27 May 1955 he handed the Presidency of the FDJ over to Karl Namokel, and departed for Moscow to study for two years at the School of the Soviet Communist Party at Ulbricht's request. During this period he witnessed the 20th Congress of the Soviet Communist Party in person, where its First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev denounced Joseph Stalin.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war return to politics", "target_page_ids": [ 301718, 23735747, 7271, 43143815, 42558, 39903039, 15641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 79 ], [ 215, 232 ], [ 490, 512 ], [ 572, 615 ], [ 653, 670 ], [ 671, 680 ], [ 681, 694 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After returning to East Germany in 1958, Honecker became a fully-fledged member of the Politburo, taking over responsibility for military and security issues. As the Party Security Secretary he was the prime organiser of the building of the Berlin Wall in August 1961 and also a proponent of the \"order to fire\" along the Inner German border.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post-war return to politics", "target_page_ids": [ 3722, 947625, 849186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 241, 252 ], [ 297, 310 ], [ 322, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Ulbricht had replaced the state's command economy with, firstly the \"New Economic System\", then the Economic System of Socialism, as he sought to improve the country's failing economy, Honecker declared the main task to in fact be the \"unity of economic and social politics\", essentially through which living standards (with increased consumer goods) would be raised in exchange for political loyalty. Tensions had already led to his once-mentor Ulbricht removing Honecker from the position of Second Secretary in July 1970, only for the Soviet leadership to swiftly reinstate him. Honecker played up the thawing East-West German relationship as Ulbricht's strategy, to win the support of the Soviet leadership under Leonid Brezhnev. With this secured, Honecker was appointed First Secretary (from 1976 titled general secretary) of the Central Committee on 3 May 1971 after the Soviet leadership forced Ulbricht to step aside \"for health reasons\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Leadership of East Germany", "target_page_ids": [ 7843, 5155895, 12104708, 53487, 50151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 55 ], [ 75, 94 ], [ 106, 134 ], [ 308, 324 ], [ 723, 738 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After also succeeding Ulbricht as Chairman of the National Defence Council in 1971, Honecker was eventually also elected Chairman of the State Council (a post equivalent to that of president) on 29 October 1976. With this, Honecker reached the height of power within East Germany. From there on, he, along with Economic Secretary Günter Mittag and Minister of State Security Erich Mielke, made all key government decisions. Until 1989 the \"little strategic clique\" composed of these three men was unchallenged as the top level of East Germany's ruling class. Honecker's closest colleague was , the SED's Agitation and Propaganda Secretary. Alongside him, Honecker held daily meetings concerning the party's media representation in which the layout of the party's own newspaper Neues Deutschland, as well as the sequencing of news items in the national news bulletin Aktuelle Kamera, were determined.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Leadership of East Germany", "target_page_ids": [ 14046564, 22068905, 245716, 3692436, 1511312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 74 ], [ 330, 343 ], [ 375, 387 ], [ 777, 794 ], [ 866, 881 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under Honecker's leadership, East Germany adopted a programme of \"consumer socialism\", which resulted in a marked improvement in living standards already the highest among the Eastern bloc countries. More attention was placed on the availability of consumer goods, and the construction of new housing was accelerated, with Honecker promising to \"settle the housing problem as an issue of social relevance\". His policies were initially marked by a liberalisation toward culture and art, though this was less about the replacement of Ulbricht by Honecker and more for propaganda purposes. While 1973 brought the World Festival of Youth and Students to East Berlin, soon dissident artists such as Wolf Biermann were expelled and the Ministry for State Security raised its efforts to suppress political resistance. Honecker remained committed to the expansion of the Inner German border and the \"order to fire\" policy along it. During his time in office around 125 East German citizens were killed while trying to reach the West.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Leadership of East Germany", "target_page_ids": [ 97477, 2824490, 9483, 431926, 29452, 849186, 947625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 188 ], [ 610, 646 ], [ 650, 661 ], [ 694, 707 ], [ 730, 757 ], [ 863, 882 ], [ 892, 905 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Federal Republic had secured an agreement with the Soviet Union on cooperation and a policy of non-violence, it became possible to reach a similar agreement with the GDR. The Basic Treaty between East and West Germany in 1972 sought to normalise contacts between the two governments.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Leadership of East Germany", "target_page_ids": [ 1827764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "East Germany also participated in the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe held in Helsinki in 1975, which attempted to improve relations between the West and the Eastern Bloc, and became a full member of the United Nations. These acts of diplomacy were considered Honecker’s greatest successes in foreign politics. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Leadership of East Germany", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Honecker received additional high-profile personal recognitions including honorary doctorates of humane letters from North Korea’s Kim Il-Sung University in 1974, Cuba's University of Las Tunas in 1979 and Iraq's Saddam University in 1983, honorary doctorates of business administration from East Berlin's Humboldt University in 1976, Tokyo's Nihon University in 1981 and the London School of Economics in 1984 and the Olympic Order from the IOC in 1985. In September 1987, he became the first East German head of state to visit West Germany, where he was received with full state honours by West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl in an act that seemed to confirm West Germany's acceptance of East Germany's existence. During this trip he also journeyed to his birthplace in Saarland, where he held an emotional speech in which he spoke of a day when Germans would no longer be separated by borders, but unified under communist rule. This trip had been planned twice before, including September 1984, but was initially blocked by the Soviet leadership which mistrusted the special East-West German relationship, particularly efforts to expand East Germany's limited independence in the realm of foreign policy.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Leadership of East Germany", "target_page_ids": [ 1207049, 59037102, 17256764, 308234, 391823, 67704, 4011016, 15147, 62450261, 41896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 153 ], [ 170, 193 ], [ 213, 230 ], [ 306, 325 ], [ 343, 359 ], [ 376, 402 ], [ 419, 432 ], [ 442, 445 ], [ 523, 541 ], [ 615, 626 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1980s, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced glasnost and perestroika, reforms to liberalise socialist planned economy. Frictions between him and Honecker had grown over these policies and numerous additional issues from 1985 onward. East Germany refused to implement similar reforms, with Honecker reportedly telling Gorbachev: \"We have done our perestroika; we have nothing to restructure\". Gorbachev grew to dislike Honecker, and by 1988 was lumping him in with Bulgaria's Todor Zhivkov, Czechoslovakia's Gustáv Husák and Romania's Nicolae Ceaușescu as a \"Gang of Four\": a group of inflexible hardliners unwilling to make reforms.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Illness, downfall and resignation", "target_page_ids": [ 20979, 12607, 24143, 7843, 276706, 449958, 49562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 50 ], [ 62, 70 ], [ 75, 86 ], [ 120, 135 ], [ 493, 506 ], [ 525, 537 ], [ 552, 569 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to White House experts Philip Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice, Gorbachev looked to Communist leaders in Eastern Europe to follow his example of perestroika and glasnost. They argue:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Illness, downfall and resignation", "target_page_ids": [ 569218, 158177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 47 ], [ 52, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gorbachev himself had no particular sympathy for Erich Honecker, chairman of the East German Communist Party, and his hard-line comrades and the government. As early as 1985... [Gorbachev] had told East German party officials that kindergarten was over; no one would lead them by the hand. They were responsible for their own people. The relations between Gorbachev and Honecker went downhill from there.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Illness, downfall and resignation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Western analysts, according to Zelikow and Rice, believed in 1989 that Communism was still secure in East Germany:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Illness, downfall and resignation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bolstered by relatively greater affluence than his country's Eastern European neighbors enjoyed in a fantastically elaborate system of internal controls, East Germany's longtime leader Eric Honecker seemed secure in his position. His government had long dealt with dissent through a mixture of brutal repression, forced emigration, and the vent of allowing occasional, limited travel to the West for a substantial part of the population.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Illness, downfall and resignation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Honecker felt betrayed by Gorbachev in his German policy and ensured that official texts of the Soviet Union, especially those concerning perestroika, could no longer be published or sold in East Germany.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Illness, downfall and resignation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " One month after the 1989 Polish legislative election in which Lech Wałęsa and the Solidarity Citizens' Committee unexpectedly won 99 out of 100 votes, at the Warsaw Pact summit on 7–8 July 1989 in Bucharest, the Soviet Union reaffirmed its shift from the Brezhnev Doctrine of the limited sovereignty of its member states, and announced \"freedom of choice\". The Bucharest statement prescribed that its nations henceforth developed their \"own political line, strategy and tactics without external intervention\". This called into question the Soviet guarantee of existence for the Communist states in Europe. Already in May 1989 Hungary had begun dismantling its border with Austria, creating the first gap in the so-called Iron Curtain, through which later several thousand East Germans quickly fled in hopes of reaching West Germany by way of Austria. But with the mass exodus at the Pan-European Picnic in August 1989 (which was based on an idea by Otto von Habsburg to test Gorbachev's reaction to the opening of the border), the subsequent hesitant behaviour of the Socialist Unity Party of East Germany and the non-intervention of the Soviet Union opened the floodgates. Thus the united front of the Eastern Bloc was broken. The reaction to this from Erich Honecker in the Daily Mirror of August 19, 1989 was too late and showed the current loss of power: “Habsburg distributed leaflets far into Poland, on which the East German holidaymakers were invited to a picnic. When they came to the picnic, they were given gifts, food and Deutsche Mark, and then they were persuaded to come to the West.” Later, after his fall, Honecker said of Otto von Habsburg in connection with the summer of 1989: \"That this Habsburg drove the nail into my coffin.\" Now tens of thousands of media-informed East Germans made their way to Hungary, which was no longer ready to keep its borders completely closed or to oblige its border troops to use force of arms. A 1969 treaty required the Hungarian government to send the East Germans back home; however, starting on 11 September 1989, the Hungarians let them pass into Austria, telling their outraged East German counterparts that they were refugees and that international treaties on refugees took precedence.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Illness, downfall and resignation", "target_page_ids": [ 5158252, 27123535, 1950353, 4988, 13250011, 18953051, 13361301, 148301, 97477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 53 ], [ 63, 74 ], [ 83, 113 ], [ 256, 273 ], [ 627, 680 ], [ 722, 734 ], [ 884, 903 ], [ 950, 967 ], [ 1204, 1216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the time, Honecker was sidelined through illness, leaving his colleagues unable to act decisively. He had been taken ill with biliary colic during the Warsaw Pact summit. He was shortly afterwards flown home to East Berlin. After an initial stabilisation in his health, he underwent surgery on 18 August 1989 to remove his inflamed gallbladder and, due to a perforation, part of his colon. According to the urologist Peter Althaus, the surgeons left a suspected carcinogenic nodule in Honecker’s right kidney due to his weak condition, and also failed to inform the patient of the suspected cancer; other sources say the tumour was simply undetected. As a result of this operation, Honecker was away from his office until late September 1989.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Illness, downfall and resignation", "target_page_ids": [ 8133602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Back in office, Honecker had to contend with the rising number and strength of demonstrations across East Germany that had first been sparked by reports in the West German media of fraudulent results in local elections on 7 May 1989, the same results he had labelled a \"convincing reflection\" of the populace's faith in his leadership. He also had to deal with a new refugee problem. Several thousand East Germans tried to go to West Germany by way of Czechoslovakia, only to have that government bar them from passing. Several thousands of them headed straight for the West German embassy in Prague and demanded safe passage to West Germany. With some reluctance, Honecker allowed them to go – but forced them to go back through East Germany on sealed trains and stripped them of their East German citizenship. Several members of the SED Politbüro realised this was a serious blunder and made plans to get rid of him.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Illness, downfall and resignation", "target_page_ids": [ 5322, 5665569, 41866539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 452, 466 ], [ 570, 599 ], [ 746, 758 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As unrest visibly grew, large numbers began fleeing the country through the West German embassies in Prague and Budapest, as well as over the borders of the \"socialist brother\" states. Each month saw tens of thousands more exit. On 3 October 1989 East Germany closed its borders to its eastern neighbours and prevented visa-free travel to Czechoslovakia; a day later these measures were also extended to travel to Bulgaria and Romania. East Germany was now not only behind the Iron Curtain to the West, but also cordoned off from most other Eastern bloc states.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Illness, downfall and resignation", "target_page_ids": [ 4118755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 6–7 October 1989 the national celebrations of the 40th anniversary of the East German state took place with Gorbachev in attendance. To the surprise of Honecker and the other SED leaders in attendance, several hundred members of the Free German Youth — reckoned as the future vanguard of the party and nation — began chanting, \"Gorby, help us! Gorby, save us!\". In a private conversation between the two leaders Honecker praised the success of the nation, but Gorbachev knew that, in reality, it faced bankruptcy; East Germany had already accepted billions of dollars in loans from West Germany during the decade as it sought to stabilise its economy. Attempting to make Honecker accept a need for reforms, Gorbachev warned Honecker that \"He who is too late is punished by life\", yet Honecker maintained that \"we will solve our problems ourselves with socialist means\". Protests outside the reception at the Palace of the Republic led to hundreds of arrests in which many were brutally beaten by soldiers and police.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Illness, downfall and resignation", "target_page_ids": [ 336382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 911, 933 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the reform movement spread throughout Central and Eastern Europe, mass demonstrations against the East German government erupted, most prominently in Leipzig—the first of several demonstrations which took place on Monday nights across the country. In response, an elite paratroop unit was dispatched to Leipzig—almost certainly on Honecker's orders, since he was commander-in-chief of the Army. A bloodbath was averted only when local party officials themselves ordered the troops to pull back. In the following week, Honecker faced a torrent of criticism. This gave his Politburo comrades the impetus they needed to replace him.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Illness, downfall and resignation", "target_page_ids": [ 17955, 30872436, 434037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 160 ], [ 182, 230 ], [ 366, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After a crisis meeting of the Politburo on 10–11 October 1989, Honecker's planned state visit to Denmark was cancelled and, despite his resistance, at the insistence of the regime's number-two-man, Egon Krenz, a public statement was issued that called for \"suggestions for attractive socialism\". Over the following days Krenz worked to secure himself the support of the military and the Stasi and arranged a meeting between Gorbachev and Politburo member Harry Tisch, who was in Moscow, to inform the Kremlin about the now-planned removal of Honecker; Gorbachev reportedly wished them good luck.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Illness, downfall and resignation", "target_page_ids": [ 255728, 29452, 3559845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 208 ], [ 387, 392 ], [ 455, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sitting of the SED Central Committee planned for the end of November 1989 was pulled forward a week, with the most urgent item on the agenda now being the composition of the Politburo. Krenz and Mielke attempted by telephone on the night of 16 October to win other Politburo members over to remove Honecker. At the beginning of the session on 17 October, Honecker asked his routine question of \"Are there any suggestions for the agenda?\" Stoph replied, \"Please, general secretary, Erich, I propose that a new item be placed on the agenda. It is the release of Comrade Erich Honecker as general secretary and the election of Comrade Egon Krenz in his place.\" Honecker reportedly calmly responded: \"Well, then I open the debate\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Illness, downfall and resignation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All those present then spoke, in turn, but none in favour of Honecker. Günter Schabowski even extended the dismissal of Honecker to also include his posts in the State Council and as Chairman of the National Defence Council while childhood friend Günter Mittag moved away from Honecker. Mielke supposedly blamed Honecker for almost all the country's current ills and threatened to publish compromising information that he possessed, if Honecker refused to resign. A ZDF documentary on the matter claims this information was contained in a large red briefcase found in Mielke's possession in 1990. After three hours the Politburo voted to remove Honecker. In accordance with longstanding practice, Honecker voted for his own removal. When the public announcement was made, it was branded as a voluntary decision on Honecker's part, ostensibly \"due to health reasons\". Krenz was unanimously elected as his successor as General Secretary.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Illness, downfall and resignation", "target_page_ids": [ 296020, 262201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 88 ], [ 466, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Communist rule in East Germany survived Honecker's removal by only two months. Three weeks after Honecker's ousting the Berlin Wall fell, and the SED swiftly lost control of the country. On 1 December, its guaranteed right to rule was removed from the East German constitution. Two days later he was expelled from the SED along with other former officials. He went on to join the newly founded Communist Party of Germany in 1990, remaining a member until his death.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Start of prosecution and asylum attempts", "target_page_ids": [ 3722, 299494, 2793759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 136 ], [ 253, 277 ], [ 395, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During November the People's Chamber had already set up a committee to investigate corruption and abuses of office, with Honecker being alleged to have received annual donations from the National Academy of Architecture of around 20,000 marks as an \"honorary member\". On 5 December 1989 the chief public prosecutor in East Germany formally launched a judicial inquiry against him on charges of high treason, abuses of confidence and embezzlement to the serious disadvantage of socialist property (the charge of high treason was dropped in March 1990). As a result, Honecker was placed under house arrest for a month.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Start of prosecution and asylum attempts", "target_page_ids": [ 285883, 209411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 36 ], [ 433, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the lifting of his house arrest, Honecker and his wife Margot were forced to vacate their apartment in the Waldsiedlung housing area in Wandlitz, exclusively used by senior SED party members, after the People's Chamber decided to put it to use as a sanatorium for the disabled. In any case, Honecker spent the majority of January 1990 in hospital after having the error of the tumour missed in 1989 corrected after the suspicion of cancer was confirmed. Upon leaving the hospital on 29 January he was re-arrested and held at the Berlin-Rummelsburg remand centre. However, on the evening of the following day, 30 January, Honecker was again released from custody: The district court had annulled the arrest warrant and, due to medical reports, certified him unfit for detention and interrogation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Start of prosecution and asylum attempts", "target_page_ids": [ 8543616, 5411140, 285883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 129 ], [ 146, 154 ], [ 212, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lacking a home, Honecker instructed his lawyer Wolfgang Vogel to ask the Evangelical Church in Berlin-Brandenburg for help. Pastor Uwe Holmer, leader of the Hoffnungstal Institute in Lobetal, Bernau bei Berlin, offered the couple a home in his vicarage. This drew immediate condemnation and later demonstrations against the church for assisting the Honeckers, given they had both discriminated against Christians who did not conform with the SED leadership's ideology. Aside from a stay at a holiday home in Lindow in March 1990 that lasted only one day before protests swiftly brought it to an end, the couple resided at the Holmer residence until 3 April 1990.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Start of prosecution and asylum attempts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The couple then moved into a three-room living quarters within the Soviet military hospital in Beelitz. Here, doctors diagnosed a malignant liver tumour following another re-examination. Following German reunification, prosecutors in Berlin issued a further arrest warrant for Honecker in November 1990 on charges that he gave the order to fire on escapees at the Inner German border in 1961 and had repeatedly reiterated that command (most specifically in 1974). However, this warrant was not enforceable because Honecker lay under the protection of Soviet authorities in Beelitz. On 13 March 1991 the Honeckers fled Germany from the Soviet-controlled Sperenberg Airfield to Moscow on a military jet with the aid of Soviet hardliners.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Start of prosecution and asylum attempts", "target_page_ids": [ 5602007, 61103, 849186, 37465258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 102 ], [ 197, 217 ], [ 364, 383 ], [ 653, 672 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The German Chancellery had only been informed by Soviet diplomats about the Honeckers’ flight to Moscow one hour in advance. It limited its response to a public protest, claiming the existence of an arrest warrant meant the Soviet Union was breaching international law by admitting Honecker. The initial Soviet reaction was that Honecker was now too ill to travel and was receiving medical treatment after a deterioration of his health. He underwent further surgery the following month.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Start of prosecution and asylum attempts", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 11 December 1991 the Honeckers sought refuge in the Chilean Embassy in Moscow, while also applying for political asylum in the Soviet Union. Despite an offer of help from North Korea, Honecker instead reached out to the Chilean government under Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin. Under Honecker's rule, East Germany had granted many Chileans exile following the military coup of 1973 by Augusto Pinochet. In addition his daughter Sonja was married to a Chilean. Chilean authorities, however, stated he could not enter their country without a valid German passport.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Start of prosecution and asylum attempts", "target_page_ids": [ 21255, 5489, 537683, 684813, 18933396, 11786007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 185 ], [ 223, 228 ], [ 267, 282 ], [ 362, 387 ], [ 391, 407 ], [ 552, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mikhail Gorbachev agreed to the dissolution of the Soviet Union on 25 December 1991 and gave all his powers to Russian president Boris Yeltsin. Russian authorities had long been keen on expelling Honecker, against the wishes of Gorbachev, and the new government now demanded that he leave the country or else face deportation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Start of prosecution and asylum attempts", "target_page_ids": [ 20979, 40494892, 23278520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 32, 63 ], [ 129, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 1992, Chilean President Patricio Aylwin, leader of a center-left coalition, finally assured German Chancellor Helmut Kohl that Honecker would be leaving the embassy in Moscow. Reportedly against his will, Honecker was ejected from the embassy on 29 July 1992 and flown to Berlin's Tegel Airport, where he was arrested and detained in Moabit Prison. By contrast, his wife Margot travelled on a direct flight from Moscow to Santiago, Chile, where she initially stayed with her daughter Sonja. Honecker's lawyers unsuccessfully appealed for him to be released from detention in the period leading up to his trial.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Start of prosecution and asylum attempts", "target_page_ids": [ 537683, 41896, 271834, 573879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 47 ], [ 118, 129 ], [ 280, 302 ], [ 342, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 12 May 1992, while under protection in the Chilean embassy in Moscow, Honecker, along with several co-defendants, including Erich Mielke, Willi Stoph, Heinz Kessler, Fritz Streletz and Hans Albrecht , was accused in a 783-page indictment of taking part in the \"collective manslaughter\" of 68 people as they attempted to flee East Germany. It was alleged that Honecker, in his role as Chairman of the National Defence Council, had both given the decisive order in 1961 for the construction of the Berlin Wall and also, at subsequent meetings, ordered the extensive expansion of the border fortifications around West Berlin and the barriers to the West so as to make any passing impossible. In addition, specifically at a May 1974 sitting of the National Defence Council, he had stated that the development of the border must continue, that lines of fire were warranted along the whole border and, as prior, the use of firearms was essential: \"Comrades who have successfully used their firearms [are] to be praised\". Honecker, in his role of chairman of the party, was responsible for the deaths of many more than the 68 mentioned above. As of 22 April 2015, well over 1,000 deaths have been discovered mainly through secret East German documentation: \"It is still not known for sure how many people died on the inner German border or who they were, as the East German state treated such information as a closely guarded secret. But numbers have risen steadily since unification, as evidence has been gathered from East German records. Current unofficial estimates put the figure at up to 1,100 people.\" From the same article, \"In 1974, Erich Honecker, as Chairman of the GDR's National Defence Council, ordered: 'Firearms are to be ruthlessly used in the event of attempts to break through the border, and the comrades who have successfully used their firearms are to be commended.'\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Criminal trial and death", "target_page_ids": [ 245716, 429865, 13186829, 63475718, 14046564, 3722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 139 ], [ 141, 152 ], [ 154, 167 ], [ 169, 183 ], [ 403, 427 ], [ 499, 510 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The charges were approved by the Berlin District Court on 19 October 1992 at the opening of the trial. On the same day, it was decided that the hearing of 56 charges would be postponed and the remaining twelve cases would be the subject of the trial to begin on 12 November 1992. The question of under which laws the former East German leader could be tried was highly controversial and, in the view of many jurists, the process had an uncertain outcome.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Criminal trial and death", "target_page_ids": [ 24008143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his 70-minute-long statement to the court on 3 December 1992, Honecker said that he had political responsibility for the building of the Berlin Wall and subsequent deaths at the borders, but claimed he was \"without juridical, legal or moral guilt\". He blamed the escalation of the Cold War for the building of the Berlin Wall, saying the decision had not been taken solely by the East German leadership but all the Warsaw Pact nations that had collectively concluded in 1961 that a \"Third World War with millions dead\" would be unavoidable without this action. He quoted several West German politicians who had opined that the wall had indeed reduced and stabilised the two factions. He stated that he had always regretted every death, both from a human point of view and due to the political damage they caused.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Criminal trial and death", "target_page_ids": [ 325329, 33622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 288, 296 ], [ 422, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Making reference to past trials in Germany against communists and socialists such as Karl Marx and August Bebel, he claimed that the legal process against him was politically motivated and a \"show trial\" against communism. He stated that no court lying in the territory of West Germany had the legal right to place him, his co-defendants or any East German citizen on trial, and that the portrayal of East Germany as an \"Unrechtsstaat\" was contradictory to its recognition by over one hundred other nations and the UN Security Council. Furthermore, he questioned how a German court could now legally judge his political decisions in the light of the lack of legal action taken over various military operations that had been carried out by Western nations with either overt support or absence of condemnation from (West) Germany. He dismissed public criticism of the Stasi, arguing that journalists in Western countries were praised for denouncing others. While accepting political responsibility for the deaths at the Wall, he believed he was free of any \"legal or moral guilt\", and thought that East Germany would go down in history as \"a sign that socialism is possible and is better than capitalism.\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Criminal trial and death", "target_page_ids": [ 16743, 340305, 592905, 31244510, 31956, 29452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 94 ], [ 99, 111 ], [ 192, 202 ], [ 421, 434 ], [ 515, 534 ], [ 866, 871 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the time of the proceedings Honecker was already seriously ill. A new CT scan in August 1992 had confirmed an ultrasound examination made in Moscow and the existence of a malignant tumour in the right lobe of his liver. Based on these findings and additional medical testimonies, Honecker’s lawyers requested that the legal proceedings, as far as they were aimed against their client, be abandoned and the arrest warrant against him withdrawn; the cases against both Mielke and Stoph had already been postponed due to their ill health. Arguing that his life expectancy was estimated to be three to six months, while the legal process was forecast to take at least two years, his lawyers questioned whether it was humane to try a dying man. Their application was rejected on 21 December 1992 when the court concluded that, given the seriousness of the charges, no obstacle to the proceedings existed.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Criminal trial and death", "target_page_ids": [ 245716, 429865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 470, 476 ], [ 481, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Honecker lodged a constitutional complaint to the recently created Berlin Constitutional Court, stating that the decision to proceed violated his fundamental right to human dignity, which was an overriding principle in the Constitution of Berlin, above even the state penal system and criminal justice. On 12 January 1993 Honecker's complaint was upheld and the Berlin District Court therefore abandoned the case and withdrew their arrest warrant. An application for a new arrest warrant was rejected on 13 January. The court also refused to commence with the trial related to the indictment of 12 November 1992, and withdrew the second arrest warrant related to these charges. After a total of 169 days Honecker was released from custody, drawing protests both from victims of the East German regime as well as German political figures.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Criminal trial and death", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Honecker flew via Brazil to Santiago, Chile, to reunite with his wife and his daughter Sonja, who lived there with her son Roberto. Upon his arrival he was greeted by the leaders of the Chilean Communist and Socialist parties. In contrast, his co-defendants Heinz Kessler, Fritz Streletz and Hans Albrecht were sentenced on 16 September 1993 to imprisonment of between four and seven-and-a-half years. On 13 April 1993 a final attempt to separate and continue the trial against Honecker in his absence was discontinued. Four days later, on the 66th birthday of his wife Margot, he gave a final public speech, ending with the words: \"Socialism is the opposite of what we have now in Germany. For that I would like to say that our beautiful memories of the German Democratic Republic are testimony of a new and just society. And we want to always remain loyal to these things\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Criminal trial and death", "target_page_ids": [ 51572, 13186829, 63475718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 36 ], [ 258, 271 ], [ 273, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 29 May 1994, Honecker died of liver cancer at the age of 81 in a terraced house in the La Reina district of Santiago. His funeral, arranged by the Communist Party of Chile, was conducted the following day at central cemetery in Santiago.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Criminal trial and death", "target_page_ids": [ 1579860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Honecker was married three times. After being liberated from prison in 1945, he married the prison warden Charlotte Schanuel (née Drost), nine years his senior, on 23 December 1946. She died suddenly from a brain tumour in June 1947. Details of this marriage were not revealed until 2003, well after his death.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By the time of her death, Honecker was already romantically involved with the Free German Youth official Edith Baumann, whom he met on a trip to Moscow. With her, he had a daughter, Erika (b. 1950), who later gave him his granddaughter Anke. Sources differ on whether Honecker and Baumann married in 1947 or 1949, but in 1952 he fathered an illegitimate daughter, Sonja (b. December 1952), with Margot Feist, a People's Chamber member and chairperson of the Ernst Thälmann Pioneer Organisation.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 286993, 50155504, 2197947, 1758344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 95 ], [ 105, 118 ], [ 395, 407 ], [ 458, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 1950, Baumann wrote directly to Walter Ulbricht to inform him of her husband's extramarital activity in the hope of him pressuring Honecker to end his relationship with Feist. Following his divorce and reportedly under pressure from the Politburo, he married Feist. However, sources again differ on both the year of his divorce from Baumann and of his marriage to Feist; depending on the source, the events took place either in 1953 or 1955. For more than twenty years, Margot Honecker served as Minister of National Education. In 2012 intelligence reports collated by West German spies alleged that both Honecker and his wife had secret affairs but did not divorce for political reasons; however, his bodyguard Bernd Brückner, in a book about his time spent in Honecker's service, denied the claims.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 4091314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 510, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Honecker had three grandchildren from his daughter Sonja, who had married the Chilean-born exile Leonardo Yáñez Betancourt: Roberto (b. 1974), Mariana (b. 1985), who died in 1988 at the age of two leaving Honecker himself heartbroken, and Vivian (b. 1988). Roberto's origins are debated; he is claimed to be the illegally adopted son of Heidi Stein, Dirk Schiller, born on 13 June 1975 in Görlitz, who disappeared in March 1979, due to alleged physical similarities between Dirk and Yáñez, Stein suspecting that her son might have been kidnapped at three years old by Stasi agents for Honecker's younger daughter.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Honecker's daughter divorced Yáñez in 1993. She and her two surviving children still live in Santiago.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ":", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hero of the German Democratic Republic (twice)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 8318100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hero of Labour ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 32755132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Patriotic Order of Merit (Honor clasp, in Gold)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 33945173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\tOrder of Karl Marx (five times)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 2773377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of the Banner of Labor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 3554939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ":", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hero of the Soviet Union", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 400853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of Lenin (thrice)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 45137565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of the October Revolution", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 1036285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jubilee Medal \"In Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary of the Birth of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 34956633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other countries:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Grand Star of the Order of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (Austria)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 26206547, 26964606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 74 ], [ 76, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of Georgi Dimitrov (Bulgaria)\t", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 34555567, 2339372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 27, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of José Martí (Cuba)\t", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 22288668, 5042481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 22, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of Playa Girón (Cuba)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 51743811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of Klement Gottwald (Czechoslovakia)\t", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 2401360, 5322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 28, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Grand Cross of the White Rose of Finland (Finland)\t", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 1618797, 10577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ], [ 43, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of Augusto Cesar Sandino, 1st class (Nicaragua) ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 21362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of the \"Victory of Socialism\" (Romania)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 297157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 2015339, 202354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 23, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Olympic Order (International Olympic Committee)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 4011016, 15147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 16, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dmitri Vrubel's 1990 mural on the Berlin Wall My God, Help Me to Survive This Deadly Love, depicting a socialist \"fraternal kiss\" between Honecker and Leonid Brezhnev, became known around the world.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 22159823, 31798606, 34382662, 50151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 46, 89 ], [ 103, 129 ], [ 151, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A traffic signal inspired by Honecker wearing a jaunty straw hat was used in parts of East Germany (Ost-Ampelmännchen) and has become a symbol of Ostalgie.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2302199, 497068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 117 ], [ 146, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bryson, Phillip J., and Manfred Melzer eds. The end of the East German economy: from Honecker to reunification (Palgrave Macmillan, 1991).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Childs, David, ed. Honecker's Germany (London: Taylor & Francis, 1985).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collier Jr, Irwin L. \"GDR economic policy during the honecker era.\" Eastern European Economics 29.1 (1990): 5–29.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dennis, Mike. Social and Economic Modernization in Eastern Germany from Honecker to Kohl (Burns & Oates, 1993).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dennis, Mike. \"The East German Ministry of State Security and East German Society During the Honecker Era, 1971–1989.\" in German Writers and the Politics of Culture (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 200)3. 3–24 on the STASI", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 29452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 214, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fulbrook, Mary. (2008) The people's state: East German society from Hitler to Honecker. Yale University Press.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1087837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Grix, Jonathan. \"Competing approaches to the collapse of the GDR: ‘Top‐down’ vs ‘bottom‐up’,\" Journal of Area Studies 6#13:121–142, DOI: 10.1080/02613539808455836, Historiography.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 67645547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lippmann, Heinz. Honecker and the new politics of Europe (New York: Macmillan, 1972).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " McAdams, A. James. \"The Honecker trial: the East German past and the German future.\" Review of Politics 58.1 (1996): 53–80. online", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Weitz, Eric D. Creating German Communism, 1890–1990: From Popular Protests to Socialist State (Princeton UP, 1997).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wilsford, David, ed. Political leaders of contemporary Western Europe: a biographical dictionary (Greenwood, 1995) pp.195–201.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Honecker, Erich. (1981) From My Life. New York: Pergamon, 1981. .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Honecker im Internet (in German)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " www.warheroes.ru – Erich Honecker (in Russian)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Welcoming Address to 1979 Session of the World Peace Council Erich Honecker's speech to the WPC", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Successful Policy Seared to the Needs of the People Volkskammer pamphlet including material by Honecker", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1912_births", "1994_deaths", "People_from_Neunkirchen,_Saarland", "People_from_the_Rhine_Province", "Communist_Party_of_Germany_politicians", "Members_of_the_Politburo_of_the_Central_Committee_of_the_Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany", "Members_of_the_Provisional_Volkskammer", "Members_of_the_1st_Volkskammer", "Members_of_the_2nd_Volkskammer", "Members_of_the_3rd_Volkskammer", "Members_of_the_4th_Volkskammer", "Members_of_the_5th_Volkskammer", "Members_of_the_6th_Volkskammer", "Members_of_the_7th_Volkskammer", "Members_of_the_8th_Volkskammer", "Members_of_the_9th_Volkskammer", "Free_German_Youth_members", "Communist_rulers", "Communists_in_the_German_Resistance", "Collaborators_with_the_Soviet_Union", "German_atheists", "German_expatriates_in_Chile", "German_expatriates_in_the_Soviet_Union", "Exiled_politicians", "German_hunters", "International_Lenin_School_alumni", "People_condemned_by_Nazi_courts", "People_extradited_from_Russia", "People_extradited_to_Germany", "German_politicians_convicted_of_crimes", "Heads_of_government_who_were_later_imprisoned", "Recipients_of_the_Patriotic_Order_of_Merit_(honor_clasp)", "Recipients_of_the_Banner_of_Labor", "Recipients_of_the_Olympic_Order", "Recipients_of_the_Order_of_Ho_Chi_Minh", "Recipients_of_the_Grand_Star_of_the_Decoration_for_Services_to_the_Republic_of_Austria", "Foreign_Heroes_of_the_Soviet_Union", "Recipients_of_the_Order_of_Lenin", "Deaths_from_liver_cancer", "Deaths_from_cancer_in_Chile", "People_of_the_Cold_War" ]

[ "Erich Ernst Paul Honecker" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The IBM AS/400 (Application System/400) is a family of midrange computers from IBM announced in June 1988 and released in August 1988. It was the successor to the System/36 and System/38 platforms, and ran the OS/400 operating system. Lower-cost but more powerful than its predecessors, the AS/400 was extremely successful at launch, with an estimated 111,000 installed by the end of 1990 and annual revenue reaching $14 billion that year, increasing to 250,000 systems by 1994, and about 500,000 shipped by 1997.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8877936, 40379651, 261654, 294646, 248005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 72 ], [ 79, 82 ], [ 163, 172 ], [ 177, 186 ], [ 210, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A key concept in the AS/400 platform is Technology Independent Machine Interface (TIMI), a platform-independent instruction set architecture (ISA) that is compiled along with the native machine language instructions. The platform has used this capability to change the underlying processor architecture without breaking application compatibility. Early systems were based on a 48-bit CISC instruction set architecture known as the Internal Microprogrammed Interface (IMPI), originally developed for the System/38. In 1991, the company introduced a new version of the system running on a 64-bit PowerPC-derived CPU, the IBM RS64. Due to the use of TIMI, applications for the original CISC-based programs continued to run on the new systems without modification. The RS64 was replaced with POWER4 processors in 2001, which was followed by POWER5 and POWER6 in later upgrades.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 248005, 47772, 20683, 7622, 47772, 148285, 24281, 298889, 1813104, 943416, 2159354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 80 ], [ 112, 140 ], [ 186, 202 ], [ 384, 388 ], [ 389, 417 ], [ 587, 593 ], [ 594, 601 ], [ 619, 627 ], [ 788, 794 ], [ 837, 843 ], [ 848, 854 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The AS/400 went through multiple re-branding exercises, finally becoming the System i in 2006. In 2008, IBM consolidated the separate System i and System p product lines (which had mostly identical hardware by that point) into a single product line named IBM Power Systems. The name \"AS/400\" is sometimes used informally to refer to the IBM i operating system running on modern Power Systems hardware.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39770, 16813327, 248005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 155 ], [ 255, 272 ], [ 337, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 1980s, IBM management became concerned that IBM's large number of incompatible midrange computer systems was hurting the company's competitiveness, particularly against Digital Equipment Corporation's VAX. In 1982, a project named Fort Knox commenced, which was intended to consolidate the System/36, the System/38, the IBM 8100, the Series/1 and the IBM 4300 series into a single product line based around an IBM 801-based processor codenamed Iliad, while retaining backwards compatibility with all the systems it was intended to replace. A new operating system would be created for Fort Knox, but the operating systems of each platform which Fort Knox was intended to replace would also be ported to the Iliad processor to allow customers to migrate their software to the new platform.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8877936, 7952, 32517, 261654, 294646, 497468, 164464, 901635, 60671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 109 ], [ 182, 211 ], [ 214, 217 ], [ 303, 312 ], [ 318, 327 ], [ 333, 341 ], [ 347, 355 ], [ 364, 372 ], [ 423, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Fort Knox project proved to be overly ambitious, and ran into multiple delays and changes of scope. As the project advanced, the requirement to support IBM 8100 and Series/1 software was dropped. When IBM's engineers attempted to port the operating systems and software of their existing platforms, they discovered that it would be impossible without making extensive changes to the Iliad processor for each individual operating system - changes which the Iliad's architects were unwilling to make. The proposed solution to this was to augment Iliad with operating system-specific co-processors which provided hardware support for a single operating system. However, the amount of logic needed in each co-processor grew until the co-processors became the main processor, and the Iliad was relegated to the role of a support processor - thus failing the goal of consolidating on a single processor architecture. The Fort Knox project was ultimately cancelled in 1985.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the Fort Knox project, a skunkworks project was started at IBM Rochester by engineers who believed that Fort Knox's failure was inevitable. These engineers developed code which allowed System/36 applications to run on top of the System/38, and when Fort Knox was cancelled, this skunkworks project evolved into an official project to replace both the System/36 and System/38 with a single new hardware platform. The project became known as Silverlake (named for Silver Lake in Rochester, Minnesota) and officially began in December 1985. The Silverlake hardware was essentially an evolution of the System/38 which reused some of the technology developed for the Fort Knox project.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21172290, 1363014, 15006237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 50 ], [ 66, 79 ], [ 469, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Silverlake's goal was to deliver a replacement for the System/36 and System/38 in as short of a timeframe as possible, as the Fort Knox project had stalled new product development at Rochester, leaving IBM without a competitive midrange system. On its launch in 1986, the System/370-compatible IBM 9370 was positioned as IBM's preferred midrange platform, but failed to achieve the commercial success IBM hoped it would have. Much like Silverlake, the 9370 also reused the co-processor developed during the Fort Knox project as its main processor, and the same SPD I/O bus which was derived from the Series/1 bus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 34256558, 164464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 294, 302 ], [ 600, 608 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On June 21, 1988, IBM officially announced the Silverlake system as the Application System/400 (AS/400). The announcement included more than 1,000 software packages written for it by IBM and IBM Business Partners. The AS/400 operating system name was Operating System/400 (OS/400).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The creators of the AS/400 originally planned to use the name System/40, but IBM had adopted a new product nomenclature around the same time, which led to the Application System/400 name. Firstly, IBM began prefixing \"System\" in product names with words to indicate the intended use or target market of the system (e.g. Personal System/2 and Enterprise System/9000). Secondly, IBM decided to reserve one and two digit model numbers for personal systems (e.g. PS/2 and PS/55), three digit numbers for midrange systems (e.g. AS/400) and four digit numbers for mainframes (e.g. ES/9000). The reassignment of two digit model numbers from midrange systems to personal systems was to prevent the personal systems from running out of single-digit numbers for new products.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 218204, 53030665, 218204, 50759389, 53030665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 321, 338 ], [ 343, 365 ], [ 460, 464 ], [ 469, 474 ], [ 576, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1990, IBM Rochester began work to replace the AS/400's original System/38-derived 48-bit CISC processors with a 96-bit architecture known as C-RISC (Commercial RISC). Rather than being a clean-slate design, C-RISC would have added RISC-style and VLIW-style instructions to the AS/400's processor, while maintaining backwards compatibility with the System/370-style Internal Microprogrammed Interface (IMPI) instruction set and the microcode used to implement it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2572877, 7622, 26201, 51706, 59785, 19999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 91 ], [ 92, 96 ], [ 163, 167 ], [ 249, 253 ], [ 351, 361 ], [ 434, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1991, at the request of IBM president Jack Kuehler, a team under the leadership of Frank Soltis delivered a proposal to adapt the 64-bit PowerPC architecture to support the needs of the AS/400 platform. Their extensions to the PowerPC architecture, known as Amazon (and later as PowerPC AS), were approved by IBM management instead of the C-RISC design for development into the next AS/400 processor architecture. These extensions include support for tagged memory, as well as assistance for decimal arithmetic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 20964832, 294648, 148285, 24281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 53 ], [ 86, 98 ], [ 133, 139 ], [ 140, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IBM initially attempted to create a single PowerPC implementation for both AS/400 and high-end RS/6000 systems known as Belatrix. The Belatrix project proved to be too ambitious, and was cancelled when it became apparent that it would not deliver on schedule. Instead, a pair of AS/400-specific processors were designed at IBM Endicott and IBM Rochester, known as Cobra (for low end systems) and Muskie (for high end systems) respectively. These became the initial implementations of the IBM RS64 processor line. The RS64 series continued to be developed as a separate product line at IBM until the POWER4 merged both the RS64 and POWER product lines together.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 298889, 1813104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 488, 496 ], [ 599, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the move from IMPI to an entirely different processor architecture, the AS/400's Technology Independent Machine Interface (TIMI) mostly hid the changes from users and applications, and transparently recompiled applications for the new processor architecture. The port of OS/400 to the PowerPC AS architecture required a rewrite of most of the code below the TIMI due to the use of IMPI microcode to implement significant quantities of the operating system's low level code. This led to the creation of the System Licensed Internal Code (SLIC) - a new implementation of the lower levels of the operating system mostly written in C++.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 248005, 72038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 129 ], [ 636, 639 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The AS/400 family line was rebranded several times in the 1990s and 2000s as IBM introduced newer generations of hardware and operating system. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1994, the AS/400 Advanced Series name was used for new models, followed by the rebranding of the product line to AS/400e (the e standing for e-business) in 1997. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 264466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2000, eServer iSeries was introduced as part of its eServer branding initiative. The eServer iSeries was built on the POWER4 processor from the RS64 processors used by previous generations, meaning that the same processors were used in both the iSeries and pSeries platforms, the latter of which ran AIX. Successive generations of iSeries and pSeries hardware converged until they were essentially the same hardware sold under different names and with different operating systems.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1111979, 1813104, 39770, 2114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 82 ], [ 121, 127 ], [ 260, 267 ], [ 303, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2004, eServer i5 (along with OS/400 becoming i5/OS) the 5 signifying the use of POWER5 processors, was introduced, replacing the eServer iSeries brand.. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 943416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The final rebranding occurred in 2006, when IBM rebranded the eServer i5 to System i.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In April 2008, IBM introduced the IBM Power Systems line, which was a convergence of System i and System p product lines. The first Power Systems machines used the POWER6 processors; i5/OS was renamed as IBM i, in order to remove the association with POWER5 processors. IBM i is sold as one of the operating system options for Power Systems (along with AIX and Linux) instead of being tied to its own hardware platform.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16813327, 2159354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 51 ], [ 164, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although announced in 1988, the AS/400 remains IBM's most recent major architectural shift that was developed wholly internally. Since the arrival of Lou Gerstner in 1993, IBM has viewed such major internal developments as too risky. Instead, IBM now prefers to make key product strides through acquisition (e.g., the takeovers of Lotus Software and Rational Software) and to support the development of open standards, particularly Linux. After the departure of CEO John Akers in 1993, when IBM looked likely to be split up, Bill Gates commented that the only part of IBM that Microsoft would be interested in was the AS/400 division. (At the time, many of Microsoft's business and financial systems ran on the AS/400 platform, something that ceased to be the case around 1999, with the introduction of Windows 2000.)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 647805, 40379651, 103770, 338740, 1271175, 3747, 33941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 162 ], [ 172, 175 ], [ 331, 345 ], [ 350, 367 ], [ 467, 477 ], [ 526, 536 ], [ 804, 816 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Frank Soltis, one of the architects of the AS/400 platform, the AS/400's architecture is defined by five architectural principles. Most of these principles are inherited from System/38.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "System architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 294648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The high-level instruction set (called TIMI for \"Technology Independent Machine Interface\" by IBM), allows application programs to take advantage of advances in hardware and software without recompilation. TIMI is a virtual instruction set independent of the underlying machine instruction set of the CPU. User-mode programs contain both TIMI instructions and the machine instructions of the CPU, thus ensuring hardware independence. This is conceptually somewhat similar to the virtual machine architecture of programming environments such as Java and .NET.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "System architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 47772, 454746, 24722, 32353, 15881, 25143203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 30 ], [ 107, 126 ], [ 216, 239 ], [ 479, 494 ], [ 544, 548 ], [ 553, 557 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike some other virtual-machine architectures in which the virtual instructions are interpreted at run time, TIMI instructions are never interpreted. They constitute an intermediate compile time step and are translated into the processor's instruction set as the final compilation step. The TIMI instructions are stored within the final program object, in addition to the executable machine instructions. This is how application objects compiled on one processor family (e.g., the original CISC AS/400 48-bit processors) could be moved to a new processor (e.g., PowerPC 64-bit) without re-compilation. An application saved from the older 48-bit platform can simply be restored onto the new 64-bit platform where the operating system discards the old machine instructions and re-translates the TIMI instructions into 64-bit instructions for the new processor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "System architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 192263, 191766, 218708, 7622, 24281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 109 ], [ 184, 196 ], [ 210, 257 ], [ 492, 496 ], [ 564, 571 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The system's instruction set defines all pointers as 128-bit. This was the original design feature of the System/38 (S/38) in the mid 1970s planning for future use of faster processors, memory and an expanded address space. The original AS/400 CISC models used the same 48-bit address space as the S/38. The address space was expanded in 1995 when the RISC PowerPC RS64 64-bit CPU processor replaced the 48-bit CISC processor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "System architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 294646, 26201, 24281, 298889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 115 ], [ 352, 356 ], [ 357, 364 ], [ 365, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "OS/400 (now known as IBM i) is the native operating system of the AS/400 platform, and was the sole operating system supported on the original AS/400 hardware. Many of the advanced features associated with the AS/400 are implemented in the operating system as opposed to the underlying hardware, which changed significantly throughout the life of the AS/400 platform. Features include a RDBMS (Db2 for i), a menu-driven interface, support for multiple users, block-oriented terminal support (IBM 5250), and printers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "System architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 25873, 142983, 249402, 863553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 387, 392 ], [ 394, 403 ], [ 459, 482 ], [ 492, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike the \"everything is a file\" feature of Unix and its derivatives, on IBM i everything is an object (with built-in persistence and garbage collection).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "System architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 25548455, 21347364, 21347057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 32 ], [ 45, 49 ], [ 54, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IBM uses a single-level store virtual memory architecture in the AS/400 platform. For 64-bit PowerPC processors, the virtual address resides in the rightmost 64 bits of a pointer while it was 48 bits in the S/38 and CISC AS/400. The 64-bit address space references main memory and disk as a single address set which is the single-level store concept.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "System architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 8131170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later generations of hardware are also capable of supporting various guest operating systems, including SSP, AIX, Linux, Microsoft Windows 2000 and Windows Server 2003. While OS/400, AIX, and Linux are supported on the POWER processors on LPARs (logical partitions), Windows is supported with either single-processor internal blade servers (IXS) or externally linked multiple-processor servers (IXA and iSCSI). SSP guests were supported using emulation from OS/400 V3R6 through V4R4 using the Advanced 36 Machine facility of the operating system, a feature distinct from the System/36 Environment compatibility layer which requires System/36 software to be recompiled.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "System architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 6095951, 2114, 6097297, 19001, 33941, 208068, 2301383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 107 ], [ 109, 112 ], [ 114, 119 ], [ 121, 130 ], [ 131, 143 ], [ 148, 167 ], [ 239, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IBM's Power Systems product page", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "IBM Archives: A Brief History of the IBM AS/400 and iSeries", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The IBM AS400 A technical introduction", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "AS/400", "IBM_server_computers", "Computer-related_introductions_in_1988", "48-bit_computers", "64-bit_computers" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The IBM System p is a high-end line of RISC (Power)/UNIX-based servers. It was the successor of the RS/6000 line, and predecessor of the IBM Power Systems server series.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26201, 38905656, 21347364, 5854116, 16813327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 43 ], [ 45, 50 ], [ 52, 56 ], [ 100, 107 ], [ 137, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The previous RS/6000 line was originally a line of workstations and servers. The first System p server line was named the eServer pSeries in 2000 as part of the e-Server branding initiative.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5854116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2004, with the advent of the POWER5 processor, the server family was rebranded the e''Server p5.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 943416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2005, following IBM's move to streamline its server and storage brands worldwide, and incorporating the \"System\" brand with the Systems Agenda, the family was again renamed to System p5. The System p5 now encompassed the IBM OpenPower product line.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, after the introduction of the POWER6 processor models, the last rename under the System p brand dropped the p (numbered) designation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2159354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 2008, IBM announced a rebranding of the System p and its unification with the mid-range System i platform. The resulting product line was called IBM Power Systems.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39769, 16813327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 105 ], [ 154, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whereas the previous RS/6000 line used a mix of early POWER and PowerPC processors, when pSeries came along, this had evolved into RS64-III and POWER3 across the board—POWER3 for its excellent floating-point performance and RS64 for its scalability, throughput, and integer performance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware and software", "target_page_ids": [ 38905656, 24281, 298889, 3314642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 59 ], [ 64, 71 ], [ 131, 139 ], [ 144, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IBM developed the POWER4 processor to replace both POWER3 and the RS64 line in 2001. After that, the differences between throughput and number crunching-optimized systems no longer existed. Since then, System p machines evolved to use the POWER5 but also the PowerPC 970 for the low-end and blade systems.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware and software", "target_page_ids": [ 1813104, 943416, 370320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 239, 245 ], [ 259, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The last System p systems used the POWER6 processor, such as the POWER6-based System p 570 and the JS22 blade. In addition, during the SuperComputing 2007 (SC07) conference in Reno, IBM introduced a new POWER6-based System p 575 with 32 POWER6 cores at 4.7GHz and up to 256GB of RAM with water cooling.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware and software", "target_page_ids": [ 2159354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All IBM System p5 and IBM e''Server p5 machines support DLPAR (Dynamic Logical Partitioning) with Virtual I/O and Micro-partitioning.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware and software", "target_page_ids": [ 2826365, 2920361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 92 ], [ 114, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "System p generally uses the AIX operating system and, more recently, 64-bit versions of the Linux operating system.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware and software", "target_page_ids": [ 2114, 148285, 6097297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 48 ], [ 69, 75 ], [ 92, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IBM BladeCenter JS12 (POWER6)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [ 4590862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IBM BladeCenter JS22 (POWER6)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [ 4590862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IBM BladeCenter JS23 (POWER6)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [ 4590862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IBM BladeCenter JS43 (POWER6)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [ 4590862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer pSeries 610 (7028-6C1 & 6E1)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer pSeries 615 (7029-6C3, 7029-6E3) (1~2-core POWER4+ CPU)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer pSeries 620 (7025-F80, 6F0 & 6F1) (1~3 2-core RS64-IV CPUs)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer pSeries 630 (7028-6C4, 7028-6E4) (1 1-core POWER4 CPU or 1~2 2-core POWER4 CPUs)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer pSeries 640 (7026-B80) 1-4 POWER3-II CPUs", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer pSeries 650 (7038-6M2) 2-8 POWER4 CPUs", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer pSeries 655 (7039-651) 4-8 POWER4 CPUs", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer pSeries 660 (7026-H80, 6H0, 6H1, M80 & 6M1)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer pSeries 670 (7040-671) 4-16 POWER4 CPUs", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer pSeries 680 (7017 range)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer pSeries 690 (7040-681) 8-32 POWER4 CPUs", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The IBM p690 was, at the time of its release in late 2001, the flagship of IBM's high-end Unix servers during the POWER4 era of processors. It was built to run IBM AIX Unix, although it is possible to run a version of Linux minus some POWER4-specific features.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [ 40379651, 21347364, 1813104, 2114, 6097297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 7 ], [ 90, 94 ], [ 114, 120 ], [ 164, 167 ], [ 218, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It could support up to 32 (1.5, 1.7 or 1.9GHz) POWER4+ processors and 1 TB of RAM, which weighs well over 1000kg. It was used in a supercomputer at Forschungszentrum Jülich in 2004, and was discontinued in late 2005.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [ 3365, 21306150, 37153, 1091669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 74 ], [ 78, 81 ], [ 131, 144 ], [ 148, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Released in 2004.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer p5 510 Express (9111-510) (1~2-core 1.5GHz POWER5 CPU)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer p5 510 (9111-510) (1~2-core 1.65GHz POWER5 CPU)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer p5 520 Express (9111-520) (1~2-core 1.5GHz POWER5 CPU)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer p5 520 (9111-520) (2-core 1.65GHz POWER5 CPU)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer p5 550 Express (9113-550) (1~2 1~2-core 1.5GHz POWER5 CPUs)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer p5 550 (9113-550) (1~2 2-core 1.65GHz POWER5 CPUs)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer p5 570 Express (9117-570) (1~8 2-core 1.5GHz POWER5 CPUs)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer p5 570 (9117-570) (1~8 2-core 1.65GHz or 1.9GHz POWER5 CPUs)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer p5 590 (9119-590) (1~4 8-core 1.65GHz POWER5 MCMs)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer p5 595 (9119-595) (2, 4, 6 or 8 8-core 1.65GHz or 1.9GHz POWER5 MCMs)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p5 185 (7037-A50) (1~2-core PowerPC 970 CPU)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p5 505 (9115-505) (1~2-core POWER5 or POWER5+ CPU)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p5 505Q (9115-505) (4-core POWER5+ CPU)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p5 510 (9110-51A) (1~2 1~2-core POWER5 or POWER5+ CPUs)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p5 510Q (9110-51A) (1~2 4-core POWER5+ CPUs)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p5 520 (9131-52A) (1~2-core POWER5+ CPU)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p5 520Q (9131-52A) (4-core POWER5+ CPU)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p5 550 (9133-55A) (1~2 2-core POWER5+ CPUs)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p5 550Q (9133-55A) (1~2 4-core POWER5+ CPUs)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p5 560Q (9116-561) (1, 2 or 4 4-core POWER5+ CPUs)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p5 570 (9117-570) (1~8 2-core POWER5+ CPUs)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p5 575 (9118-575) (8 1~2-core POWER5+ CPUs)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p5 590 (9119-590) (1~2 16-core POWER5 or POWER5+ processor books)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p5 595 (9119-595) (1~4 16-core POWER5 or POWER5+ processor books)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p 520 Express (1, 2 or 4-core POWER6 CPU)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p 550 Express (1~4 2-core POWER6 CPUs)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p 560 Express (POWER6)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p 570 (POWER6)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p 575 (POWER6)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM System p 595 (9119-FHA) (1~8 8-core POWER6 processor books)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "System p was rebranded to Power Systems in 2008.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [ 16813327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "OpenPower was the name of a range of servers in the System p line from IBM. They featured IBM's POWER5 CPUs and run only 64-bit versions of Linux. IBM's own UNIX variant, AIX is not supported since the OpenPower servers are not licensed for this operating system.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [ 39770, 40379651, 943416, 5218, 1982458, 21347364, 2114, 22194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 60 ], [ 71, 74 ], [ 97, 103 ], [ 104, 108 ], [ 141, 146 ], [ 158, 162 ], [ 172, 175 ], [ 247, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were two models available, with a variety of configurations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Before 2005, OpenPower belonged to the eServer product line but were eventually rolled into the IBM's Power Systems product portfolio.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [ 1111979, 16813327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 46 ], [ 102, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer OpenPower 710 (9123-710) (1~2-core POWER5 CPU)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM eServer OpenPower 720 (9124-720) 1-4 POWER5 CPUs", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IBM IntelliStation POWER 265", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [ 11820247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IBM IntelliStation POWER 275", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [ 11820247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IBM IntelliStation POWER 185 (PowerPC 970)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [ 11820247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IBM IntelliStation POWER 285", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [ 11820247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IBM BladeCenter JS20 (PowerPC 970)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [ 4590862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IBM BladeCenter JS21 (PowerPC 970)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models", "target_page_ids": [ 4590862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Web-based System Manager, an AIX management software", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3158327, 2114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 29, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IBM Hardware Management Console, a management appliance", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4218116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dynamic Logical Partitioning", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2826365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linux on Power", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1982458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IBM IntelliStation POWER", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11820247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "PureSystems", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 35951369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of IBM products", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 88231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IBM Power Systems product page", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "IBM's System Agenda", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Virtualizing an Infrastructure with System p and Linux", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "IBM_server_computers" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Cape Cod Canal is an artificial waterway in the U.S. state of Massachusetts connecting Cape Cod Bay in the north to Buzzards Bay in the south, and is part of the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway. The approximately canal traverses the neck of land joining Cape Cod to the state's mainland. It mostly follows tidal rivers widened to and deepened to at mean low water, shaving off the journey around the Cape for its approximately 14,000 annual users.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5623, 18618239, 1645518, 1246817, 2412816, 327786, 141828, 38743, 5047034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 44 ], [ 52, 62 ], [ 66, 79 ], [ 91, 103 ], [ 120, 132 ], [ 166, 196 ], [ 237, 249 ], [ 258, 266 ], [ 311, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of the canal is located in the town of Bourne, but its northeastern terminus is in Sandwich. Scusset Beach State Reservation lies near the canal's north entrance, and the Massachusetts Maritime Academy is near its south. A swift-running current changes direction every six hours and can reach during the receding ebb tide. The waterway is maintained by the United States Army Corps of Engineers and has no toll fees. It is spanned by the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge, the Bourne Bridge, and the Sagamore Bridge. Traffic lights at either end govern the approach of vessels over .", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 259375, 259390, 23841177, 2305205, 83180, 2781634, 2487111, 2487138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 50 ], [ 88, 96 ], [ 98, 129 ], [ 176, 206 ], [ 363, 400 ], [ 444, 474 ], [ 480, 493 ], [ 503, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The canal is occasionally used by whales and dolphins, including endangered North Atlantic right whales; these can cause closure of the canal.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 311103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Construction of a canal was first considered by Myles Standish of the Plymouth Colony in 1623, and the Pilgrims scouted the low-lying stretch of land between the Manomet and Scusset rivers for potential routes. William Bradford established the Aptucxet Trading Post in 1627 at the portage between the rivers. Trade prospered with the American Indians of Narragansett Bay and the Dutch of New Netherland, and this was a major factor enabling the Pilgrims to pay off their indebtedness. In 1697, the General Court of Massachusetts considered the first formal proposal to build the canal but took no action. In 1717, a canal was created in Orleans, Massachusetts called Jeremiah's Gutter which spanned a narrower portion of the Cape some distance to the east, but it only remained active until the late 1800s. More energetic planning with surveys took place repeatedly in 1776 (by George Washington), 1791, 1803, 1818, 1824–1830, and 1860. None of these efforts came to fruition.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 97774, 218110, 40442, 218327, 54538710, 437456, 43451, 426226, 259385, 36667439, 11968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 62 ], [ 70, 85 ], [ 103, 111 ], [ 211, 227 ], [ 244, 265 ], [ 354, 370 ], [ 388, 402 ], [ 498, 528 ], [ 637, 659 ], [ 667, 684 ], [ 878, 895 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first attempts at actually building a canal did not take place until the late 19th century; earlier planners either ran out of money or were overwhelmed by the project's size. The engineers finally decided which route to take through the hillsides by connecting and widening the Manomet and Scusset Rivers. The first actual excavation began in 1880, when the Cape Cod Ship Canal Company hired 400 immigrant Italian laborers to begin digging with shovels and wheelbarrows. The effort ran out of money almost immediately, and the laborers were unpaid and forced to beg for food in Sandwich. In 1883, the Cape Cod Ship Canal Company reorganized. Under engineer Frederick Lockwood, the company used a bucket dredge to clear nearly a mile of channel through the Sandwich marshes, before shutting down in 1891. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 259390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 583, 591 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On June 22, 1909, construction finally began for a working canal under the direction of August Belmont Jr.'s Boston, Cape Cod & New York Canal Company using designs by engineer William Barclay Parsons. The canal engineers encountered many problems, such as huge boulders underwater (much of Cape Cod is a moraine—see geology of Cape Cod). Divers were hired to blow them up, but the effort slowed dredging. Another problem was cold winter storms which forced the engineers to stop dredging altogether and wait for spring. Nevertheless, the canal opened on a limited basis on July 29, 1914, and it was completed in 1916. The privately owned toll canal had a maximum width of and a maximum depth of , and it took a somewhat difficult route from Phinney Harbor at the head of Buzzards Bay. Several accidents occurred due to the narrow channel and navigation difficulty, and these limited traffic and tarnished the canal's reputation. Toll revenues failed to meet investors' expectations as a result, despite shortening the trade route from New York City to Boston by .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 520934, 98357, 44299, 38743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 106 ], [ 177, 200 ], [ 305, 312 ], [ 317, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The German U-boat surfaced off Orleans, Massachusetts on July 21, 1918 and shelled the tugboat Perth Amboy and her string of four barges. The Director General of the United States Railroad Administration took over jurisdiction and operation of the canal four days later under a presidential proclamation. The United States Army Corps of Engineers re-dredged the channel to deep while it remained under government control until 1920. In 1928, the government purchased the canal for $11.4 million as a free public waterway, and $21 million was spent between 1935 and 1940 increasing the canal's width to and its depth to . As a result, it became the widest sea-level canal of its time. The southern entrance to the canal was rebuilt for direct access from Buzzards Bay rather than through Phinney Harbor. Before construction began, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology built a huge scale model of the canal (9 feet to a mile, roughly actual size) to study the hydraulic effects of tidal currents on the enlarged and rerouted canal.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 259385, 17147418, 216434, 924105, 83180, 18879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 55 ], [ 77, 84 ], [ 89, 96 ], [ 168, 205 ], [ 311, 348 ], [ 839, 876 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During World War II, shipping again used the canal to avoid U-boats patrolling offshore. It was protected by coastal artillery batteries at the Sagamore Hill Military Reservation at the northern entrance and the Butler Point Military Reservation at the southern entrance. The artillery was never fired in defense of the canal.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 19293411, 50000115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ], [ 144, 178 ], [ 212, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mystic Steamship Company's collier SS Stephen R. Jones was grounded and sank in the canal on June 28, 1942. Shipping was routed around Cape Cod, and one diverted ship, the Liberty ship SS Alexander Macomb, was torpedoed by the German submarine U-215 on July 3 with the loss of 10 lives. The canal reopened on July 31 after the wrecked Stephen R. Jones was removed with the help of 17 tons of dynamite.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 71101334, 22111546, 198201, 7730413, 822079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 28 ], [ 42, 58 ], [ 176, 188 ], [ 192, 208 ], [ 248, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The canal is used extensively by recreational and commercial vessels. Service roads on both sides of the canal provide access for fishing and are heavily used by in-line skaters, bicyclists, and walkers. Several parking areas are maintained at access points. Bourne Scenic Park is leased by the Corps of Engineers to the Town of Bourne Recreation Authority for use as a tent and RV campground adjacent to the Canal.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Recreational uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Army Corps of Engineers maintains the Cape Cod Canal Visitor Center which introduces visitors to the history, features, and operation of the canal. Features include a retired US Army Corps of Engineers patrol boat, a 46-seat theater showing continuous DVD presentations on canal history, canal flora and fauna, real time radar and camera images of the waterway, and a variety of interactive exhibits. Corps Park Rangers staff the center and provide free public programs on a variety of subjects. The Visitor Center is open seasonally from May to October, and admission is free. It is located on Moffitt Drive in Sandwich near the canal's east end. A second seasonally staffed center is at the Herring Run along Scenic Highway.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Recreational uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scusset Beach State Reservation lies just north of the east end of the canal and offers beach facilities as well as tent and RV camping. A trail there leads to Sagamore Hill, once an Indian meeting ground and the site of a World War II coastal fortification. Bournedale Hills Trail extends along the north side of the Canal from Bourne Scenic Park campground to the Herring Run. The trail includes a self-guided loop which interprets the Canal's historic and natural features.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Recreational uses", "target_page_ids": [ 23841177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A spoof became popular during the late 20th century concerning a fictitious road tunnel, allegedly built in the 1960s under the Cape Cod Canal. It came into popular usage in Massachusetts as a commentary on the severe traffic entering and exiting Cape Cod during the summer months. Since 1994, decals have been sold in shops around the Cape as popular souvenirs purporting to be \"permits\" allowing the bearer to use the tunnel; the popularity of these \"permits\" briefly led to a lawsuit among several different sellers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Recreational uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " List of crossings of the Cape Cod Canal", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39756953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Video clips of ships transiting Cape Cod Canal", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Cape_Cod_Canal", "Intracoastal_Waterway", "Historic_Civil_Engineering_Landmarks", "Canals_opened_in_1914", "1914_establishments_in_Massachusetts", "Ship_canals", "Water_transportation_in_Massachusetts", "Canals_in_Massachusetts", "Bodies_of_water_of_Barnstable_County,_Massachusetts", "Bourne,_Massachusetts", "Sandwich,_Massachusetts", "Belmont_family", "Transportation_buildings_and_structures_in_Barnstable_County,_Massachusetts", "Tourist_attractions_in_Barnstable_County,_Massachusetts", "United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers", "Massachusetts_culture" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Andrew Colin Renfrew, Baron Renfrew of Kaimsthorn, FBA, FSA, Hon FSA Scot (born 25 July 1937) is a British archaeologist, paleolinguist and Conservative peer noted for his work on radiocarbon dating, the prehistory of languages, archaeogenetics, neuroarchaeology, and the prevention of looting at archaeological sites.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 263549, 366356, 365559, 18951655, 32113, 26197, 3611935, 328736, 60879856, 13732554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 54 ], [ 56, 59 ], [ 61, 73 ], [ 107, 120 ], [ 140, 152 ], [ 180, 198 ], [ 204, 227 ], [ 229, 244 ], [ 246, 262 ], [ 286, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Renfrew was formerly the Disney Professor of Archaeology at the University of Cambridge and Director of the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research and is now a Senior Fellow of the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 328767, 25978572, 4368291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 56 ], [ 64, 87 ], [ 108, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Renfrew was educated at St Albans School, Hertfordshire (where one of the houses is named after him) and from 1956 to 1958 did National Service in the Royal Air Force. He then went up to St John's College, Cambridge, where he read Natural Sciences then Archaeology and Anthropology, graduating in 1962. He was elected president of the Cambridge Union in 1961. In 1965 he completed his PhD thesis Neolithic and Bronze Age cultures of the Cyclades and their external relations; in the same year he married Jane M. Ewbank.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 2181944, 211022, 25679, 48713, 18951655, 569, 344168, 21189, 4620, 6592, 52664295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 40 ], [ 127, 143 ], [ 151, 166 ], [ 187, 215 ], [ 253, 264 ], [ 269, 281 ], [ 331, 350 ], [ 396, 405 ], [ 410, 420 ], [ 437, 445 ], [ 504, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1965, Renfrew was appointed to the post of lecturer in the Department of Prehistory and Archaeology at the University of Sheffield. Between 1968 and 1970, he directed excavations at Sitagroi, Greece. In the 1968 Sheffield Brightside by-election he unsuccessfully contested this parliamentary constituency on behalf of the Conservative Party. In that year he was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, in 1970 was elected Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland and in 2000 elected an Honorary Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Academic", "target_page_ids": [ 67738787, 6155131, 32746144, 32113, 366356, 365559, 365559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 134 ], [ 185, 193 ], [ 210, 247 ], [ 325, 343 ], [ 389, 411 ], [ 447, 481 ], [ 528, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1972 Renfrew became Professor of Archaeology at the University of Southampton, succeeding Barry Cunliffe. During his time at Southampton he directed excavations at Quanterness in Orkney and Phylakopi on the island of Milos, Greece. In 1973 Renfrew published Before Civilisation: The Radiocarbon Revolution and Prehistoric Europe in which he challenged the assumption that prehistoric cultural innovation originated in the Near East and then spread to Europe. He also excavated with Marija Gimbutas at Sitagroi.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Academic", "target_page_ids": [ 98078, 210606, 7920751, 70512756, 22375051, 214632, 71865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 80 ], [ 93, 107 ], [ 128, 139 ], [ 167, 178 ], [ 193, 202 ], [ 425, 434 ], [ 485, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1980 Renfrew was elected a Fellow of the British Academy. In 1981 he was elected to the Disney Professorship of Archaeology in the University of Cambridge, a post he held until his retirement. In 1990 Renfrew was appointed as the founding Director of the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Academic", "target_page_ids": [ 328767, 25978572, 4368291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 126 ], [ 134, 157 ], [ 258, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1987, he published Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of the Indo-European Origins, a book on the Proto-Indo-Europeans. His \"Anatolian hypothesis\" posited that this group lived 2,000 years before the Kurgans, in Anatolia, later diffusing to Greece, then Italy, Sicily, Corsica, the Mediterranean coast of France, Spain, and Portugal. Another branch migrated along the fertile river valleys of the Danube and Rhine into central and northern Europe.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Academic", "target_page_ids": [ 24818, 5758239, 1070151, 854, 21209639, 25845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 123 ], [ 130, 150 ], [ 205, 211 ], [ 217, 225 ], [ 402, 408 ], [ 413, 418 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He developed the Anatolian hypothesis, which argues that Proto-Indo-European, the reconstructed ancestor of the Indo-European languages, originated approximately 9,000 years ago in Anatolia and moved with the spread of farming throughout the Mediterranean and into central and northern Europe. This hypothesis contradicted Marija Gimbutas's Kurgan hypothesis, which states that Proto-Indo-European was spread by a migration of peoples from the Pontic–Caspian steppe approximately 6,000 years ago.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Academic", "target_page_ids": [ 5758239, 559297, 14848, 854, 639115, 71865, 1070151, 221773, 2476426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 37 ], [ 57, 76 ], [ 112, 135 ], [ 181, 189 ], [ 209, 226 ], [ 323, 338 ], [ 341, 358 ], [ 414, 423 ], [ 444, 465 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1987 to 1991 he co-directed excavations at Markiani on Amorgos and at Dhaskalio Kavos, Keros, Greece.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Academic", "target_page_ids": [ 49413962, 1613829, 4905434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 56 ], [ 60, 67 ], [ 92, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Renfrew's work in using the archaeological record as the basis for understanding the ancient mind was foundational to the field of evolutionary cognitive archaeology. Renfrew and his student, Lambros Malafouris, coined the phrase neuroarchaeology to describe an archaeology of mind.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Academic", "target_page_ids": [ 1326648, 60879856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 165 ], [ 230, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1996, Renfrew formulated a sapient paradox, that can be formulated as \"\"why there was such a long gap between emergence of genetically and anatomically modern humans and the development of complex behaviors?\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Academic", "target_page_ids": [ 71070222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Renfrew served as Master of Jesus College, Cambridge from 1986 until 1997. In 2004 he retired from the Disney Professorship and is now a Senior Fellow at the McDonald Institute. From 2006 to 2008 he directed new excavations on the Cycladic Island of Keros, and is currently co-director of the Keros Island Survey.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Academic", "target_page_ids": [ 18505589, 26015915, 4905434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 28, 52 ], [ 250, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fellow of the British Academy (1980)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Positions, awards and accolades", "target_page_ids": [ 263549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Renfrew was created a life peer on 24 June 1991 as Baron Renfrew of Kaimsthorn, of Hurlet in the District of Renfrew.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Positions, awards and accolades", "target_page_ids": [ 610639, 79915, 2661373, 30871217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 31 ], [ 51, 56 ], [ 83, 89 ], [ 109, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Foreign Associate to the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 1996.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Positions, awards and accolades", "target_page_ids": [ 46510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Balzan Prize, given in Prehistoric Archaeology for 2004.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Positions, awards and accolades", "target_page_ids": [ 576120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chair, Managing Council for the British School at Athens, since 2004.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Positions, awards and accolades", "target_page_ids": [ 873255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Visiting Scholar, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, UCLA, 2005–06.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Positions, awards and accolades", "target_page_ids": [ 37765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Member of the American Philosophical Society since 2006.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Positions, awards and accolades", "target_page_ids": [ 283120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Honorary degrees from the Universities of Sheffield, Athens, Southampton, Liverpool, Edinburgh, St Andrews, Kent, London and Lima.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Positions, awards and accolades", "target_page_ids": [ 310417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Renfrew, A.C., 1972, The Emergence of Civilisation: The Cyclades and the Aegean in The Third Millennium BC, London.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Renfrew, A.C., 1973, Before Civilisation, the Radiocarbon Revolution and Prehistoric Europe, London: Pimlico. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Renfrew, A.C. and Kenneth L. Cooke, eds. 1979 Transformations: Mathematical Approaches to Culture Change. New York: Academic Press. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [ 68153748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Renfrew, A.C. and Malcolm Wagstaff, eds., 1982, An Island Polity, the Archaeology of Exploitation in Melos, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [ 182237, 73199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 107 ], [ 120, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Renfrew, Colin, 1984, Approaches to Social Archeology, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [ 9431637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Renfrew, A.C., ed. 1985, The Archaeology of Cult, the Sanctuary at Phylakopi, London: British School at Athens / Thames & Hudson.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [ 22375051, 873255, 2567218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 77 ], [ 87, 111 ], [ 114, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Colin Renfrew, Marija Gimbutas and Ernestine S. Elster, eds. 1986. Excavations at Sitagroi, a prehistoric village in northeast Greece. Vol. 1. Los Angeles : Institute of Archaeology, University of California.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [ 71865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Renfrew, A.C., 1987, Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins, London: Pimlico. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Renfrew, A.C. and Ezra B. W. Zubrow, eds. 1994, The ancient mind: elements of cognitive archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Renfrew, A.C. and Paul Bahn, 1991, Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice, London: Thames & Hudson. . (Sixth edition 2012)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [ 16845530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Renfrew, A.C., 2000, Loot, Legitimacy and Ownership: The Ethical Crisis in Archaeology, London: Duckworth. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Renfrew, A.C., 2003, Figuring It Out: The Parallel Visions of Artists and Archaeologists, London: Thames & Hudson. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ernestine S. Elster and Colin Renfrew, eds., 2003. Prehistoric Sitagroi: Excavations in Northeast Greece, 1968–1970. Vol. 2: The Final Report. Los Angeles, CA: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA. Monumenta archaeologica 20.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Renfrew, A.C., and Paul Bahn, eds. Archaeology: The Key Concepts. London: Routledge, 2005.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Renfrew, A.C., 2008, Prehistory: The Making of the Human Mind, Modern Library. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Matsumura S., Forster P. and Renfrew C., eds., 2008, Simulations, Genetics and Human Prehistory, Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archeological Research. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Models of change in language and archaeology\", Transactions of the Philological Society 87 (1989): 103–55.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Articles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Archaeology, genetics and linguistic diversity\", Man 27 (1992): 445–78.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Articles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Time depth, convergence theory, and innovation in Proto-Indo-European: 'Old Europe' as a PIE linguistic area\", Journal of Indo-European Studies 27 (1999): 257–93.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Articles", "target_page_ids": [ 4656458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"'Indo-European' designates languages: not pots and not institutions\", Antiquity 79 (2005): 692–5.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Articles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Archaeogenetics\", in Archaeology: The Key Concepts, eds. Colin Renfrew & Paul Bahn. London: Routledge, 2005, pp.16–20.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Articles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Phylogenetic network analysis of SARS-CoV-2 genomes\", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, April 8, 2020", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Articles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anatolian hypothesis", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5758239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Neuroarchaeology", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60879856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Evolutionary Cognitive Archaeology", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1326648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Renfrew's page at the McDonald Institute", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Biographical interviews from Web of Stories (video)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 34050680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Interview with Alan Macfarlane (video)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 5284636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (video)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lecture on looting and illicit antiquities (MP3)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1937_births", "Living_people", "People_from_St_Albans", "People_from_Stockton-on-Tees", "People_educated_at_St_Albans_School,_Hertfordshire", "Alumni_of_St_John's_College,_Cambridge", "Presidents_of_the_Cambridge_Union", "English_archaeologists", "Academics_of_the_University_of_Sheffield", "Academics_of_the_University_of_Southampton", "Cognitive_scientists", "Fellows_of_Jesus_College,_Cambridge", "Masters_of_Jesus_College,_Cambridge", "Foreign_associates_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences", "Fellows_of_the_British_Academy", "Foreign_Members_of_the_Russian_Academy_of_Sciences", "Fellows_of_the_Society_of_Antiquaries_of_London", "Conservative_Party_(UK)_life_peers", "Paleolinguists", "Disney_Professors_of_Archaeology", "Fellows_of_the_Society_of_Antiquaries_of_Scotland", "Archaeogeneticists", "Members_of_the_American_Philosophical_Society" ]

[ "C. Renfrew", "A. C. Renfrew", "Andrew Colin Renfrew", "Baron Renfrew of Kaimsthorn", "Andrew Colin Renfrew, Baron Renfrew of Kaimsthorn" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Optical rotation, also known as polarization rotation or circular birefringence, is the rotation of the orientation of the plane of polarization about the optical axis of linearly polarized light as it travels through certain materials. Circular birefringence and circular dichroism are the manifestations of optical activity. Optical activity occurs only in chiral materials, those lacking microscopic mirror symmetry. Unlike other sources of birefringence which alter a beam's state of polarization, optical activity can be observed in fluids. This can include gases or solutions of chiral molecules such as sugars, molecules with helical secondary structure such as some proteins, and also chiral liquid crystals. It can also be observed in chiral solids such as certain crystals with a rotation between adjacent crystal planes (such as quartz) or metamaterials.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41564, 41316, 92193, 32703814, 174412, 10915, 1170166, 28691, 17973, 6015, 25233, 906878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 144 ], [ 171, 189 ], [ 264, 282 ], [ 359, 365 ], [ 444, 457 ], [ 538, 543 ], [ 585, 601 ], [ 641, 660 ], [ 693, 715 ], [ 817, 824 ], [ 841, 847 ], [ 852, 864 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When looking at the source of light, the rotation of the plane of polarization may be either to the right (dextrorotatory or dextrorotary — d-rotary, represented by (+), clockwise), or to the left (levorotatory or levorotary — l-rotary, represented by (−), counter-clockwise) depending on which stereoisomer is dominant. For instance, sucrose and camphor are d-rotary whereas cholesterol is l-rotary. For a given substance, the angle by which the polarization of light of a specified wavelength is rotated is proportional to the path length through the material and (for a solution) proportional to its concentration.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27970, 50563, 275978, 6437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 295, 307 ], [ 335, 342 ], [ 347, 354 ], [ 376, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Optical activity is measured using a polarized source and polarimeter. This is a tool particularly used in the sugar industry to measure the sugar concentration of syrup, and generally in chemistry to measure the concentration or enantiomeric ratio of chiral molecules in solution. Modulation of a liquid crystal's optical activity, viewed between two sheet polarizers, is the principle of operation of liquid-crystal displays (used in most modern televisions and computer monitors).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3259030, 51299981, 176304, 2722105, 17932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 69 ], [ 111, 125 ], [ 230, 248 ], [ 358, 368 ], [ 403, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dextrorotation and laevorotation (also spelled levorotation) are terms used in chemistry and physics to describe the optical rotation of plane-polarized light. From the point of view of the observer, dextrorotation refers to clockwise or right-handed rotation, and laevorotation refers to counterclockwise or left-handed rotation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 5180, 22939, 41564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 88 ], [ 93, 100 ], [ 137, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A chemical compound that causes dextrorotation is called dextrorotatory or dextrorotary, while a compound that causes laevorotation is called laevorotatory or laevorotary. Compounds with these properties consist of chiral molecules and are said to have optical activity. If a chiral molecule is dextrorotary, its enantiomer (geometric mirror image) will be laevorotary, and vice versa. Enantiomers rotate plane-polarized light the same number of degrees, but in opposite directions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 21347411, 1170166, 176304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 19 ], [ 215, 221 ], [ 313, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A compound may be labeled as dextrorotary by using the \"(+)-\" or \"d-\" prefix. Likewise, a laevorotary compound may be labeled using the \"(−)-\" or \"l-\" prefix. The lowercase \"d-\" and \"l-\" prefixes are obsolete, and are distinct from the \"-\" and \"-\" prefixes. The \"-\" and \"-\" prefixes are used to specify the enantiomer of chiral organic compounds in biochemistry and are based on the compound's absolute configuration relative to (+)-glyceraldehyde, which is the -form by definition. The prefix used to indicate absolute configuration is not directly related to the (+) or (−) prefix used to indicate optical rotation in the same molecule. For example, nine of the nineteen -amino acids naturally occurring in proteins are, despite the - prefix, actually dextrorotary (at a wavelength of 589nm), and -fructose is sometimes called \"laevulose\" because it is laevorotary.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 22203, 3954, 7587207, 375136, 1207, 50337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 330, 347 ], [ 351, 363 ], [ 396, 418 ], [ 435, 449 ], [ 676, 686 ], [ 802, 810 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The - and - prefixes describe the molecule as a whole, as do the (+) and (−) prefixes for optical rotation. In contrast, the (R)- and (S)- prefixes from the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules characterize the absolute configuration of each specific chiral stereocenter with the molecule, rather than a property of the molecule as a whole. A molecule having exactly one chiral stereocenter (usually an asymmetric carbon atom) can be labeled (R) or (S), but a molecule having multiple stereocenters needs more than one label. For example, the essential amino acid L-threonine contains two chiral stereocenters and is written (2S,3S)-threonine. There is no strict relationship between the R/S, the /, and (+)/(−) designations, although some correlations exist. For example, of the naturally occurring amino acids, all are , and most are (S). For some molecules the (R)-enantiomer is the dextrorotary (+) enantiomer, and in other cases it is the laevorotary (−) enantiomer. The relationship must be determined on a case-by-case basis with experimental measurements or detailed computer modeling.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 6034, 7587207, 522476, 13409547, 63553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 190 ], [ 208, 230 ], [ 255, 267 ], [ 400, 417 ], [ 561, 572 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rotation of the orientation of linearly polarized light was first observed in 1811 in quartz by French physicist François Arago. In 1820, the English astronomer Sir John F.W. Herschel discovered that different individual quartz crystals, whose crystalline structures are mirror images of each other (see illustration), rotate linear polarization by equal amounts but in opposite directions. Jean Baptiste Biot also observed the rotation of the axis of polarization in certain liquids and vapors of organic substances such as turpentine. In 1822, Augustin-Jean Fresnel found that optical rotation could be explained as a species of birefringence: whereas previously known cases of birefringence were due to the different speeds of light polarized in two perpendicular planes, optical rotation was due to the different speeds of right-hand and left-hand circularly polarized light. Simple polarimeters have been used since this time to measure the concentrations of simple sugars, such as glucose, in solution. In fact one name for -glucose (the biological isomer), is dextrose, referring to the fact that it causes linearly polarized light to rotate to the right or dexter side. In a similar manner, levulose, more commonly known as fructose, causes the plane of polarization to rotate to the left. Fructose is even more strongly levorotatory than glucose is dextrorotatory. Invert sugar syrup, commercially formed by the hydrolysis of sucrose syrup to a mixture of the component simple sugars, fructose, and glucose, gets its name from the fact that the conversion causes the direction of rotation to \"invert\" from right to left.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 41316, 25233, 44669, 43592, 75109, 151183, 1141, 174412, 3259030, 12950, 50337, 55054778, 487943, 14385, 50563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 53 ], [ 90, 96 ], [ 117, 131 ], [ 165, 187 ], [ 395, 413 ], [ 529, 539 ], [ 550, 571 ], [ 635, 648 ], [ 891, 902 ], [ 991, 998 ], [ 1236, 1244 ], [ 1257, 1278 ], [ 1378, 1396 ], [ 1425, 1435 ], [ 1439, 1446 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1849, Louis Pasteur resolved a problem concerning the nature of tartaric acid. A solution of this compound derived from living things (to be specific, wine lees) rotates the plane of polarization of light passing through it, but tartaric acid derived by chemical synthesis has no such effect, even though its reactions are identical and its elemental composition is the same. Pasteur noticed that the crystals come in two asymmetric forms that are mirror images of one another. Sorting the crystals by hand gave two forms of the compound: Solutions of one form rotate polarized light clockwise, while the other form rotate light counterclockwise. An equal mix of the two has no polarizing effect on light. Pasteur deduced that the molecule in question is asymmetric and could exist in two different forms that resemble one another as would left- and right-hand gloves, and that the organic form of the compound consists of purely the one type.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 17740, 76992, 5222577, 41564, 85029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ], [ 67, 80 ], [ 154, 163 ], [ 186, 198 ], [ 257, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1874, Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff and Joseph Achille Le Bel independently proposed that this phenomenon of optical activity in carbon compounds could be explained by assuming that the 4 saturated chemical bonds between carbon atoms and their neighbors are directed towards the corners of a regular tetrahedron. If the 4 neighbors are all different, then there are two possible orderings of the neighbors around the tetrahedron, which will be mirror images of each other. This led to a better understanding of the three-dimensional nature of molecules.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 42909, 1641187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 37 ], [ 42, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1945, Charles William Bunn predicted optical activity of achiral structures, if the wave's propagation direction and the achiral structure form an experimental arrangement that is different from its mirror image. Such optical activity due to extrinsic chirality was observed in the 1960s in liquid crystals.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25545661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1950, Sergey Vavilov predicted optical activity that depends on the intensity of light and the effect of nonlinear optical activity was observed in 1979 in lithium iodate crystals.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 766055, 37921649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 23 ], [ 159, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Optical activity is normally observed for transmitted light. However, in 1988, M. P. Silverman discovered that polarization rotation can also occur for light reflected from chiral substances. Shortly after, it was observed that chiral media can also reflect left-handed and right-handed circularly polarized waves with different efficiencies. These phenomena of specular circular birefringence and specular circular dichroism are jointly known as specular optical activity. Specular optical activity is very weak in natural materials.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1898 Jagadish Chandra Bose described the ability of twisted artificial structures to rotate the polarization of microwaves. Since the early 21st century, the development of artificial materials has led to the prediction and realization of chiral metamaterials with optical activity exceeding that of natural media by orders of magnitude in the optical part of the spectrum. Extrinsic chirality associated with oblique illumination of metasurfaces lacking two-fold rotational symmetry has been observed to lead to large linear optical activity in transmission and reflection, as well as nonlinear optical activity exceeding that of lithium iodate by 30 million times.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 288059, 20097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 29 ], [ 115, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Optical activity occurs due to molecules dissolved in a fluid or due to the fluid itself only if the molecules are one of two (or more) stereoisomers; this is known as an enantiomer. The structure of such a molecule is such that it is not identical to its mirror image (which would be that of a different stereoisomer, or the \"opposite enantiomer\"). In mathematics, this property is also known as chirality. For instance, a metal rod is not chiral, since its appearance in a mirror is not distinct from itself. However a screw or light bulb base (or any sort of helix) is chiral; an ordinary right-handed screw thread, viewed in a mirror, would appear as a left-handed screw (very uncommon) which could not possibly screw into an ordinary (right-handed) nut. A human viewed in a mirror would have their heart on the right side, clear evidence of chirality, whereas the mirror reflection of a doll might well be indistinguishable from the doll itself.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 27970, 176304, 148234, 32703814, 179924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 148 ], [ 171, 181 ], [ 256, 268 ], [ 397, 406 ], [ 562, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In order to display optical activity, a fluid must contain only one, or a preponderance of one, stereoisomer. If two enantiomers are present in equal proportions then their effects cancel out and no optical activity is observed; this is termed a racemic mixture. But when there is an enantiomeric excess, more of one enantiomer than the other, the cancellation is incomplete and optical activity is observed. Many naturally occurring molecules are present as only one enantiomer (such as many sugars). Chiral molecules produced within the fields of organic chemistry or inorganic chemistry are racemic unless a chiral reagent was employed in the same reaction.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 75089, 1821715, 22208, 14624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 253 ], [ 284, 303 ], [ 549, 566 ], [ 570, 589 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the fundamental level, polarization rotation in an optically active medium is caused by circular birefringence, and can best be understood in that way. Whereas linear birefringence in a crystal involves a small difference in the phase velocity of light of two different linear polarizations, circular birefringence implies a small difference in the velocities between right and left-handed circular polarizations. Think of one enantiomer in a solution as a large number of little helices (or screws), all right-handed, but in random orientations. Birefringence of this sort is possible even in a fluid because the handedness of the helices is not dependent on their orientation: even when the direction of one helix is reversed, it still appears right handed. And circularly polarized light itself is chiral: as the wave proceeds in one direction the electric (and magnetic) fields composing it are rotating clockwise (or counterclockwise for the opposite circular polarization), tracing out a right (or left) handed screw pattern in space. In addition to the bulk refractive index which substantially lowers the phase velocity of light in any dielectric (transparent) material compared to the speed of light (in vacuum), there is an additional interaction between the chirality of the wave and the chirality of the molecules. Where their chiralities are the same, there will be a small additional effect on the wave's velocity, but the opposite circular polarization will experience an opposite small effect as its chirality is opposite that of the molecules.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 174412, 25098, 40875, 25880, 28736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 183 ], [ 232, 246 ], [ 393, 414 ], [ 1068, 1084 ], [ 1197, 1211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike linear birefringence, however, natural optical rotation (in the absence of a magnetic field) cannot be explained in terms of a local material permittivity tensor (i.e., a charge response that only depends on the local electric field vector), as symmetry considerations forbid this. Rather, circular birefringence only appears when considering nonlocality of the material response, a phenomenon known as spatial dispersion. Nonlocality means that electric fields in one location of the material drive currents in another location of the material. Light travels at a finite speed, and even though it is much faster than the electrons, it makes a difference whether the charge response naturally wants to travel along with the electromagnetic wavefront, or opposite to it. Spatial dispersion means that light travelling in different directions (different wavevectors) sees a slightly different permittivity tensor. Natural optical rotation requires a special material, but it also relies on the fact that the wavevector of light is nonzero, and a nonzero wavevector bypasses the symmetry restrictions on the local (zero-wavevector) response. However, there is still reversal symmetry, which is why the direction of natural optical rotation must be 'reversed' when the direction of the light is reversed, in contrast to magnetic Faraday rotation. All optical phenomena have some nonlocality/wavevector influence but it is usually negligible; natural optical rotation, rather uniquely, absolutely requires it.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 53933, 48744418, 518692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 161 ], [ 410, 428 ], [ 1332, 1348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The phase velocity of light in a medium is commonly expressed using the index of refraction n, defined as the speed of light (in free space) divided by its speed in the medium. The difference in the refractive indices between the two circular polarizations quantifies the strength of the circular birefringence (polarization rotation),", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 25880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While is small in natural materials, examples of giant circular birefringence resulting in a negative refractive index for one circular polarization have been reported for chiral metamaterials.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The familiar rotation of the axis of linear polarization relies on the understanding that a linearly polarized wave can as well be described as the superposition (addition) of a left and right circularly polarized wave in equal proportion. The phase difference between these two waves is dependent on the orientation of the linear polarization which we'll call , and their electric fields have a relative phase difference of which then add to produce linear polarization:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 1201321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is the electric field of the net wave, while and are the two circularly polarized basis functions (having zero phase difference). Assuming propagation in the +z direction, we could write and in terms of their x and y components as follows:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 41092, 18420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 28 ], [ 91, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where and are unit vectors, and i is the imaginary unit, in this case representing the 90 degree phase shift between the x and y components that we have decomposed each circular polarization into. As usual when dealing with phasor notation, it is understood that such quantities are to be multiplied by and then the actual electric field at any instant is given by the real part of that product.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 52358, 1256073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 57 ], [ 226, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Substituting these expressions for and into the equation for we obtain:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The last equation shows that the resulting vector has the x and y components in phase and oriented exactly in the direction, as we had intended, justifying the representation of any linearly polarized state at angle as the superposition of right and left circularly polarized components with a relative phase difference of . Now let us assume transmission through an optically active material which induces an additional phase difference between the right and left circularly polarized waves of . Let us call the result of passing the original wave linearly polarized at angle through this medium. This will apply additional phase factors of and to the right and left circularly polarized components of :", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Using similar math as above we find:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "thus describing a wave linearly polarized at angle , thus rotated by relative to the incoming wave: ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "We defined above the difference in the refractive indices for right and left circularly polarized waves of . Considering propagation through a length L in such a material, there will be an additional phase difference induced between them of (as we used above) given by:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ",", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the wavelength of the light (in vacuum). This will cause a rotation of the linear axis of polarization by as we have shown.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In general, the refractive index depends on wavelength (see dispersion) and the differential refractive index will also be wavelength dependent. The resulting variation in rotation with the wavelength of the light is called optical rotatory dispersion (ORD). ORD spectra and circular dichroism spectra are related through the Kramers–Kronig relations. Complete knowledge of one spectrum allows the calculation of the other.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 172333, 2952363, 92193, 2481686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 70 ], [ 225, 252 ], [ 276, 294 ], [ 327, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "So we find that the degree of rotation depends on the color of the light (the yellow sodium D line near 589nm wavelength is commonly used for measurements), and is directly proportional to the path length through the substance and the amount of circular birefringence of the material which, for a solution, may be computed from the substance's specific rotation and its concentration in solution.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 33125, 1821689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 120 ], [ 347, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although optical activity is normally thought of as a property of fluids, particularly aqueous solutions, it has also been observed in crystals such as quartz (SiO2). Although quartz has a substantial linear birefringence, that effect is cancelled when propagation is along the optic axis. In that case, rotation of the plane of polarization is observed due to the relative rotation between crystal planes, thus making the crystal formally chiral as we have defined it above. The rotation of the crystal planes can be right or left-handed, again producing opposite optical activities. On the other hand, amorphous forms of silica such as fused quartz, like a racemic mixture of chiral molecules, has no net optical activity since one or the other crystal structure does not dominate the substance's internal molecular structure.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 106240, 25233, 24454427, 2889, 43710, 430014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 104 ], [ 153, 159 ], [ 279, 289 ], [ 606, 615 ], [ 625, 631 ], [ 640, 652 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For a pure substance in solution, if the color and path length are fixed and the specific rotation is known, the observed rotation can be used to calculate the concentration. This usage makes a polarimeter a tool of great importance to those trading in or using sugar syrups in bulk.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 1821689, 1908635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 98 ], [ 194, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rotation of light's plane of polarization may also occur through the Faraday effect which involves a static magnetic field. However, this is a distinct phenomenon that is not classified as \"optical activity.\" Optical activity is reciprocal, i.e. it is the same for opposite directions of wave propagation through an optically active medium, for example clockwise polarization rotation from the point of view of an observer. In case of optically active isotropic media, the rotation is the same for any direction of wave propagation. In contrast, the Faraday effect is non-reciprocal, i.e opposite directions of wave propagation through a Faraday medium will result in clockwise and anti-clockwise polarization rotation from the point of view of an observer. Faraday rotation depends on the propagation direction relative to that of the applied magnetic field. All compounds can exhibit polarization rotation in the presence of an applied magnetic field, provided that (a component of) the magnetic field is oriented in the direction of light propagation. The Faraday effect is one of the first discoveries of the relationship between light and electromagnetic effects.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Comparison to the Faraday effect", "target_page_ids": [ 55054778, 518692, 36563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 41 ], [ 69, 83 ], [ 108, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cryptochirality", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5130509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Specific rotation", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1821689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Circular dichroism", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 92193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Birefringence", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 174412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Geometric phase", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 323137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Polarization", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Levorotation and dextrorotation", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chirality (chemistry)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1170166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chirality (electromagnetism)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25545661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Polarization rotator", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30841427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hyper Rayleigh Scattering Optical Activity", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 63634457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Raman optical activity (ROA)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3044377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eugene Hecht, Optics, 3rd Ed., Addison-Wesley, 1998, ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Akhlesh Lakhtakia, Beltrami Fields in Chiral Media, World Scientific, Singapore, 1994", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 25567723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A step by step tutorial on Optical Rotation", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Morrison. Robert. T, and Boyd. Robert. N, \"Organic Chemistry (6th ed)\". Prentice-Hall Inc (1992).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Polarization_(waves)", "Stereochemistry" ]

[ "optical activity", "polarization rotation", "circular birefringence" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In computing, a denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) is a cyber-attack in which the perpetrator seeks to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users by temporarily or indefinitely disrupting services of a host connected to a network. Denial of service is typically accomplished by flooding the targeted machine or resource with superfluous requests in an attempt to overload systems and prevent some or all legitimate requests from being fulfilled.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5213, 37925700, 16301990, 788676, 4534553, 4122592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 59, 71 ], [ 169, 174 ], [ 217, 225 ], [ 231, 235 ], [ 251, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack), the incoming traffic flooding the victim originates from many different sources. More sophisticated strategies are required to mitigate against this type of attack, as simply attempting to block a single source is insufficient because there are multiple sources.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A DoS or DDoS attack is analogous to a group of people crowding the entry door of a shop, making it hard for legitimate customers to enter, thus disrupting trade.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Criminal perpetrators of DoS attacks often target sites or services hosted on high-profile web servers such as banks or credit card payment gateways. Revenge, blackmail and activism can motivate these attacks.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33455, 17182301, 3187076, 181361, 230390, 39766702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 101 ], [ 120, 131 ], [ 132, 147 ], [ 150, 157 ], [ 159, 168 ], [ 173, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Panix, the third-oldest ISP in the world, was the target of what is thought to be the first DoS attack. On September 6, 1996, Panix was subject to a SYN flood attack, which brought down its services for several days while hardware vendors, notably Cisco, figured out a proper defense.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10770072, 100245, 236095, 51746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 24, 27 ], [ 149, 158 ], [ 248, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another early demonstration of the DoS attack was made by Khan C. Smith in 1997 during a DEF CON event, disrupting Internet access to the Las Vegas Strip for over an hour. The release of sample code during the event led to the online attack of Sprint, EarthLink, E-Trade and other major corporations in the year to follow.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 145578, 447621, 2380393, 23554587, 1429233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 96 ], [ 138, 153 ], [ 244, 250 ], [ 252, 261 ], [ 263, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2017, Google Cloud experienced an attack with a peak volume of 2.54 terabits per second. On March 5, 2018, an unnamed customer of the US-based service provider Arbor Networks fell victim to the largest DDoS to that date, reaching a peak of about 1.7 terabits per second. The previous record had been set a few days earlier, on March 1, 2018, when GitHub was hit by an attack of 1.35 terabits per second.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 42411494, 27855154, 18545292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 31 ], [ 173, 187 ], [ 360, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2020, Amazon Web Services experienced an attack with a peak volume of 2.3 terabits per second. In July of 2021, CDN Provider Cloudflare boasted of protecting its client from a DDoS attack from a global Mirai botnet that was up to 17.2 million requests per second. Russian DDoS Prevention provider Yandex said it blocked a HTTP pipelining DDoS attack on Sept. 5. 2021 that originated from unpatched Mikrotik networking gear.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1691376, 32760230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 37 ], [ 138, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Denial-of-service attacks are characterized by an explicit attempt by attackers to prevent legitimate use of a service. There are two general forms of DoS attacks: those that crash services and those that flood services. The most serious attacks are distributed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack occurs when multiple systems flood the bandwidth or resources of a targeted system, usually one or more web servers. A DDoS attack uses more than one unique IP address or machines, often from thousands of hosts infected with malware. A distributed denial of service attack typically involves more than around 3–5 nodes on different networks; fewer nodes may qualify as a DoS attack but is not a DDoS attack.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 14921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Multiple machines can generate more attack traffic than one machine, multiple attack machines are harder to turn off than one attack machine, and the behavior of each attack machine can be stealthier, making it harder to track and shut down. Since the incoming traffic flooding the victim originates from different sources, it may be impossible to stop the attack simply by using ingress filtering. It also makes it difficult to distinguish legitimate user traffic from attack traffic when spread across multiple points of origin. As an alternative or augmentation of a DDoS, attacks may involve forging of IP sender addresses (IP address spoofing) further complicating identifying and defeating the attack. These attacker advantages cause challenges for defense mechanisms. For example, merely purchasing more incoming bandwidth than the current volume of the attack might not help, because the attacker might be able to simply add more attack machines.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 3021212, 41284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 380, 397 ], [ 628, 647 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The scale of DDoS attacks has continued to rise over recent years, by 2016 exceeding a terabit per second. Some common examples of DDoS attacks are UDP flooding, SYN flooding and DNS amplification.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 14832328, 3329381, 236095, 39776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 105 ], [ 148, 160 ], [ 162, 174 ], [ 179, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A yo-yo attack is a specific type of DoS/DDoS aimed at cloud-hosted applications which use autoscaling. The attacker generates a flood of traffic until a cloud-hosted service scales outwards to handle the increase of traffic, then halts the attack, leaving the victim with over-provisioned resources. When the victim scales back down, the attack resumes, causing resources to scale back up again. This can result in a reduced quality of service during the periods of scaling up and down and a financial drain on resources during periods of over-provisioning, while operating with a lower cost for an attacker compared to a normal DDoS attack, as it only needs to be generating traffic for a portion of the attack period.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 46189764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An application layer DDoS attack (sometimes referred to as layer 7 DDoS attack) is a form of DDoS attack where attackers target application-layer processes. The attack over-exercises specific functions or features of a website with the intention to disable those functions or features. This application-layer attack is different from an entire network attack, and is often used against financial institutions to distract IT and security personnel from security breaches. In 2013, application-layer DDoS attacks represented 20% of all DDoS attacks. According to research by Akamai Technologies, there have been \"51 percent more application layer attacks\" from Q4 2013 to Q4 2014 and \"16 percent more\" from Q3 2014 to Q4 2014. In November 2017; Junade Ali, an engineer at Cloudflare noted that whilst network-level attacks continue to be of high capacity, they were occurring less frequently. Ali further noted that although network-level attacks were becoming less frequent, data from Cloudflare demonstrated that application-layer attacks were still showing no sign of slowing down. In December 2021, following the Log4Shell security vulnerability, a second vulnerability in the open source Log4j library was discovered which could lead to application layer DDoS attacks.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 172179, 481477, 69916877, 32760230, 69481773, 3291868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 145 ], [ 573, 592 ], [ 743, 753 ], [ 770, 780 ], [ 1115, 1124 ], [ 1191, 1196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The OSI model (ISO/IEC 7498-1) is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes the internal functions of a communication system by partitioning it into abstraction layers. The model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection project at the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The model groups similar communication functions into one of seven logical layers. A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it. For example, a layer that provides error-free communications across a network provides the communications path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that traverse that path.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 22747, 574775, 14934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ], [ 162, 179 ], [ 256, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the OSI model, the definition of its application layer is narrower in scope than is often implemented. The OSI model defines the application layer as being the user interface. The OSI application layer is responsible for displaying data and images to the user in a human-recognizable format and to interface with the presentation layer below it. In an implementation, the application and presentation layers are frequently combined.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 172179, 102181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 57 ], [ 320, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The simplest DoS attack relies primarily on brute force, flooding the target with an overwhelming flux of packets, oversaturating its connection bandwidth or depleting the target's system resources. Bandwidth-saturating floods rely on the attacker's ability to generate the overwhelming flux of packets. A common way of achieving this today is via distributed denial-of-service, employing a botnet.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 636268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 391, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An application layer DDoS attack is done mainly for specific targeted purposes, including disrupting transactions and access to databases. It requires fewer resources than network layer attacks but often accompanies them. An attack may be disguised to look like legitimate traffic, except it targets specific application packets or functions. The attack on the application layer can disrupt services such as the retrieval of information or search functions on a website.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An advanced persistent DoS (APDoS) is associated with an advanced persistent threat and requires specialized DDoS mitigation. These attacks can persist for weeks; the longest continuous period noted so far lasted 38 days. This attack involved approximately 50+ petabits (50,000+ terabits) of malicious traffic.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 25874360, 35283922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 83 ], [ 109, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Attackers in this scenario may tactically switch between several targets to create a diversion to evade defensive DDoS countermeasures but all the while eventually concentrating the main thrust of the attack onto a single victim. In this scenario, attackers with continuous access to several very powerful network resources are capable of sustaining a prolonged campaign generating enormous levels of un-amplified DDoS traffic.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "APDoS attacks are characterized by:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " advanced reconnaissance (pre-attack OSINT and extensive decoyed scanning crafted to evade detection over long periods)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 387199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " tactical execution (attack with both primary and secondary victims but the focus is on primary)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " explicit motivation (a calculated end game/goal target)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " large computing capacity (access to substantial computer power and network bandwidth)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " simultaneous multi-threaded OSI layer attacks (sophisticated tools operating at layers 3 through 7)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " persistence over extended periods (combining all the above into a concerted, well-managed attack across a range of targets).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some vendors provide so-called \"booter\" or \"stresser\" services, which have simple web-based front ends, and accept payment over the web. Marketed and promoted as stress-testing tools, they can be used to perform unauthorized denial-of-service attacks, and allow technically unsophisticated attackers access to sophisticated attack tools. Usually powered by a botnet, the traffic produced by a consumer stresser can range anywhere from 5-50Gbit/s, which can, in most cases, deny the average home user internet access.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 636268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 359, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT) has identified symptoms of a denial-of-service attack to include:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 1289446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " unusually slow network performance (opening files or accessing web sites),", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 1522954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " unavailability of a particular web site, or", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Symptoms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " inability to access any web site.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Symptoms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In cases such as MyDoom and Slowloris, the tools are embedded in malware and launch their attacks without the knowledge of the system owner. Stacheldraht is a classic example of a DDoS tool. It uses a layered structure where the attacker uses a client program to connect to handlers which are compromised systems that issue commands to the zombie agents which in turn facilitate the DDoS attack. Agents are compromised via the handlers by the attacker using automated routines to exploit vulnerabilities in programs that accept remote connections running on the targeted remote hosts. Each handler can control up to a thousand agents.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 444477, 23402417, 20901, 3405435, 667970, 531566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 23 ], [ 28, 37 ], [ 65, 72 ], [ 141, 153 ], [ 245, 259 ], [ 340, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In other cases a machine may become part of a DDoS attack with the owner's consent, for example, in Operation Payback organized by the group Anonymous. The Low Orbit Ion Cannon has typically been used in this way. Along with High Orbit Ion Cannon a wide variety of DDoS tools are available today, including paid and free versions, with different features available. There is an underground market for these in hacker-related forums and IRC channels.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 29306220, 15716827, 28240388, 48776378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 117 ], [ 141, 150 ], [ 156, 176 ], [ 225, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Application-layer attacks employ DoS-causing exploits and can cause server-running software to fill the disk space or consume all available memory or CPU time. Attacks may use specific packet types or connection requests to saturate finite resources by, for example, occupying the maximum number of open connections or filling the victim's disk space with logs. An attacker with shell-level access to a victim's computer may slow it until it is unusable or crash it by using a fork bomb. Another kind of application-level DoS attack is XDoS (or XML DoS) which can be controlled by modern web application firewalls (WAFs).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 9875, 6008500, 261109, 6312219, 956499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 53 ], [ 150, 158 ], [ 477, 486 ], [ 536, 540 ], [ 592, 612 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All attacks belonging to the category of timeout exploiting Slow DoS Attacks implement an application-layer attack. Examples of threats are Slowloris, establishing pending connections with the victim, or SlowDroid, an attack running on mobile devices.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 70207317, 23402417, 47165927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 76 ], [ 140, 149 ], [ 204, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another target of DDoS attacks may be to produce added costs for the application operator, when the latter uses resources based on cloud computing. In this case, normally application-used resources are tied to a needed quality of service (QoS) level (e.g. responses should be less than 200ms) and this rule is usually linked to automated software (e.g. Amazon CloudWatch) to raise more virtual resources from the provider to meet the defined QoS levels for the increased requests. The main incentive behind such attacks may be to drive the application owner to raise the elasticity levels to handle the increased application traffic, to cause financial losses, or force them to become less competitive.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 19541494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A banana attack is another particular type of DoS. It involves redirecting outgoing messages from the client back onto the client, preventing outside access, as well as flooding the client with the sent packets. A LAND attack is of this type.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 2100055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 214, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pulsing zombies are compromised computers that are directed to launch intermittent and short-lived floodings of victim websites with the intent of merely slowing it rather than crashing it. This type of attack, referred to as degradation-of-service, can be more difficult to detect and can disrupt and hamper connection to websites for prolonged periods of time, potentially causing more overall disruption than a denial-of-service attack. Exposure of degradation-of-service attacks is complicated further by the matter of discerning whether the server is really being attacked or is experiencing higher than normal legitimate traffic loads.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If an attacker mounts an attack from a single host, it would be classified as a DoS attack. Any attack against availability would be classed as a denial-of-service attack. On the other hand, if an attacker uses many systems to simultaneously launch attacks against a remote host, this would be classified as a DDoS attack.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Malware can carry DDoS attack mechanisms; one of the better-known examples of this was MyDoom. Its DoS mechanism was triggered on a specific date and time. This type of DDoS involved hardcoding the target IP address before releasing the malware and no further interaction was necessary to launch the attack.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 444477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A system may also be compromised with a trojan containing a zombie agent. Attackers can also break into systems using automated tools that exploit flaws in programs that listen for connections from remote hosts. This scenario primarily concerns systems acting as servers on the web. Stacheldraht is a classic example of a DDoS tool. It uses a layered structure where the attacker uses a client program to connect to handlers, which are compromised systems that issue commands to the zombie agents, which in turn facilitate the DDoS attack. Agents are compromised via the handlers by the attacker. Each handler can control up to a thousand agents. In some cases a machine may become part of a DDoS attack with the owner's consent, for example, in Operation Payback, organized by the group Anonymous. These attacks can use different types of internet packets such as TCP, UDP, ICMP, etc.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 30056, 531566, 3405435, 667970, 29306220, 15716827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 46 ], [ 60, 72 ], [ 283, 295 ], [ 387, 401 ], [ 746, 763 ], [ 788, 797 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These collections of compromised systems are known as botnets. DDoS tools like Stacheldraht still use classic DoS attack methods centered on IP spoofing and amplification like smurf attacks and fraggle attacks (types of bandwidth consumption attacks). SYN floods (a resource starvation attack) may also be used. Newer tools can use DNS servers for DoS purposes. Unlike MyDoom's DDoS mechanism, botnets can be turned against any IP address. Script kiddies use them to deny the availability of well known websites to legitimate users. More sophisticated attackers use DDoS tools for the purposes of extortionincluding against their business rivals.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 636268, 3405435, 41284, 176472, 176472, 236095, 27750, 162449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 60 ], [ 79, 91 ], [ 141, 152 ], [ 176, 188 ], [ 194, 208 ], [ 252, 261 ], [ 440, 453 ], [ 597, 606 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It has been reported that there are new attacks from internet of things (IoT) devices that have been involved in denial of service attacks. In one noted attack that was made peaked at around 20,000 requests per second which came from around 900 CCTV cameras.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 12057519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "UK's GCHQ has tools built for DDoS, named PREDATORS FACE and ROLLING THUNDER.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 12884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Simple attacks such as SYN floods may appear with a wide range of source IP addresses, giving the appearance of a distributed DoS. These flood attacks do not require completion of the TCP three-way handshake and attempt to exhaust the destination SYN queue or the server bandwidth. Because the source IP addresses can be trivially spoofed, an attack could come from a limited set of sources, or may even originate from a single host. Stack enhancements such as SYN cookies may be effective mitigation against SYN queue flooding but do not address bandwidth exhaustion.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 30538, 6507326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 207 ], [ 461, 472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, DDoS botnets such as DD4BC grew in prominence, taking aim at financial institutions. Cyber-extortionists typically begin with a low-level attack and a warning that a larger attack will be carried out if a ransom is not paid in bitcoin. Security experts recommend targeted websites to not pay the ransom. The attackers tend to get into an extended extortion scheme once they recognize that the target is ready to pay.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 28249265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 236, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "First discovered in 2009, the HTTP slow POST attack sends a complete, legitimate HTTP POST header, which includes a Content-Length field to specify the size of the message body to follow. However, the attacker then proceeds to send the actual message body at an extremely slow rate (e.g. 1 byte/110 seconds). Due to the entire message being correct and complete, the target server will attempt to obey the Content-Length field in the header, and wait for the entire body of the message to be transmitted, which can take a very long time. The attacker establishes hundreds or even thousands of such connections until all resources for incoming connections on the victim server are exhausted, making any further connections impossible until all data has been sent. It is notable that unlike many other DDoS or DDoS attacks, which try to subdue the server by overloading its network or CPU, an HTTP slow POST attack targets the logical resources of the victim, which means the victim would still have enough network bandwidth and processing power to operate. Combined with the fact that the Apache HTTP Server will, by default, accept requests up to 2GB in size, this attack can be particularly powerful. HTTP slow POST attacks are difficult to differentiate from legitimate connections and are therefore able to bypass some protection systems. OWASP, an open source web application security project, released a tool to test the security of servers against this type of attack.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 22041455, 2581, 2123049, 59126142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 97 ], [ 1088, 1106 ], [ 1342, 1347 ], [ 1352, 1363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Challenge Collapsar (CC) attack is an attack where standard HTTP requests are sent to a targeted web server frequently. The Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs) in the requests require complicated time-consuming algorithms or database operations which may exhaust the resources of the targeted web server.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 32146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2004, a Chinese hacker nicknamed KiKi invented a hacking tool to send these kinds of requests to attack a NSFOCUS firewall named Collapsar, and thus the hacking tool was known as Challenge Collapsar, or CC for short. Consequently, this type of attack got the name CC attack.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A smurf attack relies on misconfigured network devices that allow packets to be sent to all computer hosts on a particular network via the broadcast address of the network, rather than a specific machine. The attacker will send large numbers of IP packets with the source address faked to appear to be the address of the victim. Most devices on a network will, by default, respond to this by sending a reply to the source IP address. If the number of machines on the network that receive and respond to these packets is very large, the victim's computer will be flooded with traffic. This overloads the victim's computer and can even make it unusable during such an attack.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 176472, 484577, 15323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 14 ], [ 139, 156 ], [ 245, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ping flood is based on sending the victim an overwhelming number of ping packets, usually using the ping command from Unix-like hosts. It is very simple to launch, the primary requirement being access to greater bandwidth than the victim.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 2302440, 24265, 21347057, 15612827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 68, 72 ], [ 118, 127 ], [ 212, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ping of death is based on sending the victim a malformed ping packet, which will lead to a system crash on a vulnerable system.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 2181434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The BlackNurse attack is an example of an attack taking advantage of the required Destination Port Unreachable ICMP packets.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 52538504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Nuke is an old-fashioned denial-of-service attack against computer networks consisting of fragmented or otherwise invalid ICMP packets sent to the target, achieved by using a modified ping utility to repeatedly send this corrupt data, thus slowing down the affected computer until it comes to a complete stop.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 4122592, 15107, 24265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 77 ], [ 124, 128 ], [ 186, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A specific example of a nuke attack that gained some prominence is the WinNuke, which exploited the vulnerability in the NetBIOS handler in Windows 95. A string of out-of-band data was sent to TCP port 139 of the victim's machine, causing it to lock up and display a Blue Screen of Death.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 312630, 177746, 34064, 30538, 18909256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 78 ], [ 121, 128 ], [ 140, 150 ], [ 193, 196 ], [ 267, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Attackers have found a way to exploit a number of bugs in peer-to-peer servers to initiate DDoS attacks. The most aggressive of these peer-to-peer-DDoS attacks exploits DC++. With peer-to-peer there is no botnet and the attacker does not have to communicate with the clients it subverts. Instead, the attacker acts as a puppet master, instructing clients of large peer-to-peer file sharing hubs to disconnect from their peer-to-peer network and to connect to the victim's website instead.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 24107, 1163160, 18949797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 70 ], [ 169, 173 ], [ 364, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Permanent denial-of-service (PDoS), also known loosely as phlashing, is an attack that damages a system so badly that it requires replacement or reinstallation of hardware. Unlike the distributed denial-of-service attack, a PDoS attack exploits security flaws which allow remote administration on the management interfaces of the victim's hardware, such as routers, printers, or other networking hardware. The attacker uses these vulnerabilities to replace a device's firmware with a modified, corrupt, or defective firmware image—a process which when done legitimately is known as flashing. The intent is to brick the device, rendering it unusable for its original purpose until it can be repaired or replaced.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 1699254, 41155, 4426607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 385, 404 ], [ 468, 476 ], [ 609, 614 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The PDoS is a pure hardware targeted attack that can be much faster and requires fewer resources than using a botnet in a DDoS attack. Because of these features, and the potential and high probability of security exploits on network-enabled embedded devices, this technique has come to the attention of numerous hacking communities. BrickerBot, a piece of malware that targeted IoT devices, used PDoS attacks to disable its targets.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 56693975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 333, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "PhlashDance is a tool created by Rich Smith (an employee of Hewlett-Packard's Systems Security Lab) used to detect and demonstrate PDoS vulnerabilities at the 2008 EUSecWest Applied Security Conference in London.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A distributed denial-of-service attack may involve sending forged requests of some type to a very large number of computers that will reply to the requests. Using Internet Protocol address spoofing, the source address is set to that of the targeted victim, which means all the replies will go to (and flood) the target. This reflected attack form is sometimes called a \"DRDOS\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 41284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ICMP echo request attacks (Smurf attacks) can be considered one form of reflected attack, as the flooding hosts send Echo Requests to the broadcast addresses of mis-configured networks, thereby enticing hosts to send Echo Reply packets to the victim. Some early DDoS programs implemented a distributed form of this attack.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 24265, 176472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 27, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amplification attacks are used to magnify the bandwidth that is sent to a victim. Many services can be exploited to act as reflectors, some harder to block than others. US-CERT have observed that different services may result in different amplification factors, as tabulated below:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "DNS amplification attacks involves an attacker sending a DNS name lookup request to one or more public DNS servers, spoofing the source IP address of the targeted victim. The attacker tries to request as much information as possible, thus amplifying the DNS response that is sent to the targeted victim. Since the size of the request is significantly smaller than the response, the attacker is easily able to increase the amount of traffic directed at the target. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "SNMP and NTP can also be exploited as reflector in an amplification attack. An example of an amplified DDoS attack through the Network Time Protocol (NTP) is through a command called monlist, which sends the details of the last 600 hosts that have requested the time from the NTP server back to the requester. A small request to this time server can be sent using a spoofed source IP address of some victim, which results in a response 556.9 times the size of the request being sent to the victim. This becomes amplified when using botnets that all send requests with the same spoofed IP source, which will result in a massive amount of data being sent back to the victim.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 159886, 159886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 12 ], [ 127, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is very difficult to defend against these types of attacks because the response data is coming from legitimate servers. These attack requests are also sent through UDP, which does not require a connection to the server. This means that the source IP is not verified when a request is received by the server. To bring awareness of these vulnerabilities, campaigns have been started that are dedicated to finding amplification vectors which have led to people fixing their resolvers or having the resolvers shut down completely.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This attack works by using a worm to infect hundreds of thousands of IoT devices across the internet. The worm propagates through networks and systems taking control of poorly protected IoT devices such as thermostats, Wi-Fi-enabled clocks, and washing machines. The owner or user will usually have no immediate indication of when the device becomes infected. The IoT device itself is not the direct target of the attack, it is used as a part of a larger attack. Once the hacker has enslaved the desired number of devices, they instruct the devices to try to contact an ISP. In October 2016, a Mirai botnet attacked Dyn which is the ISP for sites such as Twitter, Netflix, etc. As soon as this occurred, these websites were all unreachable for several hours.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 6010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "RUDY attack targets web applications by starvation of available sessions on the web server. Much like Slowloris, RUDY keeps sessions at halt using never-ending POST transmissions and sending an arbitrarily large content-length header value.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 23402417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Manipulating maximum segment size and selective acknowledgement (SACK) may be used by a remote peer to cause a denial of service by an integer overflow in the Linux kernel, potentially causing a Kernel panic. Jonathan Looney discovered on June 17, 2019.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 600445, 30538, 2151421, 221277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 33 ], [ 38, 63 ], [ 135, 151 ], [ 195, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The shrew attack is a denial-of-service attack on the Transmission Control Protocol where the attacker employs man-in-the-middle techniques. It uses short synchronized bursts of traffic to disrupt TCP connections on the same link, by exploiting a weakness in TCP's re-transmission timeout mechanism.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 30538, 144676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 83 ], [ 111, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A slow read attack sends legitimate application layer requests, but reads responses very slowly, thus trying to exhaust the server's connection pool. It is achieved by advertising a very small number for the TCP Receive Window size, and at the same time emptying clients' TCP receive buffer slowly, which causes a very low data flow rate.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A sophisticated low-bandwidth DDoS attack is a form of DoS that uses less traffic and increases their effectiveness by aiming at a weak point in the victim's system design, i.e., the attacker sends traffic consisting of complicated requests to the system. Essentially, a sophisticated DDoS attack is lower in cost due to its use of less traffic, is smaller in size making it more difficult to identify, and it has the ability to hurt systems which are protected by flow control mechanisms.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A SYN flood occurs when a host sends a flood of TCP/SYN packets, often with a forged sender address. Each of these packets is handled like a connection request, causing the server to spawn a half-open connection, by sending back a TCP/SYN-ACK packet (Acknowledge), and waiting for a packet in response from the sender address (response to the ACK Packet). However, because the sender's address is forged, the response never comes. These half-open connections saturate the number of available connections the server can make, keeping it from responding to legitimate requests until after the attack ends.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 236095, 5170720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 11 ], [ 191, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A teardrop attack involves sending mangled IP fragments with overlapping, oversized payloads to the target machine. This can crash various operating systems because of a bug in their TCP/IP fragmentation re-assembly code. Windows 3.1x, Windows 95 and Windows NT operating systems, as well as versions of Linux prior to versions 2.0.32 and 2.1.63 are vulnerable to this attack.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 1256762, 15323, 15476, 15317, 21291678, 34064, 21291483, 6097297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 42 ], [ 43, 45 ], [ 183, 189 ], [ 190, 215 ], [ 222, 234 ], [ 236, 246 ], [ 251, 261 ], [ 304, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(Although in September 2009, a vulnerability in Windows Vista was referred to as a \"teardrop attack\", this targeted SMB2 which is a higher layer than the TCP packets that teardrop used).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 2289648, 349873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 61 ], [ 116, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the fields in an IP header is the “fragment offset” field, indicating the starting position, or offset, of the data contained in a fragmented packet relative to the data in the original packet. If the sum of the offset and size of one fragmented packet differs from that of the next fragmented packet, the packets overlap. When this happens, a server vulnerable to teardrop attacks is unable to reassemble the packets - resulting in a denial-of-service condition.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Voice over IP has made abusive origination of large numbers of telephone voice calls inexpensive and readily automated while permitting call origins to be misrepresented through caller ID spoofing.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 75028, 30003, 4088214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 63, 72 ], [ 178, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the US Federal Bureau of Investigation, telephony denial-of-service (TDoS) has appeared as part of various fraudulent schemes:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 11127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A scammer contacts the victim's banker or broker, impersonating the victim to request a funds transfer. The banker's attempt to contact the victim for verification of the transfer fails as the victim's telephone lines are being flooded with thousands of bogus calls, rendering the victim unreachable.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A scammer contacts consumers with a bogus claim to collect an outstanding payday loan for thousands of dollars. When the consumer objects, the scammer retaliates by flooding the victim's employer with thousands of automated calls. In some cases, displayed caller ID is spoofed to impersonate police or law enforcement agencies.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 631175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Swatting: A scammer contacts consumers with a bogus debt collection demand and threatens to send police; when the victim balks, the scammer floods local police numbers with calls on which caller ID is spoofed to display the victim's number. Police soon arrive at the victim's residence attempting to find the origin of the calls.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 15709175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telephony denial-of-service can exist even without Internet telephony. In the 2002 New Hampshire Senate election phone jamming scandal, telemarketers were used to flood political opponents with spurious calls to jam phone banks on election day. Widespread publication of a number can also flood it with enough calls to render it unusable, as happened by accident in 1981 with multiple +1-area code-867-5309 subscribers inundated by hundreds of calls daily in response to the song 867-5309/Jenny.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 75028, 2622350, 162180, 627405, 572550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 69 ], [ 78, 134 ], [ 136, 149 ], [ 388, 397 ], [ 480, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "TDoS differs from other telephone harassment (such as prank calls and obscene phone calls) by the number of calls originated; by occupying lines continuously with repeated automated calls, the victim is prevented from making or receiving both routine and emergency telephone calls.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 19634168, 22447334, 302171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 44 ], [ 54, 64 ], [ 70, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Related exploits include SMS flooding attacks and black fax or fax loop transmission.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 433024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It takes more router resources to drop a packet with a TTL value of 1 or less than it does to forward a packet with a higher TTL value. When a packet is dropped due to TTL expiry, the router CPU must generate and send an ICMP time exceeded response. Generating many of these responses can overload the router's CPU.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 31449, 15107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 58 ], [ 221, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This attack uses an existing vulnerability in Universal Plug and Play (UPnP) protocol to get around a considerable amount of the present defense methods and flood a target's network and servers. The attack is based on a DNS amplification technique, but the attack mechanism is a UPnP router that forwards requests from one outer source to another disregarding UPnP behavior rules. Using the UPnP router returns the data on an unexpected UDP port from a bogus IP address, making it harder to take simple action to shut down the traffic flood. According to the Imperva researchers, the most effective way to stop this attack is for companies to lock down UPnP routers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 183365, 32631678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 69 ], [ 559, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014 it was discovered that SSDP was being used in DDoS attacks known as an \"SSDP reflection attack with amplification\". Many devices, including some residential routers, have a vulnerability in the UPnP software that allows an attacker to get replies from port number 1900 to a destination address of their choice. With a botnet of thousands of devices, the attackers can generate sufficient packet rates and occupy bandwidth to saturate links, causing the denial of services. The network company Cloudflare has described this attack as the \"Stupidly Simple DDoS Protocol\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 39776, 184810, 347136, 636268, 32760230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 58 ], [ 80, 102 ], [ 260, 276 ], [ 326, 332 ], [ 501, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ARP spoofing is a common DoS attack that involves a vulnerability in the ARP protocol that allows an attacker to associate their MAC address to the IP address of another computer or gateway (like a router), causing traffic intended for the original authentic IP to be re-routed to that of the attacker, causing a denial of service.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Attack techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 442736, 20668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 129, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Defensive responses to denial-of-service attacks typically involve the use of a combination of attack detection, traffic classification and response tools, aiming to block traffic that they identify as illegitimate and allow traffic that they identify as legitimate. A list of prevention and response tools is provided below:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All traffic destined to the victim is diverted to pass through a \"cleaning center\" or a \"scrubbing center\" via various methods such as: changing the victim IP address in the DNS system, tunneling methods (GRE/VRF, MPLS, SDN),", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "proxies, digital cross connects, or even direct circuits, which separates \"bad\" traffic (DDoS and also other common internet attacks) and only sends good legitimate traffic to the victim server.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The provider needs central connectivity to the Internet to manage this kind of service unless they happen to be located within the same facility as the \"cleaning center\" or \"scrubbing center\". DDoS attacks can overwhelm any type of hardware firewall, and passing malicious traffic through large and mature networks becomes more and more effective and economically sustainable against DDoS.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Application front-end hardware is intelligent hardware placed on the network before traffic reaches the servers. It can be used on networks in conjunction with routers and switches. Application front-end hardware analyzes data packets as they enter the system, and then identifies them as a priority, regular, or dangerous. There are more than 25 bandwidth management vendors.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 4672881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 347, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Approaches to DDoS attacks against cloud-based applications may be based on an application layer analysis, indicating whether incoming bulk traffic is legitimate and thus triggering elasticity decisions without the economical implications of a DDoS attack. These approaches mainly rely on an identified path of value inside the application and monitor the progress of requests on this path, through markers called Key Completion Indicators.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In essence, these techniques are statistical methods of assessing the behavior of incoming requests to detect if something unusual or abnormal is going on.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An analogy is to a brick-and-mortar department store where customers spend, on average, a known percentage of their time on different activities such as picking up items and examining them, putting them back, filling a basket, waiting to pay, paying, and leaving. These high-level activities correspond to the Key Completion Indicators in service or site, and once normal behavior is determined, abnormal behavior can be identified. If a mob of customers arrived in the store and spent all their time picking up items and putting them back, but never made any purchases, this could be flagged as unusual behavior.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The department store can attempt to adjust to periods of high activity by bringing in a reserve of employees at short notice. But if it did this routinely, were a mob to start showing up but never buying anything, this could ruin the store with the extra employee costs. Soon the store would identify the mob activity and scale back the number of employees, recognizing that the mob provides no profit and should not be served. While this may make it more difficult for legitimate customers to get served during the mob's presence, it saves the store from total ruin.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the case of elastic cloud services where a huge and abnormal additional workload may incur significant charges from the cloud service provider, this technique can be used to scale back or even stop the expansion of server availability to protect from economic loss.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With blackhole routing, all the traffic to the attacked DNS or IP address is sent to a \"black hole\" (null interface or a non-existent server). To be more efficient and avoid affecting network connectivity, it can be managed by the ISP.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 5078383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A DNS sinkhole routes traffic to a valid IP address which analyzes traffic and rejects bad packets. Sinkholing is not efficient for most severe attacks.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 37303903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Intrusion prevention systems (IPS) are effective if the attacks have signatures associated with them. However, the trend among the attacks is to have legitimate content but bad intent. Intrusion-prevention systems which work on content recognition cannot block behavior-based DoS attacks.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 113021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An ASIC based IPS may detect and block denial-of-service attacks because they have the processing power and the granularity to analyze the attacks and act like a circuit breaker in an automated way.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 147845, 15612827, 235899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 7 ], [ 87, 103 ], [ 162, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More focused on the problem than IPS, a DoS defense system (DDS) can block connection-based DoS attacks and those with legitimate content but bad intent. A DDS can also address both protocol attacks (such as teardrop and ping of death) and rate-based attacks (such as ICMP floods and SYN floods). DDS has a purpose-built system that can easily identify and obstruct denial of service attacks at a greater speed than a software that is based system.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the case of a simple attack, a firewall could have a simple rule added to deny all incoming traffic from the attackers, based on protocols, ports, or the originating IP addresses.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 26173989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More complex attacks will however be hard to block with simple rules: for example, if there is an ongoing attack on port 80 (web service), it is not possible to drop all incoming traffic on this port because doing so will prevent the server from serving legitimate traffic. Additionally, firewalls may be too deep in the network hierarchy, with routers being adversely affected before the traffic gets to the firewall. Also, many security tools still do not support IPv6 or may not be configured properly, so the firewalls often might get bypassed during the attacks.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Similar to switches, routers have some rate-limiting and ACL capability. They, too, are manually set. Most routers can be easily overwhelmed under a DoS attack.Nokia SR-OS using FP4/FP5 processors offers DDoS protection. Nokia SR-OS also uses big data analytics based Nokia Deepfield Defender for DDoS protection.Cisco IOS has optional features that can reduce the impact of flooding. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 61589, 187398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 60 ], [ 313, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most switches have some rate-limiting and ACL capability. Some switches provide automatic and/or system-wide rate limiting, traffic shaping, delayed binding (TCP splicing), deep packet inspection and Bogon filtering (bogus IP filtering) to detect and remediate DoS attacks through automatic rate filtering and WAN Link failover and balancing.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 61589, 986684, 242669, 5069547, 5069547, 454995, 202893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 45 ], [ 109, 122 ], [ 124, 139 ], [ 141, 156 ], [ 158, 170 ], [ 173, 195 ], [ 200, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These schemes will work as long as the DoS attacks can be prevented by using them. For example, SYN flood can be prevented using delayed binding or TCP splicing. Similarly, content-based DoS may be prevented using deep packet inspection. Attacks originating from dark addresses or going to dark addresses can be prevented using bogon filtering. Automatic rate filtering can work as long as set rate thresholds have been set correctly. Wan-link failover will work as long as both links have DoS/DDoS prevention mechanism.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [ 509688, 202893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 277 ], [ 328, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, in an SSDP reflection attack; the key mitigation is to block incoming UDP traffic on port 1900 at the firewall.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defense techniques", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An unintentional denial-of-service can occur when a system ends up denied, not due to a deliberate attack by a single individual or group of individuals, but simply due to a sudden enormous spike in popularity. This can happen when an extremely popular website posts a prominent link to a second, less well-prepared site, for example, as part of a news story. The result is that a significant proportion of the primary site's regular userspotentially hundreds of thousands of peopleclick that link in the space of a few hours, having the same effect on the target website as a DDoS attack. A VIPDoS is the same, but specifically when the link was posted by a celebrity.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Unintentional denial-of-service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When Michael Jackson died in 2009, websites such as Google and Twitter slowed down or even crashed. Many sites' servers thought the requests were from a virus or spyware trying to cause a denial-of-service attack, warning users that their queries looked like \"automated requests from a computer virus or spyware application\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Unintentional denial-of-service", "target_page_ids": [ 23404081, 18994196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 25 ], [ 286, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "News sites and link sitessites whose primary function is to provide links to interesting content elsewhere on the Internetare most likely to cause this phenomenon. The canonical example is the Slashdot effect when receiving traffic from Slashdot. It is also known as \"the Reddit hug of death\" and \"the Digg effect\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Unintentional denial-of-service", "target_page_ids": [ 18933122, 26715, 3829005, 11041618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 208 ], [ 237, 245 ], [ 272, 278 ], [ 302, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Routers have also been known to create unintentional DoS attacks, as both D-Link and Netgear routers have overloaded NTP servers by flooding them without respecting the restrictions of client types or geographical limitations.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Unintentional denial-of-service", "target_page_ids": [ 1024742, 1197294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 80 ], [ 85, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similar unintentional denial-of-service can also occur via other media, e.g. when a URL is mentioned on television. If a server is being indexed by Google or another search engine during peak periods of activity, or does not have a lot of available bandwidth while being indexed, it can also experience the effects of a DoS attack.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Unintentional denial-of-service", "target_page_ids": [ 1092923, 4059023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 154 ], [ 166, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Legal action has been taken in at least one such case. In 2006, Universal Tube & Rollform Equipment Corporation sued YouTube: massive numbers of would-be YouTube.com users accidentally typed the tube company's URL, utube.com. As a result, the tube company ended up having to spend large amounts of money on upgrading its bandwidth. The company appears to have taken advantage of the situation, with utube.com now containing ads for advertisement revenue.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Unintentional denial-of-service", "target_page_ids": [ 7741581, 3524766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 111 ], [ 117, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2014, after Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 went missing, DigitalGlobe launched a crowdsourcing service on which users could help search for the missing jet in satellite images. The response overwhelmed the company's servers.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Unintentional denial-of-service", "target_page_ids": [ 42142305, 636084, 5292585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 49 ], [ 64, 76 ], [ 88, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An unintentional denial-of-service may also result from a prescheduled event created by the website itself, as was the case of the Census in Australia in 2016. This could be caused when a server provides some service at a specific time. This might be a university website setting the grades to be available where it will result in many more login requests at that time than any other.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Unintentional denial-of-service", "target_page_ids": [ 4700864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early 2021, the Week 7 to the Friday Night Funkin' video game was released as a Newgrounds exclusive. Due to the increase in traffic this caused to Newgrounds, the site crashed due to an unintentional DDOS attack.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Unintentional denial-of-service", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In computer network security, backscatter is a side-effect of a spoofed denial-of-service attack. In this kind of attack, the attacker spoofs (or forges) the source address in IP packets sent to the victim. In general, the victim machine cannot distinguish between the spoofed packets and legitimate packets, so the victim responds to the spoofed packets as it normally would. These response packets are known as backscatter.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Side effects of attacks", "target_page_ids": [ 13937806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the attacker is spoofing source addresses randomly, the backscatter response packets from the victim will be sent back to random destinations. This effect can be used by network telescopes as indirect evidence of such attacks.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Side effects of attacks", "target_page_ids": [ 4592611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term \"backscatter analysis\" refers to observing backscatter packets arriving at a statistically significant portion of the IP address space to determine characteristics of DoS attacks and victims.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Side effects of attacks", "target_page_ids": [ 14921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many jurisdictions have laws under which denial-of-service attacks are illegal.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legality", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In the US, denial-of-service attacks may be considered a federal crime under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act with penalties that include years of imprisonment. The Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section of the US Department of Justice handles cases of DoS and DDoS. In one example, in July 2019, Austin Thompson, aka DerpTrolling, was sentenced to 27 months in prison and $95,000 restitution by a federal court for conducting multiple DDoS attacks on major video gaming companies, disrupting their systems from hours to days.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legality", "target_page_ids": [ 276753, 22705628, 52563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 110 ], [ 166, 214 ], [ 225, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In European countries, committing criminal denial-of-service attacks may, as a minimum, lead to arrest. The United Kingdom is unusual in that it specifically outlawed denial-of-service attacks and set a maximum penalty of 10 years in prison with the Police and Justice Act 2006, which amended Section 3 of the Computer Misuse Act 1990.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legality", "target_page_ids": [ 9239, 31717, 8246686, 1745696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 109, 123 ], [ 251, 278 ], [ 311, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In January 2019, Europol announced that \"actions are currently underway worldwide to track down the users\" of Webstresser.org, a former DDoS marketplace that was shut down in April 2018 as part of Operation Power Off. Europol said UK police were conducting a number of \"live operations\" targeting over 250 users of Webstresser and other DDoS services.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legality", "target_page_ids": [ 525329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On January 7, 2013, Anonymous posted a petition on the whitehouse.gov site asking that DDoS be recognized as a legal form of protest similar to the Occupy protests, the claim being that the similarity in the purpose of both is same.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Legality", "target_page_ids": [ 15716827, 33416160, 13190675, 33381607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 29 ], [ 30, 47 ], [ 55, 69 ], [ 148, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "PC World - Application Layer DDoS Attacks are Becoming Increasingly Sophisticated", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Internet Denial-of-Service Considerations", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Akamai State of the Internet Security Report - Quarterly Security and Internet trend statistics", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " W3C The World Wide Web Security FAQ", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " cert.org CERT's Guide to DoS attacks. (historic document)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ATLAS Summary Report – Real-time global report of DDoS attacks.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Low Orbit Ion Cannon - The Well Known Network Stress Testing Tool", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " High Orbit Ion Cannon - A Simple HTTP Flooder", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " LOIC SLOW An Attempt to Bring SlowLoris and Slow Network Tools on LOIC", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Denial-of-service_attacks", "Internet_Relay_Chat", "Cyberwarfare", "Types_of_cyberattacks", "Internet_outages" ]

[ "DoS", "Denial of Service", "denial of service attack", "DoS attack" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In geometry, a simplex (plural: simplexes or simplices) is a generalization of the notion of a triangle or tetrahedron to arbitrary dimensions. The simplex is so-named because it represents the simplest possible polytope made with line segments in any given dimension.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18973446, 30654, 30606, 8398, 23471, 22634860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 95, 103 ], [ 107, 118 ], [ 132, 142 ], [ 212, 220 ], [ 231, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example,", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " a 0-simplex is a point,", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 593693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " a 1-simplex is a line segment,", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22634860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " a 2-simplex is a triangle,", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " a 3-simplex is a tetrahedron,", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " a 4-simplex is a 5-cell.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 513821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Specifically, a k-simplex is a k-dimensional polytope which is the convex hull of its k+ 1 vertices. More formally, suppose the k+ 1 points are affinely independent, which means are linearly independent.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23471, 40634, 11308417, 298834, 101863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 53 ], [ 67, 78 ], [ 91, 99 ], [ 145, 165 ], [ 184, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Then, the simplex determined by them is the set of points", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This representation in terms of weighted vertices is known as the barycentric coordinate system.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 762954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A regular simplex is a simplex that is also a regular polytope. A regular k-simplex may be constructed from a regular (k− 1)-simplex by connecting a new vertex to all original vertices by the common edge length.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 518693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The standard simplex or probability simplex is the k - 1 dimensional simplex whose vertices are the k standard unit vectors, or", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 167053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In topology and combinatorics, it is common to \"glue together\" simplices to form a simplicial complex. The associated combinatorial structure is called an abstract simplicial complex, in which context the word \"simplex\" simply means any finite set of vertices.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 29954, 5170, 252686, 723105, 11742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 16, 29 ], [ 83, 101 ], [ 155, 182 ], [ 237, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The concept of a simplex was known to William Kingdon Clifford, who wrote about these shapes in 1886 but called them \"prime confines\". ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 250820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henri Poincaré, writing about algebraic topology in 1900, called them \"generalized tetrahedra\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 48740, 38801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 30, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1902 Pieter Hendrik Schoute described the concept first with the Latin superlative simplicissimum (\"simplest\") and then with the same Latin adjective in the normal form simplex (\"simple\").", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6022750, 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 30 ], [ 68, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The regular simplex family is the first of three regular polytope families, labeled by Donald Coxeter as αn, the other two being the cross-polytope family, labeled as βn, and the hypercubes, labeled as γn. A fourth family, the tessellation of n-dimensional space by infinitely many hypercubes, he labeled as δn.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 518693, 216328, 716401, 39783, 12237982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 65 ], [ 87, 101 ], [ 133, 147 ], [ 179, 188 ], [ 227, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The convex hull of any nonempty subset of the n+ 1 points that define an n-simplex is called a face of the simplex. Faces are simplices themselves. In particular, the convex hull of a subset of size m+ 1 (of the n+ 1 defining points) is an m-simplex, called an m-face of the n-simplex. The 0-faces (i.e., the defining points themselves as sets of size 1) are called the vertices (singular: vertex), the 1-faces are called the edges, the (n− 1)-faces are called the facets, and the sole n-face is the whole n-simplex itself. In general, the number of m-faces is equal to the binomial coefficient . Consequently, the number of m-faces of an n-simplex may be found in column (m+ 1) of row (n+ 1) of Pascal's triangle. A simplex A is a coface of a simplex B if B is a face of A. Face and facet can have different meanings when describing types of simplices in a simplicial complex; see simplical complex for more detail.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Elements", "target_page_ids": [ 40634, 9566, 27631, 4668, 49497, 252686, 252686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 23, 31 ], [ 32, 38 ], [ 574, 594 ], [ 696, 713 ], [ 858, 876 ], [ 882, 899 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The number of 1-faces (edges) of the n-simplex is the n-th triangle number, the number of 2-faces of the n-simplex is the (n− 1)th tetrahedron number, the number of 3-faces of the n-simplex is the (n−2)th 5-cell number, and so on.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Elements", "target_page_ids": [ 213915, 509120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 74 ], [ 131, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In layman's terms, an n-simplex is a simple shape (a polygon) that requires n dimensions. Consider a line segment AB as a \"shape\" in a 1-dimensional space (the 1-dimensional space is the line in which the segment lies). One can place a new point C somewhere off the line. The new shape, triangle ABC, requires two dimensions; it cannot fit in the original 1-dimensional space. The triangle is the 2-simplex, a simple shape that requires two dimensions. Consider a triangle ABC, a shape in a 2-dimensional space (the plane in which the triangle resides). One can place a new point D somewhere off the plane. The new shape, tetrahedron ABCD, requires three dimensions; it cannot fit in the original 2-dimensional space. The tetrahedron is the 3-simplex, a simple shape that requires three dimensions. Consider tetrahedron ABCD, a shape in a 3-dimensional space (the 3-space in which the tetrahedron lies). One can place a new point E somewhere outside the 3-space. The new shape ABCDE, called a 5-cell, requires four dimensions and is called the 4-simplex; it cannot fit in the original 3-dimensional space. (It also cannot be visualized easily.) This idea can be generalized, that is, adding a single new point outside the currently occupied space, which requires going to the next higher dimension to hold the new shape. This idea can also be worked backward: the line segment we started with is a simple shape that requires a 1-dimensional space to hold it; the line segment is the 1-simplex. The line segment itself was formed by starting with a single point in 0-dimensional space (this initial point is the 0-simplex) and adding a second point, which required the increase to 1-dimensional space. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Elements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "More formally, an (n+ 1)-simplex can be constructed as a join (∨ operator) of an n-simplex and a point,(). An (m+n+ 1)-simplex can be constructed as a join of an m-simplex and an n-simplex. The two simplices are oriented to be completely normal from each other, with translation in a direction orthogonal to both of them. A 1-simplex is the join of two points: ()∨() =2⋅(). A general 2-simplex (scalene triangle) is the join of three points: ()∨()∨(). An isosceles triangle is the join of a 1-simplex and a point: {}∨(). An equilateral triangle is 3 ⋅ () or{3}. A general 3-simplex is the join of 4 points: ()∨()∨()∨(). A 3-simplex with mirror symmetry can be expressed as the join of an edge and two points: {}∨()∨(). A 3-simplex with triangular symmetry can be expressed as the join of an equilateral triangle and 1 point: 3.( )∨( ) or {3}∨( ). A regular tetrahedron is 4⋅() or {3,3} and so on.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Elements", "target_page_ids": [ 315428, 173285, 30606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 455, 473 ], [ 524, 544 ], [ 849, 868 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some conventions, the empty set is defined to be a (−1)-simplex. The definition of the simplex above still makes sense if n=−1. This convention is more common in applications to algebraic topology (such as simplicial homology) than to the study of polytopes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Elements", "target_page_ids": [ 1060236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These Petrie polygons (skew orthogonal projections) show all the vertices of the regular simplex on a circle, and all vertex pairs connected by edges.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Symmetric graphs of regular simplices", "target_page_ids": [ 18571869, 6220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 20 ], [ 102, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The standard n-simplex (or unit n-simplex) is the subset of Rn+1 given by", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The simplex Δn lies in the affine hyperplane obtained by removing the restriction ti ≥ 0 in the above definition.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [ 99862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The n+ 1 vertices of the standard n-simplex are the points ei ∈ Rn+1, where", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "e0 = (1, 0, 0, ..., 0),", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "e1 = (0, 1, 0, ..., 0),", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ⋮", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "en = (0, 0, 0, ..., 1).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is a canonical map from the standard n-simplex to an arbitrary n-simplex with vertices (v0, ..., vn) given by", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The coefficients ti are called the barycentric coordinates of a point in the n-simplex. Such a general simplex is often called an affine n-simplex, to emphasize that the canonical map is an affine transformation. It is also sometimes called an oriented affine n-simplex to emphasize that the canonical map may be orientation preserving or reversing.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [ 762954, 38449, 1391942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 58 ], [ 190, 211 ], [ 313, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More generally, there is a canonical map from the standard -simplex (with n vertices) onto any polytope with n vertices, given by the same equation (modifying indexing):", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [ 23471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These are known as generalized barycentric coordinates, and express every polytope as the image of a simplex: ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [ 762954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A commonly used function from Rn to the interior of the standard -simplex is the softmax function, or normalized exponential function; this generalizes the standard logistic function.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [ 6152185, 84563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 97 ], [ 156, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Δ0 is the point .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Δ1 is the line segment joining (1, 0) and (0, 1) in R2.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Δ2 is the equilateral triangle with vertices (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1) in R3.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [ 173285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Δ3 is the regular tetrahedron with vertices (1, 0, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 0, 1) in R4.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [ 30606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Δ4 is the regular 5-cell with vertices (1, 0, 0, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 0, 0, 1) in R5.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [ 513821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An alternative coordinate system is given by taking the indefinite sum:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [ 22203596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This yields the alternative presentation by order, namely as nondecreasing n-tuples between 0 and 1:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Geometrically, this is an n-dimensional subset of (maximal dimension, codimension 0) rather than of (codimension 1). The facets, which on the standard simplex correspond to one coordinate vanishing, here correspond to successive coordinates being equal, while the interior corresponds to the inequalities becoming strict (increasing sequences).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [ 55610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 268, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A key distinction between these presentations is the behavior under permuting coordinates – the standard simplex is stabilized by permuting coordinates, while permuting elements of the \"ordered simplex\" do not leave it invariant, as permuting an ordered sequence generally makes it unordered. Indeed, the ordered simplex is a (closed) fundamental domain for the action of the symmetric group on the n-cube, meaning that the orbit of the ordered simplex under the n! elements of the symmetric group divides the n-cube into mostly disjoint simplices (disjoint except for boundaries), showing that this simplex has volume Alternatively, the volume can be computed by an iterated integral, whose successive integrands are ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [ 469365, 12781, 28901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 335, 353 ], [ 362, 368 ], [ 376, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A further property of this presentation is that it uses the order but not addition, and thus can be defined in any dimension over any ordered set, and for example can be used to define an infinite-dimensional simplex without issues of convergence of sums.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Especially in numerical applications of probability theory a projection onto the standard simplex is of interest. Given with possibly negative entries, the closest point on the simplex has coordinates ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [ 23542, 313741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 58 ], [ 61, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is chosen such that ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " can be easily calculated from sorting .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The sorting approach takes complexity, which can be improved to complexity via median-finding algorithms. Projecting onto the simplex is computationally similar to projecting onto the ball.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [ 552786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finally, a simple variant is to replace \"summing to 1\" with \"summing to at most 1\"; this raises the dimension by 1, so to simplify notation, the indexing changes:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This yields an n-simplex as a corner of the n-cube, and is a standard orthogonal simplex. This is the simplex used in the simplex method, which is based at the origin, and locally models a vertex on a polytope with n facets.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The standard simplex", "target_page_ids": [ 349458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One way to write down a regular n-simplex in Rn is to choose two points to be the first two vertices, choose a third point to make an equilateral triangle, choose a fourth point to make a regular tetrahedron, and so on. Each step requires satisfying equations that ensure that each newly chosen vertex, together with the previously chosen vertices, forms a regular simplex. There are several sets of equations that can be written down and used for this purpose. These include the equality of all the distances between vertices; the equality of all the distances from vertices to the center of the simplex; the fact that the angle subtended through the new vertex by any two previously chosen vertices is ; and the fact that the angle subtended through the center of the simplex by any two vertices is .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is also possible to directly write down a particular regular n-simplex in Rn which can then be translated, rotated, and scaled as desired. One way to do this is as follows. Denote the basis vectors of Rn by e1 through en. Begin with the standard -simplex which is the convex hull of the basis vectors. By adding an additional vertex, these become a face of a regular -simplex. The additional vertex must lie on the line perpendicular to the barycenter of the standard simplex, so it has the form for some real number α. Since the squared distance between two basis vectors is 2, in order for the additional vertex to form a regular n-simplex, the squared distance between it and any of the basis vectors must also be 2. This yields a quadratic equation for α. Solving this equation shows that there are two choices for the additional vertex:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [ 18420, 20646438, 25175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 200 ], [ 509, 520 ], [ 738, 756 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Either of these, together with the standard basis vectors, yields a regular n-simplex.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The above regular n-simplex is not centered on the origin. It can be translated to the origin by subtracting the mean of its vertices. By rescaling, it can be given unit side length. This results in the simplex whose vertices are:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "for , and", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Note that there are two sets of vertices described here. One set uses in each calculation. The other set uses in each calculation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This simplex is inscribed in a hypersphere of radius .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A different rescaling produces a simplex that is inscribed in a unit hypersphere. When this is done, its vertices are", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where , and", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The side length of this simplex is .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A highly symmetric way to construct a regular -simplex is to use a representation of the cyclic group by orthogonal matrices. This is an orthogonal matrix such that is the identity matrix, but no lower power of is. Applying powers of this matrix to an appropriate vector will produce the vertices of a regular -simplex. To carry this out, first observe that for any orthogonal matrix , there is a choice of basis in which is a block diagonal matrix", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [ 52327, 105620, 59718, 20556859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 101 ], [ 106, 125 ], [ 176, 191 ], [ 244, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where each is orthogonal and either or . In order for to have order , all of these matrices must have order dividing . Therefore each is either a matrix whose only entry is or, if is odd, ; or it is a matrix of the form", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [ 49492, 143135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 119 ], [ 190, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where each is an integer between zero and inclusive. A sufficient condition for the orbit of a point to be a regular simplex is that the matrices form a basis for the non-trivial irreducible real representations of , and the vector being rotated is not stabilized by any of them.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [ 14563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In practical terms, for even this means that every matrix is , there is an equality of sets", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [ 143135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and, for every , the entries of upon which acts are not both zero. For example, when , one possible matrix is", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Applying this to the vector results in the simplex whose vertices are", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "each of which has distance √5 from the others.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When is odd, the condition means that exactly one of the diagonal blocks is , equal to , and acts upon a non-zero entry of ; while the remaining diagonal blocks, say , are , there is an equality of sets", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and each diagonal block acts upon a pair of entries of which are not both zero. So, for example, when , the matrix can be", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For the vector , the resulting simplex has vertices", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "each of which has distance 2 from the others.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Cartesian coordinates for a regular n-dimensional simplex in Rn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The volume of an n-simplex in n-dimensional space with vertices (v0, ..., vn) is", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [ 32498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where each column of the n×n determinant is a vector that points from vertex to another vertex . This formula is particularly useful when is the origin.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [ 8468, 32533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 40 ], [ 46, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The expression", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "employs a Gram determinant and works even when the n-simplex's vertices are in a Euclidean space with more than n dimensions, e.g., a triangle in . ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [ 987959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A more symmetric way to compute the volume of an n-simplex in is", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another common way of computing the volume of the simplex is via the Cayley–Menger determinant, which works even when the n-simplex's vertices are in a Euclidean space with more than n dimensions.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [ 654387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Without the 1/n! it is the formula for the volume of an n-parallelotope. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [ 23975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This can be understood as follows: Assume that P is an n-parallelotope constructed on a basis of .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Given a permutation of , call a list of vertices a n-path if ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [ 44027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(so there are n!n-paths and does not depend on the permutation). The following assertions hold:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If P is the unit n-hypercube, then the union of the n-simplexes formed by the convex hull of each n-path is P, and these simplexes are congruent and pairwise non-overlapping. In particular, the volume of such a simplex is", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If P is a general parallelotope, the same assertions hold except that it is no longer true, in dimension> 2, that the simplexes need to be pairwise congruent; yet their volumes remain equal, because the n-parallelotope is the image of the unit n-hypercube by the linear isomorphism that sends the canonical basis of to . As previously, this implies that the volume of a simplex coming from a n-path is:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [ 18102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conversely, given an n-simplex of , it can be supposed that the vectors form a basis of . Considering the parallelotope constructed from and , one sees that the previous formula is valid for every simplex.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Finally, the formula at the beginning of this section is obtained by observing that ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From this formula, it follows immediately that the volume under a standard n-simplex (i.e. between the origin and the simplex in Rn+1) is", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The volume of a regular n-simplex with unit side length is", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "as can be seen by multiplying the previous formula by xn+1, to get the volume under the n-simplex as a function of its vertex distance x from the origin, differentiating with respect to x, at (where the n-simplex side length is 1), and normalizing by the length of the increment, , along the normal vector.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Any two (n− 1)-dimensional faces of a regular n-dimensional simplex are themselves regular (n− 1)-dimensional simplices, and they have the same dihedral angle of cos−1(1/n). ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [ 338046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This can be seen by noting that the center of the standard simplex is , and the centers of its faces are coordinate permutations of . Then, by symmetry, the vector pointing from to is perpendicular to the faces. So the vectors normal to the faces are permutations of , from which the dihedral angles are calculated.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An \"orthogonal corner\" means here that there is a vertex at which all adjacent edges are pairwise orthogonal. It immediately follows that all adjacent faces are pairwise orthogonal. Such simplices are generalizations of right triangles and for them there exists an n-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [ 149926, 26513034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 156 ], [ 294, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sum of the squared (n− 1)-dimensional volumes of the facets adjacent to the orthogonal corner equals the squared (n− 1)-dimensional volume of the facet opposite of the orthogonal corner.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where are facets being pairwise orthogonal to each other but not orthogonal to , which is the facet opposite the orthogonal corner.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For a 2-simplex the theorem is the Pythagorean theorem for triangles with a right angle and for a 3-simplex it is de Gua's theorem for a tetrahedron ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [ 26513034, 6469973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 54 ], [ 114, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "with an orthogonal corner.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Hasse diagram of the face lattice of an n-simplex is isomorphic to the graph of the (n+ 1)-hypercube's edges, with the hypercube's vertices mapping to each of the n-simplex's elements, including the entire simplex and the null polytope as the extreme points of the lattice (mapped to two opposite vertices on the hypercube). This fact may be used to efficiently enumerate the simplex's face lattice, since more general face lattice enumeration algorithms are more computationally expensive.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [ 338199, 39783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 95, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The n-simplex is also the vertex figure of the (n+ 1)-hypercube. It is also the facet of the (n+ 1)-orthoplex.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [ 1005719, 7186647, 716401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 39 ], [ 80, 85 ], [ 100, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Topologically, an n-simplex is equivalent to an n-ball. Every n-simplex is an n-dimensional manifold with corners.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [ 29954, 5506149, 160556, 2073470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 31, 41 ], [ 48, 54 ], [ 92, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In probability theory, the points of the standard n-simplex in (n+ 1)-space form the space of possible probability distributions on a finite set consisting of n+ 1 possible outcomes. The correspondence is as follows: For each distribution described as an ordered (n+ 1)-tuple of probabilities whose sum is (necessarily) 1, we associate the point of the simplex whose barycentric coordinates are precisely those probabilities. That is, the kth vertex of the simplex is assigned to have the kth probability of the (n+ 1)-tuple as its barycentric coefficient. This correspondence is an affine homeomorphism.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [ 298834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 367, 390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since all simplices are self-dual, they can form a series of compounds;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two triangles form a hexagram {6/2}.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [ 302441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Two tetrahedra form a compound of two tetrahedra or stella octangula.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [ 8010763, 2601866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 49 ], [ 53, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Two 5-cells form a compound of two 5-cells in four dimensions.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Geometric properties", "target_page_ids": [ 513821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In algebraic topology, simplices are used as building blocks to construct an interesting class of topological spaces called simplicial complexes. These spaces are built from simplices glued together in a combinatorial fashion. Simplicial complexes are used to define a certain kind of homology called simplicial homology.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 38801, 30450, 252686, 5170, 142432, 1060236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 21 ], [ 98, 115 ], [ 124, 142 ], [ 204, 217 ], [ 285, 293 ], [ 301, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A finite set of k-simplexes embedded in an open subset of Rn is called an affine k-chain. The simplexes in a chain need not be unique; they may occur with multiplicity. Rather than using standard set notation to denote an affine chain, it is instead the standard practice to use plus signs to separate each member in the set. If some of the simplexes have the opposite orientation, these are prefixed by a minus sign. If some of the simplexes occur in the set more than once, these are prefixed with an integer count. Thus, an affine chain takes the symbolic form of a sum with integer coefficients.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 39358, 19211790, 187446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 54 ], [ 155, 167 ], [ 369, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Note that each facet of an n-simplex is an affine (n− 1)-simplex, and thus the boundary of an n-simplex is an affine (n− 1)-chain. Thus, if we denote one positively oriented affine simplex as", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 72824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "with the denoting the vertices, then the boundary of σ is the chain", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It follows from this expression, and the linearity of the boundary operator, that the boundary of the boundary of a simplex is zero:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Likewise, the boundary of the boundary of a chain is zero: .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "More generally, a simplex (and a chain) can be embedded into a manifold by means of smooth, differentiable map . In this case, both the summation convention for denoting the set, and the boundary operation commute with the embedding. That is,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 2073470, 52119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 71 ], [ 223, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where the are the integers denoting orientation and multiplicity. For the boundary operator , one has:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where ρ is a chain. The boundary operation commutes with the mapping because, in the end, the chain is defined as a set and little more, and the set operation always commutes with the map operation (by definition of a map).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 185427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A continuous map to a topological space X is frequently referred to as a singular n-simplex. (A map is generally called \"singular\" if it fails to have some desirable property such as continuity and, in this case, the term is meant to reflect to the fact that the continuous map need not be an embedding.)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Algebraic topology", "target_page_ids": [ 6122, 30450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 16 ], [ 23, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since classical algebraic geometry allows one to talk about polynomial equations but not inequalities, the algebraic standard n-simplex is commonly defined as the subset of affine (n + 1)-dimensional space, where all coordinates sum up to 1 (thus leaving out the inequality part). The algebraic description of this set is", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 1997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "which equals the scheme-theoretic description with", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 364754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "the ring of regular functions on the algebraic n-simplex (for any ring ).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 48404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By using the same definitions as for the classical n-simplex, the n-simplices for different dimensions n assemble into one simplicial object, while the rings assemble into one cosimplicial object (in the category of schemes resp. rings, since the face and degeneracy maps are all polynomial).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 1027784, 53759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 140 ], [ 206, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The algebraic n-simplices are used in higher K-theory and in the definition of higher Chow groups.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 246748, 4282051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 53 ], [ 86, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In statistics, simplices are sample spaces of compositional data and are also used in plotting quantities that sum to 1, such as proportions of subpopulations, as in a ternary plot.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 26685, 500654, 1861608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 13 ], [ 46, 64 ], [ 168, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In industrial statistics, simplices arise in problem formulation and in algorithmic solution. In the design of bread, the producer must combine yeast, flour, water, sugar, etc. In such mixtures, only the relative proportions of ingredients matters: For an optimal bread mixture, if the flour is doubled then the yeast should be doubled. Such mixture problem are often formulated with normalized constraints, so that the nonnegative components sum to one, in which case the feasible region forms a simplex. The quality of the bread mixtures can be estimated using response surface methodology, and then a local maximum can be computed using a nonlinear programming method, such as sequential quadratic programming.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 26685, 286069, 4481194, 679709, 7415899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 24 ], [ 185, 192 ], [ 563, 591 ], [ 642, 663 ], [ 680, 712 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In operations research, linear programming problems can be solved by the simplex algorithm of George Dantzig.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 43476, 43730, 349458, 13111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 22 ], [ 24, 42 ], [ 73, 90 ], [ 94, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In geometric design and computer graphics, many methods first perform simplicial triangulations of the domain and then fit interpolating polynomials to each simplex.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 22833268, 18567210, 1440976, 14569, 15312359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ], [ 24, 41 ], [ 81, 94 ], [ 119, 136 ], [ 137, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In chemistry, the hydrides of most elements in the p-block can resemble a simplex if one is to connect each atom. Neon does not react with hydrogen and as such is a point, fluorine bonds with one hydrogen atom and forms a line segment, oxygen bonds with two hydrogen atoms in a bent fashion resembling a triangle, nitrogen reacts to form a tetrahedron, and carbon forms a structure resembling a Schlegel diagram of the 5-cell. This trend continues for the heavier analogues of each element, as well as if the hydrogen atom is replaced by a halogen atom.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 5180, 33563967, 21273, 33820444, 17481271, 22303, 15296960, 21175, 1645331, 5299, 3797882, 7201595, 13258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 51, 58 ], [ 114, 118 ], [ 163, 170 ], [ 172, 180 ], [ 236, 242 ], [ 278, 282 ], [ 314, 322 ], [ 340, 351 ], [ 357, 363 ], [ 370, 381 ], [ 395, 411 ], [ 540, 547 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some approaches to quantum gravity, such as Regge calculus and causal dynamical triangulations, simplices are used as building blocks of discretizations of spacetime; that is, to build simplicial manifolds.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 25312, 1012545, 2071900, 2446477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 37 ], [ 47, 61 ], [ 66, 96 ], [ 188, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 3-sphere", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aitchison geometry", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 500654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Causal dynamical triangulation", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2071900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Complete graph", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 85816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Delaunay triangulation", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Distance geometry", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 654387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Geometric primitive", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 212098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hill tetrahedron", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20700599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hypersimplex", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 44749312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of regular polytopes", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 505253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Metcalfe's law", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 65776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Other regular n-polytopes", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cross-polytope", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 716401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hypercube", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tesseract", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Polytope", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Schläfli orthoscheme", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20740340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Simplex algorithm—a method for solving optimization problems with inequalities.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 349458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Simplicial complex", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 252686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Simplicial homology", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1060236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Simplicial set", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1027784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Spectrahedron", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28733878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ternary plot", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1861608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (See chapter 10 for a simple review of topological properties.)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " pp.120–121, §7.2. see illustration 7-2", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " p.296, Table I (iii): Regular Polytopes, three regular polytopes in n dimensions (n≥5)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " As PDF", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Polytopes", "Topology", "Multi-dimensional_geometry" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In mathematics, an -sphere or a hypersphere is a topological space that is homeomorphic to a standard -sphere, which is the set of points in -dimensional Euclidean space that are situated at a constant distance from a fixed point, called the center. It is the generalization of an ordinary sphere in the ordinary three-dimensional space. The \"radius\" of a sphere is the constant distance of its points to the center. When the sphere has unit radius, it is usual to call it the unit -sphere or simply the -sphere for brevity. In terms of the standard norm, the -sphere is defined as", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18831, 30450, 13660, 9697, 27859, 3054853, 990534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 49, 66 ], [ 75, 87 ], [ 154, 169 ], [ 291, 297 ], [ 314, 337 ], [ 542, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and an -sphere of radius can be defined as ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The dimension of -sphere is , and must not be confused with the dimension of the Euclidean space in which it is naturally embedded. An -sphere is the surface or boundary of an -dimensional ball.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 52119, 160556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 131 ], [ 190, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In particular:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "the pair of points at the ends of a (one-dimensional) line segment is a 0-sphere,", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22634860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "a circle, which is the one-dimensional circumference of a (two-dimensional) disk, is a 1-sphere,", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6220, 5916, 329542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 8 ], [ 39, 52 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "the two-dimensional surface of a three-dimensional ball is a 2-sphere, often simply called a sphere,", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "the three-dimensional boundary of a (four-dimensional) 4-ball is a 3-sphere,", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 72824, 39792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 30 ], [ 67, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "the ()-dimensional boundary of a (-dimensional) -ball is an -sphere.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For , the -spheres that are differential manifolds can be characterized (up to a diffeomorphism) as the simply connected -dimensional manifolds of constant, positive curvature. The -spheres admit several other topological descriptions: for example, they can be constructed by gluing two -dimensional Euclidean spaces together, by identifying the boundary of an -cube with a point, or (inductively) by forming the suspension of an -sphere. The 1-sphere is the 1-manifold that is a circle, which is not simply connected. The 0-sphere is the 0-manifold, which is not even connected, consisting of two points.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2119219, 44787, 8564, 523879, 2073470, 3638803, 39783, 1251702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 49 ], [ 73, 78 ], [ 81, 95 ], [ 104, 120 ], [ 134, 142 ], [ 166, 175 ], [ 361, 366 ], [ 413, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For any natural number , an -sphere of radius is defined as the set of points in -dimensional Euclidean space that are at distance from some fixed point , where may be any positive real number and where may be any point in -dimensional space. In particular:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 21474, 9697, 7951270, 20646438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 22 ], [ 95, 110 ], [ 175, 183 ], [ 184, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " a 0-sphere is a pair of points , and is the boundary of a line segment (1-ball).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " a 1-sphere is a circle of radius centered at , and is the boundary of a disk (2-ball).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 27859, 6220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 17, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " a 2-sphere is an ordinary 2-dimensional sphere in 3-dimensional Euclidean space, and is the boundary of an ordinary ball (3-ball).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 27859, 27859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 41, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " a 3-sphere is a 3-dimensional sphere in 4-dimensional Euclidean space.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 39792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The set of points in -space, , that define an -sphere, , is represented by the equation:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is a center point, and is the radius.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The above -sphere exists in -dimensional Euclidean space and is an example of an -manifold. The volume form of an -sphere of radius is given by", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 2073470, 1855811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 90 ], [ 97, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is the Hodge star operator; see for a discussion and proof of this formula in the case . As a result,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 310914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The space enclosed by an -sphere is called an -ball. An -ball is closed if it includes the -sphere, and it is open if it does not include the -sphere.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 160556, 47279, 39358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 51 ], [ 65, 71 ], [ 110, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Specifically:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A 1-ball, a line segment, is the interior of a 0-sphere.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 22634860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A 2-ball, a disk, is the interior of a circle (1-sphere).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 329542, 6220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 17 ], [ 40, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A 3-ball, an ordinary ball, is the interior of a sphere (2-sphere).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 160556, 27859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 27 ], [ 50, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A 4-ball is the interior of a 3-sphere, etc.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 39792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Topologically, an -sphere can be constructed as a one-point compactification of -dimensional Euclidean space. Briefly, the -sphere can be described as , which is -dimensional Euclidean space plus a single point representing infinity in all directions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 29954, 55611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 50, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In particular, if a single point is removed from an -sphere, it becomes homeomorphic to . This forms the basis for stereographic projection.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 13660, 143431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 84 ], [ 115, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " and are the -dimensional volume of the -ball and the surface area of the -sphere embedded in dimension , respectively, of radius .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [ 160556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The constants and (for , the unit ball and sphere) are related by the recurrences:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The surfaces and volumes can also be given in closed form:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the gamma function. Derivations of these equations are given in this section. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [ 12316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In general, the volume of the -ball in -dimensional Euclidean space, and the surface area of the -sphere in -dimensional Euclidean space, of radius , are proportional to the th power of the radius, (with different constants of proportionality that vary with ). We write for the volume of the -ball and for the surface area of the -sphere, both of radius , where and are the values for the unit-radius case.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The volume of the unit -ball is maximal in dimension five, where it begins to decrease, and tends to zero as tends to infinity. Furthermore, the sum of the volumes of even-dimensional -balls of radius can be expressed in closed form:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For the odd-dimensional analogue,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the error function.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [ 177111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 0-ball consists of a single point. The 0-dimensional Hausdorff measure is the number of points in a set. So, ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [ 504109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 0-sphere consists of its two end-points, . So,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The unit 1-ball is the interval of length 2. So,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The unit 1-sphere is the unit circle in the Euclidean plane, and this has circumference (1-dimensional measure)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The region enclosed by the unit 1-sphere is the 2-ball, or unit disc, and this has area (2-dimensional measure)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Analogously, in 3-dimensional Euclidean space, the surface area (2-dimensional measure) of the unit 2-sphere is given by", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and the volume enclosed is the volume (3-dimensional measure) of the unit 3-ball, given by", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The surface area, or properly the -dimensional volume, of the -sphere at the boundary of the -ball of radius is related to the volume of the ball by the differential equation", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "or, equivalently, representing the unit -ball as a union of concentric -sphere shells,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [ 28734956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "So, ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "We can also represent the unit -sphere as a union of products of a circle (1-sphere) with an -sphere. Let and , so that and . Then,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since , the equation", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "holds for all .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This completes the derivation of the recurrences:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Combining the recurrences, we see that", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "So it is simple to show by induction on k that,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where denotes the double factorial, defined for odd natural numbers by and similarly for even numbers .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [ 507208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In general, the volume, in -dimensional Euclidean space, of the unit -ball, is given by", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the gamma function, which satisfies , , and , and so , and where we conversely define x! = for everyx.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [ 12316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By multiplying by , differentiating with respect to , and then setting , we get the closed form", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "for the (n−1)-dimensional surface of the sphere Sn−1.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The recurrences can be combined to give a \"reverse-direction\" recurrence relation for surface area, as depicted in the diagram:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Index-shifting to then yields the recurrence relations:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where , , and .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The recurrence relation for can also be proved via integration with 2-dimensional polar coordinates:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volume and surface area", "target_page_ids": [ 15532, 25120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 63 ], [ 83, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "We may define a coordinate system in an -dimensional Euclidean space which is analogous to the spherical coordinate system defined for 3-dimensional Euclidean space, in which the coordinates consist of a radial coordinate , and angular coordinates , where the angles range over radians (or over degrees) and ranges over radians (or over degrees). If are the Cartesian coordinates, then we may compute from with:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [ 29181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Except in the special cases described below, the inverse transformation is unique:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where if for some but all of are zero then when , and (180 degrees) when .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are some special cases where the inverse transform is not unique; for any will be ambiguous whenever all of are zero; in this case may be chosen to be zero.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To express the volume element of -dimensional Euclidean space in terms of spherical coordinates, first observe that the Jacobian matrix of the transformation is:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [ 1920694, 195351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 29 ], [ 120, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The determinant of this matrix can be calculated by induction. When , a straightforward computation shows that the determinant is . For larger , observe that can be constructed from as follows. Except in column , rows and of are the same as row of , but multiplied by an extra factor of in row and an extra factor of in row . In column , rows and of are the same as column of row of , but multiplied by extra factors of in row and in row , respectively. The determinant of can be calculated by Laplace expansion in the final column. By the recursive description of , the submatrix formed by deleting the entry at and its row and column almost equals , except that its last row is multiplied by . Similarly, the submatrix formed by deleting the entry at and its row and column almost equals , except that its last row is multiplied by . Therefore the determinant of is", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [ 3506553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 517, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Induction then gives a closed-form expression for the volume element in spherical coordinates", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The formula for the volume of the -ball can be derived from this by integration.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Similarly the surface area element of the -sphere of radius , which generalizes the area element of the 2-sphere, is given by", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [ 1920694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The natural choice of an orthogonal basis over the angular coordinates is a product of ultraspherical polynomials,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [ 2122340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "for , and the for the angle in concordance with the spherical harmonics.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [ 203056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The standard spherical coordinate system arises from writing as the product . These two factors may be related using polar coordinates. For each point of , the standard Cartesian coordinates", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "can be transformed into a mixed polar–Cartesian coordinate system:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This says that points in may be expressed by taking the ray starting at the origin and passing through , rotating it towards by , and traveling a distance along the ray. Repeating this decomposition eventually leads to the standard spherical coordinate system.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Polyspherical coordinate systems arise from a generalization of this construction. The space is split as the product of two Euclidean spaces of smaller dimension, but neither space is required to be a line. Specifically, suppose that and are positive integers such that . Then . Using this decomposition, a point may be written as", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This can be transformed into a mixed polar–Cartesian coordinate system by writing:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Here and are the unit vectors associated to and . This expresses in terms of , , , and an angle . It can be shown that the domain of is if , if exactly one of and is 1, and if neither nor are 1. The inverse transformation is", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These splittings may be repeated as long as one of the factors involved has dimension two or greater. A polyspherical coordinate system is the result of repeating these splittings until there are no Cartesian coordinates left. Splittings after the first do not require a radial coordinate because the domains of and are spheres, so the coordinates of a polyspherical coordinate system are a non-negative radius and angles. The possible polyspherical coordinate systems correspond to binary trees with leaves. Each non-leaf node in the tree corresponds to a splitting and determines an angular coordinate. For instance, the root of the tree represents , and its immediate children represent the first splitting into and . Leaf nodes correspond to Cartesian coordinates for . The formulas for converting from polyspherical coordinates to Cartesian coordinates may be determined by finding the paths from the root to the leaf nodes. These formulas are products with one factor for each branch taken by the path. For a node whose corresponding angular coordinate is , taking the left branch introduces a factor of and taking the right branch introduces a factor of . The inverse transformation, from polyspherical coordinates to Cartesian coordinates, is determined by grouping nodes. Every pair of nodes having a common parent can be converted from a mixed polar–Cartesian coordinate system to a Cartesian coordinate system using the above formulas for a splitting.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Polyspherical coordinates also have an interpretation in terms of the special orthogonal group. A splitting determines a subgroup", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [ 173954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This is the subgroup that leaves each of the two factors fixed. Choosing a set of coset representatives for the quotient is the same as choosing representative angles for this step of the polyspherical coordinate decomposition.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In polyspherical coordinates, the volume measure on and the area measure on are products. There is one factor for each angle, and the volume measure on also has a factor for the radial coordinate. The area measure has the form:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where the factors are determined by the tree. Similarly, the volume measure is", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Suppose we have a node of the tree that corresponds to the decomposition and that has angular coordinate . The corresponding factor depends on the values of and . When the area measure is normalized so that the area of the sphere is 1, these factors are as follows. If , then", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If and , and if denotes the beta function, then", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [ 245660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If and , then", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Finally, if both and are greater than one, then", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Spherical coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Just as a two-dimensional sphere embedded in three dimensions can be mapped onto a two-dimensional plane by a stereographic projection, an -sphere can be mapped onto an -dimensional hyperplane by the -dimensional version of the stereographic projection. For example, the point on a two-dimensional sphere of radius 1 maps to the point on the -plane. In other words,", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Stereographic projection", "target_page_ids": [ 143431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Likewise, the stereographic projection of an -sphere of radius 1 will map to the -dimensional hyperplane perpendicular to the -axis as", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Stereographic projection", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To generate uniformly distributed random points on the unit -sphere (that is, the surface of the unit -ball), gives the following algorithm.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generating random points", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Generate an -dimensional vector of normal deviates (it suffices to use , although in fact the choice of the variance is arbitrary), . Now calculate the \"radius\" of this point:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generating random points", "target_page_ids": [ 21462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The vector is uniformly distributed over the surface of the unit -ball.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generating random points", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An alternative given by Marsaglia is to uniformly randomly select a point in the unit -cube by sampling each independently from the uniform distribution over , computing as above, and rejecting the point and resampling if (i.e., if the point is not in the -ball), and when a point in the ball is obtained scaling it up to the spherical surface by the factor ; then again is uniformly distributed over the surface of the unit -ball. This method becomes very inefficient for higher dimensions, as a vanishingly small fraction of the unit cube is contained in the sphere. In ten dimensions, less than 2% of the cube is filled by the sphere, so that typically more than 50 attempts will be needed. In seventy dimensions, less than of the cube is filled, meaning typically a trillion quadrillion trials will be needed, far more than a computer could ever carry out.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generating random points", "target_page_ids": [ 39783, 1699223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 92 ], [ 134, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With a point selected uniformly at random from the surface of the unit -sphere (e.g., by using Marsaglia's algorithm), one needs only a radius to obtain a point uniformly at random from within the unit -ball. If is a number generated uniformly at random from the interval and is a point selected uniformly at random from the unit -sphere, then is uniformly distributed within the unit -ball.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generating random points", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alternatively, points may be sampled uniformly from within the unit -ball by a reduction from the unit -sphere. In particular, if is a point selected uniformly from the unit -sphere, then is uniformly distributed within the unit -ball (i.e., by simply discarding two coordinates).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generating random points", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If is sufficiently large, most of the volume of the -ball will be contained in the region very close to its surface, so a point selected from that volume will also probably be close to the surface. This is one of the phenomena leading to the so-called curse of dimensionality that arises in some numerical and other applications.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generating random points", "target_page_ids": [ 787776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 254, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 0-sphere The pair of points with the discrete topology for some . The only sphere that is not path-connected. Parallelizable.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specific spheres", "target_page_ids": [ 56061, 6233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 57 ], [ 97, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1-sphere Commonly called a circle. Has a nontrivial fundamental group. Abelian Lie group structure U(1); the circle group. Homeomorphic to the real projective line. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specific spheres", "target_page_ids": [ 27859, 6220, 508177, 508177, 46379102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 29, 35 ], [ 101, 105 ], [ 111, 123 ], [ 145, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2-sphere Commonly simply called a sphere. For its complex structure, see Riemann sphere. Equivalent to the complex projective line", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specific spheres", "target_page_ids": [ 27859, 27859, 30876799, 30876799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 36, 42 ], [ 75, 89 ], [ 109, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 3-sphere Parallelizable, principal U(1)-bundle over the 2-sphere, Lie group structure Sp(1).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specific spheres", "target_page_ids": [ 39792, 310950, 2794417, 580384, 173977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 27, 36 ], [ 37, 48 ], [ 49, 53 ], [ 88, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 4-sphere Equivalent to the quaternionic projective line, HP1. SO(5)/SO(4).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specific spheres", "target_page_ids": [ 2808931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 5-sphere Principal U(1)-bundle over CP2. SO(6)/SO(5) = SU(3)/SU(2). It is undecidable if a given n-dimensional manifold is homeomorphic to for n≥5.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specific spheres", "target_page_ids": [ 310950, 2794417, 762977, 15631055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 21, 32 ], [ 38, 41 ], [ 76, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 6-sphere Possesses an almost complex structure coming from the set of pure unit octonions. SO(7)/SO(6) = G2/SU(3). The question of whether it has a complex structure is known as the Hopf problem, after Heinz Hopf.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specific spheres", "target_page_ids": [ 514258, 51436, 509742, 543082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 48 ], [ 82, 90 ], [ 150, 167 ], [ 204, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 7-sphere Topological quasigroup structure as the set of unit octonions. Principal Sp(1)-bundle over S4. Parallelizable. SO(8)/SO(7) = SU(4)/SU(3) = Sp(2)/Sp(1) = Spin(7)/G2 = Spin(6)/SU(3). The 7-sphere is of particular interest since it was in this dimension that the first exotic spheres were discovered.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specific spheres", "target_page_ids": [ 25223, 51436, 1114931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 33 ], [ 63, 71 ], [ 277, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 8-sphere Equivalent to the octonionic projective line OP1.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specific spheres", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 23-sphere A highly dense sphere-packing is possible in 24-dimensional space, which is related to the unique qualities of the Leech lattice.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Specific spheres", "target_page_ids": [ 368621, 344919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 41 ], [ 127, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The octahedral n-sphere is defined similarly to the n-sphere but using the 1-norm", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Octahedral sphere", "target_page_ids": [ 408354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The octahedral 1-sphere is a square (without its interior). The octahedral 2-sphere is a regular octahedron; hence the name. The octahedral n-sphere is the topological join of n+1 pairs of isolated points. Intuitively, the topological join of two pairs is generated by drawing a segment between each point in one pair and each point in the other pair; this yields a square. To join this with a third pair, draw a segment between each point on the square and each point in the third pair; this gives a octahedron.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Octahedral sphere", "target_page_ids": [ 22458, 3127114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 107 ], [ 156, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Affine sphere", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31202259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conformal geometry", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 295907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Exotic sphere", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1114931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Homology sphere", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 585388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Homotopy groups of spheres", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1104697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Homotopy sphere", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1202074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hyperbolic group", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3172817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hypercube", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inversive geometry", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 295844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Loop (topology)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1189560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Manifold", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2073470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Möbius transformation", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 314493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Orthogonal group", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 173954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spherical cap", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1137111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Volume of an -ball", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21067650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wigner semicircle distribution", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1028321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] } ]

[ "Multi-dimensional_geometry", "Spheres" ]

[ "n-dimensional sphere" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In geometry, a hypercube is an n-dimensional analogue of a square () and a cube (). It is a closed, compact, convex figure whose 1-skeleton consists of groups of opposite parallel line segments aligned in each of the space's dimensions, perpendicular to each other and of the same length. A unit hypercube's longest diagonal in n dimensions is equal to .", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18973446, 8398, 659939, 6285, 47279, 6042, 1817885, 2977910, 664497, 22634860, 8398, 76944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 31, 44 ], [ 59, 65 ], [ 75, 79 ], [ 92, 98 ], [ 100, 107 ], [ 109, 115 ], [ 131, 139 ], [ 171, 179 ], [ 180, 192 ], [ 225, 234 ], [ 237, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An n-dimensional hypercube is more commonly referred to as an n-cube or sometimes as an n-dimensional cube. The term measure polytope (originally from Elte, 1912) is also used, notably in the work of H. S. M. Coxeter who also labels the hypercubes the γ polytopes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 216328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The hypercube is the special case of a hyperrectangle (also called an n-orthotope).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1688550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A unit hypercube is a hypercube whose side has length one unit. Often, the hypercube whose corners (or vertices) are the 2n points in Rn with each coordinate equal to 0 or 1 is called the unit hypercube.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A hypercube can be defined by increasing the numbers of dimensions of a shape:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "0 – A point is a hypercube of dimension zero.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 – If one moves this point one unit length, it will sweep out a line segment, which is a unit hypercube of dimension one.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2 – If one moves this line segment its length in a perpendicular direction from itself; it sweeps out a 2-dimensional square.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 76944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "3 – If one moves the square one unit length in the direction perpendicular to the plane it lies on, it will generate a 3-dimensional cube.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "4 – If one moves the cube one unit length into the fourth dimension, it generates a 4-dimensional unit hypercube (a unit tesseract).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 31112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This can be generalized to any number of dimensions. This process of sweeping out volumes can be formalized mathematically as a Minkowski sum: the d-dimensional hypercube is the Minkowski sum of d mutually perpendicular unit-length line segments, and is therefore an example of a zonotope.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 504105, 669402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 141 ], [ 280, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1-skeleton of a hypercube is a hypercube graph.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 2977910, 6706815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 14 ], [ 35, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A unit hypercube of dimension is the convex hull of all the points whose Cartesian coordinates are each equal to either or . This hypercube is also the cartesian product of copies of the unit interval . Another unit hypercube, centered at the origin of the ambient space, can be obtained from this one by a translation. It is the convex hull of the points whose vectors of Cartesian coordinates are", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vertex coordinates", "target_page_ids": [ 40634, 7706, 24104095, 49172, 204682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 49 ], [ 75, 96 ], [ 155, 172 ], [ 197, 205 ], [ 312, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Here the symbol means that each coordinate is either equal to or to . This unit hypercube is also the cartesian product . Any unit hypercube has an edge length of and an -dimensional volume of .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vertex coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The -dimensional hypercube obtained as the convex hull of the points with coordinates or, equivalently as the Cartesian product is also often considered due to the simpler form of its vertex coordinates. Its edge length is , and its -dimensional volume is .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vertex coordinates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Every hypercube admits, as its faces, hypercubes of a lower dimension contained in its boundary. A hypercube of dimension admits facets, or faces of dimension : a (-dimensional) line segment has endpoints; a (-dimensional) square has sides or edges; a -dimensional cube has square faces; a (-dimensional) tesseract has three-dimensional cube as its facets. The number of vertices of a hypercube of dimension is (a usual, -dimensional cube has vertices, for instance).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Faces", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The number of the -dimensional hypercubes (just referred to as -cubes from here on) contained in the boundary of an -cube is", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Faces", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", where and denotes the factorial of .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Faces", "target_page_ids": [ 10606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, the boundary of a -cube () contains cubes (-cubes), squares (-cubes), line segments (-cubes) and vertices (-cubes). This identity can be proven by a simple combinatorial argument: for each of the vertices of the hypercube, there are ways to choose a collection of edges incident to that vertex. Each of these collections defines one of the -dimensional faces incident to the considered vertex. Doing this for all the vertices of the hypercube, each of the -dimensional faces of the hypercube is counted times since it has that many vertices, and we need to divide by this number.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Faces", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The number of facets of the hypercube can be used to compute the -dimensional volume of its boundary: that volume is times the volume of a -dimensional hypercube; that is, where is the length of the edges of the hypercube.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Faces", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These numbers can also be generated by the linear recurrence relation", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Faces", "target_page_ids": [ 146806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", with , and when , , or .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Faces", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For example, extending a square via its 4 vertices adds one extra line segment (edge) per vertex. Adding the opposite square to form a cube provides line segments.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Faces", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An n-cube can be projected inside a regular 2n-gonal polygon by a skew orthogonal projection, shown here from the line segment to the 16-cube.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Faces", "target_page_ids": [ 18571869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The hypercubes are one of the few families of regular polytopes that are represented in any number of dimensions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Related families of polytopes", "target_page_ids": [ 518693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The hypercube (offset) family is one of three regular polytope families, labeled by Coxeter as γn. The other two are the hypercube dual family, the cross-polytopes, labeled as βn, and the simplices, labeled as αn. A fourth family, the infinite tessellations of hypercubes, he labeled as δn.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Related families of polytopes", "target_page_ids": [ 518693, 216328, 716401, 39781, 12237982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 62 ], [ 84, 91 ], [ 148, 162 ], [ 188, 197 ], [ 235, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another related family of semiregular and uniform polytopes is the demihypercubes, which are constructed from hypercubes with alternate vertices deleted and simplex facets added in the gaps, labeled as hγn.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Related families of polytopes", "target_page_ids": [ 6842392, 6833695, 39781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 58 ], [ 67, 80 ], [ 157, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "n-cubes can be combined with their duals (the cross-polytopes) to form compound polytopes:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Related families of polytopes", "target_page_ids": [ 716401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In two dimensions, we obtain the octagrammic star figure {8/2},", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Related families of polytopes", "target_page_ids": [ 2667613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In three dimensions we obtain the compound of cube and octahedron,", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Related families of polytopes", "target_page_ids": [ 8010874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In four dimensions we obtain the compound of tesseract and 16-cell.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Related families of polytopes", "target_page_ids": [ 59133525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The graph of the n-hypercube's edges is isomorphic to the Hasse diagram of the (n−1)-simplex's face lattice. This can be seen by orienting the n-hypercube so that two opposite vertices lie vertically, corresponding to the (n−1)-simplex itself and the null polytope, respectively. Each vertex connected to the top vertex then uniquely maps to one of the (n−1)-simplex's facets (n−2 faces), and each vertex connected to those vertices maps to one of the simplex's n−3 faces, and so forth, and the vertices connected to the bottom vertex map to the simplex's vertices.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Relation to (n−1)-simplices", "target_page_ids": [ 14828, 338199, 39781, 1817885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 50 ], [ 58, 71 ], [ 85, 92 ], [ 95, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This relation may be used to generate the face lattice of an (n−1)-simplex efficiently, since face lattice enumeration algorithms applicable to general polytopes are more computationally expensive.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Relation to (n−1)-simplices", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Regular complex polytopes can be defined in complex Hilbert space called generalized hypercubes, = p{4}2{3}...2{3}2, or ... Real solutions exist with p = 2, i.e. = n = 2{4}2{3}...2{3}2 = {4,3,..,3}. For p > 2, they exist in . The facets are generalized (n−1)-cube and the vertex figure are regular simplexes.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Generalized hypercubes", "target_page_ids": [ 8581934, 5826, 20598932, 1005719, 39781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 25 ], [ 44, 51 ], [ 52, 65 ], [ 274, 287 ], [ 300, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The regular polygon perimeter seen in these orthogonal projections is called a petrie polygon. The generalized squares (n = 2) are shown with edges outlined as red and blue alternating color p-edges, while the higher n-cubes are drawn with black outlined p-edges.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Generalized hypercubes", "target_page_ids": [ 333306, 18571869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 79, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The number of m-face elements in a p-generalized n-cube are: . This is pn vertices and pn facets.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Generalized hypercubes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Any positive integer raised to another positive integer power will yield a third integer, with this third integer being a specific type of figurate number corresponding to an n-cube with a number of dimensions corresponding to the exponential. For example, the exponent 2 will yield a square number or \"perfect square\", which can be arranged into a square shape with a side length corresponding to that of the base. Similarly, the exponent 3 will yield a perfect cube, an integer which can be arranged into a cube shape with a side length of the base. As a result, the act of raising a number to 2 or 3 is more commonly referred to as \"squaring\" and \"cubing\", respectively. However, the names of higher-order hypercubes do not appear to be in common use for higher powers.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Relation to exponentiation", "target_page_ids": [ 325260, 213919, 451445, 659942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 154 ], [ 285, 298 ], [ 453, 467 ], [ 636, 644 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hypercube interconnection network of computer architecture", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 157139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hyperoctahedral group, the symmetry group of the hypercube", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24268961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hypersphere", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Simplex", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Parallelotope", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25207334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crucifixion (Corpus Hypercubus) (famous artwork)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14495130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " p.296, Table I (iii): Regular Polytopes, three regular polytopes in n dimensions (n≥5)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cf Chapter 7.1 \"Cubical Representation of Boolean Functions\" wherein the notion of \"hypercube\" is introduced as a means of demonstrating a distance-1 code (Gray code) as the vertices of a hypercube, and then the hypercube with its vertices so labelled is squashed into two dimensions to form either a Veitch diagram or Karnaugh map.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 50564, 10854684, 10854684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 167 ], [ 303, 317 ], [ 321, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " www.4d-screen.de (Rotation of 4D – 7D-Cube)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rotating a Hypercube by Enrique Zeleny, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 13989702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stereoscopic Animated Hypercube", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rudy Rucker and Farideh Dormishian's Hypercube Downloads", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A001787    Number of edges in an n-dimensional hypercube. at OEIS", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 500004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 66 ] ] } ]

[ "Multi-dimensional_geometry", "Cubes" ]

[ "n-cube", "n-eract", "octachoron" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Rotation, or spin, is the circular movement of an object around a central axis. A two-dimensional rotating object has only one possible central axis and can rotate in either a clockwise or counterclockwise direction. A three-dimensional object has an infinite number of possible central axes and rotational directions.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3096395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the rotation axis passes internally through the body's own center of mass, then the body is said to be autorotating or spinning, and the surface intersection of the axis can be called a pole. A rotation around a completely external axis, e.g. the planet Earth around the Sun, is called revolving or orbiting, typically when it is produced by gravity, and the ends of the rotation axis can be called the orbital poles.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 173961, 2839, 455696, 9228, 26751, 22498, 38579, 3449255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 76 ], [ 122, 130 ], [ 189, 193 ], [ 257, 262 ], [ 274, 277 ], [ 302, 307 ], [ 345, 352 ], [ 406, 418 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mathematically, a rotation is a rigid body movement which, unlike a translation, keeps a point fixed. This definition applies to rotations within both two and three dimensions (in a plane and in space, respectively.)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 18831, 455769, 204682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 32, 42 ], [ 68, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All rigid body movements are rotations, translations, or combinations of the two.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A rotation is simply a progressive radial orientation to a common point. That common point lies within the axis of that motion. The axis is 90 degrees perpendicular to the plane of the motion. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If a rotation around a point or axis is followed by a second rotation around the same point/axis, a third rotation results. The reverse (inverse) of a rotation is also a rotation. Thus, the rotations around a point/axis form a group. However, a rotation around a point or axis and a rotation around a different point/axis may result in something other than a rotation, e.g. a translation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 45199, 19447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 144 ], [ 227, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rotations around the x, y and z axes are called principal rotations. Rotation around any axis can be performed by taking a rotation around the x axis, followed by a rotation around the y axis, and followed by a rotation around the z axis. That is to say, any spatial rotation can be decomposed into a combination of principal rotations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In flight dynamics, the principal rotations are known as yaw, pitch, and roll (known as Tait–Bryan angles). This terminology is also used in computer graphics.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 30030151, 9023486, 9023486, 411492, 18567210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 24, 43 ], [ 57, 77 ], [ 88, 105 ], [ 141, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In astronomy, rotation is a commonly observed phenomenon. Stars, planets and similar bodies all spin around on their axes. The rotation rate of planets in the solar system was first measured by tracking visual features. Stellar rotation is measured through Doppler shift or by tracking active surface features.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Astronomy", "target_page_ids": [ 50650, 26808, 22915, 11965603, 8724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 58, 62 ], [ 65, 71 ], [ 220, 236 ], [ 257, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This rotation induces a centrifugal acceleration in the reference frame of the Earth which slightly counteracts the effect of gravitation the closer one is to the equator. Earth's gravity combines both mass effects such that an object weighs slightly less at the equator than at the poles. Another is that over time the Earth is slightly deformed into an oblate spheroid; a similar equatorial bulge develops for other planets.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Astronomy", "target_page_ids": [ 19265670, 38579, 20611356, 4387132, 82365, 143023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 48 ], [ 126, 137 ], [ 163, 170 ], [ 172, 187 ], [ 355, 370 ], [ 382, 398 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another consequence of the rotation of a planet is the phenomenon of precession. Like a gyroscope, the overall effect is a slight \"wobble\" in the movement of the axis of a planet. Currently the tilt of the Earth's axis to its orbital plane (obliquity of the ecliptic) is 23.44 degrees, but this angle changes slowly (over thousands of years). (See also Precession of the equinoxes and Pole star.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Astronomy", "target_page_ids": [ 24714, 44125, 9228, 91173, 72576, 624705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 79 ], [ 88, 97 ], [ 206, 211 ], [ 241, 266 ], [ 353, 380 ], [ 385, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While revolution is often used as a synonym for rotation, in many fields, particularly astronomy and related fields, revolution, often referred to as orbital revolution for clarity, is used when one body moves around another while rotation is used to mean the movement around an axis. Moons revolve around their planet, planets revolve about their star (such as the Earth around the Sun); and stars slowly revolve about their galaxial center. The motion of the components of galaxies is complex, but it usually includes a rotation component.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Astronomy", "target_page_ids": [ 12558, 12558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 426, 441 ], [ 475, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most planets in the Solar System, including Earth, spin in the same direction as they orbit the Sun. The exceptions are Venus and Uranus. Venus may be thought of as rotating slowly backward (or being \"upside down\"). Uranus rotates nearly on its side relative to its orbit. Current speculation is that Uranus started off with a typical prograde orientation and was knocked on its side by a large impact early in its history. The dwarf planet Pluto (formerly considered a planet) is anomalous in several ways, including that it also rotates on its side.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Astronomy", "target_page_ids": [ 22915, 26903, 9228, 26751, 32745, 44475, 6395779, 44469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 11 ], [ 20, 32 ], [ 44, 49 ], [ 96, 99 ], [ 120, 125 ], [ 130, 136 ], [ 428, 440 ], [ 441, 446 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The speed of rotation is given by the angular frequency (rad/s) or frequency (turns per time), or period (seconds, days, etc.). The time-rate of change of angular frequency is angular acceleration (rad/s²), caused by torque. The ratio of the two (how heavy is it to start, stop, or otherwise change rotation) is given by the moment of inertia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 813086, 199829, 10779, 855329, 10779, 30400, 157700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 38, 55 ], [ 67, 76 ], [ 78, 83 ], [ 98, 104 ], [ 217, 223 ], [ 325, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The angular velocity vector (an axial vector) also describes the direction of the axis of rotation. Similarly the torque is an axial vector.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 65927, 166356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 32, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The physics of the rotation around a fixed axis is mathematically described with the axis–angle representation of rotations. According to the right-hand rule, the direction away from the observer is associated with clockwise rotation and the direction towards the observer with counterclockwise rotation, like a screw.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 3096395, 9136071, 221536, 20691673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 47 ], [ 85, 110 ], [ 142, 157 ], [ 312, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The laws of physics are currently believed to be invariant under any fixed rotation. (Although they do appear to change when viewed from a rotating viewpoint: see rotating frame of reference.)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 244629, 424202, 1209823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 49, 83 ], [ 163, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In modern physical cosmology, the cosmological principle is the notion that the distribution of matter in the universe is homogeneous and isotropic when viewed on a large enough scale, since the forces are expected to act uniformly throughout the universe and have no preferred direction, and should, therefore, produce no observable irregularities in the large scale structuring over the course of evolution of the matter field that was initially laid down by the Big Bang.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 173937, 3180547, 14865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 56 ], [ 122, 133 ], [ 138, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In particular, for a system which behaves the same regardless of how it is oriented in space, its Lagrangian is rotationally invariant. According to Noether's theorem, if the action (the integral over time of its Lagrangian) of a physical system is invariant under rotation, then angular momentum is conserved.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 23371726, 424202, 150159, 312881, 15532, 2839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 108 ], [ 112, 134 ], [ 149, 166 ], [ 175, 181 ], [ 187, 205 ], [ 280, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Euler rotations provide an alternative description of a rotation. It is a composition of three rotations defined as the movement obtained by changing one of the Euler angles while leaving the other two constant. Euler rotations are never expressed in terms of the external frame, or in terms of the co-moving rotated body frame, but in a mixture. They constitute a mixed axes of rotation system, where the first angle moves the line of nodes around the external axis z, the second rotates around the line of nodes and the third one is an intrinsic rotation around an axis fixed in the body that moves.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 411492, 978717, 978717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 173 ], [ 428, 441 ], [ 500, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These rotations are called precession, nutation, and intrinsic rotation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 24714, 22094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 37 ], [ 39, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In flight dynamics, the principal rotations described with Euler rotations are known as pitch, roll and yaw. The term rotation is also used in aviation to refer to the upward pitch (nose moves up) of an aircraft, particularly when starting the climb after takeoff.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Flight dynamics", "target_page_ids": [ 30030151, 9023486, 27998914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 88, 107 ], [ 118, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Principal rotations have the advantage of modelling a number of physical systems such as gimbals, and joysticks, so are easily visualised, and are a very compact way of storing a rotation. But they are difficult to use in calculations as even simple operations like combining rotations are expensive to do, and suffer from a form of gimbal lock where the angles cannot be uniquely calculated for certain rotations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Flight dynamics", "target_page_ids": [ 342078, 16229, 342058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 95 ], [ 102, 110 ], [ 333, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many amusement rides provide rotation. A Ferris wheel has a horizontal central axis, and parallel axes for each gondola, where the rotation is opposite, by gravity or mechanically. As a result, at any time the orientation of the gondola is upright (not rotated), just translated. The tip of the translation vector describes a circle. A carousel provides rotation about a vertical axis. Many rides provide a combination of rotations about several axes. In Chair-O-Planes the rotation about the vertical axis is provided mechanically, while the rotation about the horizontal axis is due to the centripetal force. In roller coaster inversions the rotation about the horizontal axis is one or more full cycles, where inertia keeps people in their seats.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Amusement rides", "target_page_ids": [ 175571, 175541, 284876, 2139033, 7534, 630245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 19 ], [ 41, 53 ], [ 336, 344 ], [ 455, 469 ], [ 592, 609 ], [ 614, 638 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rotation of a ball or other object, usually called spin, plays a role in many sports, including topspin and backspin in tennis, English, follow and draw in billiards and pool, curve balls in baseball, spin bowling in cricket, flying disc sports, etc. Table tennis paddles are manufactured with different surface characteristics to allow the player to impart a greater or lesser amount of spin to the ball.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 4440449, 4440505, 29773, 6150292, 467830, 3850, 690195, 25675557, 10687, 30589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 103 ], [ 108, 116 ], [ 120, 126 ], [ 156, 174 ], [ 176, 186 ], [ 191, 199 ], [ 201, 213 ], [ 217, 224 ], [ 226, 237 ], [ 251, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rotation of a player one or more times around a vertical axis may be called spin in figure skating, twirling (of the baton or the performer) in baton twirling, or 360, 540, 720, etc. in snowboarding, etc. Rotation of a player or performer one or more times around a horizontal axis may be called a flip, roll, somersault, heli, etc. in gymnastics, waterskiing, or many other sports, or a one-and-a-half, two-and-a-half, gainer (starting facing away from the water), etc. in diving, etc. A combination of vertical and horizontal rotation (back flip with 360°) is called a möbius in waterskiing freestyle jumping.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 11152, 4015846, 38957, 24726232, 29598951, 399799, 12551, 38985, 8402, 38985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 98 ], [ 144, 158 ], [ 186, 198 ], [ 298, 302 ], [ 304, 308 ], [ 310, 320 ], [ 336, 346 ], [ 348, 359 ], [ 474, 480 ], [ 581, 610 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rotation of a player around a vertical axis, generally between 180 and 360 degrees, may be called a spin move and is used as a deceptive or avoidance maneuver, or in an attempt to play, pass, or receive a ball or puck, etc., or to afford a player a view of the goal or other players. It is often seen in hockey, basketball, football of various codes, tennis, etc.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 13981, 3921, 23976719, 29773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 304, 310 ], [ 312, 322 ], [ 324, 332 ], [ 351, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The end result of any sequence of rotations of any object in 3D about a fixed point is always equivalent to a rotation about an axis. However, an object may physically rotate in 3D about a fixed point on more than one axis simultaneously, in which case there is no single fixed axis of rotation - just the fixed point. However, these two descriptions can be reconciled - such a physical motion can always be re-described in terms of a single axis of rotation, provided the orientation of that axis relative to the object is allowed to change moment by moment.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Fixed axis vs. fixed point", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2 dimensional rotations, unlike the 3 dimensional ones, possess no axis of rotation. This is equivalent, for linear transformations, with saying that there is no direction in the place which is kept unchanged by a 2 dimensional rotation, except, of course, the identity.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Axis of 2 dimensional rotations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The question of the existence of such a direction is the question of existence of an eigenvector for the matrix A representing the rotation. Every 2D rotation around the origin through an angle in counterclockwise direction can be quite simply represented by the following matrix:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Axis of 2 dimensional rotations", "target_page_ids": [ 2161429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A standard eigenvalue determination leads to the characteristic equation", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Axis of 2 dimensional rotations", "target_page_ids": [ 2161429, 218268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 21 ], [ 49, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ",", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Axis of 2 dimensional rotations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "which has", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Axis of 2 dimensional rotations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "as its eigenvalues. Therefore, there is no real eigenvalue whenever , meaning that no real vector in the plane is kept unchanged by A.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Axis of 2 dimensional rotations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Knowing that the trace is an invariant, the rotation angle for a proper orthogonal 3x3 rotation matrix is found by", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Rotation angle and axis in 3 dimensions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Using the principal arc-cosine, this formula gives a rotation angle satisfying . The corresponding rotation axis must be defined to point in a direction that limits the rotation angle to not exceed 180 degrees. (This can always be done because any rotation of more than 180 degrees about an axis can always be written as a rotation having if the axis is replaced with .)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Rotation angle and axis in 3 dimensions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Every proper rotation in 3D space has an axis of rotation, which is defined such that any vector that is aligned with the rotation axis will not be affected by rotation. Accordingly, , and the rotation axis therefore corresponds to an eigenvector of the rotation matrix associated with an eigenvalue of 1. As long as the rotation angle is nonzero (i.e., the rotation is not the identity tensor), there is one and only one such direction. Because A has only real components, there is at least one real eigenvalue, and the remaining two eigenvalues must be complex conjugates of each other (see Eigenvalues and eigenvectors). Knowing that 1 is an eigenvalue, it follows that the remaining two eigenvalues are complex conjugates of each other, but this does not imply that they are complex—they could be real with double multiplicity. In the degenerate case of a rotation angle , the remaining two eigenvalues are both equal to -1. In the degenerate case of a zero rotation angle, the rotation matrix is the identity, and all three eigenvalues are 1 (which is the only case for which the rotation axis is arbitrary).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Rotation angle and axis in 3 dimensions", "target_page_ids": [ 2161429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 596, 624 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A spectral analysis is not required to find the rotation axis. If denotes the unit eigenvector aligned with the rotation axis, and if denotes the rotation angle, then it can be shown that . Consequently, the expense of an eigenvalue analysis can be avoided by simply normalizing this vector if it has a nonzero magnitude. On the other hand, if this vector has a zero magnitude, it means that . In other words, this vector will be zero if and only if the rotation angle is 0 or 180 degrees, and the rotation axis may be assigned in this case by normalizing any column of that has a nonzero magnitude.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Rotation angle and axis in 3 dimensions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This discussion applies to a proper rotation, and hence . Any improper orthogonal 3x3 matrix may be written as , in which is proper orthogonal. That is, any improper orthogonal 3x3 matrix may be decomposed as a proper rotation (from which an axis of rotation can be found as described above) followed by an inversion (multiplication by -1). It follows that the rotation axis of is also the eigenvector of corresponding to an eigenvalue of -1.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Rotation angle and axis in 3 dimensions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As much as every tridimensional rotation has a rotation axis, also every tridimensional rotation has a plane, which is perpendicular to the rotation axis, and which is left invariant by the rotation. The rotation, restricted to this plane, is an ordinary 2D rotation.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Rotation plane", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The proof proceeds similarly to the above discussion. First, suppose that all eigenvalues of the 3D rotation matrix A are real. This means that there is an orthogonal basis, made by the corresponding eigenvectors (which are necessarily orthogonal), over which the effect of the rotation matrix is just stretching it. If we write A in this basis, it is diagonal; but a diagonal orthogonal matrix is made of just +1's and -1's in the diagonal entries. Therefore, we don't have a proper rotation, but either the identity or the result of a sequence of reflections.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Rotation plane", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It follows, then, that a proper rotation has some complex eigenvalue. Let v be the corresponding eigenvector. Then, as we showed in the previous topic, is also an eigenvector, and and are such that their scalar product vanishes:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Rotation plane", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "because, since is real, it equals its complex conjugate , and and are both representations of the same scalar product between and .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Rotation plane", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This means and are orthogonal vectors. Also, they are both real vectors by construction. These vectors span the same subspace as and , which is an invariant subspace under the application of A. Therefore, they span an invariant plane.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Rotation plane", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This plane is orthogonal to the invariant axis, which corresponds to the remaining eigenvector of A, with eigenvalue 1, because of the orthogonality of the eigenvectors of A.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Rotation plane", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , the fastest rotation object", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Product of Rotations at cut-the-knot. cut-the-knot.org", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 3260411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " When a Triangle is Equilateral at cut-the-knot. cut-the-knot.org", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rotate Points Using Polar Coordinates, howtoproperly.com", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rotation in Two Dimensions by Sergio Hannibal Mejia after work by Roger Germundsson and Understanding 3D Rotation by Roger Germundsson, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. demonstrations.wolfram.com", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 13989702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rotation, Reflection, and Frame Change: Orthogonal tensors in computational engineering mechanics, IOP Publishing", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Rotation", "Euclidean_geometry", "Classical_mechanics", "Orientation_(geometry)", "Kinematics" ]

[ "spinning", "rotary motion", "rotation (motion)" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In mathematics, a 3-sphere is a higher-dimensional analogue of a sphere. It may be embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean space as the set of points equidistant from a fixed central point. Analogous to how the boundary of a ball in three dimensions is an ordinary sphere (or 2-sphere, a two-dimensional surface), the boundary of a ball in four dimensions is a 3-sphere (an object with three dimensions). A 3-sphere is an example of a 3-manifold and an n-sphere.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18831, 27859, 9697, 160556, 27865, 8398, 1018257, 39782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 65, 71 ], [ 109, 124 ], [ 222, 226 ], [ 301, 308 ], [ 389, 398 ], [ 433, 443 ], [ 451, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In coordinates, a 3-sphere with center and radius is the set of all points in real, 4-dimensional space () such that", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 81931, 1364622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 87, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 3-sphere centered at the origin with radius 1 is called the unit 3-sphere and is usually denoted :", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is often convenient to regard as the space with 2 complex dimensions () or the quaternions (). The unit 3-sphere is then given by", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 5826, 51440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 72 ], [ 83, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "or", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This description as the quaternions of norm one identifies the 3-sphere with the versors in the quaternion division ring. Just as the unit circle is important for planar polar coordinates, so the 3-sphere is important in the polar view of 4-space involved in quaternion multiplication. See polar decomposition of a quaternion for details of this development of the three-sphere.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 51440, 51440, 2644621, 9067, 27072071, 25120, 1369241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 34 ], [ 39, 43 ], [ 81, 87 ], [ 107, 120 ], [ 134, 145 ], [ 170, 187 ], [ 290, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This view of the 3-sphere is the basis for the study of elliptic space as developed by Georges Lemaître.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 236020, 224698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 70 ], [ 87, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 3-dimensional surface volume of a 3-sphere of radius is", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "while the 4-dimensional hypervolume (the content of the 4-dimensional region bounded by the 3-sphere) is", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Every non-empty intersection of a 3-sphere with a three-dimensional hyperplane is a 2-sphere (unless the hyperplane is tangent to the 3-sphere, in which case the intersection is a single point). As a 3-sphere moves through a given three-dimensional hyperplane, the intersection starts out as a point, then becomes a growing 2-sphere that reaches its maximal size when the hyperplane cuts right through the \"equator\" of the 3-sphere. Then the 2-sphere shrinks again down to a single point as the 3-sphere leaves the hyperplane.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 99862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a given three-dimensional hyperplane, a 3-sphere can rotate about an \"equatorial plane\" (analogous to a 2-sphere rotating about a central axis), in which case it appears to be a 2-sphere whose size is constant.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A 3-sphere is a compact, connected, 3-dimensional manifold without boundary. It is also simply connected. What this means, in the broad sense, is that any loop, or circular path, on the 3-sphere can be continuously shrunk to a point without leaving the 3-sphere. The Poincaré conjecture, proved in 2003 by Grigori Perelman, provides that the 3-sphere is the only three-dimensional manifold (up to homeomorphism) with these properties.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 6042, 6233, 2073470, 523879, 23798, 225266, 13660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 23 ], [ 25, 34 ], [ 50, 58 ], [ 88, 104 ], [ 267, 286 ], [ 306, 322 ], [ 397, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 3-sphere is homeomorphic to the one-point compactification of . In general, any topological space that is homeomorphic to the 3-sphere is called a topological 3-sphere.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 55611, 30450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 62 ], [ 84, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The homology groups of the 3-sphere are as follows: and are both infinite cyclic, while for all other indices . Any topological space with these homology groups is known as a homology 3-sphere. Initially Poincaré conjectured that all homology 3-spheres are homeomorphic to , but then he himself constructed a non-homeomorphic one, now known as the Poincaré homology sphere. Infinitely many homology spheres are now known to exist. For example, a Dehn filling with slope on any knot in the 3-sphere gives a homology sphere; typically these are not homeomorphic to the 3-sphere.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 142432, 52327, 585388, 48740, 585388, 4450009, 153008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 67, 82 ], [ 178, 195 ], [ 207, 215 ], [ 351, 375 ], [ 449, 461 ], [ 481, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As to the homotopy groups, we have and is infinite cyclic. The higher-homotopy groups () are all finite abelian but otherwise follow no discernible pattern. For more discussion see homotopy groups of spheres.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 297506, 2974, 1104697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ], [ 99, 113 ], [ 183, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 3-sphere is naturally a smooth manifold, in fact, a closed embedded submanifold of . The Euclidean metric on induces a metric on the 3-sphere giving it the structure of a Riemannian manifold. As with all spheres, the 3-sphere has constant positive sectional curvature equal to where is the radius.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 2119219, 525095, 53932, 195795, 144652, 285618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 43 ], [ 63, 83 ], [ 93, 109 ], [ 124, 130 ], [ 176, 195 ], [ 253, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Much of the interesting geometry of the 3-sphere stems from the fact that the 3-sphere has a natural Lie group structure given by quaternion multiplication (see the section below on Group structure). The only other spheres with such a structure are the 0-sphere and the 1-sphere (see circle group).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 17945, 508177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 110 ], [ 284, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike the 2-sphere, the 3-sphere admits nonvanishing vector fields (sections of its tangent bundle). One can even find three linearly independent and nonvanishing vector fields. These may be taken to be any left-invariant vector fields forming a basis for the Lie algebra of the 3-sphere. This implies that the 3-sphere is parallelizable. It follows that the tangent bundle of the 3-sphere is trivial. For a general discussion of the number of linear independent vector fields on a -sphere, see the article vector fields on spheres.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 62641, 367621, 211794, 17944, 3108161, 276526, 3100908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 66 ], [ 69, 77 ], [ 85, 99 ], [ 261, 272 ], [ 324, 338 ], [ 394, 401 ], [ 508, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is an interesting action of the circle group on giving the 3-sphere the structure of a principal circle bundle known as the Hopf bundle. If one thinks of as a subset of , the action is given by", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 12781, 508177, 2794417, 580384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 30 ], [ 38, 50 ], [ 95, 118 ], [ 132, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The orbit space of this action is homeomorphic to the two-sphere . Since is not homeomorphic to , the Hopf bundle is nontrivial.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 12781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are several well-known constructions of the three-sphere. Here we describe gluing a pair of three-balls and then the one-point compactification.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Topological construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A 3-sphere can be constructed topologically by \"gluing\" together the boundaries of a pair of 3-balls. The boundary of a 3-ball is a 2-sphere, and these two 2-spheres are to be identified. That is, imagine a pair of 3-balls of the same size, then superpose them so that their 2-spherical boundaries match, and let matching pairs of points on the pair of 2-spheres be identically equivalent to each other. In analogy with the case of the 2-sphere (see below), the gluing surface is called an equatorial sphere.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Topological construction", "target_page_ids": [ 29954, 237213, 160556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 43 ], [ 47, 64 ], [ 95, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Note that the interiors of the 3-balls are not glued to each other. One way to think of the fourth dimension is as a continuous real-valued function of the 3-dimensional coordinates of the 3-ball, perhaps considered to be \"temperature\". We take the \"temperature\" to be zero along the gluing 2-sphere and let one of the 3-balls be \"hot\" and let the other 3-ball be \"cold\". The \"hot\" 3-ball could be thought of as the \"upper hemisphere\" and the \"cold\" 3-ball could be thought of as the \"lower hemisphere\". The temperature is highest/lowest at the centers of the two 3-balls.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Topological construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This construction is analogous to a construction of a 2-sphere, performed by gluing the boundaries of a pair of disks. A disk is a 2-ball, and the boundary of a disk is a circle (a 1-sphere). Let a pair of disks be of the same diameter. Superpose them and glue corresponding points on their boundaries. Again one may think of the third dimension as temperature. Likewise, we may inflate the 2-sphere, moving the pair of disks to become the northern and southern hemispheres.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Topological construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After removing a single point from the 2-sphere, what remains is homeomorphic to the Euclidean plane. In the same way, removing a single point from the 3-sphere yields three-dimensional space. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Topological construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An extremely useful way to see this is via stereographic projection. We first describe the lower-dimensional version.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Topological construction", "target_page_ids": [ 143431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rest the south pole of a unit 2-sphere on the -plane in three-space. We map a point of the sphere (minus the north pole ) to the plane by sending to the intersection of the line with the plane. Stereographic projection of a 3-sphere (again removing the north pole) maps to three-space in the same manner. (Notice that, since stereographic projection is conformal, round spheres are sent to round spheres or to planes.)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Topological construction", "target_page_ids": [ 15346132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 359, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A somewhat different way to think of the one-point compactification is via the exponential map. Returning to our picture of the unit two-sphere sitting on the Euclidean plane: Consider a geodesic in the plane, based at the origin, and map this to a geodesic in the two-sphere of the same length, based at the south pole. Under this map all points of the circle of radius are sent to the north pole. Since the open unit disk is homeomorphic to the Euclidean plane, this is again a one-point compactification.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Topological construction", "target_page_ids": [ 276548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The exponential map for 3-sphere is similarly constructed; it may also be discussed using the fact that the 3-sphere is the Lie group of unit quaternions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Topological construction", "target_page_ids": [ 17945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The four Euclidean coordinates for are redundant since they are subject to the condition that . As a 3-dimensional manifold one should be able to parameterize by three coordinates, just as one can parameterize the 2-sphere using two coordinates (such as latitude and longitude). Due to the nontrivial topology of it is impossible to find a single set of coordinates that cover the entire space. Just as on the 2-sphere, one must use at least two coordinate charts. Some different choices of coordinates are given below.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [ 17616, 17617, 2119193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 256, 264 ], [ 269, 278 ], [ 449, 465 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is convenient to have some sort of hyperspherical coordinates on in analogy to the usual spherical coordinates on . One such choice — by no means unique — is to use , where", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [ 39782, 29181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 64 ], [ 93, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where and run over the range 0 to , and runs over 0 to 2. Note that, for any fixed value of , and parameterize a 2-sphere of radius , except for the degenerate cases, when equals 0 or , in which case they describe a point.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The round metric on the 3-sphere in these coordinates is given by", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [ 195795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and the volume form by", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [ 1855811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These coordinates have an elegant description in terms of quaternions. Any unit quaternion can be written as a versor:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [ 51440, 2644621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 68 ], [ 112, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is a unit imaginary quaternion; that is, a quaternion that satisfies . This is the quaternionic analogue of Euler's formula. Now the unit imaginary quaternions all lie on the unit 2-sphere in so any such can be written:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [ 51440, 9613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 37 ], [ 115, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With in this form, the unit quaternion is given by", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where are as above.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When is used to describe spatial rotations (cf. quaternions and spatial rotations), it describes a rotation about through an angle of .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [ 186057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For unit radius another choice of hyperspherical coordinates, , makes use of the embedding of in . In complex coordinates we write", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This could also be expressed in as", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Here runs over the range 0 to , and and can take any values between 0 and 2. These coordinates are useful in the description of the 3-sphere as the Hopf bundle", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [ 580384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For any fixed value of between 0 and , the coordinates parameterize a 2-dimensional torus. Rings of constant and above form simple orthogonal grids on the tori. See image to right. In the degenerate cases, when equals 0 or , these coordinates describe a circle.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [ 74800, 6220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 91 ], [ 259, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The round metric on the 3-sphere in these coordinates is given by", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and the volume form by", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To get the interlocking circles of the Hopf fibration, make a simple substitution in the equations above", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [ 580384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In this case , and specify which circle, and specifies the position along each circle. One round trip (0 to 2) of or equates to a round trip of the torus in the 2 respective directions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another convenient set of coordinates can be obtained via stereographic projection of from a pole onto the corresponding equatorial hyperplane. For example, if we project from the point we can write a point in as", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [ 143431, 99862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 82 ], [ 134, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is a vector in and . In the second equality above, we have identified with a unit quaternion and with a pure quaternion. (Note that the numerator and denominator commute here even though quaternionic multiplication is generally noncommutative). The inverse of this map takes in to", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "We could just as well have projected from the point , in which case the point is given by", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is another vector in . The inverse of this map takes to", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Note that the coordinates are defined everywhere but and the coordinates everywhere but . This defines an atlas on consisting of two coordinate charts or \"patches\", which together cover all of . Note that the transition function between these two charts on their overlap is given by", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [ 47436, 47436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 114 ], [ 137, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and vice versa.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Coordinate systems on the 3-sphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When considered as the set of unit quaternions, inherits an important structure, namely that of quaternionic multiplication. Because the set of unit quaternions is closed under multiplication, takes on the structure of a group. Moreover, since quaternionic multiplication is smooth, can be regarded as a real Lie group. It is a nonabelian, compact Lie group of dimension 3. When thought of as a Lie group is often denoted or .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Group structure", "target_page_ids": [ 51440, 19447, 1408000, 17945, 4791400, 6042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 45 ], [ 223, 228 ], [ 277, 283 ], [ 312, 321 ], [ 331, 341 ], [ 343, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It turns out that the only spheres that admit a Lie group structure are , thought of as the set of unit complex numbers, and , the set of unit quaternions (The degenerate case which consists of the real numbers 1 and −1 is also a Lie group, albeit a 0-dimensional one). One might think that , the set of unit octonions, would form a Lie group, but this fails since octonion multiplication is nonassociative. The octonionic structure does give one important property: parallelizability. It turns out that the only spheres that are parallelizable are , , and .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Group structure", "target_page_ids": [ 39782, 5826, 51436, 1335, 3108161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 34 ], [ 104, 118 ], [ 310, 318 ], [ 393, 407 ], [ 469, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By using a matrix representation of the quaternions, , one obtains a matrix representation of . One convenient choice is given by the Pauli matrices:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Group structure", "target_page_ids": [ 20556859, 24868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 134, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This map gives an injective algebra homomorphism from to the set of 2×2 complex matrices. It has the property that the absolute value of a quaternion is equal to the square root of the determinant of the matrix image of .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Group structure", "target_page_ids": [ 45196, 331969, 991, 29208, 8468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 27 ], [ 28, 48 ], [ 120, 134 ], [ 168, 179 ], [ 187, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The set of unit quaternions is then given by matrices of the above form with unit determinant. This matrix subgroup is precisely the special unitary group . Thus, as a Lie group is isomorphic to .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Group structure", "target_page_ids": [ 173997, 14828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 154 ], [ 182, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Using our Hopf coordinates we can then write any element of in the form", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Group structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another way to state this result is if we express the matrix representation of an element of as a exponential of a linear combination of the Pauli matrices. It is seen that an arbitrary element can be written as", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Group structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The condition that the determinant of is +1 implies that the coefficients are constrained to lie on a 3-sphere.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Group structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Edwin Abbott Abbott's Flatland, published in 1884, and in Sphereland, a 1965 sequel to Flatland by Dionys Burger, the 3-sphere is referred to as an oversphere, and a 4-sphere is referred to as a hypersphere.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "In literature", "target_page_ids": [ 10119, 75214, 1514300, 13194330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 22 ], [ 25, 33 ], [ 61, 71 ], [ 102, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Writing in the American Journal of Physics, Mark A. Peterson describes three different ways of visualizing 3-spheres and points out language in The Divine Comedy that suggests Dante viewed the Universe in the same way; Carlo Rovelli supports the same idea.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "In literature", "target_page_ids": [ 3615002, 31140, 8169, 474202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 42 ], [ 144, 161 ], [ 176, 181 ], [ 219, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Art Meets Mathematics in the Fourth Dimension, Stephen L. Lipscomb develops the concept of the hypersphere dimensions as it relates to art, architecture, and mathematics.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "In literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1-sphere, 2-sphere, n-sphere", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27072071, 27859, 39782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 19 ], [ 21, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " tesseract, polychoron, simplex", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31112, 24979, 39781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 22 ], [ 24, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pauli matrices", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " rotation group SO(3)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 173965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " charts on SO(3)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 411226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " quaternions and spatial rotations", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 186057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hopf bundle, Riemann sphere", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 580384, 30876799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Poincaré sphere", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 585388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reeb foliation", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2604269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Clifford torus", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7950934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " David W. Henderson, Experiencing Geometry: In Euclidean, Spherical, and Hyperbolic Spaces, second edition, 2001, (Chapter 20: 3-spheres and hyperbolic 3-spaces.)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 49367356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jeffrey R. Weeks, The Shape of Space: How to Visualize Surfaces and Three-dimensional Manifolds, 1985, () (Chapter 14: The Hypersphere) (Says: A Warning on terminology: Our two-sphere is defined in three-dimensional space, where it is the boundary of a three-dimensional ball. This terminology is standard among mathematicians, but not among physicists. So don't be surprised if you find people calling the two-sphere a three-sphere.)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1298792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Note: This article uses the alternate naming scheme for spheres in which a sphere in -dimensional space is termed an -sphere.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Four-dimensional_geometry", "Algebraic_topology", "Geometric_topology", "Analytic_geometry", "Quaternions", "Spheres" ]

[ "glome", "hypersphere", "3-hypersphere" ]

[ { "plaintext": ", better known as , is a Japanese superheroine and the main protagonist and title character of the Sailor Moon manga series written by Naoko Takeuchi. She is introduced in chapter #1, \"Usagi – Sailor Moon\" (originally published in Japan's Nakayoshi magazine on December 28, 1991), as a carefree Japanese schoolgirl who can transform into Sailor Moon. Initially believing herself to be an ordinary girl, she is later revealed to be the reincarnated form of the Princess of the Moon Kingdom, and she subsequently discovers her original name, .", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 43076, 68315, 1221008, 27931, 21745, 1446781, 25806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 44 ], [ 61, 72 ], [ 77, 92 ], [ 100, 111 ], [ 136, 150 ], [ 240, 249 ], [ 436, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Sailor Moon, Usagi meets Luna, a magical talking black cat that is searching for the Moon Princess. Luna reveals that Usagi is destined to save Earth from the forces of evil and gives her a brooch to transform into Sailor Moon. She asks Usagi to form the Sailor Guardians, find their princess and protect the \"Silver Crystal\". As Usagi matures, she becomes a powerful warrior and protects her adopted home planet, Earth, from villains who wish to harm it. Usagi is depicted as usually carefree and cheerful, but with cry-baby tendencies that show themselves when things do not go her way.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 227070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the protagonist, Usagi appears in every episode, film, video game, and television special of the anime adaptations, Sailor Moon and Sailor Moon Crystal; as well as the live action adaptation, Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon. She also cameos in the sister series Sailor V. She has been the subject of parodies and has appeared in special events. Most Western audiences were introduced to Usagi appearing in the Sailor Moon anime, which is an adaptation of the manga series. Usagi's critical reception has been largely positive and she is recognized as one of the most important and popular female superheroes of all time.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7421144, 42223277, 519142, 275882, 7421144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 130 ], [ 135, 154 ], [ 195, 222 ], [ 233, 239 ], [ 410, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Usagi is first introduced as living the life of a normal teenage schoolgirl in 20th-century Tokyo. Although well-meaning, she is an underachieving, accident-prone crybaby. One day, Usagi encounters a mysterious cat with a crescent moon on its forehead, who later reveals herself to be Luna, a mentor archetype who introduces Usagi to her new heroic role. Luna gives Usagi a magical brooch and explains how to use it to transform into Sailor Moon (the Guardian of Love and Justice); she tells Usagi that she is a Sailor Guardian who must fight for peace and find the rest of the Sailor Guardians, as well as their princess. Usagi is a reluctant heroine at first, she grows more confident and mature over time. As Sailor Moon, she sets out to fight the villains from her past life and to protect the Earth using the legendary Silver Crystal. This provides most of the conflict and drama in both the manga and the anime.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 155526, 30057, 227070, 540570, 25806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 75 ], [ 92, 97 ], [ 285, 289 ], [ 293, 309 ], [ 769, 778 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Usagi lives in Azabu Jūban with her mother, Ikuko Tsukino; her father, Kenji Tsukino; and her brother, Shingo Tsukino. These names reflect those of Naoko Takeuchi's real-life family members. Out of all the Sailor Guardians, only Usagi and Minako Aino live in a conventional nuclear family, and Usagi is the only one known to have a sibling.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 19934366, 30875803, 21745, 143875, 193132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 26 ], [ 103, 117 ], [ 148, 162 ], [ 239, 250 ], [ 274, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Usagi has a boyfriend named Mamoru Chiba (also known as Tuxedo Mask). Mamoru and Usagi's relationship is a significant part of Usagi's personal life, as well as the series as a whole. Mamoru and Usagi date for a long time in the series and the love they share helps her through many challenges. In the anime adaptation, Mamoru gives Usagi a heart-shaped promise ring just before he leaves for America. The ring represents a promise to Usagi that they will eventually marry.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 359195, 162456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 40 ], [ 135, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once she forms the Sailor Guardians, Usagi learns that she comes from a race belonging to the Silver Millennium, and that her mother sent her to Earth to be reincarnated. In the second series, Usagi learns that she will give birth to a daughter (Chibiusa) by her boyfriend and future husband. She also discovers that she will become a \"Sovereign of the Earth\", known as Neo-Queen Serenity, by the 30th century.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 23534003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Usagi loves sweet foods and they easily distract her. She also loves playing video games, and cake is listed as one of her favorite foods in the manga. Her favorite subject is listed as home economics. She is said to dislike carrots, and is a poor student in both English and mathematics. She is afraid of dentists, ghosts, and lightning, and her greatest dream is to someday be a bride. She is apparently a member of the Manga Drawing Club at her school, though her skill level varies widely when shown in the anime. She stands tall.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 5363, 57572, 18985, 50649, 5985739, 18831, 14894253, 19872569, 455907, 86111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 88 ], [ 94, 98 ], [ 145, 150 ], [ 186, 200 ], [ 225, 231 ], [ 276, 287 ], [ 296, 313 ], [ 316, 322 ], [ 328, 337 ], [ 381, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the manga and anime, Mamoru refers to her as odango (a kind of rice dumpling), based on her distinctive hairstyle. At first, this is always accompanied with the suffix atama, meaning \"head\", but this is gradually dropped. Usagi hates the name at first, but it develops into a sign of affection as they become close. Later in the series, Haruka and Seiya, other important figures in her life, adopt the name as well. Since there is no North American equivalent to odango, the original English anime adaptation almost always used the phrases \"meatball head\" or \"moon face\". In the Tokyopop Manga adaptation, Mamoru calls Usagi \"buns\", which is an approximation of odango and is short for \"bunny\". In the Viz Media English adaptation, she is referred to as \"bunhead\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 147787, 491717, 30875803, 2156574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 54 ], [ 340, 346 ], [ 351, 356 ], [ 665, 671 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Usagi's character is inconsistent between versions of the series. In the manga, she starts out as a crybaby, but quickly matures and learns to make decisions for herself.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The series often portrays Usagi as lazy or unmotivated in applying herself, rather than lacking intelligence, such as when she passes her high school exams without trouble when threatened with separation from her friends.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The original anime often portrays Usagi as being more childlike. She often bickers with Chibiusa, but she can show just as much caring as her manga counterpart. She does evolve during the course of the series, but other than the last few episodes of each story arc, she generally lacks the maturity she has in the manga.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 7421144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the live-action series, Usagi differs slightly from her manga and anime counterparts. She is more outgoing and extroverted, and makes friends very easily. This immediately puts her personality in conflict with the other Sailor Guardians, each of whom is solitary to some degree. She rarely uses formal speech with those of her age (though she does with adults), and refers to everyone as \"given name-chan\" (which is very informal and a way of expressing closeness). She teases Ami when Ami continues calling her \"Tsukino-san\" (a formal way of speaking to classmates), saying that it is like they are not friends. Every time a new Sailor Guardian appears, Usagi immediately tries to befriend them, even though almost all of them resist. However, Usagi eventually makes the other Sailor Guardians realize that they are stronger together than alone. Usagi also has a habit of forcing her interests on her new friends. This is prominent in her relationship with Rei, where Usagi repeatedly tries to get Rei to sing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 531569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 298, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Being a character with a long lifetime (spanning the ancient Silver Millennium era and 30th century), as well as multiple incarnations, special powers and transformations, Usagi has various aliases such as Princess Serenity, Sailor Moon, Princess Sailor Moon, Super Sailor Moon, Eternal Sailor Moon, and Neo-Queen Serenity. In all of her incarnations (barring disguises), Usagi is always depicted with her hair up in twin buns with twin pigtails.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [ 531888, 2156574, 1602744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 360, 368 ], [ 417, 426 ], [ 437, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The series often refers to Usagi's Sailor Guardian identity, Sailor Moon, as the \"Guardian of Love and Justice\", and once as the \"Guardian of Mystery\". Throughout most of the series, Sailor Moon wears a white and blue sailor fuku uniform; white and reddishpink gloves and boots; and crescentmoon earrings. She also wears red hairpieces and white barrettes resembling feathers, both of which can be used for minor attacks. Her personality is no different from when she is a civilian, though her Sailor Moon form has certain powers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [ 56085, 2625127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 229 ], [ 346, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The names for Sailor Moon's attacks center around the Moon, love, mystery and light. Starting out as a frightened, reluctant girl often in need of help, she gradually accepts her full identity. She eventually becomes the most powerful Sailor Guardian in the galaxy, but her capacity for caring for others is shown to be more powerful still.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Salior Moon's appearance and title change at key points when she grows stronger or gains additional powers. The first change takes place during the third major story arc – act 30 of the manga and episode 111 of the anime – when she obtains the Holy Grail and becomes Super Sailor Moon. In this form, her costume becomes more ornate and her powers are increased. At first she is unable to take this form without the Grail, but she later gains this ability permanently. This happens when Pegasus grants both her and Sailor Chibi Moon new transformation brooches – in arc 34 of the manga and in episode 130 of the anime. However, in this \"Super\" version, her white back bow is shorter than in the Holy Grail version.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sailor Moon receives her third and final form at the end of the fourth major story arc, as the combined power of the other Sailor Guardians transforms her into Eternal Sailor Moon, whom Diana says is the closest in power to Neo-Queen Serenity. Her uniform is radically altered, including the addition of two pairs of angelic wings on her back which replace her back bow.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [ 30875803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The plot of Sailor Moon contains several examples of asynchrony, including appearances of Sailor Moon from different time periods. Chibi-Chibi is a young girl from the future who turns out to be a future form of Sailor Moon. She comes back to the present to aid Eternal Sailor Moon in her fight against Sailor Galaxia. Like Chibiusa, she hypnotizes Usagi's family into believing that she is part of their family. In the manga, Chibi-Chibi transforms into \"Sailor Cosmos\" which is implied to be Sailor Moon's ultimate form. However, Sailor Cosmos admits that she is a coward that ran away from her battles and could never match Eternal Sailor Moon's final show of courage and power.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [ 30875803, 3634026, 23534003, 30875803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 142 ], [ 303, 317 ], [ 324, 332 ], [ 456, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the manga, Eternal Sailor Moon uses the Silver Moon Crystal, an evolved form of the Silver Crystal, to carry out her attacks.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "]", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is a past incarnation of Sailor Moon that lived in the Moon Kingdom during the age of Silver Millennium. She was the daughter of Queen Serenity, who ruled Silver Millennium and watched over the Earth. Princess Serenity's guardians and closest friends were Sailor Mercury, Sailor Mars, Sailor Jupiter, and Sailor Venus, who were princesses of their own respective planets that sometimes lived on the Moon. On one of her visits to Earth, she met and fell in love with Endymion, the crown prince of Earth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [ 30875803, 23577549, 227062, 23573419, 143875, 359195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 144 ], [ 257, 271 ], [ 273, 284 ], [ 286, 300 ], [ 306, 318 ], [ 467, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the attack that caused the Moon Kingdom's downfall, Prince Endymion died protecting Serenity. In the manga, she then commits suicide out of grief, while in the anime, Queen Metalia killed them both. Serenity's mother, the Moon Queen, was able to seal away the evil that had created the attack, but everyone involved was killed. Before her own death, the Queen used the Silver Crystal to give her daughter (and others) another chance at life, hoping that Endymion and Serenity would be able to find happiness together in their new lives. In the live-action series, it is Princess Serenity herself who destroys the Moon Kingdom when Endymion was killed during the war against them in the past.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Serenity reincarnates as Usagi Tsukino in the 20th century. Usagi occasionally takes the form of Princess Serenity during the series, often at climactic moments when more strength is needed than Sailor Moon can usually access. Usagi discovers her identity as a princess in act 9 of the manga, episode 34 of the anime, and act 25 of the live-action series.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [ 290200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 336, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Takeuchi draws Usagi with white, yellow, and even pink hair, Serenity almost always has white hair. In the anime, both characters are always blond. In the live-action series, Serenity has black hair and brown eyes, just like Usagi, and she wears her hair straight down rather than in pigtails. This makes her identity more ambiguous before the storyline reveals her to be Usagi.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At climactic moments, Serenity sometimes gains a pair of functioning angelic wings. She does this during the final battles of SuperS, after she jumps off a tower to save Chibiusa and the two of them collide with Pegasus while falling. It also happens in Sailor Stars during the fight with the fully possessed Galaxia when she grabs the Sword of Sealing. It remains unclear if this power comes from her past life, if it belongs to Usagi herself, or if it came from Pegasus and the Sword of Sealing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Princess Sailor Moon is a powerful combination of Sailor Moon and Princess Serenity that only exists in the live-action series. She is introduced when Usagi is possessed by the spirit of her former self. She originally appears after Queen Beryl takes the shitennou hostage in exchange for Mamoru. Sailor Moon transforms into Princess Sailor Moon and stops Queen Beryl using her sword.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Princess Sailor Moon is not the same person as Usagi and they have completely different personalities. Princess Sailor Moon shows no remorse for the fate of the Four Kings of Heaven and she refers to Mamoru as \"Endymion\" rather than his civilian name. She is always angry, and has no misgivings about causing death or destruction. In one act, Usagi's friend Naru accidentally gets too close to Princess Sailor Moon and has to be hospitalized as a result. It is also shown that Princess Serenity has full control of the upgrade. Though smiling in most promotional material for the series, Princess Sailor Moon does not smile in the series itself until the end, after reconciling with Usagi.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During a confrontation with her current self as Princess Sailor Moon, Serenity tells Usagi that she would have no qualms about destroying the earth if Endymion were taken from her again. Usagi pleads with Serenity not to overuse her powers, but Serenity refuses. Afraid that she will eventually destroy the world, Usagi tries to suppress her powers. Usagi's internal conflict forces her to undergo endurance training to keep her powers and Princess Serenity persona at bay. Usagi initially succeeds but avoiding negative thoughts. However, when she is forced to kill a possessed Mamoru, Serenity overcomes Usagi's resistance and transforms into Princess Sailor Moon. Serenity even summons her own minions to fight the other Sailor Guardians to prevent them from stopping her. Princess Sailor Moon successfully destroys the world once again, but Serenity eventually realizes the extent to which she is responsible for this and uses the Silver Crystal to undo the harm she has done.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Princess Sailor Moon has a sword that can deflect enemy attacks or unleash devastating projectiles. The sword also doubles as a harp with invisible strings that Princess Sailor Moon plays while mourning her lost prince. The harp's main power is the ability to heal people and the land. Other than the healing powers, the exact effect of playing the harp is unclear, but it often causes her Silver Crystal to feed the power of Queen Metaria, accelerating the devastation of the planet.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As with other characters unique to the live-action series, Takeuchi designed Princess Sailor Moon's outfit. Her sailor outfit is considerably more elaborate than Sailor Moon's, and included pearls on her gloves and lace on her skirt. In fact, there is a very similar design on the back cover of Sailor Moon: Short Stories volume 1.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the second major story arc, it is revealed that Usagi, as Serenity, will eventually become the queen regnant of a new Silver Millennium called Crystal Tokyo, in the 30th century. She is first seen in this future form in act 16 of the manga and episode 68 of the anime. Usagi learns that she will be given the title \"Sovereign of Earth\", and Mamoru will become King Endymion alongside her. It is stated in the anime that she becomes Neo-Queen Serenity after warding off a second Ice Age, though the specifics of this are never discussed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [ 529844, 887147, 9228, 359195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 33 ], [ 102, 115 ], [ 336, 341 ], [ 367, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This incarnation is shown to be more mature than the present day Usagi, though she is still childish in some ways. For example, in episode 104, Chibiusa gives the Sailor Soldiers a letter from the future, in which the Queen asks them to train her, but the letter is simplistic and contains almost no kanji. In episode 146, Diana says that the King and Queen would sometimes play sick to get out of things. Letters she sends through the Door of Space-Time to Chibiusa are sometimes signed with a drawing of herself (and sometimes King Endymion) instead of a name.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [ 37604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 300, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the manga, Neo-Queen Serenity tells the present-day Sailor Soldiers that after she became queen, she lost her power as a Sailor Soldier. In the second arc of the anime she does not transform (into Sailor Moon) even when the others do. However, she is seen showing great powers in a flashback when the King Endymion of the future describes the great feats of Neo-Queen Serenity during the time she brought about peace.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "She wears an altered version of the dress she wore as a princess. The shoulder pieces are omitted and a large, wing-shaped bow replaces the smaller one of the princess outfit. In the manga, Neo-Queen Serenity's dress is similar to her past form's outfit. She also wears a crown and new earrings. The crescent moon is always visible on her forehead, just as it is with her princess form. Her face and facial expressions are drawn to look more mature than the 20th century Usagi, but her iconic hairstyle is retained.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [ 2156574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 486, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This form is the one that Chibiusa considers as truly being her mother, while she sees the Usagi of the past as a sister figure.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspects and forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Usagi can transform into a \"Sailor Guardian\" by wearing a special device (usually a brooch) and shouting a special command that activates the device. Her original transformation command is . She gains a new basic transformation sequence for each of the five major story arcs. In the fifth arc she becomes Eternal Sailor Moon with \"Silver Moon Crystal Power\" in the manga, or \"\" in the anime adaptation (and once in the manga). At first, she is required to be in her Super Sailor Moon form to become Eternal Sailor Moon, as the upgrade to her brooch is temporary. When facing off with Nehelenia for the final time, the brooch is permanently upgraded allowing her to become Eternal Sailor Moon directly.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abilities", "target_page_ids": [ 20866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of the anime adaptations' transformation sequences involve the use of shiny red or pink ribbons that fly out of her brooch and form her uniform. Feathers and wings also figure prominently in some sequences, particularly the transformation into Eternal Sailor Moon.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As the protagonist, Usagi has the most special powers of any character in the series. Her physical attacks, usually one-offs and not always successful, include the occasional use of her hair pins as projectile weapons. One of her techniques is the , which involves using her red hair pieces to amplify her screams.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The is a magical crystal that only the members of the Moon dynasty can use. The first English-dubbed anime sometimes calls it the Imperium Silver Crystal as well as various other names.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Crystal possesses tremendous power, capable of reviving an entire world from ruin. However, the strain of using such power often costs the user her life, as the power derives from the life force of the Moon dynasty. The anime shows this happening three times. The first time is in a flashback with Queen Serenity; the second time when Usagi defeats Queen Metaria at the end of season one; and finally in the R movie. It is shown as the source of Queen Serenity's power during the age of Silver Millennium, with Usagi Tsukino and Chibiusa each going on to inherit the Crystal in some form. However, it is also shown in the S movie that the power of all the Senshi working in unison allows Sailor Moon to use the Crystal's full strength without the result being fatal (although she was still exhausted afterwards from using it).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abilities", "target_page_ids": [ 5186688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both the anime, manga and second anime series commonly portray the Silver Crystal as possibly the single most powerful artifact in the universe, able to focus the energy of its wielder to perform magnificent feats. However, several artifacts rival it in strength, including the Black Crystal of the Death Phantom, and the Saffer Crystal of Sailor Galaxia. In the fifth series of the anime, the crystal also appears to double as the Star Seed of Sailor Moon, which was hinted at in the R movie, and the manga implies that it is her Sailor Crystal. It takes on a multitude of shapes, including round, diamond, rose, heart, star, and lotus, and it turns pink while stored within the brooches of Sailor Moon and Sailor Chibi Moon.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abilities", "target_page_ids": [ 3633935, 3634026, 15050852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 299, 312 ], [ 340, 354 ], [ 631, 636 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because Chibiusa comes from the future – having eventually inherited the Silver Crystal from Usagi – two versions of it exist in the series. After the first and second story arcs, the owners of the crystals keep them in their respective transformation brooches and only remove them in times of urgent need.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The original anime features seven rainbow crystals that had the Seven Great Monsters (the most powerful monsters in the Dark Kingdom) sealed into them. They were sealed within seven separate shards of the Silver Crystal using Queen Serenity's power. They were then carried to Earth where they were reincarnated centuries later, with no memories of their prior existences. All seven rainbow crystals (and, as in the manga, one of Usagi's tears) are needed to recombine to form the Silver Crystal.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abilities", "target_page_ids": [ 3871014, 969761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 41 ], [ 120, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later in the show getting a glimpse of future Usagi and how she turns to be Sailor Cosmos who is just a far-far-future version of Usagi Tsukino herself, Sailor Moon. Since Sailor Moon takes place over the course of thousands of years. However, in the even more distant future, Usagi is either reincarnated or evolves into Sailor Cosmos, her final and most powerful incarnation in the manga.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the anime Sailor Cosmos was a character who played an important part in the Stars arc of the Sailor Moon manga, where she was revealed to be the true form of Chibi-Chibi (who had very different origins in the anime). After Sailor Galaxia's death, Chibi-Chibi revealed to Sailor Moon that her true form was in fact Sailor Cosmos.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abilities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Usagi and Sailor Moon series evolved from Naoko Takeuchi's earlier one-shot series called Codename: Sailor V. In Takeuchi's first proposal for the Sailor Moon series, each of the five heroines had a completely unique outfit. It was eventually decided that they would instead wear uniforms based on a single theme, whose design was closest to Sailor Moon's original costume concept. Sailor Moon's original had some small differences, including color changes, an exposed midriff, and ribbons around the gloves and boots. She also had a mask, which did appear in a few chapters of the manga before being discarded. These aspects of Sailor Moon's costume are shown in multiple pieces of early artwork, along with a gun and cloak, which were also parts of the original concept.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Conception and creation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Takeuchi based Usagi's signature hairstyle on a \"good luck charm\" she had during her studies as a university student. Takeuchi would put her own hair up in odango before difficult classes or exams. Sailor Moon has pink hair in the initial sketches, but by the intermediate stages of development, Takeuchi planned to have the character's hair be blond in civilian form and change to silver when she transformed. Her editor, Fumio Osano, told her that silver hair would be too plain for cover art. Despite this, stylistic use of differently colored hair does sometimes appear in later artwork, and the concept of the heroines' hair changing color when transformed is used in Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Conception and creation", "target_page_ids": [ 519142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 673, 700 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of all the Sailor Soldiers, Usagi's personality is closest to Takeuchi's own personality at the time Sailor Moon was created.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Conception and creation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The kanji of Usagi's surname translate as and . Her given name is in hiragana and so its meaning is not inherent, but the word means \"rabbit\" and this is used as a pun frequently throughout the series, including her hairstyle and possessions. Her name is structured as a pun, as the syllable \"no\" indicates a possessive, so her name can also be understood as \"Rabbit of the Moon\". This derives from a Japanese folktale about the rabbit which is said to be visible in the Moon's face, much like the Western Man in the Moon. The English-language manga – along with other localisations – gives her the nickname \"Bunny\" to partially preserve this pun. \"Usagi\" is not a common given name in Japan.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Conception and creation", "target_page_ids": [ 37604, 13804, 2156574, 24145, 914267, 168101, 12257160, 19331, 187916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ], [ 70, 78 ], [ 219, 228 ], [ 274, 277 ], [ 312, 322 ], [ 404, 421 ], [ 432, 438 ], [ 474, 478 ], [ 509, 524 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Japanese version of every Sailor Moon anime series and subsequent related media, Usagi has been voiced by Kotono Mitsuishi. For this role, Mitsuishi used a higher voice than her natural one. During recording sessions of the early episodes, Mitsuishi had to mentally prepare herself to play Usagi. While Mitsuishi was away during production of episodes 44–50, Kae Araki (who would later voice Usagi's own future daughter, Chibiusa) voiced Usagi as a stand-in. Mitsuishi would later reprise her role in Sailor Moon Crystal, the only actress from the original cast to do so.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Conception and creation", "target_page_ids": [ 590139, 936894, 53396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 129 ], [ 366, 375 ], [ 456, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In DIC Entertainment's English dub of Sailor Moon (produced in association with Optimum Productions), Sailor Moon was voiced by Tracey Moore for the first 14 episodes (edited down to 11) after which Terri Hawkes took over as the voice for the remaining episodes of the DiC produced dub, as well as Pioneer's dub for the three films, though Moore would return to voice the character in two more episodes later on in the first season. Linda Ballantyne was the voice of Sailor Moon in Cloverway's dub of episodes 83–159 of Sailor Moon (produced in association with Optimum Productions). When Ballantyne first recorded the series, Ballantyne attempted to emulate Hawkes, but soon found it difficult to perform. She wanted the character to \"have a lot more fun and just be a goofy teenager.\" Ballantyne cited her performance as \"just more flighty.... Until of course the world needed to be saved.\" American singer Jennifer Cihi provided the English vocals for Serena's songs in the first English adaptation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Conception and creation", "target_page_ids": [ 365616, 3103584, 3633592, 3633613, 23183811, 21805998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 128, 140 ], [ 199, 211 ], [ 433, 449 ], [ 482, 491 ], [ 909, 922 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stephanie Sheh provides the voice in Viz Media's dub of the entire original Sailor Moon series (produced in association with Studiopolis), and also Sailor Moon Crystal.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Conception and creation", "target_page_ids": [ 4934459, 1756405, 9429664, 42223277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 37, 46 ], [ 125, 136 ], [ 148, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the stage musicals, Usagi was portrayed by Anza Ohyama, Fumina Hara, Miyuki Kanbe (who played the character with a \"cute and high voice\"), Marina Kuroki, , Hotaru Nomoto, Sayuri Inoue, Mizuki Yamashita, Kanae Yumemiya, Natsuki Koga and Tomomi Kasai.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Conception and creation", "target_page_ids": [ 1020549, 1736097, 9241519, 9156047, 3492396, 60390923, 21249428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ], [ 46, 57 ], [ 59, 70 ], [ 72, 84 ], [ 142, 155 ], [ 188, 204 ], [ 239, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the SuperS Musicals, Sanae Kimura, who played Sailor Uranus, provided the voice of Neo-Queen Serenity during Over the Moon, a duet between Sailor Moon and Neo-Queen Serenity. A third, unknown person, was on stage in Serenity's costume while both Sailor Moon and Uranus were onstage. Uncredited body doubles are common in the musicals to allow the character to appear to transform instantly.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Conception and creation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon, Usagi was portrayed by Miyuu Sawai.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Conception and creation", "target_page_ids": [ 519142, 520334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 30 ], [ 55, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sheila Rose Browning describes Sailor Moon as \"one of the most popular and well-known manga characters in Japan\". Usagi influenced the hairstyle and personality of Misato Katsuragi from Neon Genesis Evangelion, and of Gruier Serenity's anime version from Bodacious Space Pirates. Sailor Moon was ranked 9th on IGN's \"Top 25 Anime Characters of All Time\", being the highest-ranking female character in the list. Rebecca Silverman, writing about the 2011 re-release of the Sailor Moon manga, felt that Usagi's initial hesitancy about whether she is good enough to be Sailor Moon added authenticity to her claim of being an \"ordinary girl\". Silverman states that along with Itazura na Kiss and Marmalade Boy, Usagi gave rise to an \"unintelligent heroine\" character type, but feels that even in the first volume, Usagi's determination sets her apart.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Reception and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1146817, 21711, 33451464, 5519297, 9533153, 182217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 180 ], [ 186, 209 ], [ 255, 278 ], [ 310, 313 ], [ 671, 686 ], [ 691, 704 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Comedian Samantha Bee portrayed Sailor Moon in a live-action production at the Canadian National Exhibition.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1242652, 395427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 21 ], [ 79, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Shopkins episode, “Look Within”, features a reference to Sailor Moon’s original transformation scene with Lippy Lips (shown to transform into her 'Wild Style'.)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 48879761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 2022 WWE Royal Rumble, Sasha Banks entered in an outfit inspired by Sailor Moon.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 62676, 68843560, 35347635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 15 ], [ 16, 28 ], [ 30, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the mobile online shooter Pixel Gun 3D, Sailor Moon appears as a skin called “Supergirl”, not based on the DC Comics hero. In addition, she is getting another skin based on her in the upcoming Anime season, this time being called “Moon Princess”, and her own weapon. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 66305987, 96871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 41 ], [ 106, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A social media challenge on Twitter called the #sailormoonredraw gained popularity in May 2020. Artists use a still frame of Sailor Moon taken during the episode \"A Bright Shooting Star! Saturn, and the Messiah\" from the third season of the original Sailor Moon television series, Sailor Moon S, and redraw it in different styles or have another fictional character take her place. A similar phenomenon occurred back in April 2014 six years prior, in the form a humorous online comic with scenes the series premiere of the original television series, \"The Crybaby Usagi's Magnificent Transformation!\", set right after Sailor Moon's first battle with the Youma Morga and Tuxedo Mask's first intervention which originated from Tumblr.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 10355502, 18701436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 281, 294 ], [ 725, 731 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of superheroines", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 248228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Moon in art and literature", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Selene", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 80963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Portrayal of women in comics", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8831275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Women warriors in literature and culture", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24885165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Miyamoto Usagi", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 29744527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sailor Moon at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on February 10, 2017.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 1633037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 41 ] ] } ]

[ "Comics_characters_introduced_in_1991", "Fiction_set_on_the_Moon", "Fictional_characters_with_healing_abilities", "Fictional_cryonically_preserved_characters_in_comics", "Fictional_high_school_students", "Fictional_middle_school_students", "Fictional_pacifists", "Fictional_queens", "Fictional_wandfighters", "Film_and_television_memes", "Sailor_Soldiers", "Teenage_characters_in_anime_and_manga" ]

[ "Sailor Moon", "Serena Tsukino", "Bunny Tsukino", "Bunny", "Odango Atama", "Tsukino Usagi", "Usako" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Nature versus nurture is a long-standing debate in biology and society about the balance between two competing factors which determine fate: genetics (nature) and environment (nurture). The alliterative expression \"nature and nurture\" in English has been in use since at least the Elizabethan period and goes back to medieval French.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12266, 46947, 320082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 149 ], [ 281, 299 ], [ 317, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The complementary combination of the two concepts is an ancient concept (). Nature is what people think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors. Nurture is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception e.g. the product of exposure, experience and learning on an individual.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The phrase in its modern sense was popularized by the Victorian polymath Francis Galton, the modern founder of eugenics and behavioral genetics when he was discussing the influence of heredity and environment on social advancement. Galton was influenced by On the Origin of Species written by his half-cousin, the evolutionary biologist Charles Darwin.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32798, 25121, 49072, 9737, 24235330, 13457, 558722, 29932, 1341151, 8145410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 63 ], [ 64, 72 ], [ 73, 87 ], [ 111, 119 ], [ 124, 143 ], [ 184, 192 ], [ 197, 208 ], [ 257, 281 ], [ 297, 308 ], [ 337, 351 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The view that humans acquire all or almost all their behavioral traits from \"nurture\" was termed tabula rasa ('blank tablet, slate') by John Locke in 1690. A blank slate view (sometimes termed blank-slatism) in human developmental psychology, which assumes that human behavioral traits develop almost exclusively from environmental influences, was widely held during much of the 20th century. The debate between \"blank-slate\" denial of the influence of heritability, and the view admitting both environmental and heritable traits, has often been cast in terms of nature versus nurture. These two conflicting approaches to human development were at the core of an ideological dispute over research agendas throughout the second half of the 20th century. As both \"nature\" and \"nurture\" factors were found to contribute substantially, often in an inextricable manner, such views were seen as naive or outdated by most scholars of human development by the 21st century.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 31212, 16143, 9014, 155624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 108 ], [ 136, 146 ], [ 217, 241 ], [ 454, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The strong dichotomy of nature versus nurture has thus been claimed to have limited relevance in some fields of research. Close feedback loops have been found in which nature and nurture influence one another constantly, as seen in self-domestication. In ecology and behavioral genetics, researchers think nurture has an essential influence on nature. Similarly in other fields, the dividing line between an inherited and an acquired trait becomes unclear, as in epigenetics or fetal development.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11545, 18593371, 9630, 24235330, 49033, 2190913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 136 ], [ 232, 250 ], [ 255, 262 ], [ 267, 286 ], [ 463, 474 ], [ 478, 495 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Records of the Grand Historian (94 BC) by Sima Qian, during Chen Sheng Wu Guang uprising in 209 B.C., Chen Sheng asked the rhetorical question as a call to war: \"Are kings, generals, and ministers merely born into their kind?\" (). Though Chen was obviously negative to the question, the phrase has often been cited as an early quest to the nature versus nurture problem.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of debate", "target_page_ids": [ 188168, 27636, 1287206, 1287084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 43 ], [ 55, 64 ], [ 73, 101 ], [ 115, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) is often cited as the foundational document of the blank slate view. In the Essay, Locke specifically criticizes René Descartes's claim of an innate idea of God that is universal to humanity. Locke's view was harshly criticized in his own time. Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury, complained that by denying the possibility of any innate ideas, Locke \"threw all order and virtue out of the world,\" leading to total moral relativism. By the 19th century, the predominant perspective was contrary to that of Locke's, tending to focus on \"instinct.\" Leda Cosmides and John Tooby noted that William James (1842–1910) argued that humans have more instincts than animals, and that greater freedom of action is the result of having more psychological instincts, not fewer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of debate", "target_page_ids": [ 16143, 1371447, 31212, 25525, 1287236, 5042765, 575910, 48053, 288316, 3165118, 3165519, 90682, 288316, 22921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 13, 52 ], [ 111, 122 ], [ 173, 187 ], [ 202, 213 ], [ 217, 220 ], [ 305, 351 ], [ 487, 503 ], [ 608, 616 ], [ 620, 633 ], [ 638, 648 ], [ 660, 673 ], [ 715, 723 ], [ 803, 816 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The question of \"innate ideas\" or \"instincts\" were of some importance in the discussion of free will in moral philosophy. In 18th-century philosophy, this was cast in terms of \"innate ideas\" establishing the presence of a universal virtue, prerequisite for objective morals. In the 20th century, this argument was in a way inverted, since some philosophers (J. L. Mackie) now argued that the evolutionary origins of human behavioral traits forces us to concede that there is no foundation for ethics, while others (Thomas Nagel) treated ethics as a field of cognitively valid statements in complete isolation from evolutionary considerations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of debate", "target_page_ids": [ 47921, 9258, 240934, 192793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 100 ], [ 104, 120 ], [ 358, 370 ], [ 515, 527 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 20th century, there was an increased interest in the role of the environment, as a reaction to the strong focus on pure heredity in the wake of the triumphal success of Darwin's theory of evolution. During this time, the social sciences developed as the project of studying the influence of culture in clean isolation from questions related to \"biology. Franz Boas's The Mind of Primitive Man (1911) established a program that would dominate American anthropology for the next 15 years. In this study, he established that in any given population, biology, language, material, and symbolic culture, are autonomous; that each is an equally important dimension of human nature, but that none of these dimensions is reducible to another.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of debate", "target_page_ids": [ 9236, 26781, 11698, 33075612, 41831802, 22949, 9127632, 17524, 1257710, 7548870, 191145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 191, 210 ], [ 234, 249 ], [ 367, 377 ], [ 380, 405 ], [ 455, 476 ], [ 548, 558 ], [ 560, 567 ], [ 569, 577 ], [ 579, 587 ], [ 593, 609 ], [ 615, 625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John B. Watson in the 1920s and 1930s established the school of purist behaviorism that would become dominant over the following decades. Watson is often said to have been convinced of the complete dominance of cultural influence over anything that heredity might contribute. This is based on the following quote which is frequently repeated without context, as the last sentence is frequently omitted, leading to confusion about Watson's position:During the 1940s to 1960s, Ashley Montagu was a notable proponent of this purist form of behaviorism which allowed no contribution from heredity whatsoever: In 1951, Calvin Hall suggested that the dichotomy opposing nature to nurture is ultimately fruitless.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of debate", "target_page_ids": [ 91452, 540801, 781460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 71, 82 ], [ 475, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In African Genesis (1961) and The Territorial Imperative (1966), Robert Ardrey argues for innate attributes of human nature, especially concerning territoriality. Desmond Morris in The Naked Ape (1967) expresses similar views. Organised opposition to Montagu's kind of purist \"blank-slatism\" began to pick up in the 1970s, notably led by E. O. Wilson (On Human Nature, 1979).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of debate", "target_page_ids": [ 46952181, 35209862, 2341134, 501364, 8197, 4149673, 10313, 8143703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 30, 56 ], [ 65, 78 ], [ 147, 161 ], [ 163, 177 ], [ 181, 194 ], [ 339, 351 ], [ 353, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The tool of twin studies was developed as a research design intended to exclude all confounders based on inherited behavioral traits. Such studies are designed to decompose the variability of a given trait in a given population into a genetic and an environmental component. Twin studies established that there was, in many cases, a significant heritable component. These results did not, in any way, point to overwhelming contribution of heritable factors, with heritability typically ranging around 40% to 50%, so that the controversy may not be cast in terms of purist behaviorism vs. purist nativism. Rather, it was purist behaviorism that was gradually replaced by the now-predominant view that both kinds of factors usually contribute to a given trait, anecdotally phrased by Donald Hebb as an answer to the question \"which, nature or nurture, contributes more to personality?\" by asking in response, \"Which contributes more to the area of a rectangle, its length or its width?\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of debate", "target_page_ids": [ 167202, 24235330, 155624, 3719355, 323121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 24 ], [ 105, 132 ], [ 463, 475 ], [ 595, 603 ], [ 782, 793 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a comparable avenue of research, anthropologist Donald Brown in the 1980s surveyed hundreds of anthropological studies from around the world and collected a set of cultural universals. He identified approximately 150 such features, coming to the conclusion there is indeed a \"universal human nature\", and that these features point to what that universal human nature is.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of debate", "target_page_ids": [ 5289739, 7745490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 63 ], [ 167, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the height of the controversy, during the 1970s to 1980s, the debate was highly ideologised. In Biology, Ideology and Human Nature (1984), Richard Lewontin, Steven Rose and Leon Kamin criticise \"genetic determinism\" from a Marxist framework, arguing that \"Science is the ultimate legitimator of bourgeois ideology ... If biological determinism is a weapon in the struggle between classes, then the universities are weapons factories, and their teaching and research faculties are the engineers, designers, and production workers.\" The debate thus shifted away from whether heritable traits exist to whether it was politically or ethically permissible to admit their existence. The authors deny this, requesting that evolutionary inclinations be discarded in ethical and political discussions regardless of whether they exist or not.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of debate", "target_page_ids": [ 363405, 1003293, 2242595, 49246, 1904053, 49246, 22986, 9258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 159 ], [ 161, 172 ], [ 177, 187 ], [ 199, 218 ], [ 227, 234 ], [ 325, 347 ], [ 618, 629 ], [ 633, 642 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heritability studies became much easier to perform, and hence much more numerous, with the advances of genetic studies during the 1990s. By the late 1990s, an overwhelming amount of evidence had accumulated that amounts to a refutation of the extreme forms of \"blank-slatism\" advocated by Watson or Montagu.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of debate", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This revised state of affairs was summarized in books aimed at a popular audience from the late 1990s. In Why Children Turn Out the Way They Do (1998), Judith Rich Harris was heralded by Steven Pinker as a book that \"will come to be seen as a turning point in the history of psychology.\" However, Harris was criticized for exaggerating the point of \"parental upbringing seems to matter less than previously thought\" to the implication that \"parents do not matter.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of debate", "target_page_ids": [ 1545088, 44340, 1573230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 171 ], [ 188, 201 ], [ 265, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The situation as it presented itself by the end of the 20th century was summarized in The Modern Denial of Human Nature (2002) by Steven Pinker. The book became a best-seller, and was instrumental in bringing to the attention of a wider public the paradigm shift away from the behaviourist purism of the 1940s to 1970s that had taken place over the preceding decades.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of debate", "target_page_ids": [ 44340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pinker portrays the adherence to pure blank-slatism as an ideological dogma linked to two other dogmas found in the dominant view of human nature in the 20th century:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of debate", "target_page_ids": [ 44941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"noble savage,\" in the sense that people are born good and corrupted by bad influence; and", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of debate", "target_page_ids": [ 39565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"ghost in the machine,\" in the sense that there is a human soul capable of moral choices completely detached from biology.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of debate", "target_page_ids": [ 2283352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pinker argues that all three dogmas were held onto for an extended period even in the face of evidence because they were seen as desirable in the sense that if any human trait is purely conditioned by culture, any undesired trait (such as crime or aggression) may be engineered away by purely cultural (political means). Pinker focuses on reasons he assumes were responsible for unduly repressing evidence to the contrary, notably the fear of (imagined or projected) political or ideological consequences.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History of debate", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is important to note that the term heritability refers only to the degree of genetic variation between people on a trait. It does not refer to the degree to which a trait of a particular individual is due to environmental or genetic factors. The traits of an individual are always a complex interweaving of both. For an individual, even strongly genetically influenced, or \"obligate\" traits, such as eye color, assume the inputs of a typical environment during ontogenetic development (e.g., certain ranges of temperatures, oxygen levels, etc.).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Heritability estimates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In contrast, the \"heritability index\" statistically quantifies the extent to which variation between individuals on a trait is due to variation in the genes those individuals carry. In animals where breeding and environments can be controlled experimentally, heritability can be determined relatively easily. Such experiments would be unethical for human research. This problem can be overcome by finding existing populations of humans that reflect the experimental setting the researcher wishes to create.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Heritability estimates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One way to determine the contribution of genes and environment to a trait is to study twins. In one kind of study, identical twins reared apart are compared to randomly selected pairs of people. The twins share identical genes, but different family environments. Twins reared apart are not assigned at random to foster or adoptive parents. In another kind of twin study, identical twins reared together (who share family environment and genes) are compared to fraternal twins reared together (who also share family environment but only share half their genes). Another condition that permits the disassociation of genes and environment is adoption. In one kind of adoption study, biological siblings reared together (who share the same family environment and half their genes) are compared to adoptive siblings (who share their family environment but none of their genes).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Heritability estimates", "target_page_ids": [ 167202, 79238, 79238, 38534, 47565306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 91 ], [ 115, 130 ], [ 460, 475 ], [ 639, 647 ], [ 664, 678 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many cases, it has been found that genes make a substantial contribution, including psychological traits such as intelligence and personality. Yet heritability may differ in other circumstances, for instance environmental deprivation. Examples of low, medium, and high heritability traits include:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Heritability estimates", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Twin and adoption studies have their methodological limits. For example, both are limited to the range of environments and genes which they sample. Almost all of these studies are conducted in Western countries, and therefore cannot necessarily be extrapolated globally to include non-western populations. Additionally, both types of studies depend on particular assumptions, such as the equal environments assumption in the case of twin studies, and the lack of pre-adoptive effects in the case of adoption studies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Heritability estimates", "target_page_ids": [ 167202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 390, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the definition of \"nature\" in this context is tied to \"heritability\", the definition of \"nurture\" has consequently become very wide, including any type of causality that is not heritable. The term has thus moved away from its original connotation of \"cultural influences\" to include all effects of the environment, including; indeed, a substantial source of environmental input to human nature may arise from stochastic variations in prenatal development and is thus in no sense of the term \"cultural\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Heritability estimates", "target_page_ids": [ 4744384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 387, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The interactions of genes with environment, called gene–environment interactions, are another component of the nature–nurture debate. A classic example of gene–environment interaction is the ability of a diet low in the amino acid phenylalanine to partially suppress the genetic disease phenylketonuria. Yet another complication to the nature–nurture debate is the existence of gene–environment correlations. These correlations indicate that individuals with certain genotypes are more likely to find themselves in certain environments. Thus, it appears that genes can shape (the selection or creation of) environments. Even using experiments like those described above, it can be very difficult to determine convincingly the relative contribution of genes and environment.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [ 38001, 23251, 13974072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 244 ], [ 287, 302 ], [ 378, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heritability refers to the origins of differences between people. Individual development, even of highly heritable traits, such as eye color, depends on a range of environmental factors, from the other genes in the organism, to physical variables such as temperature, oxygen levels etc. during its development or ontogenesis.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The variability of trait can be meaningfully spoken of as being due in certain proportions to genetic differences (\"nature\"), or environments (\"nurture\"). For highly penetrant Mendelian genetic disorders such as Huntington's disease virtually all the incidence of the disease is due to genetic differences. Huntington's animal models live much longer or shorter lives depending on how they are cared for.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [ 19595, 47878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 185 ], [ 212, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the other extreme, traits such as native language are environmentally determined: linguists have found that any child (if capable of learning a language at all) can learn any human language with equal facility. With virtually all biological and psychological traits, however, genes and environment work in concert, communicating back and forth to create the individual.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [ 263257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At a molecular level, genes interact with signals from other genes and from the environment. While there are many thousands of single-gene-locus traits, so-called complex traits are due to the additive effects of many (often hundreds) of small gene effects. A good example of this is height, where variance appears to be spread across many hundreds of loci.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [ 57196924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Extreme genetic or environmental conditions can predominate in rare circumstances—if a child is born mute due to a genetic mutation, it will not learn to speak any language regardless of the environment; similarly, someone who is practically certain to eventually develop Huntington's disease according to their genotype may die in an unrelated accident (an environmental event) long before the disease will manifest itself.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [ 19702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Steven Pinker likewise described several examples:When traits are determined by a complex interaction of genotype and environment it is possible to measure the heritability of a trait within a population. However, many non-scientists who encounter a report of a trait having a certain percentage heritability imagine non-interactional, additive contributions of genes and environment to the trait. As an analogy, some laypeople may think of the degree of a trait being made up of two \"buckets,\" genes and environment, each able to hold a certain capacity of the trait. But even for intermediate heritabilities, a trait is always shaped by both genetic dispositions and the environments in which people develop, merely with greater and lesser plasticities associated with these heritability measures.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [ 44340, 12796, 155624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 105, 113 ], [ 160, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heritability measures always refer to the degree of variation between individuals in a population. That is, as these statistics cannot be applied at the level of the individual, it would be incorrect to say that while the heritability index of personality is about 0.6, 60% of one's personality is obtained from one's parents and 40% from the environment. To help to understand this, imagine that all humans were genetic clones. The heritability index for all traits would be zero (all variability between clonal individuals must be due to environmental factors). And, contrary to erroneous interpretations of the heritability index, as societies become more egalitarian (everyone has more similar experiences) the heritability index goes up (as environments become more similar, variability between individuals is due more to genetic factors).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One should also take into account the fact that the variables of heritability and environmentality are not precise and vary within a chosen population and across cultures. It would be more accurate to state that the degree of heritability and environmentality is measured in its reference to a particular phenotype in a chosen group of a population in a given period of time. The accuracy of the calculations is further hindered by the number of coefficients taken into consideration, age being one such variable. The display of the influence of heritability and environmentality differs drastically across age groups: the older the studied age is, the more noticeable the heritability factor becomes, the younger the test subjects are, the more likely it is to show signs of strong influence of the environmental factors.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For example, one study found no statistically significant difference in self-reported wellbeing between middle-aged monozygotic twins separated at birth and those reared in the same household, suggesting that happiness in middle-aged adults is not based in environmental factors related to family rearing. The same result was also found among middle-aged dizygotic twins. Furthermore, there was significantly more variance in the dizygotic twins' self-reported wellbeing than there was in the monozygotic group. Genetic similarity has thus been estimated to account for around 50% of the variance in adult happiness at a given point in time, and as much as 80% of the variance in long-term happiness stability. Other studies have similarly found the heritability of happiness to be around 0.35–0.50.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [ 79238, 79238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 127 ], [ 355, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some have pointed out that environmental inputs affect the expression of genes. This is one explanation of how environment can influence the extent to which a genetic disposition will actually manifest.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [ 49033, 159266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 54 ], [ 59, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Traits may be considered to be adaptations (such as the umbilical cord), byproducts of adaptations (the belly button) or due to random variation (convex or concave belly button shape).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An alternative to contrasting nature and nurture focuses on \"obligate vs. facultative\" adaptations. Adaptations may be generally more obligate (robust in the face of typical environmental variation) or more facultative (sensitive to typical environmental variation). For example, the rewarding sweet taste of sugar and the pain of bodily injury are obligate psychological adaptations—typical environmental variability during development does not much affect their operation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [ 7286489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the other hand, facultative adaptations are somewhat like \"if-then\" statements. An example of a facultative psychological adaptation may be adult attachment style. The attachment style of adults, (for example, a \"secure attachment style,\" the propensity to develop close, trusting bonds with others) is proposed to be conditional on whether an individual's early childhood caregivers could be trusted to provide reliable assistance and attention. An example of a facultative physiological adaptation is tanning of skin on exposure to sunlight (to prevent skin damage). Facultative social adaptation have also been proposed. For example, whether a society is warlike or peaceful has been proposed to be conditional on how much collective threat that society is experiencing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [ 884589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Quantitative studies of heritable traits throw light on the question.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [ 389564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Developmental genetic analysis examines the effects of genes over the course of a human lifespan. Early studies of intelligence, which mostly examined young children, found that heritability measured 40–50%. Subsequent developmental genetic analyses found that variance attributable to additive environmental effects is less apparent in older individuals, with estimated heritability of IQ increasing in adulthood.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [ 155624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Multivariate genetic analysis examines the genetic contribution to several traits that vary together. For example, multivariate genetic analysis has demonstrated that the genetic determinants of all specific cognitive abilities (e.g., memory, spatial reasoning, processing speed) overlap greatly, such that the genes associated with any specific cognitive ability will affect all others. Similarly, multivariate genetic analysis has found that genes that affect scholastic achievement completely overlap with the genes that affect cognitive ability.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Extremes analysis examines the link between normal and pathological traits. For example, it is hypothesized that a given behavioral disorder may represent an extreme of a continuous distribution of a normal behavior and hence an extreme of a continuous distribution of genetic and environmental variation. Depression, phobias, and reading disabilities have been examined in this context.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For a few highly heritable traits, studies have identified loci associated with variance in that trait, for instance in some individuals with schizophrenia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gene–environment interaction", "target_page_ids": [ 27790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cognitive functions have a significant genetic component. A 2015 meta-analysis of over 14 million twin pairs found that genetics explained 57% of the variability in cognitive functions. Evidence from behavioral genetic research suggests that family environmental factors may have an effect upon childhood IQ, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance. The American Psychological Association's report \" Knowns and Unknowns\" (1995) states that there is no doubt that normal child development requires a certain minimum level of responsible care. Here, environment is playing a role in what is believed to be fully genetic (intelligence) but it was found that severely deprived, neglectful, or abusive environments have highly negative effects on many aspects of children's intellect development. Beyond that minimum, however, the role of family experience is in serious dispute. On the other hand, by late adolescence this correlation disappears, such that adoptive siblings no longer have similar IQ scores.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Heritability of intelligence", "target_page_ids": [ 24235330, 14892, 42042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 218 ], [ 305, 307 ], [ 361, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Moreover, adoption studies indicate that, by adulthood, adoptive siblings are no more similar in IQ than strangers (IQ correlation near zero), while full siblings show an IQ correlation of 0.6. Twin studies reinforce this pattern: monozygotic (identical) twins raised separately are highly similar in IQ (0.74), more so than dizygotic (fraternal) twins raised together (0.6) and much more than adoptive siblings (~0.0). Recent adoption studies also found that supportive parents can have a positive effect on the development of their children.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Heritability of intelligence", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Personality is a frequently cited example of a heritable trait that has been studied in twins and adoptees using behavioral genetic study designs. The most famous categorical organization of heritable personality traits were defined in the 1970s by two research teams led by Paul Costa & Robert R. McCrae and Warren Norman & Lewis Goldberg in which they had people rate their personalities on 1000+ dimensions they then narrowed these down into \"The Big Five\" factors of personality—openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. The close genetic relationship between positive personality traits and, for example, our happiness traits are the mirror images of comorbidity in psychopathology. These personality factors were consistent across cultures, and many studies have also tested the heritability of these traits.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Personality traits", "target_page_ids": [ 177648, 24235330, 1284664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 113, 131 ], [ 447, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Identical twins reared apart are far more similar in personality than randomly selected pairs of people. Likewise, identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins. Also, biological siblings are more similar in personality than adoptive siblings. Each observation suggests that personality is heritable to a certain extent. A supporting article had focused on the heritability of personality (which is estimated to be around 50% for subjective well-being) in which a study was conducted using a representative sample of 973 twin pairs to test the heritable differences in subjective well-being which were found to be fully accounted for by the genetic model of the Five-Factor Model's personality domains. However, these same study designs allow for the examination of environment as well as genes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Personality traits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Adoption studies also directly measure the strength of shared family effects. Adopted siblings share only family environment. Most adoption studies indicate that by adulthood the personalities of adopted siblings are little or no more similar than random pairs of strangers. This would mean that shared family effects on personality are zero by adulthood.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Personality traits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the case of personality traits, non-shared environmental effects are often found to out-weigh shared environmental effects. That is, environmental effects that are typically thought to be life-shaping (such as family life) may have less of an impact than non-shared effects, which are harder to identify. One possible source of non-shared effects is the environment of pre-natal development. Random variations in the genetic program of development may be a substantial source of non-shared environment. These results suggest that \"nurture\" may not be the predominant factor in \"environment\". Environment and our situations, do in fact impact our lives, but not the way in which we would typically react to these environmental factors. We are preset with personality traits that are the basis for how we would react to situations. An example would be how extraverted prisoners become less happy than introverted prisoners and would react to their incarceration more negatively due to their preset extraverted personality. Behavioral genes are somewhat proven to exist when we take a look at fraternal twins. When fraternal twins are reared apart, they show the same similarities in behavior and response as if they have been reared together.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Personality traits", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The relationship between personality and people's own well-being is influenced and mediated by genes. There has been found to be a stable set point for happiness that is characteristic of the individual (largely determined by the individual's genes). Happiness fluctuates around that setpoint (again, genetically determined) based on whether good things or bad things are happening to us (\"nurture\"), but only fluctuates in small magnitude in a normal human. The midpoint of these fluctuations is determined by the \"great genetic lottery\" that people are born with, which leads them to conclude that how happy they may feel at the moment or over time is simply due to the luck of the draw, or gene. This fluctuation was also not due to educational attainment, which only accounted for less than 2% of the variance in well-being for women, and less than 1% of the variance for men.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Genetics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "They consider that the individualities measured together with personality tests remain steady throughout an individual's lifespan. They further believe that human beings may refine their forms or personality but can never change them entirely. Darwin's Theory of Evolution steered naturalists such as George Williams and William Hamilton to the concept of personality evolution. They suggested that physical organs and also personality is a product of natural selection.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Genetics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With the advent of genomic sequencing, it has become possible to search for and identify specific gene polymorphisms that affect traits such as IQ and personality. These techniques work by tracking the association of differences in a trait of interest with differences in specific molecular markers or functional variants. An example of a visible human trait for which the precise genetic basis of differences are relatively well known is eye color.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Genetics", "target_page_ids": [ 1158125, 759008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 37 ], [ 439, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In contrast to views developed in 1960s that gender identity is primarily learned (which led to a protocol of surgical sex changes in male infants with injured or malformed genitals, such as David Reimer), genomics has provided solid evidence that both sex and gender identities are primarily influenced by genes:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Genetics", "target_page_ids": [ 23943446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 191, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In their attempts to locate the genes responsible for configuring certain phenotypes, researches resort to two different techniques.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Genetics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Linkage study facilitates the process of determining a specific location in which a gene of interest is located. This methodology is applied only among individuals that are related and does not serve to pinpoint specific genes. It does, however, narrow down the area of search, making it easier to locate one or several genes in the genome which constitute a specific trait.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Genetics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Association studies, on the other hand, are more hypothetic and seek to verify whether a particular genetic variable really influences the phenotype of interest. In association studies it is more common to use case-control approach, comparing the subject with relatively higher or lower hereditary determinants with the control subject.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Genetics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Meta-analysis of twin correlations and heritability", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "20th-century_controversies", "Human_behavior", "Human_development", "Personality_theories", "Race_and_intelligence_controversy", "Biology_controversies", "Dilemmas", "Human_genetics", "Psychology_controversies", "Evolutionary_psychology" ]

[ "nature or nurture" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Dub mac Maíl Coluim (Modern Gaelic: Dubh mac Mhaoil Chaluim, ), sometimes anglicised as Duff MacMalcolm, called Dén, \"the Vehement\" and, \"the Black\" (born c. 928 – died 967) was king of Alba. He was son of Malcolm I and succeeded to the throne when Indulf was killed in 962.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28397, 1049565, 20890, 148047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 34 ], [ 178, 190 ], [ 206, 215 ], [ 249, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While later chroniclers such as John of Fordun supplied a great deal of information on Dub's life and reign, and Hector Boece in his 'The history and chronicles of Scotland' tell tales of witchcraft and treason, almost all of them are rejected by modern historians. There are very few sources for the reign of Dub, of which the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba and a single entry in the Annals of Ulster are the closest to contemporary.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 148239, 33959, 3575369, 1491237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 46 ], [ 188, 198 ], [ 328, 358 ], [ 385, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Chronicle records that during Dub's reign bishop Fothach, most likely bishop of St Andrews or of Dunkeld, died. The remaining report is of a battle between Dub and Cuilén, son of king Ildulb. Dub won the battle, fought \"upon the ridge of Crup\", in which Duchad, abbot of Dunkeld, sometimes supposed to be an ancestor of Crínán of Dunkeld, and Dubdon, the mormaer of Atholl, died.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 353224, 3801877, 148043, 1068370, 4740331, 604917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 94 ], [ 101, 108 ], [ 168, 174 ], [ 324, 341 ], [ 347, 353 ], [ 359, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The various accounts differ on what happened afterwards. The Chronicle claims that Dub was driven out of the kingdom. The Latin material interpolated in Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Cronykl states that he was murdered at Forres, and links this to an eclipse of the sun which can be dated to 20 July 966. The Annals of Ulster report only: \"Dub mac Maíl Coluim, king of Alba, was killed by the Scots themselves\"; the usual way of reporting a death in internal strife, and place the death in 967. It has been suggested that Sueno's Stone, near Forres, may be a monument to Dub, erected by his brother Kenneth II (Cináed mac Maíl Coluim). It is presumed that Dub was killed or driven out by Cuilén, who became king after Dub's death, or by his supporters.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 148235, 389789, 1491344, 148001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 127 ], [ 153, 170 ], [ 222, 228 ], [ 522, 535 ], [ 599, 609 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is related that his body was hidden under the bridge of Kinloss, and the sun did not shine till it was found and buried. An eclipse on 10 July 967 may have originated or confirmed this story.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1685169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dub left at least one son, Kenneth III (Cináed mac Dub). Although his descendants did not compete successfully for the kingship of Alba after Cináed was killed in 1005, they did hold the mormaerdom of Fife. The MacDuib (or MacDuff) held the mormaerdom, and later earldom, until 1371.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 148039, 803098, 1281413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 38 ], [ 187, 205 ], [ 223, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Duncan, A.A.M., The Kingship of the Scots 842–1292: Succession and Independence. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2002. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Smyth, Alfred P., Warlords and Holy Men: Scotland AD 80–1000. Edinburgh UP, Edinburgh, 1984. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Annals of Ulster, part 1, at CELT (translated)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "920s_births", "Year_of_birth_uncertain", "967_deaths", "10th-century_murdered_monarchs", "Burials_in_Iona", "10th-century_Scottish_monarchs", "Scottish_murder_victims", "House_of_Alpin" ]

[ "Duff", "Dub mac Maíl Coluim", "Dubh mac Mhaoil Chaluim", "Duff MacMalcolm", "Dén (the Vehement)", "Niger (the Black)", "Dubh", "Dub mac Mail Coluim", "Duff 'the Black', King of Alba" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Sir William Rowan Hamilton LL.D, DCL, MRIA, FRAS (3/4 August 1805 – 2 September 1865) was an Irish mathematician, astronomer, and physicist. He was the Andrews Professor of Astronomy at Trinity College Dublin, and a director at Dunsink Observatory.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30872408, 3281512, 646512, 357512, 34837215, 142298, 1744211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 31 ], [ 33, 36 ], [ 38, 42 ], [ 44, 48 ], [ 152, 182 ], [ 186, 208 ], [ 228, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton's scientific career included the study of geometrical optics, ideas from Fourier analysis, and his work on quaternions which made him one of the founders of modern linear algebra. He made major contributions in optics, classical mechanics and abstract algebra. His work was of importance to theoretical physics, particularly his reformulation of Newtonian mechanics, now called Hamiltonian mechanics. It is now central both to electromagnetism and to quantum mechanics.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 731780, 11659, 51440, 18422, 19555586, 19616384, 19594028, 55212, 198319, 9532, 25202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 69 ], [ 82, 98 ], [ 116, 127 ], [ 173, 187 ], [ 228, 247 ], [ 252, 268 ], [ 300, 319 ], [ 355, 374 ], [ 387, 408 ], [ 436, 452 ], [ 460, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton was the fourth of nine children born to Sarah Hutton (1780–1817) and Archibald Hamilton (1778–1819), who lived in Dublin at 29 Dominick Street, later renumbered to 36. Hamilton's father, who was from Dublin, worked as a solicitor. By the age of three, Hamilton had been sent to live with his uncle James Hamilton, a graduate of Trinity College who ran a school in Talbots Castle in Trim, Co. Meath. James's daughter Grace, Hamilton's cousin, became the mother of Mary Elizabeth Townsend, philanthropist and co-founder of the Girls' Friendly Society.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 142298, 483099, 70295819, 36528262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 337, 352 ], [ 391, 395 ], [ 473, 496 ], [ 535, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton is said to have shown talent at an early age. His uncle observed that Hamilton, from a young age, had displayed an uncanny ability to acquire languages. This has been disputed by some historians, who claim he had only a basic understanding of them. At the age of seven, he had already made progress in Hebrew, and before he was 13 he had acquired, under the care of his uncle a dozen languages: classical and modern European languages, Persian, Arabic, Hindustani, Sanskrit, Marathi and Malay. The emphasis on languages is attributed to the wish of Hamilton's father to see his son employed by the British East India Company.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 13450, 11600, 803, 66715, 27698, 20617, 126630, 43281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 311, 317 ], [ 445, 452 ], [ 454, 460 ], [ 462, 472 ], [ 474, 482 ], [ 485, 492 ], [ 497, 502 ], [ 608, 634 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An expert mental calculator, the young Hamilton was capable of working out the result of some calculations to many decimal places. In September 1813, an American calculating prodigy, Zerah Colburn, was being exhibited in Dublin. Colburn was 9, a year older than Hamilton.The two were pitted against each other in a mental arithmetic contest, with Colburn emerging the clear victor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 567292, 245471, 852688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 174, 181 ], [ 183, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In reaction to his defeat, Hamilton spent less time studying languages, and more on mathematics. At age ten, he stumbled across a Latin copy of Euclid; and at twelve he studied Newton's Arithmetica Universalis. He moved on to read the Principia, and by age 16 he had covered much of it, as well as some more recent works on analytic geometry and the differential calculus. At this period he encountered what he believed to be a logical error in Laplace. It led to an introduction to John Brinkley, then the first Royal Astronomer of Ireland. Hamilton showed him some work on differential geometry of curves.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 9331, 14627, 4806014, 48781, 2202, 50416, 344783, 424442, 1744211, 8625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 135 ], [ 144, 150 ], [ 177, 183 ], [ 186, 209 ], [ 235, 244 ], [ 324, 341 ], [ 350, 371 ], [ 445, 452 ], [ 483, 496 ], [ 513, 540 ], [ 575, 596 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In mid-1822 Hamilton began a systematic study of Laplace's Mécanique Céleste. In July 1823, he gained a place at Trinity College, Dublin by examination, aged 18. His tutor there was Charles Boyton, a family friend. Boyton brought to his attention contemporary mathematics published by the group at the École Polytechnique in Paris. John Brinkley remarked of the 18-year-old Hamilton, \"This young man, I do not say will be, but is, the first mathematician of his age.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Student years", "target_page_ids": [ 54423179, 142298, 317443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 76 ], [ 113, 136 ], [ 302, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The college awarded Hamilton two optimes, or off-the-chart grades, in Greek and in physics. He was in fact first in every subject and at every examination. He was expected to win further student honours, but his undergraduate career was curtailed. He did take degrees in both classics and mathematics (BA in 1827, MA in 1837).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Student years", "target_page_ids": [ 639371, 148363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 39 ], [ 70, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton was aiming to win a Trinity College fellowship by competitive examination. But that ambition was overtaken by events, after Brinkley in 1826 was made Bishop of Cloyne. Hamilton was still an undergraduate, when he was appointed in 1827 to the vacant posts left by Brinkley's departure, Andrews Professor of Astronomy and Royal Astronomer of Ireland.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Student years", "target_page_ids": [ 12908084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1824, Hamilton was introduced at Edgeworthstown to the novelist Maria Edgeworth, by the Rev. Richard Butler, the vicar of Trim, County Meath to whom his uncle James Hamilton was curate. During the same period, his uncle introduced him to the Disney family at Summerhill, County Meath. The Disney sons attended Trinity College, and Hamilton had friends among them. At Summerhill, he met Catherine Disney, their sister.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Student years", "target_page_ids": [ 985764, 56574, 60479859, 483099, 13938807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 50 ], [ 67, 82 ], [ 96, 110 ], [ 125, 143 ], [ 262, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton was attracted to Catherine Disney, but her family did not approve and Catherine was required to marry the Rev. William Barlow, a brother of her elder sister's husband. The wedding took place in 1825. Hamilton wrote in 1826 about his feelings for her in an extended poem, \"The Enthusiast\". Over twenty years later, in 1847, he confided in John Herschel that during this period he might have become a poet.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Student years", "target_page_ids": [ 43592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 347, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1825, Hamilton met Arabella Lawrence, younger sister of Sarah Lawrence, a significant correspondent and frank critic of his poetry. It was a contact he made through Maria Edgeworth's circle.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Student years", "target_page_ids": [ 69857260, 69242764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 39 ], [ 59, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton, now Royal Astronomer of Ireland, took up residence at Dunsink Observatory where he spent the rest of his life. He was there from 1827 until his death in 1865. In his early years at Dunsink, Hamilton observed the heavens quite regularly; he left routine observation to his assistant Charles Thompson. Hamilton's sisters also supported the observatory's work.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "At Dunsink", "target_page_ids": [ 1744211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The introductory lectures by Hamilton in astronomy were celebrated; in addition to his students, they attracted scholars, poets, and women. Felicia Hemans wrote her poem The Prayer of the Lonely Student after hearing one of his lectures.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "At Dunsink", "target_page_ids": [ 165363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton invited his four sisters to come and live at the observatory in 1827, and they ran the household until his marriage in 1833. They included Eliza Mary Hamilton (1807–1851) the poet. In 1827, Hamilton wrote to his sister Grace about \"some of\" the Lawrence sisters having met his sister Eliza in Dublin.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "At Dunsink", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Newly appointed to the Observatory, Hamilton set off on a tour in Ireland and England with Alexander Nimmo, who was coaching him on latitude and longitude. One call was to Sarah Lawrence's school at Gatacre, near Liverpool, where Hamilton had a chance to assess the calculator Master Noakes. They visited William Wordsworth at Rydal Mount in September of that year, where Caesar Otway was also present. After the visit, Hamilton sent numerous poems to Wordsworth, becoming a \"poetic disciple\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "At Dunsink", "target_page_ids": [ 31490223, 17616, 17617, 36938779, 33925, 826373, 1189642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 106 ], [ 132, 140 ], [ 145, 154 ], [ 199, 206 ], [ 305, 323 ], [ 327, 338 ], [ 372, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Wordsworth visited Dublin in summer 1829, in a party with John Marshall and his family, he stayed at Dunsink with Hamilton. On a second tour in England with Nimmo in 1831, Hamilton parted from him at Birmingham, to visit the Lawrence sisters and family on his mother's side in the Liverpool area. They met up again in the Lake District, where they climbed Helvellyn and had tea with Wordsworth. Hamilton returned to Dublin, via Edinburgh and Glasgow.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "At Dunsink", "target_page_ids": [ 5839366, 13882056, 143752, 562309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 76 ], [ 205, 215 ], [ 327, 340 ], [ 361, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton visited Samuel Taylor Coleridge at Highgate, in 1832, helped by an unexpected letter of introduction given to him by Sarah Lawrence on a visit to Liverpool in March of that year. He also paid a call, with Arabella, on the family of William Roscoe who had died in 1831.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "At Dunsink", "target_page_ids": [ 29408, 94097, 384720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 40 ], [ 44, 52 ], [ 241, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton retained his faculties unimpaired to the last, and continued the task of finishing the Elements of Quaternions which had occupied the last six years of his life. He died on 2 September 1865, following a severe attack of gout. He is buried in Mount Jerome Cemetery in Dublin.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 55584, 12037750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 233 ], [ 251, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton made important contributions to optics and to classical mechanics.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 22483, 19555586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 47 ], [ 55, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His first discovery was in an early paper that he communicated in 1823 to John Brinkley, who presented it under the title of Caustics in 1824 to the Royal Irish Academy. It was referred as usual to a committee, which recommended further development and simplification before publication. Between 1825 and 1828 the paper was expanded, and became a clearer exposition of a novel method. Over this period, Hamilton gained appreciation for the nature and importance of optics.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 646512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1827, Hamilton presented a theory of a single function, now known as Hamilton's principal function, that brings together mechanics and optical theory. It helped to establish foundations of the wave theory of light in mathematical physics. He proposed it when he first predicted its existence in the third supplement to his Systems of Rays, read in 1832.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 897539, 2460242, 173416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 101 ], [ 196, 216 ], [ 220, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Royal Irish Academy paper was finally entitled Theory of Systems of Rays (23 April 1827), and the first part was printed in 1828 in the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy. The more important contents of the second and third parts appeared in the three voluminous supplements (to the first part) which were published in the same Transactions, and in the two papers On a General Method in Dynamics, which appeared in the Philosophical Transactions in 1834 and 1835. In these papers, Hamilton developed his central principle of \"Varying Action\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A result of this work is a prediction for transparent biaxial crystals (i.e. monoclinic, orthorhombic or triclinic crystals). A ray of light entering such a crystal at a certain angle would emerge as a hollow cone of rays. This discovery was known as conical refraction. Hamilton found it from the geometry of the wave surface introduced by Augustin-Jean Fresnel, which has singular points. There is a basic mathematical explanation of the phenomenon, namely that the wave surface is not the boundary of a convex body. A fuller understanding awaited the microlocal analysis of the middle of the 20th century,", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 513093, 521830, 666401, 1141, 35360069, 1141, 28659, 6108841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 87 ], [ 89, 101 ], [ 105, 114 ], [ 251, 269 ], [ 314, 326 ], [ 341, 362 ], [ 374, 388 ], [ 554, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The step from optics to dynamics in the application of the method of \"Varying Action\" was made in 1827, and communicated to the Royal Society, in whose Philosophical Transactions for 1834 and 1835 there are two papers on the subject.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 1835316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamiltonian mechanics was a powerful new technique for working with equations of motion. Hamilton's advances enlarged the class of mechanical problems that could be solved. His principle of \"Varying Action\" was based on the calculus of variations, in the general class of problems included under the principle of least action which had been studied earlier by Pierre Louis Maupertuis, Euler, Joseph Louis Lagrange and others. Hamilton's analysis uncovered deeper mathematical structure than had been previously understood, in particular a symmetry between momentum and position. The credit for discovering what are now called the Lagrangian and Lagrange's equations belongs also to Hamilton. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 198319, 65913, 171882, 249438, 196221, 17902, 87793, 40752010, 23371726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 68, 87 ], [ 224, 246 ], [ 300, 325 ], [ 360, 383 ], [ 385, 390 ], [ 392, 413 ], [ 630, 640 ], [ 645, 665 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both the Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian approaches have proven important in the study of continuous classical systems in physics, and quantum mechanical systems: the techniques find use in electromagnetism, quantum mechanics, relativity theory and quantum field theory. In the Dictionary of Irish Biography David Spearman writes:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 23371726, 9532, 25202, 30001, 25267, 36127211, 60090363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 29 ], [ 195, 211 ], [ 213, 230 ], [ 232, 249 ], [ 254, 274 ], [ 283, 312 ], [ 313, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many scientists, including Liouville, Jacobi, Darboux, Poincaré, Kolmogorov, Prigogine and Arnold, have extended Hamilton's work, in mechanics, differential equations and symplectic geometry.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 341810, 210340, 1142530, 48740, 91161, 238560, 32490, 19559, 1424309, 294298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 36 ], [ 38, 44 ], [ 46, 53 ], [ 55, 63 ], [ 65, 75 ], [ 77, 86 ], [ 91, 97 ], [ 133, 142 ], [ 144, 166 ], [ 171, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton's mathematical studies seem to have been undertaken and carried to their full development without collaboration, and his writings do not belong to any particular school. He was intended by the university authorities who elected him to the Professorship of Astronomy to spend his time as he best could for the advancement of science, without restrictions.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 18831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton made his discovery of the algebra of quaternions in 1843. Among much prior related work, in 1840 Benjamin Olinde Rodrigues had reached a result that amounted to their discovery in all but name.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 51440, 1003283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 56 ], [ 106, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton was looking for ways of extending complex numbers (which can be viewed as points on a 2-dimensional Argand diagram) to higher spatial dimensions. In working with four dimensions, rather than three, he created quaternion algebra. According to Hamilton, on 16 October he was out walking along the Royal Canal in Dublin with his wife when the solution in the form of the equation", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 5826, 593693, 217628, 614347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 57 ], [ 83, 89 ], [ 109, 123 ], [ 304, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "occurred to him; Hamilton then carved this equation using his penknife into the side of the nearby Broom Bridge (which Hamilton called Brougham Bridge). ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 4289449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The quaternions involved abandoning the commutative law, a radical step for the time. In the context of this prototype geometric algebra, Hamilton also introduced the cross and dot products of vector algebra, the quaternion product being the cross product minus the dot product as scalar. Hamilton also described a quaternion as an ordered four-element multiple of real numbers, and described the first element as the \"scalar\" part, and the remaining three as the \"vector\" part. He coined the neologisms \"tensor\" and \"scalar\", and was the first to use the word \"vector\" in the modern sense.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 294390, 12939, 157092, 157093, 3588331, 153907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 55 ], [ 119, 136 ], [ 242, 255 ], [ 266, 277 ], [ 281, 287 ], [ 493, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton looked into the solution of the quintic in the theory of equations, examining of the results arrived at by Niels Henrik Abel, George Jerrard and others in their researches. There is Hamilton's paper on fluctuating functions in Fourier analysis, and the invention of the hodograph. Of his investigations into the solutions, especially by numerical approximation, of certain classes of physically-important differential equations, only parts were published, at intervals, in the Philosophical Magazine.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 303368, 583600, 21573, 8354790, 11659, 1218867, 21506, 2470183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 48 ], [ 56, 75 ], [ 116, 133 ], [ 135, 149 ], [ 236, 252 ], [ 279, 288 ], [ 346, 369 ], [ 486, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton also introduced the icosian game or Hamilton's puzzle. It is based on the concept of a Hamiltonian path in graph theory.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mathematics", "target_page_ids": [ 18825354, 244437, 12401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 41 ], [ 96, 112 ], [ 116, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hamilton, Sir W.R. (1853), Lectures on Quaternions Dublin: Hodges and Smith", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hamilton, Sir W.R., Hamilton, W.E. (ed) (1866), Elements of Quaternions London: Longmans, Green, & Co.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hamilton, W.R. (1833), Introductory Lecture on Astronomy Dublin University Review and Quarterly Magazine Vol. I, Trinity College Dublin", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " For Hamilton's mathematical papers see David R. Wilkins, Sir William Rowan Hamilton (1805-1865): Mathematical Papers", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton introduced, as a method of analysis, both quaternions and biquaternions, the extension to eight dimensions by introduction of complex number coefficients. When his work was assembled in 1853, the book Lectures on Quaternions had \"formed the subject of successive courses of lectures, delivered in 1848 and subsequent years, in the Halls of Trinity College, Dublin\". Hamilton confidently declared that quaternions would be found to have a powerful influence as an instrument of research.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [ 1207070, 51203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 79 ], [ 150, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When he died, Hamilton was working on a definitive statement of quaternion science. His son William Edwin Hamilton brought the Elements of Quaternions, a hefty volume of 762 pages, to publication in 1866. As copies ran short, a second edition was prepared by Charles Jasper Joly, when the book was split into two volumes, the first appearing 1899 and the second in 1901. The subject index and footnotes in this second edition improved the Elements accessibility.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [ 53784812, 21415250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 114 ], [ 259, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton was twice awarded the Cunningham Medal of the Royal Irish Academy. The first award, in 1834, was for his work on conical refraction, for which he also received the Royal Medal of the Royal Society the following year. He was to win it again in 1848.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 44262095, 646512, 1767766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 47 ], [ 55, 74 ], [ 173, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1835, being secretary to the meeting of the British Association which was held that year in Dublin, Hamilton was knighted by the lord-lieutenant. Other honours rapidly succeeded, among which his election in 1837 to the president's chair in the Royal Irish Academy, and the rare distinction of being made a corresponding member of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Later, in 1864, the newly established United States National Academy of Sciences elected its first Foreign Associates, and decided to put Hamilton's name on top of their list.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 373118, 16897, 170015, 646512, 374556, 46510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 66 ], [ 116, 122 ], [ 132, 147 ], [ 247, 266 ], [ 337, 373 ], [ 413, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A plaque under the Broom Bridge, associated with the discovery of quaternions, was unveiled by Éamon de Valera on 13 November 1958. Since 1989, the National University of Ireland, Maynooth has organised a pilgrimage called the Hamilton Walk, in which mathematicians take a walk from Dunsink Observatory to the bridge, where no trace of the carving remains, though a stone plaque does commemorate the discovery.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 42178, 436773, 58841228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 110 ], [ 148, 188 ], [ 227, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Hamilton Institute is an applied mathematics research institute at Maynooth University and the Royal Irish Academy holds an annual public Hamilton lecture at which Murray Gell-Mann, Frank Wilczek, Andrew Wiles and Timothy Gowers have all spoken. The year 2005 was the 200th anniversary of Hamilton's birth and the Irish government designated that the Hamilton Year, celebrating Irish science. Trinity College Dublin marked the year by launching the Hamilton Mathematics Institute.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 12755871, 436773, 646512, 20476, 275603, 2027, 365715, 142298, 39817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ], [ 71, 90 ], [ 99, 118 ], [ 168, 184 ], [ 186, 199 ], [ 201, 213 ], [ 218, 232 ], [ 397, 419 ], [ 453, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two commemorative stamps were issued by Ireland in 1943 to mark the centenary of the announcement of quaternions. A 10-euro commemorative silver proof coin was issued by the Central Bank of Ireland in 2005 to commemorate 200 years since his birth.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 318418, 9472, 374901, 367292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 119, 123 ], [ 145, 155 ], [ 174, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hamilton's equations are a formulation of classical mechanics.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 198319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Numerous other concepts and objects in mechanics, such as Hamilton's principle, Hamilton's principal function, the Hamilton–Jacobi equation, Cayley-Hamilton theorem are named after Hamilton. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 4852151, 897539, 897539, 173547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 79 ], [ 81, 110 ], [ 116, 140 ], [ 142, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Hamiltonian is the name of both a function (classical) and an operator (quantum) in physics, and, in a different sense, a term from graph theory.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 198319, 14381, 12401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 47 ], [ 67, 75 ], [ 137, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The algebra of quaternions is usually denoted by , or in blackboard bold by , in honour of Hamilton.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 51440, 40276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 27 ], [ 58, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Hamilton Building at Trinity College Dublin is named after him.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is believed by some modern mathematicians that Hamilton's work on quaternions was satirized by Charles Lutwidge Dodgson in Alice in Wonderland. In particular, the Mad Hatter's tea party was meant to represent the folly of quaternions and the need to revert to Euclidean geometry.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "In literature", "target_page_ids": [ 26586083, 52853, 9417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 122 ], [ 126, 145 ], [ 263, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton married Helen Bayly, daughter of Rev Henry Bayly, Rector of Nenagh, County Tipperary, in 1833; she was a sister of neighbours to the observatory. They had three children: William Edwin Hamilton (born 1834), Archibald Henry (born 1835) and Helen Eliza Amelia (born 1840). Helen stayed with her widowed mother at Bayly Farm, Nenagh for extended periods, until her mother's death in 1837. She also was away from Dunsink, staying with sisters, for much of the time from 1840 to 1842. Hamilton's married life was reportedly difficult. In the troubled period of the early 1840s, his sister Sydney ran his household; when Helen returned, he was happier after some depression.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 53784812, 332031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 202 ], [ 333, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of astronomers", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 80155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of things named after William Rowan Hamilton", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37919972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Theoretical physics", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19594028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chow, Tai L. (2013). Classical Mechanics: Chaper 5: Hamilton Formulation of Mechanics: Description of Motion in Phase Spaces. CRC Press, ", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wilkins, David R., Sir William Rowan Hamilton. School of Mathematics, Trinity College, Dublin.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wolfram Research's William Rowan Hamilton", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cheryl Haefner's Sir William Rowan Hamilton", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton Trust", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Hamilton year 2005 web site", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Hamilton Mathematics Institute, TCD", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton Institute", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton biography", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "William_Rowan_Hamilton", "1805_births", "1865_deaths", "19th-century_Irish_people", "19th-century_British_mathematicians", "Linear_algebraists", "Alumni_of_Trinity_College_Dublin", "Irish_people_of_Scottish_descent", "British_physicists", "Burials_at_Mount_Jerome_Cemetery_and_Crematorium", "Directors_of_Dunsink_Observatory", "Members_of_the_Royal_Irish_Academy", "Members_of_the_Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences", "Fellows_of_the_American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences", "Foreign_associates_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences", "Corresponding_members_of_the_Saint_Petersburg_Academy_of_Sciences", "Irish_Anglicans", "Irish_astronomers", "Irish_knights", "Irish_mathematicians", "Irish_physicists", "Mental_calculators", "Optical_physicists", "People_from_Cabra,_Dublin", "Royal_Medal_winners", "Theoretical_physicists", "Mathematical_physicists" ]

[ "Sir William Rowan Hamilton", "Hamilton Mathematics Institute", "Hamilton" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Sigismund II Augustus (, ; 1 August 1520 – 7 July 1572) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, the son of Sigismund I the Old, whom Sigismund II succeeded in 1548. He was the first ruler of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the last male monarch from the Jagiellonian dynasty.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26288, 70287700, 42583, 343234, 34960337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 74 ], [ 79, 102 ], [ 115, 134 ], [ 203, 233 ], [ 269, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund was the only son of Italian-born Bona Sforza and Sigismund the Old. From the beginning he was groomed and extensively educated as a successor. In 1529 he was crowned vivente rege while his father was still alive. Sigismund Augustus continued a tolerance policy towards minorities and maintained peaceful relations with neighbouring countries, with the exception of the Northern Seven Years' War which aimed to secure Baltic trade. Under his patronage, culture flourished in Poland; he was a collector of tapestries from the Low Countries and collected military memorabilia as well as swords, armours and jewellery. Sigismund Augustus' rule is widely considered as the apex of the Polish Golden Age; he established the first regular Polish navy and the first regular postal service in Poland, known today as Poczta Polska. In 1569 he oversaw the signing of the Union of Lublin between Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and introduced an elective monarchy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 453137, 30873335, 1777515, 3335, 51402, 436374, 51138, 9976418, 30875660, 380252, 258983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 54 ], [ 176, 188 ], [ 379, 404 ], [ 427, 433 ], [ 534, 547 ], [ 690, 707 ], [ 776, 790 ], [ 817, 830 ], [ 870, 885 ], [ 909, 933 ], [ 1001, 1018 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund Augustus married three times; his first wife, Elizabeth of Austria, died in 1545 at just eighteen. He was then involved in several relationships with mistresses, the most famous being Barbara Radziwiłł, who became Sigismund's second wife and Queen of Poland in spite of his mother's disapproval. The marriage was deemed scandalous and was fiercely opposed by the royal court and the nobility. Barbara died five months after her coronation, presumably due to ill health, however, rumours circulated that she was poisoned. Sigismund finally wedded Catherine of Austria, but remained childless throughout his life.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5830399, 1249313, 29050, 5831712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 76 ], [ 194, 211 ], [ 393, 401 ], [ 556, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund Augustus was the last male member of the Jagiellons. Following the death of his sister Anna in 1596 the Jagiellonian dynasty came to an end.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 34960337, 1885756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 61 ], [ 97, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund Augustus was born in Kraków on 1 August 1520 to Sigismund I the Old and his wife, Bona Sforza of Milan. His paternal grandparents were Casimir IV Jagiellon, King of Poland, and Elizabeth of Austria. Sigismund's maternal grandparents, Gian Galeazzo Sforza and Isabella of Aragon, daughter of King Alfonso II of Naples, both ruled the Duchy of Milan until Sforza's suspicious death in 1494.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 16815, 42583, 453137, 36511, 39064, 4158466, 3595800, 1941446, 1520970, 235467, 679080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 37 ], [ 58, 77 ], [ 92, 103 ], [ 107, 112 ], [ 145, 165 ], [ 187, 207 ], [ 244, 264 ], [ 269, 287 ], [ 306, 326 ], [ 333, 338 ], [ 343, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout his youth, Sigismund Augustus was under the careful watch of his mother, Bona. Being the only legitimate male heir to the Polish throne throughout his father's reign, he was well educated and taught by the most renowned scholars in the country. It was also his mother's wish to name her only son Augustus, after the first Roman Emperor Gaius Octavius Augustus. However, this decision was met with Sigismund the Old's strong disapproval, who hoped for a lineage of Sigismunds on the Polish throne. Consequently, it was established that the child will bear two names to settle the conflict. The tradition of adopting Augustus as a second or middle name was also observed during the coronation of Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski who became King Stanisław II Augustus in 1764.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 25507, 1273, 226191, 350061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 333, 338 ], [ 347, 370 ], [ 691, 701 ], [ 705, 733 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1530, the ten-year-old Sigismund Augustus was crowned by Primate Jan Łaski as co-ruler alongside his father, in accordance with the vivente rege law. Sigismund the Old hoped to secure his son's succession to the throne and maintain the Jagiellonian dynasty's position in Poland. The move was crucial to silence the members of nobility who were against the Jagiellons and viewed the action as a step towards absolutism. The law was officially abolished by the Henrician Articles, or the new constitution adopted between nobles and the newly elected king Henry of Valois in 1573.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 2040289, 2040577, 30873335, 34960337, 67366, 621723, 75985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 67 ], [ 68, 77 ], [ 135, 147 ], [ 239, 259 ], [ 410, 420 ], [ 462, 480 ], [ 556, 571 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund Augustus began his reign as the Grand Duke of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1544 and initially opposed the Polish–Lithuanian union, thus hoping to leave his throne to his heirs.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 380252, 1270138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 84 ], [ 119, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Sigismund Augustus was co-crowned, Chancellor Krzysztof Szydłowiecki organized a preliminary marriage treaty between the young king and Elizabeth of Austria, daughter of Emperor Ferdinand I. The marriage was signed on 10–11 November 1530 in Poznań, however, the arrangement was delayed by Queen Bona Sforza, who detested the new bride. The treaty was renewed on 16 June 1538 in Wrocław by Johannes Dantiscus and the betrothal ceremony took place on 17 July 1538 in Innsbruck. Bona continued to lobby against the marriage and instead proposed Margaret of France to potentially form an alliance with the French against the Habsburgs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "First marriage", "target_page_ids": [ 1515056, 5830399, 151069, 23723, 453137, 33603, 143002, 55857, 2333519, 13824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 73 ], [ 141, 161 ], [ 175, 194 ], [ 246, 252 ], [ 300, 311 ], [ 383, 390 ], [ 394, 412 ], [ 470, 479 ], [ 547, 565 ], [ 626, 635 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 5 May 1543, Elizabeth's escorted convoy entered Kraków and was greeted with enthusiasm by both the nobles and the townsfolk. The same day 16-year-old Elizabeth married 22-year-old Sigismund Augustus, whom she met for the first time shortly before marriage vows. The ceremony was performed at the Wawel Cathedral and the wedding continued for two weeks. Bona began to plot against the new queen. As a result, the newly wedded couple decided to reside in Vilnius, far from the royal court.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "First marriage", "target_page_ids": [ 1132032, 32597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 299, 314 ], [ 456, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the initial euphoria demonstrated by royal subjects, the marriage was unsuccessful from the very beginning. Sigismund Augustus did not find Elizabeth attractive and continued to have extramarital affairs with several mistresses, the most famous being Barbara Radziwiłł. Elizabeth was also known to be timid, meek and apprehensive due to strict upbringing. The young and garrulous king was also repulsed by Elizabeth's newly diagnosed epilepsy and subsequent seizures. Only Sigismund the Old and some nobles showed compassion towards the new Queen, who was disregarded by her husband and scorned by Bona. Sigismund Augustus was indifferent to her health condition; when the seizures continued to intensify he abandoned Elizabeth and returned to Kraków to collect her dowry. He also sent for Ferdinand's doctors to travel the long distance from Vienna knowing that Elizabeth was ailing and deteriorating fast. She eventually died unattended and exhausted from the epileptic attacks on 15 June 1545 at the age of 18.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "First marriage", "target_page_ids": [ 1249313, 10511, 16815, 234516, 55866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 259, 276 ], [ 442, 450 ], [ 752, 758 ], [ 774, 779 ], [ 851, 857 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the outset of his reign, Sigismund Augustus came into collision with the country's privileged nobility, who had already begun curtailing the power of the great families. The ostensible cause of the nobility's animosity to the King was his second marriage, secretly contracted before his accession to the throne, with the Lithuanian, Calvinist and former mistress, Barbara Radziwiłł, the daughter of Hetman Jerzy Radziwiłł. The marriage was announced by the king himself on 2 February 1548 in Piotrków Trybunalski.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Second marriage", "target_page_ids": [ 29050, 459375, 6024, 1249313, 60733, 1249463, 386723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 107 ], [ 326, 336 ], [ 338, 347 ], [ 369, 386 ], [ 404, 410 ], [ 411, 426 ], [ 497, 517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The young and beautiful Barbara was despised by Queen Bona, who attempted to annul the marriage at any cost. The agitation was also abundant at Sigismund's first Sejm (parliament) sitting on 31 October 1548 where the deputies threatened to renounce their allegiance unless the new king repudiated Barbara. The nobles portrayed Barbara as an opportunistic prostitute that charmed the king for her own benefit. That perception was shared with Bona Sforza, who decisively eliminated all her rivals by any means to stay in power. The young monarch even considered abdicating. By 1550, when Sigismund summoned his second Sejm, the nobles had begun to be in his favor; the nobility was rebuked by Marshal Piotr Kmita Sobieński, who accused them of attempting to unduly diminish the legislative prerogatives of the Polish Crown. Furthermore, Bona was removed from Wawel and sent to Mazovia where she established her own small courtly entourage.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Second marriage", "target_page_ids": [ 28167, 18951402, 32949943, 1988124, 33543971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 166 ], [ 560, 570 ], [ 699, 720 ], [ 857, 862 ], [ 875, 882 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike her predecessor, Barbara was disliked by the royal court and led a more secluded life with Sigismund Augustus, who was deeply in love with her. On the other hand, she was ambitious, intelligent, perceptive and had an exemplar taste in fashion. She always wore precious pearl necklaces when sitting for portraits. The mutual admiration between Sigismund and Barbara made the relationship \"one of the greatest love affairs in Polish history\". While still married to Elizabeth, Sigismund Augustus ordered the construction of a secret passage connecting the Royal Castle in Vilnius with the nearby Radziwiłł Palace so that the couple could meet frequently and discreetly.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Second marriage", "target_page_ids": [ 5868467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 561, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to her unpopularity in Poland, Barbara often expressed her wish to reside permanently in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. To ease the situation, Sigismund Augustus provided a luxurious lifestyle and expensive gifts for his wife at Wawel Castle since her arrival in Kraków on 13 February 1549. The monarch also granted Barbara several provinces to administer and provide income. Although ambitious and bright, she showed lack of interest in political life, but had some influence over decisions made by Sigismund. This also caused an uproar among the nobility. To avoid an armed rebellion, Sigismund was forced to form an alliance with his former father-in-law, Emperor Ferdinand I. This allowed for Barbara's coronation as Queen of Poland on 7 December 1550 by Primate Mikołaj Dzierzgowski. Queen Bona eventually succumbed to her son's demand and accepted the marriage.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Second marriage", "target_page_ids": [ 1988124, 48482949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 232, 244 ], [ 770, 790 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the day Sigismund and Barbara met, she complained of poor health, particularly stomach and abdominal pain. After the coronation her condition deteriorated rapidly. She was tormented by strong fever, diarrhea, nausea and lack of appetite. After careful observation by hired medics, a lump was discovered on her stomach filled with pus. Sigismund Augustus gravely despaired and sent for doctors and even folk healers from the entire country. He personally tended to his sick wife despite her foul smell and dedicated himself when necessary; the king hoped to take Barbara to the hunting castle at Niepołomice and ordered to demolish the small city gate so her carriage could pass freely. However, Barbara died on 8 May 1551 in Kraków after continuous pain and agony. It was her dying wish that she'd be buried in Lithuania, her homeland. The body was transported to Vilnius Cathedral, where she was finally buried on 23 June next to Elizabeth of Austria. Her death was a major blow to Sigismund; he often attended her coffin on foot while being transported to Vilnius in hot weather. Sigismund also became more serious and reserved; he avoided balls, temporarily renounced his mistresses and dressed black until death.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Second marriage", "target_page_ids": [ 18947703, 390548, 16815, 3121165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 215, 221 ], [ 601, 612 ], [ 731, 737 ], [ 870, 887 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The cause of Barbara's death is debatable. Her opponents and family members suggested sexually transmitted diseases due to a number of affairs she had before marrying Sigismund. There were also persistent rumors that she was poisoned by Queen Bona Sforza, who had a long history of eliminating her rivals or enemies quickly and efficiently. However, contemporary historians and experts agree on cervical or ovarian cancer.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Second marriage", "target_page_ids": [ 19019270, 53338, 414192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 114 ], [ 395, 403 ], [ 407, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The death of Queen Barbara Radziwiłł, five months after her coronation and under distressing circumstances, compelled Sigismund to contract a third, purely political union with his first cousin, the Austrian archduchess Catherine, to avoid an Austro-Russian alliance. She was also the sister of his first wife, Elizabeth, who had died within a year of her marriage to him, before his accession. Catherine, unlike previous queens, was considered dull and obese. Sigismund Augustus found her immensely unattractive despite accepting the marriage and organizing a pompous wedding ceremony on 30 July 1553. On the other hand, Catherine showed resentment towards Sigismund because of how he treated her sister and first wife, Queen Elizabeth. She accused him of negligence and indifference during her sudden illness, which caused premature death. The correspondence between the two remained purely formal and political for the remainder of their lives.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Third marriage", "target_page_ids": [ 5831712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since her coronation, Catherine acted as Austria's puppet at the Polish court; she was tasked with espionage and obtaining important information for the benefit of the Habsburgs. Sigismund Augustus was aware of the scheme, but, by marrying Catherine, Austria promised to stay neutral and abandon plans with Russia. This neutrality was undermined by Catherine's actions, who followed her father's policy and objected the return of John Sigismund Zápolya and Isabella Jagiellon (Sigismund's sister) to Hungary. She would conspire with the Habsburg envoys prior to an audience with the king. She would also dictate what and how the envoys should express their views. When Sigismund Augustus found out of Catherine's intrigues, he sent her to Radom and excluded from political life.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Third marriage", "target_page_ids": [ 10501, 25391, 1061993, 1816903, 74597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 108 ], [ 307, 313 ], [ 430, 452 ], [ 457, 475 ], [ 739, 744 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Sigismund lost all hope of children by his third bride; he was the last male Jagiellon in the direct line so the dynasty was threatened with extinction. He sought to remedy this by adultery with two of the most beautiful of his countrywomen, Barbara Giza and Anna Zajączkowska but was unable to impregnate either of them. The Sejm was willing to legitimize, and acknowledge as Sigismund's successor, any male heir who might be born to him; however, the King remained childless.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Third marriage", "target_page_ids": [ 57318585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The King's marriage was a matter of great political import to Protestants and Catholics alike. The Polish Protestants hoped that he would divorce and remarry and thus bring about a breach with Rome at the very crisis of the religious struggle in Poland. He was not free to remarry until Queen Catherine's death on 28 February 1572, but he followed her to the grave less than six months later.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Third marriage", "target_page_ids": [ 25814008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike his father, Sigismund Augustus was more frail and sickly. Shortly before turning 50, his health rapidly declined. Being involved in many affairs and holding a large number of mistresses, historians agree that the king had venereal disease which caused him to be infertile. At 16, he also contracted malaria which further contributed to his inability of producing any offspring. By 1558 Sigismund had gout and since 1568 he also suffered from kidney stones, which triggered immense pain. He employed numerous medics, healers or even quack doctors and imported expensive ointments from Italy. By the end of his life, the king was losing teeth and vigour, possibly due to tuberculosis. Antonio Maria Graziani recalls that Sigismund was unable to keep standing without a cane when greeting Cardinal Giovanni Francesco Commendone.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Health and final years", "target_page_ids": [ 19019270, 179242, 20423, 55584, 38074, 212698, 867542, 30653, 58935220, 14333502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 245 ], [ 269, 278 ], [ 306, 313 ], [ 407, 411 ], [ 449, 462 ], [ 539, 552 ], [ 576, 584 ], [ 676, 688 ], [ 690, 712 ], [ 802, 831 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During spring of 1572, Sigismund Augustus became feverish. Untreated tuberculosis made him feeble and impotent, but he was able to travel to his private retreat in Knyszyn. While at Knyszyn, he corresponded with his diplomats and nobles, highlighting that he was feeling well and hoped to recover. Great Marshal Jan Firlej denied these claims and reported that the king was bleeding severely due to consumption and was troubled by pain in the chest and lumbar.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Health and final years", "target_page_ids": [ 390451, 1929787, 30653, 508121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 171 ], [ 312, 322 ], [ 399, 410 ], [ 453, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund died in Knyszyn on 7 July 1572 at 6 in the afternoon, surrounded by a group of senators and envoys. The official cause of death given by the medics was consumption. His body placed on a catafalque and remained at the nearby Tykocin Castle until 10 September 1573 when it was transported back to Kraków through Warsaw. After transporting the remains of Barbara Radziwiłł from Kraków to Vilnius, Sigismund was building a church in the Vilnius Castle Complex which should have served as his family's mausoleum, however it was still uncompleted in 1572. Consequently, he was laid to rest at the Wawel Cathedral on 10 February 1574. The stately funeral ceremony, attended by his sister Anna Jagiellon, was the last spectacle of its kind in the Kingdom of Poland. No other Polish monarch was buried with such pomp and splendour. His death introduced an elective monarchy in Poland which lasted until the final partition at the end of the 18th century.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Health and final years", "target_page_ids": [ 712306, 28810840, 32908, 1249313, 16815, 32597, 6125948, 1132032, 1885756, 258983, 43794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 196, 206 ], [ 234, 248 ], [ 320, 326 ], [ 362, 379 ], [ 385, 391 ], [ 395, 402 ], [ 443, 465 ], [ 601, 616 ], [ 691, 705 ], [ 857, 874 ], [ 914, 923 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund Augustus was the last male member of the Jagiellonian dynasty. The death of his childless sister, Anna, in 1596 marked the end of the dynasty.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Health and final years", "target_page_ids": [ 34960337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to his family connections, Sigismund II Augustus was allied to the Habsburgs as member of the Order of the Golden Fleece.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Health and final years", "target_page_ids": [ 13824, 561578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 87 ], [ 106, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund's reign was marked by a period of temporary stability and external expansion. He witnessed the bloodless introduction of the Protestant Reformation into Poland and Lithuania, and the peero-cratic upheaval that placed most political power in the hands of the Polish nobility; he saw the collapse of the Knights of the Sword in the north, which led to the Commonwealth's acquisition of Livonia as a Lutheran duchy and the consolidation of Turkey's power in the southeast. A less imposing figure than his father, the elegant and refined Sigismund II Augustus was nevertheless an even more effective statesman than the stern and majestic Sigismund I the Old.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 37857, 29050, 163857, 18448, 11125639, 42583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 157 ], [ 268, 283 ], [ 312, 332 ], [ 394, 401 ], [ 447, 453 ], [ 644, 663 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund II possessed to a high degree the tenacity and patience that seem to have characterized all the Jagiellons, and he added to these qualities a dexterity and diplomatic finesse. No other Polish king seems to have so thoroughly understood the nature of the Polish Sejm and national assembly. Both the Austrian ambassadors and the papal legates testify to the care with which he controlled his nation. According to diplomats, everything went as Sigismund wished and he seemed to know everything in advance. He managed to obtain more funds from the Sejm than his father ever could, and at one of the parliament sittings he won the hearts of the assembled envoys by unexpectedly appearing in a simple grey coat of a Mazovian lord. Like his father, a pro-Austrian by conviction, he contrived even in this respect to carry with him the nation, often distrustful of the Germans. He also avoided serious complications and skirmishes with the powerful Turks.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 34960337, 28167, 33543971, 152735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 116 ], [ 271, 275 ], [ 720, 727 ], [ 871, 878 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During Sigismund Augustus' reign, Livonia was in political turmoil. His father, Sigismund I, permitted Albert of Prussia to introduce the Protestant Reformation and secularize the southern part of the Teutonic Order State. Albert then established Europe's first Protestant state in the Duchy of Prussia in 1525, but under Polish suzerainty. However, his efforts to introduce Protestantism to the Livonian Brothers of the Sword in the northernmost part of the region was met with fierce resistance and divided the Livonian Confederation. When Albert's brother Wilhelm and Archbishop of Riga attempted to implement a Lutheran church order in his diocese, the Catholic estates rebelled and arrested both Wilhelm and his bishop coadjutor, Duke Christopher of Mecklenburg.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 1514, 37857, 1038535, 152173, 3210171, 163857, 38317494, 38317496, 3234, 10980014, 50549, 606848, 1338403, 36667133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 120 ], [ 149, 160 ], [ 201, 221 ], [ 286, 302 ], [ 322, 339 ], [ 396, 426 ], [ 513, 535 ], [ 559, 566 ], [ 571, 589 ], [ 615, 636 ], [ 644, 651 ], [ 657, 665 ], [ 717, 733 ], [ 735, 766 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Prussia was a tributary state of the Polish Crown, Sigismund Augustus, a Catholic, was forced to intervene in favour of Protestant Albert and his brother Wilhelm. In July 1557 the Polish forces left for Livonia. The armed intervention proved to be successful; the Catholic Livonians surrendered and signed the Treaty of Pozvol on 14 September 1557. The agreement placed most Livonian territories under Polish protection and de facto became part of Poland. Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the Order, was granted the newly established Duchy of Courland and Semigallia. Wilhelm was restored to his former position as archbishop on Sigismund's demand, with the Lutheran church order being enacted.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 26636469, 43594, 2143052, 663396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 313, 329 ], [ 427, 435 ], [ 459, 475 ], [ 541, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The incorporation of Courland into the Polish sphere of influence created an alliance which threatened Russia's plans on expanding into the Baltic coast. Sigismund directed the alliance against Ivan the Terrible to protect lucrative trade routes in Livonia, thus creating a new valid casus belli against the Russian Tsardom. On 22 January 1558, Ivan invaded the Baltic states and started the Livonian War, which lasted 25 years until 1583. Russia's eventual defeat in the war legally partitioned Livonia between Poland (Latvia, southern Estonia) and Sweden (central-northern Estonia). The Polish sector became subsequently known as Polish Livonia or Inflanty; it was settled with colonists from Poland proper resulting in systematic polonisation of these lands.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 3335, 70718, 178904, 8527874, 1300500, 17514, 28222445, 5058739, 1263461, 1330156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 152 ], [ 194, 211 ], [ 284, 295 ], [ 308, 323 ], [ 392, 404 ], [ 520, 526 ], [ 537, 544 ], [ 550, 556 ], [ 632, 646 ], [ 733, 745 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the Kalmar Union between Sweden and Denmark was disbanded in 1523 due to Swedish resentment of Danish tyranny, Baltic trade became threatened. The port city of Gdańsk (Danzig), Poland's wealthiest city, faced difficulties due to ongoing conflict on the sea and piracy. The capital, Kraków, was also affected as the trade route from the Baltic ran through Gdańsk and along the Vistula River to the southern province of Lesser Poland. Gdańsk, which was privileged with its own army and government, resisted against Sigismund's order of sending privateers and creating the first Polish Admiralty in their city. Most of the deputies in the city council were merchants and tradesmen of German descent or Protestants who were either politically leaning towards Sweden or fighting for the status of an independent 'city state'. 11 Polish privateers sent by Sigismund were eventually executed, which greatly angered the king. Poland then joined Denmark against Sweden for Baltic domination.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 16800, 76972, 12099, 50715, 16815, 25594515, 18671, 25814008, 139176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 21 ], [ 41, 48 ], [ 165, 171 ], [ 266, 272 ], [ 287, 293 ], [ 381, 394 ], [ 423, 436 ], [ 704, 714 ], [ 813, 823 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The war ended as status quo ante bellum in 1570 with the Treaty of Stettin, which was signed by Bishop Martin Kromer on behalf of Sigismund. However, the ineffective conflict did have its input in establishing Poland's first registered naval fleet (Naval Commission) in 1568.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 441961, 2584785, 642306, 1453081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 39 ], [ 57, 74 ], [ 103, 116 ], [ 236, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund's most striking legacy may have been the Union of Lublin, which united Poland and Lithuania into one state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, jointly with German-speaking Royal Prussia and Prussian cities. This achievement might well have been impossible without the monarch's personal approach to politics and ability to mediate.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 30875660, 343234, 152092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 66 ], [ 122, 152 ], [ 183, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At first, the treaty was perceived as a threat to Lithuanian sovereignty. Lithuanian magnates were afraid of losing their powers, since the proposed union would lower their rank and status to an equivalent with petty nobility rather than wealthier Polish aristocracy. On the other hand, the unification would provide a strong alliance against Russian (Muscovite) attack from the east. Lithuania was ravaged by the Muscovite-Lithuanian Wars which endured for over 150 years. During the Second War, Lithuania lost of its territory to Russia, and the final defeat in the Livonian War would result in the country's incorporation into the Russian Tsardom. Furthermore, the Poles were reluctant to aid Lithuania without a quid pro quo. The most vocal opponent of the union was Sigismund's brother-in-law, Mikołaj \"the Red\" Radziwiłł (), who viewed the agreement as \"peaceful annexation of Lithuania\" by Poland. He also resisted polonisation policies which forced ethnic Lithuanians to change their names and native language to Polish or Latin.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 416853, 13753725, 7992161, 7992161, 1300500, 8527874, 275297, 174355, 1241739, 18950961, 1330156, 459375, 22975, 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 93 ], [ 211, 225 ], [ 414, 439 ], [ 485, 495 ], [ 569, 581 ], [ 635, 650 ], [ 669, 674 ], [ 717, 729 ], [ 800, 827 ], [ 870, 880 ], [ 923, 935 ], [ 965, 976 ], [ 1022, 1028 ], [ 1032, 1037 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As another war with Russia loomed, Sigismund Augustus pressed the members of parliament (Sejm) for the union, gradually gaining more followers due to his persuasive abilities and auspicious diplomacy. The potential union agreement would lead to the eviction of Lithuanian landowners who opposed the transition of territory from multi-ethnic Lithuania to Poland. Such terms were causing an outrage among the most renowned members of Lithuanian upper classes, but Sigismund was decisive and ruthless in this matter. Moreover, the personal union between the two countries created by the marriage of Jadwiga with Jogaila in 1385 was not entirely constitutional. Being the last male member of the Jagiellons, childless Sigismund sought to preserve his dynasty's legacy. The newly proposed constitutional union would create one large Commonwealth state, with one elected monarch who would simultaneously reign over both domains.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 1270052, 16419, 42586, 1258004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 528, 542 ], [ 596, 603 ], [ 609, 616 ], [ 857, 872 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The initial Sejm negotiations on unity in January 1569, near the Polish city of Lublin, were futile. The right of Poles to settle and own land in the Grand Duchy was questioned by Lithuanian envoys. Following Mikołaj Radziwiłł's departure from Lublin on 1 March 1569, Sigismund announced the incorporation of then-Lithuanian Podlachia, Volhynia, Podolia and Kiev provinces into Poland, with strong approval from the local Ruthenian (Ukrainian) gentry. Those historic regions, which once belonged to the Kievan Rus', were disputed between Lithuania and Russia. However, the Ruthenian nobles were eager to capitalise on the political or economic potential offered by the Polish sphere and agreed to the terms. Previously, the Kingdom of Ruthenia or \"Ukraine\" was abolished in 1349, after Poland and Lithuania split modern-day Ukraine in the aftermath of the Galicia–Volhynia Wars. Now, under the Union of Lublin, all Ukrainian and Ruthenian territories which were alien in culture, customs, religion and language to the Polish people would be annexed by Catholic Poland. Strong westernisation and polonisation would follow, including the clandestine suppression of the Ukrainian Eastern Orthodox Church by future king Sigismund III. Ruthenia remained under Polish rule until the Cossack uprisings against Polish domination and the Partitions of Poland, when Ukraine was annexed by the Russian Empire.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 74594, 431080, 405978, 347437, 585629, 145144, 21244171, 21486360, 639283, 15833445, 504014, 10186, 52608, 1191347, 43794, 20611504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 86 ], [ 325, 334 ], [ 336, 344 ], [ 346, 353 ], [ 358, 362 ], [ 422, 431 ], [ 444, 450 ], [ 503, 514 ], [ 724, 743 ], [ 856, 877 ], [ 1076, 1090 ], [ 1177, 1200 ], [ 1216, 1229 ], [ 1277, 1320 ], [ 1329, 1349 ], [ 1383, 1397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Lithuanians were compelled to return to the Sejm negotiations under Jan Hieronim Chodkiewicz and continue negotiations. The Polish nobility once again pressed for the full incorporation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into Poland, however, the Lithuanians disapproved. The parties eventually agreed on a federal state on 28 June 1569 and on 1 July 1569 the Union of Lublin was signed at Lublin Castle, thus establishing the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Sigismund Augustus ratified the unification act on 4 July, and henceforth governed one of the largest and multicultural countries of 16th-century Europe.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 17222893, 380252, 8348213, 343234, 429650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 96 ], [ 197, 221 ], [ 391, 404 ], [ 428, 458 ], [ 479, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In comparison to his staunchly Catholic father, Sigismund Augustus paid little attention to the matters of faith and religion. Having a large number of mistresses before, during and after being married, he was viewed by the clergy as an adulterer and libertine. Sigismund was also reasonably tolerant towards minorities and supported nobles of different faith and nationality to be part of the national assembly, the Sejm. He continued his father's policies, but was more accepting of the Protestant Reformation in Poland (only to the status of a minority religion). Several magnates converted to Calvinism or Lutheranism during the Reformation started by Martin Luther and John Calvin, most notably Stanisław Zamoyski, Jan Zamoyski, Mikołaj Rej, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski, Johannes a Lasco (Jan Łaski) and Mikołaj \"the Black\" Radziwiłł.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 600366, 37857, 416853, 6024, 7567080, 15930, 1846878, 977237, 1982253, 499541, 1020642, 1243838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 260 ], [ 500, 511 ], [ 575, 583 ], [ 597, 606 ], [ 656, 669 ], [ 674, 685 ], [ 700, 718 ], [ 720, 732 ], [ 734, 745 ], [ 747, 771 ], [ 773, 789 ], [ 806, 835 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout the 16th century, Frycz Modrzewski advocated for renouncing Rome's authority and establishing a separate and independent Polish Church. His initiative was chiefly inspired by the creation of the Anglican Church by Henry VIII in 1534. Sigismund Augustus was lenient towards the idea, particularly due to the sudden spread of Protestantism among courtiers, advisors, nobles and peasants. Calvinism became especially popular among the upper classes as it promoted democratic freedoms and called for rebellion against absolutism, which the privileged Polish nobility favoured. During the 1555 Sejm session in Piotrków, the nobles intensively discussed the rights of priests in the newly proposed Polish Church and demanded the abolition of celibacy. Some Catholic bishops were supportive of the concepts and acknowledged the need for uniting Poland, Lithuania, Prussia and their vassals under a common religion. Sigismund agreed to the postulates, however, under the condition that Pope Paul IV will be in favour. Instead, Paul IV was enraged that such a proposition emerged for him to accept; he declined and refused to grant consent. Facing potential excommunication, the assembly were forced to abandon their plans. Nevertheless, Protestantism continued to flourish and spread. In 1565, the Polish Brethren came into existence as a Nontrinitarian sect of Calvinism.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 23056, 5955, 14187, 7959, 67366, 386723, 6035, 268717, 53050, 10338, 358036, 253158, 26898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 75 ], [ 206, 221 ], [ 225, 235 ], [ 472, 482 ], [ 525, 535 ], [ 616, 624 ], [ 747, 755 ], [ 886, 893 ], [ 989, 1001 ], [ 1160, 1175 ], [ 1301, 1316 ], [ 1342, 1356 ], [ 1357, 1361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One year after Sigismund's death the Warsaw Confederation was adopted as the first European act granting religious freedoms. Despite this, Protestantism in Poland ultimately declined during the fierce Counter-Reformation measures under the despotic and arch-Catholic Sigismund III Vasa, who ruled for nearly 45 years. For instance, the Polish Brethren were banned, hunted down and its leaders executed.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reign", "target_page_ids": [ 358021, 46006, 43042219, 52608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 57 ], [ 105, 123 ], [ 201, 220 ], [ 267, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund Augustus carried on with the development of several royal residencies including Wawel, Vilnius Castle, Niepołomice and the Royal Castle in Warsaw. In the 1560s he acquired the Tykocin Castle and rebuilt it in Renaissance style. During the reign of Sigismund Augustus the structure served as a royal residence with an impressive treasury and library as well as the main arsenal of the crown.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Patronage", "target_page_ids": [ 1988124, 5868467, 28797100, 869411, 32908, 28810840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 95 ], [ 97, 111 ], [ 113, 124 ], [ 133, 145 ], [ 149, 155 ], [ 186, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund Augustus was a passionate collector of jewels and gemstones. According to nuncio Bernardo Bongiovanni's relation, his collection was cached in 16 chests. Among the precious items in his possession was Charles V's ruby of 80,000 scudos' worth, as well as the Emperor's diamond medal with Habsburgs Eagle on one side and two columns with a sign Plus Ultra on the other side. In 1571, after the death of his nephew John Sigismund Zápolya, he inherited the Hungarian Crown used by some Hungarian monarchs. A Swedish Crown was also made for him. The Polish king treated those crowns as a family keepsake, and kept them in a private vault in the Tykocin Castle. He had also a sultan's sword of 16,000 ducats' worth, 30 precious horse trappings and 20 different private-use armours. The king's possession included a rich collection of tapestries (360 pieces), commissioned by him in Brussels in the years 1550–1560.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Patronage", "target_page_ids": [ 12806, 21819, 70716, 3299971, 13824, 517479, 1061993, 28712053, 10412284, 64647, 769512, 2147, 28938028, 3708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 69 ], [ 84, 90 ], [ 211, 220 ], [ 238, 243 ], [ 297, 306 ], [ 353, 363 ], [ 422, 444 ], [ 463, 478 ], [ 514, 527 ], [ 680, 686 ], [ 705, 710 ], [ 777, 783 ], [ 824, 848 ], [ 886, 894 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The king enjoyed reading, especially short stories, poems and satires. Under the influence of bishop Piotr Myszkowski, Poland's then greatest writer and poet Jan Kochanowski joined the royal court in 1563. It is uncertain whether Sigismund and Kochanowski were friends, however, Kochanowski's correspondence clearly highlights that the two had close contact and he assisted the monarch at most important occasions, including military maneuvers in Lithuania in 1567. Kochanowski was also present during the signing of Lublin Union in 1569.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Patronage", "target_page_ids": [ 26791, 41229505, 474459, 30875660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 68 ], [ 101, 117 ], [ 158, 173 ], [ 517, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sigismund was fond of foreign craft-makers and employed Italian goldsmiths, jewellers and medalists, very much like his father. One of the more renowned figures brought to Poland was Giovanni Jacopo Caraglio. In Italy, Caraglio was one of the first reproductive printmakers. In Poland, Sigismund tasked him with the production of cameos, medallions, coins and jewellery. Numerous medals and roundels from this period feature the last members of the Jagiellonian dynasty. When Sigismund's mother Bona died in 1557, Sigismund had to collect his inheritance from the Italian estates. On 18 October 1558, the king granted the right to arrange the first regular Polish postal service operating from Kraków to Venice, thus establishing Poczta Polska (Polish Post). All maintenance costs were borne by the Crown and the post was mostly managed by Italians or Germans. Additional couriers travelled between Kraków, Warsaw and Vilnius. Since 1562, the postal route also encompassed Vienna and cities in the Holy Roman Empire, which enabled continuous correspondence with the Habsburgs.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Patronage", "target_page_ids": [ 2300530, 42532, 252938, 34960337, 32616, 9976418, 55866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 207 ], [ 262, 272 ], [ 330, 336 ], [ 449, 469 ], [ 704, 710 ], [ 730, 743 ], [ 973, 979 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1573, the first permanent bridge over the Vistula River in Warsaw and also the longest wooden bridge in Europe at the time was named in Sigismund's honour.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Patronage", "target_page_ids": [ 44195414, 25594515, 32908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 35 ], [ 45, 58 ], [ 62, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Royal titles, in Latin: \"Sigismundus Augustus, Dei gratia rex Poloniae, magnus dux Lithuaniae, nec non terrarum Cracoviae, Sandomiriae, Siradiae, Lanciciae, Cuiaviae, Kiioviae, dominus hereditarius Russiae, Woliniae, Prussiae, Masoviae, Podlachiae, Culmensis, Elbingensis, Pomeraniae, Samogitiae, Livoniae etc. dominus et heres.\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Royal titles", "target_page_ids": [ 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " English translation: \"Sigismund Augustus, by the Grace of God, King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania, Lord and heir of the Lands of Kraków, Sandomierz, Sieradz, Łęczyca, Kuyavia, Kiev, Hereditary Lord of Ruthenia, Volhynia, Prussia, Masovia, Podlaskie, Culmer Land, Elbing, Pomerania, Samogitia, Livonia etc. Lord and heir\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Royal titles", "target_page_ids": [ 22936, 17675, 16815, 386970, 386690, 857772, 490533, 585629, 81189, 405978, 371248, 33543971, 18260530, 32473976, 9857, 24261, 392946, 1263461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 78 ], [ 94, 103 ], [ 135, 141 ], [ 143, 153 ], [ 155, 162 ], [ 164, 171 ], [ 173, 180 ], [ 182, 186 ], [ 207, 215 ], [ 217, 225 ], [ 227, 234 ], [ 236, 243 ], [ 245, 254 ], [ 256, 267 ], [ 269, 275 ], [ 277, 286 ], [ 288, 297 ], [ 299, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Poland (1385–1569)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27057199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Poland (1569–1795)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20465358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Polish monarchs", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1520_births", "1572_deaths", "16th-century_Polish_monarchs", "Burials_at_Wawel_Cathedral", "Grand_Dukes_of_Lithuania", "Jagiellonian_dynasty", "People_from_Knyszyn", "Nobility_from_Kraków", "Polish_Roman_Catholics", "People_of_the_Northern_Seven_Years'_War", "Sigismund_II_Augustus" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL) is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory for plasma physics and nuclear fusion science. Its primary mission is research into and development of fusion as an energy source. It is known in particular for the development of the stellarator and tokamak designs, along with numerous fundamental advances in plasma physics and the exploration of many other plasma confinement concepts.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 62866, 947310, 25916521, 21544, 55017, 29591, 31439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 82 ], [ 83, 102 ], [ 107, 121 ], [ 126, 140 ], [ 206, 232 ], [ 287, 298 ], [ 303, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "PPPL grew out of the top-secret Cold War project to control thermonuclear reactions, called Project Matterhorn. The focus of this program changed from H-bombs to fusion power in 1951, when Lyman Spitzer developed the stellarator concept and was granted funding from the Atomic Energy Commission to study the concept. This led to a series of machines in the 1950s and 60s. In 1961, after declassification, Project Matterhorn was renamed the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 325329, 2269463, 383032, 51718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 40 ], [ 151, 157 ], [ 189, 202 ], [ 270, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "PPPL's stellarators proved unable to meet their performance goals. In 1968, Soviet's claims of excellent performance on their tokamaks generated intense scepticism, and to test it, PPPL's Model C stellarator was converted to a tokamak. It verified the Soviet claims, and since that time, PPPL has been a worldwide leader in tokamak theory and design, building a series of record-breaking machines including the Princeton Large Torus, TFTR and many others. Dozens of smaller machines were also built to test particular problems and solutions, including the ATC, NSTX, and LTX.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 48802680, 48754942, 1417600, 4365438, 34593676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 207 ], [ 411, 432 ], [ 434, 438 ], [ 561, 565 ], [ 571, 574 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "PPPL is located on Princeton University's Forrestal Campus in Plainsboro Township, New Jersey.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23922, 125438, 21648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 39 ], [ 62, 81 ], [ 83, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1950, John Wheeler was setting up a secret H-bomb research lab at Princeton University. Lyman Spitzer, Jr., an avid mountaineer, was aware of this program and suggested the name \"Project Matterhorn\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 327127, 2269463, 23922, 383032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 21 ], [ 46, 52 ], [ 69, 89 ], [ 91, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spitzer, a professor of astronomy, had for many years been involved in the study of very hot rarefied gases in interstellar space. While leaving for a ski trip to Aspen in February 1951, his father called and told him to read the front page of the New York Times. The paper had a story about claims released the day before in Argentina that a relatively unknown German scientist named Ronald Richter had achieved nuclear fusion in his Huemul Project. Spitzer ultimately dismissed these claims, and they were later proven erroneous, but the story got him thinking about fusion. While riding the chairlift at Aspen, he struck upon a new concept to confine a plasma for long periods so it could be heated to fusion temperatures. He called this concept the stellarator.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 48921, 30680, 18951905, 4062019, 1554948, 299120, 25916521, 29591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 168 ], [ 248, 262 ], [ 326, 335 ], [ 385, 399 ], [ 435, 449 ], [ 594, 603 ], [ 656, 662 ], [ 753, 764 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later that year he took this design to the Atomic Energy Commission in Washington. As a result of this meeting and a review of the invention by scientists throughout the nation, the stellarator proposal was funded in 1951. As the device would produce high-energy neutrons, which could be used for breeding weapon fuel, the program was classified and carried out as part of Project Matterhorn. Matterhorn ultimately ended its involvement in the bomb field in 1954, becoming entirely devoted to the fusion power field.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 51718, 21272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 67 ], [ 263, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1958, this magnetic fusion research was declassified following the United Nations International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy. This generated an influx of graduate students eager to learn the \"new\" physics, which in turn influenced the lab to concentrate more on basic research.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The early figure-8 stellarators included : Model-A, Model-B, Model-B2, Model-B3. Model-B64 was a square with round corners, and Model-B65 was a racetrack configuration. The last and most powerful stellarator at this time was the 'racetrack' Model C (operating from 1961 to 1969).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 48802680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 241, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the mid-1960s it was clear something was fundamentally wrong with the stellarators, as they leaked fuel at rates far beyond what theory predicted, rates that carried away energy from the plasma that was far beyond what the fusion reactions could ever produce. Spitzer became extremely skeptical that fusion energy was possible and expressed this opinion in very public fashion in 1965 at an international meeting in the UK. At the same meeting, the Soviet delegation announced results about 10 times better than any previous device, which Spitzer dismissed as a measurement error.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the next meeting in 1968, the Soviets presented considerable data from their devices that showed even greater performance, about 100 times the Bohm diffusion limit. An enormous argument broke out between the AEC and the various labs about whether this was real. When a UK team verified the results in 1969, the AEC suggested PPPL convert their Model C to a tokamak to test it, as the only lab willing to build one from scratch, Oak Ridge, would need some time to build theirs. Seeing the possibility of being bypassed in the fusion field, PPPL eventually agreed to convert the Model C to what became the Symmetric Tokamak (ST), quickly verifying the approach.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2231692, 38147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 160 ], [ 431, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two small machines followed the ST, exploring ways to heat the plasma, and then the Princeton Large Torus (PLT) to test whether the theory that larger machines would be more stable was true. Starting in 1975, PLT verified these \"scaling laws\" and then went on to add neutral beam injection from Oak Ridge that resulted in a series of record-setting plasma temperatures, eventually topping out at 78 million Kelvin, well beyond what was needed for a practical fusion power system. Its success was major news.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 48754942, 5664494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 105 ], [ 267, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With this string of successes, PPPL had little trouble winning the bid to build an even larger machine, one specifically designed to reach \"breakeven\" while running on an actual fusion fuel, rather than a test gas. This produced the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor, or TFTR, which was completed in 1982. After a lengthy breaking-in period, TFTR began slowly increasing the temperature and density of the fuel, while introducing deuterium gas as the fuel. In April 1986, it demonstrated a combination of density and confinement, the so-called fusion triple product, well beyond what was needed for a practical reactor. In July, it reached a temperature of 200 million degrees, far beyond what was needed. However, when the system was operated with both of these conditions at the same time, a high enough triple product and temperature, the system became unstable. Three years of effort failed to address these issues, and TFTR never reached its goal. The system continued performing basic studies on these problems until being shut down in 1997. Beginning in 1993, TFTR was the first in the world to use 50/50 mixtures of deuterium-tritium. In 1994 it yielded an unprecedented 10.7 megawatts of fusion power.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1686779, 1417600, 8524, 1018336, 8524, 31306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 150 ], [ 233, 260 ], [ 424, 433 ], [ 538, 559 ], [ 1118, 1127 ], [ 1128, 1135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1999, the National Spherical Torus Experiment (NSTX), based on the spherical tokamak concept, came online at the PPPL. Laboratory scientists are collaborating with researchers on fusion science and technology at other facilities, both domestic and foreign. Staff are applying knowledge gained in fusion research to a number of theoretical and experimental areas including materials science, solar physics, chemistry, and manufacturing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4365438, 19622, 2792708, 5180, 39388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 55 ], [ 376, 393 ], [ 395, 408 ], [ 410, 419 ], [ 425, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Odd-parity heating was demonstrated in the 4cm radius PFRC-1 experiment in 2006. PFRC-2 has a plasma radius of 8cm. Studies of electron heating in PFRC-2 reached 500 eV with pulse lengths of 300 ms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, PPPL completed an upgrade to NSTX to produce NSTX-U that made it the most powerful experimental fusion facility, or tokamak, of its type in the world.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, the group received a Phase II NIAC grant along with two NASA STTRs funding the RF subsystem and superconducting coil subsystem.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1961 Gottlieb became the first director of the renamed Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1951-1961: Lyman Spitzer, director of Project Matterhorn", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [ 383032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1961-1980: Melvin B. Gottlieb", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [ 4799655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981-1990: Harold Fürth", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [ 40407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991-1996: Ronald C. Davidson", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [ 30546342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1997 (January–July): John A. Schmidt, interim director", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1997-2008: Robert J. Goldston", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [ 46777272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2008–2016: Stewart C. Prager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2016–2017: Terrence K. Brog (interim)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2017–2018: Richard J. Hawryluk (interim)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2018–present: Sir Steven Cowley, 1 July 2018", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Directors", "target_page_ids": [ 43248460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 261362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beam Dynamics and Nonneutral Plasma", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other experiments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Laboratory for Plasma Nanosynthesis (LPN)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other experiments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "DOE Scientific Simulation Initiative", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other experiments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "U.S. MHD Working Group", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other experiments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Field Reversed Configuration (FRC) Theory Consortium", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other experiments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tokamak Physics Design and Analysis Codes", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other experiments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "TRANSP Code", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other experiments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "National Transport Code Collaboration (NTCC) Modules Library", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other experiments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tiger Transit's Route 3 runs to Forrestal Campus and terminates at PPPL.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 67246593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Project Sherwood", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1810990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Compact Stellarator Experiment (NCSX)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4365725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Project Matterhorn Publications and Reports, 1951-1958 Princeton University Library Digital Collections", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Plainsboro_Township,_New_Jersey", "Princeton_University", "Laboratories_in_the_United_States", "United_States_Department_of_Energy_national_laboratories", "Federally_Funded_Research_and_Development_Centers", "Princeton_Plasma_Physics_Laboratory", "1961_establishments_in_New_Jersey", "Research_institutes_in_New_Jersey" ]

[ "PPPL" ]

[ { "plaintext": "A battering ram is a siege engine that originated in ancient times and was designed to break open the masonry walls of fortifications or splinter their wooden gates. In its simplest form, a battering ram is just a large, heavy log carried by several people and propelled with force against an obstacle; the ram would be sufficient to damage the target if the log were massive enough and/or it were moved quickly enough (that is, if it had enough momentum). Later rams encased the log in an arrow-proof, fire-resistant canopy mounted on wheels. Inside the canopy, the log was swung from suspensory chains or ropes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 233403, 51320, 204118, 20431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 33 ], [ 53, 66 ], [ 119, 132 ], [ 446, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rams proved effective weapons of war because at the time wall-building materials such as stone and brick were weak in tension, and therefore prone to cracking when impacted with force. With repeated blows, the cracks would grow steadily until a hole was created. Eventually, a breach would appear in the fabric of the wall, enabling armed attackers to force their way through the gap and engage the inhabitants of the citadel.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3879598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The introduction in the later Middle Ages of siege cannons, which harnessed the explosive power of gunpowder to propel weighty stone or iron balls against fortified obstacles, spelled the end of battering rams and other traditional siege weapons. Smaller, hand-held versions of battering rams are still used today by law enforcement officers and military personnel to break open locked doors.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18836, 7053, 12737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 41 ], [ 51, 57 ], [ 99, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A capped ram is a battering ram that has an accessory at the head (usually made of iron or steel and sometimes punningly shaped into the head and horns of an ovine ram) to do more damage to a building. It was much more effective at destroying enemy walls and buildings than an uncapped ram but was heavier to carry.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17158563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest depiction of a possible battering ram is from the tomb of the 11th Dynasty noble Khety, where a pair of soldiers advance towards a fortress under the protection of a mobile roofed structure, carrying a long pole that may represent a simple battering ram.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 997320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Iron Age, in the ancient Middle East and Mediterranean, the battering ram's log was slung from a wheeled frame by ropes or chains so that it could be made more massive and be more easily bashed against its target. Frequently, the ram's point would be reinforced with a metal head or cap while vulnerable parts of the shaft were bound with strengthening metal bands. Vitruvius details in his text De architectura that Ceras the Carthaginian was the first to make a ram with a wooden base with wheels and a wooden superstructure, with the ram hung within. This structure moved so slowly, however, that he called it the testudo (Latin for \"tortoise\").", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 14711, 32794, 1972288, 6555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 377, 386 ], [ 407, 422 ], [ 438, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another type of ram was one that maintained the normal shape and structure, but the support beams were instead made of saplings that were lashed together. The frame was then covered in hides as normal to defend from fire. The only solid beam present was the ram that was hung from the frame. The frame itself was so light that it could be carried on the shoulders of the men transporting the ram, and the same men could beat the ram against the wall when they reached it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many battering rams had curved or slanted wooden roofs and side-screens, covered in protective materials, usually fresh wet hides. These canopies reduced the risk of the ram being set on fire, and protected the operators of the ram from arrow and spear volleys launched from above.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An image of an Assyrian battering ram depicts how sophisticated attacking and defensive practices had become by the 9th century BC. The defenders of a town wall are trying to set the ram alight with torches and have also put a chain under it. The attackers are trying to pull on the chain to free the ram, while the aforementioned wet hides on the canopy provide protection against the flames.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 2085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the time the Kushites made their incursions into Egypt, around 715 BC, walls, siege tactics and equipment had undergone many changes. Early shelters protecting sappers armed with poles trying to breach mudbrick ramparts gave way to battering rams.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 21624273, 262426, 140612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 24 ], [ 163, 170 ], [ 205, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first confirmed use of rams in the Occident happened from 503 to 502 BC when Opiter Verginius became consul of the Romans during the fight against Aurunci people:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 26310737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The second known use was in 427 BC, when the Spartans besieged Plataea. The first use of rams within the Mediterranean Basin, featuring in this case the simultaneous employment of siege towers to shelter the rammers from attack, occurred on the island of Sicily in 409 BC, at the Selinus siege.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 36487, 182066, 28837, 27619, 44922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 51 ], [ 63, 70 ], [ 180, 192 ], [ 255, 261 ], [ 280, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Defenders manning castles, forts or bastions would sometimes try to foil battering rams by dropping obstacles in front of the ram, such as a large sack of sawdust, just before the ram's head struck a wall or gate, or by using grappling hooks to immobilize the ram's log. Alternatively, the ram could be set ablaze, doused in fire-heated sand, pounded by boulders dropped from battlements or invested by a rapid sally of troops.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some battering rams were not slung from ropes or chains, but were instead supported by rollers. This allowed the ram to achieve a greater speed before striking its target, making it more destructive. Such a ram, as used by Alexander the Great, is described by Vitruvius.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alternatives to the battering ram included the drill, the sapper's mouse, the pick, the siege hook, and the hunting ram. These devices were smaller than a ram and could be used in confined spaces.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Design", "target_page_ids": [ 205126, 3004048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 52 ], [ 88, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Battering rams had an important effect on the evolution of defensive walls, which were constructed ever more ingeniously in a bid to nullify the effects of siege engines. Historical instances of the usage of battering rams in sieges of major cities include:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable sieges", "target_page_ids": [ 26905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable sieges", "target_page_ids": [ 1399139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Crusades", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable sieges", "target_page_ids": [ 4412145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Sack of Rome (410)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable sieges", "target_page_ids": [ 3162376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The various sieges of Constantinople", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable sieges", "target_page_ids": [ 1388504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a popular myth in Gloucester, England that the well known children's rhyme, Humpty Dumpty, is about a battering ram used in the siege of Gloucester in 1643, during the Civil War. However, the story is almost certainly untrue; during the siege, which lasted only one month, no battering rams were used, although many cannons were. The idea seems to have originated in a spoof history essay by Professor David Daube written for The Oxford Magazine in 1956, which was widely believed despite obvious improbabilities (e.g., planning to cross the River Severn by running the ram down a hill at speed, although the river is about 30 m (100 feet) wide at this point).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Notable sieges", "target_page_ids": [ 65370, 45915, 9709, 21308429, 50807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 37 ], [ 85, 98 ], [ 177, 186 ], [ 435, 454 ], [ 551, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis historia describes a battering ram used in mining, where hard rock needed to be broken down to release the ore. The pole possessed a metal tip weighing 150 pounds, so the whole device will have weighed at least twice as much in order to preserve its balance. Whether or not it was supported by being suspended with ropes from a frame remains unknown, but very likely given its total weight. Such devices were used during coal mining in the 19th century in Great Britain before the widespread use of explosives, which were expensive and dangerous to use in practice.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Use in mining", "target_page_ids": [ 44920, 74215, 22595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 23, 41 ], [ 140, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Battering rams still have a use in modern times. Police forces often employ small, one-man or two-man metal rams, known as enforcers, for forcing open locked portals or effecting a door breaching. Modern battering rams sometimes incorporate a cylinder, along the length of which a piston fires automatically upon striking a hard object, thus enhancing the momentum of the impact significantly.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern use", "target_page_ids": [ 18775925, 15618180, 859284, 24776, 20431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 132 ], [ 181, 195 ], [ 243, 251 ], [ 281, 287 ], [ 356, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aerial ramming - In military aviation, deliberately causing a mid-air collision to attack an opposing aircraft", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 29136350, 7281229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 62, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Impact (mechanics)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2325044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of siege engines", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 53979561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Naval ram - A battering ram-like device fitted to naval vessels, used to attack, disable and/or sink enemy ships", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7521579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ramming – various military and civil tactics", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2297825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ram-raiding – using a vehicle as an improvised battering ram to gain access to a building for the purpose of breaking and entering", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 523367, 170717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 109, 130 ] ] } ]

[ "Roman_siege_engines", "Medieval_siege_engines", "Siege_engines" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Charles I (early 1226/12277 January 1285), commonly called Charles of Anjou, was a member of the royal Capetian dynasty and the founder of the second House of Anjou. He was Count of Provence (1246–85) and Forcalquier (1246–48, 1256–85) in the Holy Roman Empire, Count of Anjou and Maine (1246–85) in France; he was also King of Sicily (1266–85) and Prince of Achaea (1278–85). In 1272, he was proclaimed King of Albania, and in 1277 he purchased a claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6279, 10518745, 526853, 15925654, 13277, 263162, 867820, 79105, 1286012, 1947652, 16822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 119 ], [ 143, 164 ], [ 173, 190 ], [ 205, 216 ], [ 243, 260 ], [ 262, 276 ], [ 281, 286 ], [ 320, 334 ], [ 349, 365 ], [ 404, 419 ], [ 461, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The youngest son of Louis VIII of France and Blanche of Castile, Charles was destined for a Church career until the early 1240s. He acquired Provence and Forcalquier through his marriage to their heiress, Beatrice. His attempts to restore central authority brought him into conflict with his mother-in-law, Beatrice of Savoy, and the nobility. Charles received Anjou and Maine from his brother, Louis IX of France, in appanage. He accompanied Louis during the Seventh Crusade to Egypt. Shortly after he returned to Provence in 1250, Charles forced three wealthy autonomous citiesMarseilles, Arles and Avignonto acknowledge his suzerainty.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 79596, 151743, 9193189, 5263517, 18549, 266499, 333151, 20738544, 40888948, 79494, 38166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 40 ], [ 45, 63 ], [ 205, 213 ], [ 307, 324 ], [ 395, 413 ], [ 418, 426 ], [ 460, 475 ], [ 479, 484 ], [ 579, 589 ], [ 591, 596 ], [ 601, 608 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles supported Margaret II, Countess of Flanders and Hainaut, against her eldest son, John, in exchange for Hainaut in 1253. Two years later Louis IX persuaded him to renounce the county, but compensated him by instructing Margaret to pay him 160,000 marks. Charles forced the rebellious Provençal nobles and towns into submission and expanded his suzerainty over a dozen towns and lordships in the Kingdom of Arles. In 1263, after years of negotiations, he accepted the offer of the Holy See to seize the Kingdom of Sicily from the Hohenstaufens. This kingdom included, in addition to the island of Sicily, southern Italy to well north of Naples and was known as the Regno. Pope Urban IV declared a crusade against the incumbent Manfred of Sicily and assisted Charles in raising funds for the military campaign.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 357251, 690954, 690885, 31038410, 48503, 2891230, 13393, 641373, 13805, 27619, 24286, 182789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 63 ], [ 89, 93 ], [ 111, 118 ], [ 254, 259 ], [ 291, 300 ], [ 402, 418 ], [ 487, 495 ], [ 509, 526 ], [ 536, 549 ], [ 603, 609 ], [ 678, 691 ], [ 733, 750 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles was crowned king in Rome on 5 January 1266. He annihilated Manfred's army and occupied the Regno almost without resistance. His victory over Manfred's young nephew, Conradin, at the Battle of Tagliacozzo in 1268 strengthened his rule. In 1270 he took part in the Eighth Crusade organized by Louis IX, and forced the Hafsid Caliph of Tunis to pay a yearly tribute to him. Charles's victories secured his undisputed leadership among the Papacy's Italian partisans (known as Guelphs), but his influence on papal elections and his strong military presence in Italy disturbed the popes. They tried to channel his ambitions towards other territories and assisted him in acquiring claims to Achaea, Jerusalem and Arles through treaties. In 1281 Pope Martin IV authorised Charles to launch a crusade against the Byzantine Empire. Charles's ships were gathering at Messina, ready to begin the campaign when the Sicilian Vespers rebellion broke out on 30March 1282 which put an end to Charles's rule on the island of Sicily. He was able to defend the mainland territories (or the Kingdom of Naples) with the support of France and the Holy See. Charles died while making preparations for an invasion of Sicily.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 73334, 147895, 3184123, 106163, 1289726, 327356, 827717, 23936, 16972981, 59705, 298353, 258779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 81 ], [ 173, 181 ], [ 190, 211 ], [ 271, 285 ], [ 324, 346 ], [ 480, 487 ], [ 511, 525 ], [ 746, 760 ], [ 812, 828 ], [ 864, 871 ], [ 910, 926 ], [ 1078, 1095 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles was the youngest child of King Louis VIII of France and Blanche of Castile. The date of his birth has not survived, but he was probably a posthumous son, born in early 1227. Charles was his only surviving son to be \"born in the purple\" (after his father's coronation), a fact he often emphasised in his youth, as the contemporaneous chronicler Matthew Paris noted in his . He was the first Capetian to be named for Charlemagne.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 79596, 151743, 17416907, 19842539, 7507, 142738, 1680861, 5314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 59 ], [ 64, 82 ], [ 146, 156 ], [ 224, 242 ], [ 341, 351 ], [ 352, 365 ], [ 398, 403 ], [ 423, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis VIII died in November 1226 and his eldest son, Louis IX, succeeded him. The late King willed that his youngest sons were to be prepared for a career in the Roman Catholic Church. The details of Charles's tuition are unknown, but he received a good education. He understood the principal Catholic doctrines and could identify errors in Latin texts. His passion for poetry, medical sciences and law is well documented.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 18549, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 61 ], [ 162, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles said that their mother had a strong impact on her children's education. In reality, Blanche was fully engaged in state administration, and could likely spare little time for her youngest children. Charles lived at the court of a brother, Robert I, Count of Artois, from 1237. About four years later he was put into the care of his youngest brother, Alphonse, Count of Poitiers. His participation in his brothers' military campaign against Hugh X of Lusignan, Count of La Marche, in 1242 showed that he was no longer destined for a Church career.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 1224592, 1878, 2524816, 1620743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 271 ], [ 357, 384 ], [ 447, 465 ], [ 467, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Raymond Berengar V of Provence died in August 1245, bequeathing Provence and Forcalquier to his youngest daughter, Beatrice, allegedly because he had given generous dowries to her three sisters. The dowries were actually not fully discharged, causing two of her sisters, Margaret (Louis IX's wife) and Eleanor (the wife of Henry III of England), to believe that they had been unlawfully disinherited. Their mother, Beatrice of Savoy, claimed that Raymond Berengar had willed the usufruct of Provence to her.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 1321541, 526853, 15925654, 9193189, 234516, 511471, 228551, 46591, 5263517, 900357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ], [ 64, 72 ], [ 77, 88 ], [ 115, 123 ], [ 165, 172 ], [ 271, 279 ], [ 302, 309 ], [ 323, 343 ], [ 415, 432 ], [ 479, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Hohenstaufen Emperor Frederick II (whom Pope Innocent IV had recently excommunicated for his alleged \"crimes against the Church\"), Count Raymond VII of Toulouse and other neighbouring rulers proposed themselves or their sons as husbands for the young Countess. Her mother put her under the protection of the Holy See. Louis IX and Margaret suggested that Beatrice should be given in marriage to Charles. To secure the support of France against Frederick II, Pope Innocent IV accepted their proposal. Charles hurried to Aix-en-Provence at the head of an army to prevent other suitors from invading Provence, and married Beatrice on 31January 1246. Provence was a part of the Kingdom of Arles and so of the Holy Roman Empire, but Charles never swore fealty to the emperor. He ordered a survey of the counts' rights and revenues, outraging both his subjects and his mother-in-law, who regarded this action as an attack against her rights.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 13805, 68974, 24430, 28394423, 1131943, 79495, 2891230, 13277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 17, 37 ], [ 44, 60 ], [ 74, 88 ], [ 135, 164 ], [ 523, 538 ], [ 678, 694 ], [ 709, 726 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Being a younger child, destined for a church career, Charles had not received an appanage (a hereditary county or duchy) from his father. Louis VIII had willed that his fourth son, John, should receive Anjou and Maine upon reaching the age of majority, but John died in 1232. Louis IX knighted Charles at Melun in May 1246 and three months later bestowed Anjou and Maine on him. Charles rarely visited his two counties and appointed baillies (or regents) to administer them.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 266499, 24213451, 867820, 145708, 1809318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 89 ], [ 202, 207 ], [ 212, 217 ], [ 305, 310 ], [ 433, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Charles was absent from Provence, Marseilles, Arles and Avignonthree wealthy cities, directly subject to the emperorformed a league and appointed a Provençal nobleman, Barral of Baux, as the commander of their combined armies. Charles's mother-in-law put the disobedient Provençals under her protection. Charles could not deal with the rebels as he was about to join his brother's crusade. To pacify his mother-in-law he acknowledged her right to rule Forcalquier and granted a third of his revenues from Provence to her.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 40888948, 79494, 38166, 2134046, 333151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 50 ], [ 52, 57 ], [ 62, 69 ], [ 174, 188 ], [ 373, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 1244 Louis IX took a vow to lead a crusade. Ignoring their mother's strong opposition, his three brothersRobert, Alphonse and Charlesalso took the cross. Preparations for the crusade lasted for years, with the crusaders embarking at Aigues-Mortes on 25August 1248. After spending several months in Cyprus they invaded Egypt on 5June 1249. They captured Damietta and decided to attack Cairo in November. During their advance Louis's biographer Jean de Joinville noted Charles's personal courage which saved dozens of crusaders' lives. Robert of Artois died fighting against the Egyptians at Al Mansurah. His three brothers survived, but they had to abandon the campaign. While withdrawing from Egypt, they fell into captivity on 6April 1250. The Egyptians released Louis, Charles and Alphonse in exchange of 800,000 bezants and the surrender of Damietta on 6May. During their voyage to Acre, Charles outraged Louis by gambling while the king was mourning Robert's death. Louis remained in the Holy Land, but Charles returned to France in October 1250.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 83317, 256586, 377373, 379680, 6293, 106530, 6109248, 1098309, 55690, 148545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 258 ], [ 310, 316 ], [ 330, 335 ], [ 365, 373 ], [ 396, 401 ], [ 455, 472 ], [ 568, 613 ], [ 827, 833 ], [ 897, 901 ], [ 1004, 1013 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles's officers continued the survey of the counts' rights and revenues in Provence, provoking a new rebellion during his absence. On his return he applied both diplomacy and military force to deal with them. The Archbishop of Arles and the Bishop of Digne ceded their secular rights in the two towns to Charles in 1250. He received military assistance from his brother, Alphonse. Arles was the first town to surrender to them in April 1251. In May they forced Avignon to acknowledge their joint rule. A month later Barral of Baux also capitulated. Marseilles was the only town to resist for several months, but it also sought peace in July 1252. Its burghers acknowledged Charles as their lord, but retained their self-governing bodies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 5796259, 5291203, 55373369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 235 ], [ 244, 259 ], [ 654, 662 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles's officials continued to ascertain his rights, visiting each town and holding public enquiries to obtain information about all claims. The count's salt monopoly (or ) was introduced in the whole county. Income from the salt trade made up about 50% of state revenues by the late 1250s. Charles abolished local tolls and promoted shipbuilding and grain trade. He ordered the issue of new coins, called , to enable the use of the local currency in smaller transactions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 4001289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 353, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emperor Frederick II, who was also the ruler of Sicily, died in 1250. The Kingdom of Sicily, also known as the Regno, included the island of Sicily and southern Italy nearly as far as Rome. Pope Innocent IV claimed that the Regno had reverted to the Holy See. The Pope first offered it to Richard of Cornwall, but Richard did not want to fight against Frederick's son, Conrad IV of Germany. Then the Pope proposed to enfeoff Charles with the kingdom. Charles sought instructions from Louis IX, who forbade him to accept the offer, because he regarded Conrad as the lawful ruler. After Charles informed the Holy See on 30October 1253 that he would not accept the Regno, the Pope offered it to Edmund of Lancaster.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 641373, 79695, 182758, 1835106, 433508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 91 ], [ 289, 308 ], [ 369, 389 ], [ 417, 424 ], [ 692, 711 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Queen Blanche, who had administered France during Louis' crusade, died on 1December 1252. Louis made Alphonse and Charles co-regents, so that he could remain in the Holy Land. Margaret II, Countess of Flanders and Hainaut had come into conflict with her son by her first marriage, John of Avesnes. After her sons by her second marriage were captured in July 1253, she needed foreign assistance to secure their release. Ignoring Louis IX's 1246 ruling that Hainaut should pass to John, she promised the county to Charles. He accepted the offer and invaded Hainaut, forcing most local noblemen to swear fealty to him. After his return to France, Louis IX insisted that his ruling was to be respected. In November 1255 he ordered Charles to restore Hainaut to Margaret, but her sons were obliged to swear fealty to Charles. Louis also ruled that she was to pay 160,000 marks to Charles over the following 13 years.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 357251, 5849394, 690954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 221 ], [ 236, 257 ], [ 281, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles returned to Provence, which had again become restive. His mother-in-law continued to support the rebellious Boniface of Castellane and his allies, but Louis IX persuaded her to return Forcalquier to Charles and relinquish her claims for a lump sum payment from Charles and a pension from Louis in November 1256. A coup by Charles's supporters in Marseilles resulted in the surrender of all political powers there to his officials. Charles continued to expand his power along the borders of Provence in the next four years. He received territories in the Lower Alps from the Dauphin of Vienne. Raymond I of Baux, Count of Orange, ceded the title of regent of the Kingdom of Arles to him. The burghers of Cuneoa town strategically located on the routes from Provence to Lombardysought Charles's protection against Asti in July 1259. Alba, Cherasco, Savigliano and other nearby towns acknowledged his rule. The rulers of Mondovì, Ceva, Biandrate and Saluzzo did homage to him.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 15160368, 834058, 256250, 961045, 45743, 961156, 6555034, 4069254, 1070443, 24467483, 6523282, 4954648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 138 ], [ 582, 599 ], [ 620, 635 ], [ 711, 716 ], [ 820, 824 ], [ 839, 843 ], [ 845, 853 ], [ 855, 865 ], [ 926, 933 ], [ 935, 939 ], [ 941, 950 ], [ 955, 962 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emperor Frederick II's illegitimate son, Manfred, had been crowned king of Sicily in 1258. After the English barons had announced that they opposed a war against Manfred, Pope Alexander IV annulled the 1253 grant of Sicily to Edmund of Lancaster. Alexander's successor, Pope Urban IV, was determined to put an end to the Emperor's rule in Italy. He sent his notary, Albert of Parma, to Paris to negotiate with Louis IX for Charles to be placed on the Sicilian throne. Charles met with the Pope's envoy in early 1262.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 182789, 23787, 24286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 48 ], [ 171, 188 ], [ 270, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Taking advantage of Charles's absence, Boniface of Castellane stirred up a new revolt in Provence. The burghers of Marseilles expelled Charles's officials, but Barral of Baux stopped the spread of the rebellion before Charles's return. Charles renounced Ventimiglia in favour of the Republic of Genoa to secure her neutrality. He defeated the rebels and forced Castellane into exile. The mediation of James I of Aragon brought about a settlement with Marseilles: its fortifications were dismantled and the townspeople surrendered their arms, but the town retained its autonomy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 1355570, 559961, 63332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 254, 265 ], [ 283, 300 ], [ 401, 418 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis IX decided to support Charles's military campaign in Italy in May 1263. Pope Urban IV promised to proclaim a crusade against Manfred, while Charles pledged that he would not accept any offices in the Italian towns. Manfred staged a coup in Rome, but the Guelphs elected Charles senator (or the head of the civil government of Rome). He accepted the office, at which a group of cardinals requested that the Pope revoke the agreement with him, but the Pope, being otherwise defenceless against Manfred, could not break with Charles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 327356, 42352556, 6221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 260, 267 ], [ 284, 291 ], [ 383, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the spring of 1264 Cardinals Simon of Brie and Guy Foulquois were sent to France to reach a compromise and start raising support for the crusade. Charles sent troops to Rome to protect the Pope against Manfred's allies. At Foulquois' request, Charles's sister-in-law Margaret (who had not abandoned her claims to her dowry) pledged that she would not take actions against Charles during his absence. Foulquois also persuaded the French and Provençal prelates to offer financial support for the crusade. Pope Urban died before the final agreement was concluded. Charles made arrangements for his campaign against Sicily during the interregnum; he concluded agreements to secure his army's route across Lombardy and had the leaders of the Provençal rebels executed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 23936, 24101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 45 ], [ 50, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Foulquois was elected pope in February 1265; he soon confirmed Charles's senatorship and urged him to come to Rome. Charles agreed that he would hold the Kingdom of Sicily as the popes' vassal for an annual tribute of 8,000 ounces of gold. He also promised that he would never seek the imperial title. He embarked at Marseilles on 10May and landed at Ostia ten days later. He was installed as senator on 21June and four cardinals invested him with the Regno a week later. To finance further military actions he borrowed money from Italian bankers with the Pope's assistance, who had authorised him to pledge Church property. Five cardinals crowned him king of Sicily on 5January 1266. The crusaders from France and Provencereportedly 6,000 fully equipped mounted warriors, 600 mounted bowmen and 20,000 foot soldiersarrived in Rome ten days later.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 8853247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 351, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles decided to invade southern Italy without delay, because he was unable to finance a lengthy campaign. He left Rome on 20January 1266. He marched towards Naples, but changed his strategy after learning of a muster of Manfred's forces near Capua. He led his troops across the Apennines towards Benevento. Manfred also hurried to the town and reached it before Charles. Worried that further delays might endanger his subjects' loyalty, Manfred attacked Charles's army, then in disarray from the crossing of the hills, on 26February 1266. In the ensuing battle, Manfred's army was defeated and he was killed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 55880, 75845, 200366, 73336, 73334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 166 ], [ 245, 250 ], [ 281, 290 ], [ 299, 308 ], [ 549, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Resistance throughout the Regno collapsed and towns surrendered even before Charles's troops reached them. The Saracens of Lucera – a Muslim colony established during Frederick II's reign – paid homage to him. His commander, Philip of Montfort, took control of the island of Sicily. Manfred's widow, Helena of Epirus, and their children were captured. Charles laid claim to her dowry – the island of Corfu and the region of Durazzo (now Durrës in Albania) – by right of conquest. His troops seized Corfu before the end of the year.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 46689, 2994697, 23296839, 2123518, 27619, 9729822, 45462, 263530, 738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 118 ], [ 123, 129 ], [ 134, 187 ], [ 225, 243 ], [ 275, 281 ], [ 300, 316 ], [ 400, 405 ], [ 437, 443 ], [ 447, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles was lenient with Manfred's supporters, but they did not believe that this conciliatory policy could last. They knew that he had promised to return estates to the Guelph lords expelled from the Regno. Neither could Charles gain the commoners' loyalty, partly because he continued enforcing the despite the popes declaring it an illegal charge. He introduced a ban on the use of foreign currency in large transactions and made a profit of the compulsory exchange of foreign coinage for locally minted currency. He also traded in grain, spices and sugar, through a joint venture with Pisan merchants.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pope Clement censured Charles for his methods of state administration, describing him as an arrogant and obstinate monarch. The consolidation of Charles's power in northern Italy also alarmed Clement. To appease the Pope, Charles resigned his senatorship in May 1267. His successors, Conrad Monaldeschi and Luca Savelli, demanded the re-payment of the money that Charles and the Pope had borrowed from the Romans.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 13286279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 307, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Victories by the Ghibellines, the imperial family's supporters, forced the Pope to ask Charles to send his troops to Tuscany. Charles's troops ousted the Ghibellines from Florence in April 1267. After being elected the Podestà (ruler) of Florence and Lucca for seven years, Charles hurried to Tuscany. Charles's expansionism along the Papal States's borders alarmed Pope Clement and he decided to change the direction of Charles's ambitions. The Pope summoned him to Viterbo, forcing him to promise that he would abandon all claims to Tuscany in three years. He persuaded Charles to conclude agreements with William of Villehardouin, Prince of Achaea, and the titular Latin Emperor Baldwin II in late May. According to the first treaty, Villehardouin acknowledged Charles's suzerainty and made Charles's younger son, Philip, his heir, also stipulating that Charles would inherit Achaea if Philip died childless. Baldwin confirmed the first agreement and renounced his claims to suzerainty over his vassals in favour of Charles. Charles pledged that he would assist Baldwin in recapturing Constantinople from the Byzantine emperor, Michael VIII Palaiologos, in exchange for one third of the conquered lands.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 327356, 21967242, 11525, 793425, 46169, 59534, 92898, 5780846, 817468, 1286012, 21758229, 144677, 46919234, 72337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 28 ], [ 117, 124 ], [ 171, 179 ], [ 219, 226 ], [ 251, 256 ], [ 335, 347 ], [ 467, 474 ], [ 583, 602 ], [ 608, 632 ], [ 634, 650 ], [ 668, 681 ], [ 682, 692 ], [ 817, 823 ], [ 1131, 1155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles returned to Tuscany and laid siege to the fortress of Poggibonsi, but it did not fall until the end of November. Manfred's staunchest supporters had meanwhile fled to Bavaria to attempt to persuade Conrad IV's 15-year-old son Conradin to assert his hereditary right to the Kingdom of Sicily. After Conradin accepted their proposal, Manfred's former vicar in Sicily, Conrad Capece, returned to the island and stirred up a revolt. At Capece's request Muhammad I al-Mustansir, the Hafsid caliph of Tunis, allowed Manfred's former ally, Frederick of Castile, to invade Sicily from North Africa. Frederick's brother, Henrywho had been elected senator of Romealso offered support to Conradin. Henry had been Charles's friend, but Charles had failed to repay a loan to him.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 147895, 15261920, 1289726, 3871183, 1741592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 234, 242 ], [ 457, 480 ], [ 486, 508 ], [ 541, 561 ], [ 620, 625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conradin left Bavaria in September 1267. His supporters' revolt was spreading from Sicily to Calabria; the Saracens of Lucera also rose up. Pope Clement urged Charles to return to the Regno, but he continued his campaign in Tuscany until March 1268, when he met with the Pope. In April, the Pope made Charles imperial vicar of Tuscany \"during the vacancy of the empire\", a move of dubious legality. Charles marched to southern Italy and laid siege to Lucera, but he then had to hurry north to prevent Conradin's invasion of Abruzzo in late August. At the Battle of Tagliacozzo, on 23August 1268, it appeared that Conradin had won the day, but a sudden charge by Charles's reserve routed Conradin's army.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 11071897, 79460, 3184123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 309, 323 ], [ 524, 531 ], [ 555, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The burghers of Potenza, Aversa and other towns in Basilicata and Apulia massacred their fellows who had agitated on Conradin's behalf, but the Sicilians and the Saracens of Lucera did not surrender. Charles marched to Rome where he was again elected senator in September. He appointed new officials to administer justice and collect state revenues. New coins bearing his name were struck. During the following decade, Rome was ruled by Charles's vicars, each appointed for one year.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 4647921, 1118228, 95873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 23 ], [ 25, 31 ], [ 51, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conradin was captured at Torre Astura. Most of his retainers were summarily executed, but Conradin and his friend, Frederick I, Margrave of Baden, were brought to trial for robbery and treason in Naples. They were sentenced to death and beheaded on 29October. Conrad of Antioch was Conradin's only partisan to be released, but only after his wife threatened to execute the Guelph lords she held captive in her castle. The Ghibelline noblemen of the Regno fled to the court of Peter III of Aragon, who had married Manfred's daughter, Constance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Wider ambitions", "target_page_ids": [ 2892218, 148218, 55262045, 65621, 7991787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 37 ], [ 115, 145 ], [ 260, 277 ], [ 476, 495 ], [ 533, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles's wife, Beatrice of Provence, had died in July 1267. The widowed Charles married Margaret of Nevers in November 1268. She was co-heiress to her father, Odo, the eldest son of Hugh IV, Duke of Burgundy. Pope Clement died on 29November 1268. The papal vacancy lasted for three years, which strengthened Charles's authority in Italy, but it also deprived him of the ecclesiastic support that only a pope could provide.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 9192332, 628885, 628863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 107 ], [ 160, 163 ], [ 183, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles returned to Lucera to personally direct its siege in April 1269. The Saracens and the Ghibellines who had escaped to the town resisted until starvation forced them to surrender in August 1269. Charles sent Philip and Guy of Montfort to Sicily to force the rebels there into submission, but they could only capture Augusta. Charles made William l'Estandart the commander of the army in Sicily in August 1269. L'Estandart captured Agrigento, forcing Frederick of Castile and Frederick Lancia to seek refuge in Tunis. After L'Estandart's subsequent victory at Sciacca, only Capece resisted, but he also had to surrender in early 1270.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 1585898, 4624189, 45105, 923216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 240 ], [ 322, 329 ], [ 437, 446 ], [ 565, 572 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles's troops forced Siena and Pisathe last towns to resist him in Tuscanyto sue for peace in August 1270. He granted privileges to the Tuscan merchants and bankers which strengthened their position in the Regno. His influence was declining in Lombardy, because the Lombard towns no longer feared an invasion from Germany after Conradin's death. In May 1269 Charles sent Walter of La Roche to represent him in the province, but this failed to strengthen his authority. In October Charles's officials convoked an assembly at Cremona, and invited the Lombard towns to attend. The Lombard towns accepted the invitation, but some townsMilan, Bologna, Alessandria and Tortonaonly confirmed their alliance with Charles, without acknowledging his rule.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Louis IX never abandoned the idea of the liberation of Jerusalem, but he decided to begin his new crusade with a military campaign against Tunis. According to his confessor, Geoffrey of Beaulieu, Louis was convinced that al-Mustansir of Tunis was ready to convert to Christianity. The 13th-century historian Saba Malaspina stated that Charles persuaded Louis to attack Tunis, because he wanted to secure the payment of the tribute that the rulers of Tunis had paid to the former Sicilian monarchs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 24199212, 69865765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 194 ], [ 308, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The French crusaders embarked at Aigues-Mortes on 2July 1270; Charles departed from Naples six days later. He spent more than a month in Sicily, waiting for his fleet. By the time he landed at Tunis on 25August, dysentery and typhoid fever had decimated the French army. Louis died the day Charles arrived.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 63764, 31596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 212, 221 ], [ 226, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The crusaders twice defeated Al-Mustansir's army, forcing him to sue for peace. According to the peace treaty, signed on 1November, Al-Mustansir agreed to fully compensate Louis' son and successor, Philip III of France, and Charles for the expenses of the military campaign and to release his Christian prisoners. He also promised to pay a yearly tribute to Charles and to expel Charles's opponents from Tunis. The gold from Tunis, along with silver from the newly opened mine at Longobucco, enabled Charles to mint new coins, known as , in the Regno.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 78438, 6292750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 218 ], [ 480, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles and Philip departed Tunis on 10November. A storm dispersed their fleet at Trapani and most of Charles's galleys were lost or damaged. Genoese ships returning from the crusade were also sunk or forced to land in Sicily. Charles seized the damaged ships and their cargo, ignoring all protests from the Ghibelline authorities of Genoa. Before leaving Sicily he granted temporary tax concessions to the Sicilians, because he realised that the conquest of the island had caused much destruction.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 44778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles accompanied Philip III as far as Viterbo in March 1271. Here they failed to convince the cardinals to elect a new pope. Charles's brother, Alphonse of Poitiers, fell ill. Charles sent his best doctors to cure him, but Alphonse died. He claimed the major part of Alphonse's inheritance, including the Marquisate of Provence and the County of Poitiers, because he was Alphonse's nearest kin. After Philip III objected, he took the case to the Parlement of Paris. In 1284 the court ruled that appanages escheated to the French crown if their rulers died without descendants.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 526853, 7178356, 1921026, 766191, 175519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 308, 330 ], [ 339, 357 ], [ 385, 396 ], [ 449, 458 ], [ 508, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An earthquake destroyed the walls of Durazzo in the late 1260s or early 1270s. Charles's troops took possession of the town with the assistance of the leaders of the nearby Albanian communities. Charles concluded an agreement with the Albanian chiefs, promising to protect them and their ancient liberties in February 1272. He adopted the title of King of Albania and appointed Gazzo Chinardo as his vicar-general. He also sent his fleet to Achaea to defend the principality against Byzantine attacks.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 606577, 31912789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 348, 363 ], [ 378, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles hurried to Rome to attend the enthronement of Pope Gregory X on 27March 1272. The new pope was determined to put an end to the conflicts between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines. While in Rome Charles met with the Guelph leaders who had been exiled from Genoa. After they offered him the office of captain of the people, Charles promised military assistance to them. In November 1272 Charles commanded his officials to take prisoner all Genoese within his territories, except for the Guelphs, and to seize their property. His fleet occupied Ajaccio in Corsica. Pope Gregory condemned his aggressive policy, but proposed that the Genoese should elect Guelph officials. Ignoring the Pope's proposal, the Genoese made alliance with Alfonso X of Castile, William VII of Montferrat and the Ghibelline towns of Lombardy in October 1273.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 24199, 32633002, 2640, 8835342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 68 ], [ 305, 326 ], [ 548, 555 ], [ 758, 783 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The conflict with Genoa prevented Charles from invading the Byzantine Empire, but he continued to forge alliances in the Balkan Peninsula. The Bulgarian ruler, Konstantin Tih, was the first to conclude a treaty with him in 1272 or 1273. John I Doukas of Thessaly and Stefan Uroš I, King of Serbia, joined the coalition in 1273. However, Pope Gregory forbade Charles to attack, because he hoped to unify the Orthodox and Catholic churches with the assistance of Emperor Michael VIII.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 16972981, 2301361, 5443938, 326334, 61928, 10186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 76 ], [ 160, 174 ], [ 237, 262 ], [ 267, 280 ], [ 282, 296 ], [ 407, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The renowned theologian Thomas Aquinas died unexpectedly near Naples on 7March 1274, before departing to attend the Second Council of Lyon. According to a popular legend, immortalised by Dante Alighieri, Charles had him poisoned, because he feared that Aquinas would make complaint against him. The historian Steven Runciman emphasises that \"there is no evidence for supposing that the great doctor's death was not natural\". Southern Italian churchmen at the council accused Charles of tyrannical acts. Their report reinforced the Pope's attempt to reach a compromise with Rudolf of Habsburg, who had been elected king of Germany by the prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire. In June, the Pope acknowledged Rudolf as the lawful ruler of both Germany and Italy. Charles's sisters-in-law, Margaret and Eleanor, approached Rudolf, claiming that they had been unlawfully disinherited in favour of Charles's late wife.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 21490957, 796748, 8169, 761152, 45321, 14056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 38 ], [ 116, 138 ], [ 187, 202 ], [ 309, 324 ], [ 573, 591 ], [ 637, 651 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Michael VIII's personal envoy announced at the Council of Lyon on 6July that he had accepted the Catholic creed and papal primacy. About three weeks later, Pope Gregory again prohibited Charles from launching military actions against the Byzantine Empire. The Pope also tried to mediate a truce between Charles and Michael, but the latter chose to attack several smaller states in the Balkans, including Charles's vassals. The Byzantine fleet took control of the maritime routes between Albania and southern Italy in the late 1270s. Gregory only allowed Charles to send reinforcements to Achaea. The organisation of a new crusade to the Holy Land remained the Pope's principal object. He persuaded Charles to start negotiations with Maria of Antioch about purchasing her claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The High Court of Jerusalem had already rejected her in favour of Hugh III of Cyprus, but the Pope had a low opinion of Hugh.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 11110, 718929, 1943907, 16822, 754284, 392510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 111 ], [ 116, 129 ], [ 733, 749 ], [ 784, 804 ], [ 810, 833 ], [ 872, 890 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The war with Genoa and the Lombard towns increasingly occupied Charles's attention. He appointed his nephew Robert II of Artois as his deputy in Piedmont in October 1274, but Artois could not prevent Vercelli and Alessandria from joining the Ghibelline League. The following summer, a Genoese fleet plundered Trapani and the island of Gozo. Convinced that only Rudolf I could achieve a compromise between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, the Pope urged the Lombard towns to send envoys to him. He also urged Charles to renounce Tuscany. In the autumn of 1275 the Ghibellines offered to make peace with Charles, but he did not accept their terms. Early the next year the Ghibellines defeated his troops at Col de Tende, forcing them to withdraw to Provence.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 2644549, 726056, 26267696, 1915894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 127 ], [ 200, 208 ], [ 335, 339 ], [ 701, 713 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pope Gregory X died on 10January 1276. After the hostility he experienced during Gregory's pontificate, Charles was determined to secure the election of a pope willing to support his plans. Gregory's successor, Pope Innocent V, had always been Charles's partisan and he rapidly confirmed Charles as senator of Rome and imperial vicar of Tuscany. He also mediated a peace treaty between Charles and Genoa, which was signed in Rome on 22June 1276. Charles restored the privileges of the Genoese merchants and renounced his conquests, and the Genoese acknowledged his rule in Ventimiglia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 24434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pope Innocent died on 30June 1276. After the cardinals assembled in the Lateran Palace, Charles's troops surrounded it, enabling only his allies to communicate with other cardinals and with outsiders. On 11July the cardinals elected Charles's old friend, Ottobuono de' Fieschi, pope, but he died on 18August. The cardinals met again, this time at Viterbo. Although Charles was staying in the nearby Vetralla, he could not directly influence the election, because his vehement opponent, Cardinal Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, dominated the papal conclave. Pope John XXI, who was elected on 20September, excommunicated Charles's opponents in Piedmont and prohibited Rudolf from coming to Lombardy, but did not forbid the Lombardian Guelph leaders swearing fealty to Rudolf. The Pope also confirmed the treaty concluded by Charles and Maria of Antioch on 18March which transferred her claims to Jerusalem to Charles for 1,000 bezants and a pension of 4,000 .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 1078916, 23829, 45104, 827717, 23830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 86 ], [ 255, 276 ], [ 495, 518 ], [ 534, 548 ], [ 550, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles appointed Roger of San Severino to administer the Kingdom of Jerusalem as his bailiff. San Severino landed at Acre on 7June 1277. Hugh III's bailiff, Balian of Arsuf, surrendered the town without resistance. Although initially only the Knights Hospitaller and the Venetians acknowledged Charles as the lawful ruler, the barons of the realm also paid homage to San Severino in January 1278, after he had threatened to confiscate their estates. The Mamluks of Egypt had already confined the kingdom to a coastal strip covering and Charles had ordered San Severino to avoid conflicts with Egypt.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 7536030, 762798, 12259087, 8055956, 20738544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 39 ], [ 86, 93 ], [ 158, 173 ], [ 244, 263 ], [ 455, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pope John died on 20May 1277. Charles was ill and could not prevent the election of Giovanni Gaetano Orsini as Pope Nicholas III on 25November. The Pope soon declared that no foreign prince could rule in Rome and reminded Charles that he had been elected senator for ten years. Charles swore fealty to the new pope on 24May 1278 after lengthy negotiations. He had to pledge that he would renounce both the senatorship of Rome and the vicariate of Tuscany in four months. On the other hand, Nicholas III confirmed the excommunication of Charles's enemies in Piedmont and started negotiations with Rudolf to prevent him from making an alliance against Charles with Margaret of Provence and her nephew, Edward I of England. The negotiations with Rudolf lay behind Nicholas' refusal to renew Charles's vicariate in Tuscany, to which Rudolf had appointed his own vicar.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 46373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 700, 719 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles announced his resignation from the senatorship and the vicariate on 30August 1278. He was succeeded by the Pope's brother, Matteo Orsini, in Rome, and by the Pope's nephew, Cardinal Latino Malabranca, in Tuscany. To ensure that Charles fully abandoned his ambitions in central Italy the Pope started negotiations with Rudolf about the restoration of the Kingdom of Arles for Charles's grandson, Charles Martel. Margaret of Provence sharply opposed the plan, but Philip III of France did not stand by his mother. After lengthy negotiations, in the summer of 1279 Rudolf recognised Charles as the lawful ruler of Provence without demanding his oath of fealty. An agreement about Charles Martel's rule in Arles and his marriage to Rudolf's daughter, Clemence, was signed in May 1280. The plan disturbed the rulers of the lands along the Upper Rhone, especially Duke Robert II and Count Otto IV of Burgundy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 49037173, 673254, 20696138, 628887, 5285056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 144 ], [ 403, 417 ], [ 755, 763 ], [ 866, 880 ], [ 885, 910 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles had meanwhile inherited the Principality of Achaea from William II of Villehardouin, who had died on 1May 1278. He appointed the unpopular of Sicily, Galeran of Ivry, as his baillif in Achaea. Galeran could not pay his troops who started to pillage the peasants' homes. John I de la Roche, Duke of Athens, had to lend money to him to finance their salaries. Nicephoros I of Epirus acknowledged Charles's suzerainty on 14March 1279 to secure his assistance against the Byzantines. Nicephoros also ceded three townsButrinto, Sopotos and Panormosto Charles.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 310141, 7074416, 7768675, 310288, 5431238, 180394, 20485085, 24355141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 58 ], [ 159, 174 ], [ 279, 297 ], [ 299, 313 ], [ 367, 389 ], [ 522, 530 ], [ 532, 539 ], [ 544, 552 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pope Nicholas died on 22August 1280. Charles sent agents to Viterbo to promote the election of one of his supporters, taking advantage of the rift between the late Pope's relatives and other Italian cardinals. When a riot broke out in Viterbo, after the cardinals had not reached a decision for months, Charles's troops took control of the town. On 22February 1281 his staunchest supporter, Simon of Brie, was elected pope. Pope Martin IV dismissed his predecessor's relatives and made Charles the senator of Rome again. Guido I da Montefeltro rose up against the Pope, but Charles's troops under Jean d'Eppe stopped the spread of the rebellion at Forlì. Charles also sent an army to Piedmont, but Thomas I, Marquess of Saluzzo, annihilated it at Borgo San Dalmazzo in May.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 5508315, 55438908, 2072467, 25061, 4696353, 6554652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 521, 543 ], [ 597, 608 ], [ 648, 653 ], [ 684, 692 ], [ 698, 727 ], [ 747, 765 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pope Martin excommunicated Emperor Michael VIII on 10April 1281 because the Emperor had not imposed the Church union in his empire. The Pope soon authorised Charles to invade the empire. Charles's vicar in Albania, Hugh of Sully, had already laid siege to the Byzantine fortress of Berat. A Byzantine army of relief under Michael Tarchaneiotes and John Synadenos arrived in March 1281. Sully was ambushed and captured, his army put to flight and the interior of Albania was lost to the Byzantines. On 3July 1281 Charles and his son-in-law, Philip of Courtenay, the titular Latin emperor, made an alliance with Venice \"for the restoration of the Roman Empire\". They decided to start a full-scale campaign early the next year.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 13928027, 27476748, 27634969, 29032344, 2169927, 613492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 215, 228 ], [ 242, 287 ], [ 322, 343 ], [ 348, 362 ], [ 540, 559 ], [ 610, 616 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Margaret of Provence called Robert and Otto of Burgundy and other lords who held fiefs in the Kingdom of Arles to a meeting at Troyes in the autumn of 1281. They were willing to unite their troops to prevent Charles's army from taking possession of the kingdom, but Philip III of France strongly opposed his mother's plan and Edward I of England would not promise any assistance to them. Charles acknowledged that his wife held the County of Tonnerre and her other inherited estates as a Burgundian fief, which appeased Robert of Burgundy. Charles's ships started to assemble at Marseilles to sail up the Rhone in the spring of 1282. Another fleet was gathering at Messina to start the crusade against the Byzantine Empire.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mediterranean empire", "target_page_ids": [ 101607, 18964357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 133 ], [ 432, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Always in need of funds, Charles could not cancel the , although it was the most unpopular tax in the Regno. Instead he granted exemptions to individuals and communities, especially to the French and Provençal colonists, which increased the burden on those who did not enjoy such privileges. The yearly, or occasionally more frequent, obligatory exchange of the the coins almost exclusively used in local transactionswas also an important, and unpopular, source of revenue for the royal treasury. Charles took out forced loans whenever he needed \"immediately a large sum of money for certain arduous and pressing business\", as he explained in one of his decrees.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The empire's collapse", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Purveyances, the requisitioning of goods, increased the unpopularity of Charles's government in southern Italy and Sicily. His subjects were also liable to be forced to guard prisoners or lodge soldiers in their homes. The restoration of old fortresses, bridges and aqueducts and the building of new castles required the employment of craftsmen, although most of them were unwilling to participate in such lengthy projects. Thousands of people were forced to serve in the army in foreign lands, especially after 1279. Trading in salt was declared a royal monopoly. In December 1281, Charles again ordered the collection of the , requiring the payment of 150% of the customary amount.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The empire's collapse", "target_page_ids": [ 883036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles did not pay attention to the island of Sicily, although it had been the centre of resistance against him in 1268. He transferred the capital from Palermo to Naples. He did not visit the island after 1271, preventing Sicilians from directly informing him of their grievances. Sicilian noblemen were seldom employed as royal officials, although he often appointed their southern Italian peers to represent him in his other realms. Furthermore, having seized large estates on the island in the late 1260s Charles almost exclusively employed French and Provençal clerics to administer them.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The empire's collapse", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Popular stories credited John of ProcidaManfred of Sicily's former chancellorwith staging an international plot against Charles. Legend says that he visited Constantinople, Sicily and Viterbo in disguise in 1279 and 1280 to convince Michael VIII, the Sicilian barons and Pope Nicholas III to support a revolt. On the other hand, Michael VIII would later claim that he \"was God's instrument in bringing freedom to the Sicilians\" in his memoirs. The Emperor's wealth enabled him to send money to the discontented Sicilian barons. Peter III of Aragon decided to lay claim to the Kingdom of Sicily in late 1280: he did not hide his disdain when he met with Charles's son, Charles, Duke of Salerno, in Toulouse in December 1280. He began to assemble a fleet, ostensibly for another crusade to Tunis.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The empire's collapse", "target_page_ids": [ 5830792, 161745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 40 ], [ 668, 692 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rioting broke out in Sicily after a burgher of Palermo killed a drunken French soldier who had insulted his wife before the Church of the Holy Spirit on Easter Monday (30March), 1282. When the soldier's comrades attacked the murderer, the mob turned against them and started to massacre all the French in the town. The riot, known since the 16th century as the Sicilian Vespers, developed into an uprising and most of Charles's officials were killed or forced to flee the island. Charles ordered the transfer of soldiers and ships from Achaea to Sicily, but could not stop the spread of the revolt to Calabria. San Severino also had to return to Italy, accompanied by the major part of the garrison at Acre. Odo Poilechien, who succeeded him in Acre, had limited authority.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The empire's collapse", "target_page_ids": [ 18406599, 298353, 44772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 149 ], [ 361, 377 ], [ 601, 609 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The burghers of the major Sicilian towns established communes which sent delegates to Pope Martin, asking him to take them under the protection of the Holy See. Instead of accepting their offer, the Pope excommunicated the rebels on 7May. Charles issued an edict on 10June, accusing his officials of having ignored his instructions on good administration, but he failed to promise fundamental changes. In July he sailed to Sicily and laid siege to Messina.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The empire's collapse", "target_page_ids": [ 872631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peter III of Aragon's envoy, William of Castelnou, started negotiations with the rebels' leaders in Palermo. Realizing that they could not resist without foreign support, they acknowledged Peter and Constance as their king and queen. They appointed envoys to accompany Castelnou to Collo where the Aragonese fleet was assembling. After a short hesitation, Peter decided to intervene on the rebels' behalf and sailed to Sicily. He was declared king of Sicily at Palermo on 4September. Thereafter two realms, each ruled by a monarch styled king (or queen) of Sicily, coexisted for more than a century, with Charles and his successors ruling in southern Italy (known as the Kingdom of Naples) while Peter and his descendants ruled the island of Sicily.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The empire's collapse", "target_page_ids": [ 15102531, 258779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 282, 287 ], [ 671, 688 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the face of the Aragonese landing, Charles was compelled to withdraw from the island, but the Aragonese moved swiftly and destroyed part of his army and most of his baggage. Peter took control of the whole island and sent troops to Calabria, but they could not prevent Charles of Salerno from leading an army of 600 French knights to join his father at Reggio Calabria. Further French troops arrived under the command of Charles's nephews, Robert II of Artois and Peter of Alençon, in November. In the same month, the Pope excommunicated Peter.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The empire's collapse", "target_page_ids": [ 44942, 28184332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 356, 371 ], [ 467, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Neither Peter nor Charles could afford to wage a lengthy war. Charles made an astonishing proposal in late December 1282, challenging Peter to a judicial duel. Peter insisted that the war should be continued, but agreed that a battle between the two kings, each accompanied by 100 knights, should decide the possession of Sicily. The duel was set to take place at Bordeaux on 1June 1283, but they did not fix the hour. Charles appointed Charles of Salerno to administer the Regno during his absence. To secure the loyalty of the local lords in Achaea, he made one of their peers, Guy of Dramelay, baillif. Pope Martin declared the war against the Sicilians a crusade on 13January 1283. Charles met with the Pope in Viterbo on 9 March, but he ignored the Pope's ban on his duel with Peter of Aragon. After visiting Provence and Paris in April, he left for Bordeaux to meet with Peter. The duel turned into a farce; the two kings each arriving at different times on the same day, declaring a victory over their absent opponent, and departing.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The empire's collapse", "target_page_ids": [ 259407, 4097, 39890092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 158 ], [ 364, 372 ], [ 580, 595 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Skirmishes and raids continued to occur in southern Italy. Aragonese guerillas attacked Catona and killed Peter of Alençon in January 1283; the Aragonese seized Reggio Calabria in February; and the Sicilian admiral, Roger of Lauria, annihilated a newly raised Provençal fleet at Malta in April. However, tensions arose between the Aragonese and the Sicilians and in May 1283 one of the leaders of the anti-Angevin rebellion, Walter of Caltagirone, was executed for his secret correspondence with Charles's agents. Pope Martin declared the war against Aragon a crusade and conferred the kingdom upon Philip III of France's son, Charles of Valois, on 2February 1284.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The empire's collapse", "target_page_ids": [ 37684962, 1984288, 5124896, 806323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 94 ], [ 216, 231 ], [ 539, 557 ], [ 627, 644 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles started to raise new troops and a fleet in Provence, and instructed his son, Charles of Salerno, to maintain a defensive posture until his return. Roger of Lauria based a small squadron on the island of Nisida to blockade Naples in May 1284. Charles of Salerno attempted to destroy the squadron, but most of his fleet was captured, and he himself was taken prisoner after a short, sharp fight on 5June. News of the reverse caused a riot in Naples, but the papal legate, Gerard of Parma, crushed it with the assistance of local noblemen. Charles learnt of the disaster when he landed at Gaeta on 6June. He was furious at Charles of Salerno and his disobedience. He allegedly stated that \"Who loses a fool loses nothing\", referring to his son's capture.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The empire's collapse", "target_page_ids": [ 7932897, 3749811, 390602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 217 ], [ 380, 400 ], [ 594, 599 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles left Naples for Calabria on 24June 1284. A large armyreportedly 10,000 mounted warriors and 40,000 foot-soldiersaccompanied him as far as Reggio Calabria. He laid siege to the town by sea and land in late July. His fleet approached the coast of Sicily, but his troops could not land in the island. After Lauria landed troops near Reggio Calabria, Charles had to lift the siege and retreat from Calabria on 3August.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The empire's collapse", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Charles went to Brindisi and made preparations for a campaign against Sicily in the new year. He dispatched orders to his officials for the collection of the . However, he fell seriously ill before travelling to Foggia on 30December. He made his last will on 6January 1285, appointing Robert II of Artois regent for his grandson, Charles Martel, who was to rule his realms until Charles of Salerno was released. He died in the morning of 7January. He was buried in a marble sepulchre in Naples, but his heart was placed at the Couvent Saint-Jacques in Paris. His corpse was moved to a chapel of the newly built Naples Cathedral in 1296.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "The empire's collapse", "target_page_ids": [ 392267, 2358151, 45368899, 6840172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 24 ], [ 212, 218 ], [ 527, 548 ], [ 611, 627 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All records show that Charles was a faithful husband and a caring father. His first wife, Beatrice of Provence, gave birth to at least six children. According to contemporaneous gossips, she persuaded Charles to claim the Kingdom of Sicily, because she wanted to wear a crown like her sisters. Before she died in July 1267, she had willed the usufruct of Provence to Charles.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Blanche, the eldest daughter of Charles and Beatrice, became the wife of Robert of Béthune in 1265, but she died four years later.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 70972215, 2150858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 74, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Beatrice, her younger sister, married Philip, the titular Latin emperor, in 1273.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 17436137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charles II, Charles's eldest son and namesake was granted the Principality of Salerno in 1272. Charles the Lame (as he was called) and his wife, Maria of Hungary, had fourteen children, which secured the survival of the Capetian House of Anjou.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 161745, 6101862, 4997988, 10518745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 63, 86 ], [ 146, 162 ], [ 221, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Philip, Charles and Beatrice's next son, was elected king of Sardinia by the local Guelphs in 1269, but without the pope's consent. He died childless in 1278.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 46919234, 14771231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 54, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robert, Charles's third son, died in 1265.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Elisabeth, Charles's youngest daughter, was given in marriage to the future Ladislaus IV of Hungary in 1269, but Ladislaus preferred his mistresses to her.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 21859207, 161738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 77, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The widowed Charles first proposed himself to Margaret of Hungary. However, Margaret, who had been brought up in a Dominican nunnery, did not want to marry. According to legend, she disfigured herself to prevent the marriage. Charles and his second wife, Margaret of Nevers, had several children, but none survived to adulthood.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Family", "target_page_ids": [ 6476991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The works of two 13th-century historians, Bartholomaeus of Neocastro and Saba Malaspina, strongly influenced modern views about Charles, although they were biased. The former described Charles as a tyrant to justify the Sicilian Vespers, the latter argued for the cancellation of the crusade against Aragon in 1285. Charles had continued his imperial predecessors' policies in several fields, including coinage, taxation, and the employment of unpopular officials from Amalfi. Nevertheless, the monarchy underwent a \"Frenchification\" or \"Provençalistion\" during his reign. He donated estates in the Regno to about 700 noblemen from France or Provence. He did not adopt the rich ceremonial robes, inspired by Byzantine and Islamic art, of earlier Sicilian kings, but dressed like other western European monarchs, or as \"a simple knight\", as it was observed by the chronicler Thomas Tuscus who visited Naples in 1267.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 30405122, 69865765, 46683, 56418390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 68 ], [ 73, 87 ], [ 469, 475 ], [ 874, 887 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Around 1310, the Florentine historian, Giovanni Villani, stated that Charles had been the most powerful Christian monarch in the late 1270s. Luchetto Gattilusio, a Genoese poet, compared Charles directly with Charlemagne. Both reports demonstrate that Charles was regarded almost as an emperor. Among modern historians, Runciman says that Charles tried to build an empire in the eastern Mediterraneum; Gérard Sivéry writes that he wanted to dominate the west; and Jean Dunbabin argues that his \"agglomeration of lands was in the process of forming an empire\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 490837, 14551658, 48009179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 55 ], [ 141, 160 ], [ 464, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The historian Hiroshi Takayama concludes that Charles's dominion \"was too large to control\". Nevertheless, economic links among his realms strengthened during his reign. Provençal salt was transported to his other lands, grain from the Regno was sold in Achaea, Albania, Acre and Tuscany, and Tuscan merchants settled in Anjou, Maine, Sicily and Naples. His highest-ranking officials were transferred from their homelands to represent him in other territories: his senechals in Provence were from Anjou; French and Provençal noblemen held the highest offices in the Regno; and he chose his vicars in Rome from among southern Italian and Provençal nobles. Although his empire collapsed before his death, his son retained southern Italy and Provence.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Charles always emphasised his royal rank, but did not adopt \"imperial rhetoric\". His renowned justiciar, Marino de Caramanico, developed a new political theory. Traditional interpretators of Roman law were convinced that the Holy Roman Emperors had a monopoly on law-making. In contrast with them, Caramanico stated that an emperor could not claim sovereignty over a king and emphasized Charles full competence to issue decrees. To promote legal education Charles paid high salaries20–50 ounces of gold in a yearto masters of law at the University of Naples. Masters of medicine received similar remunerations, and the university became a principal centre of medical science. Charles's personal interest in medicine grew during his life and he borrowed Arabic medical texts from the rulers of Tunis to have them translated. He employed at least one Jewish scholar, Moses of Palermo, who could translate texts from Arabic to Latin. Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi's medical encyclopaedia, known as , was one of the books translated at Charles's order.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 8721006, 26364, 4932663, 78209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 103 ], [ 191, 200 ], [ 537, 557 ], [ 931, 960 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles was also a poet, which distinguished him from his Capetian relatives. He composed lovesongs and a (the latter with Pierre d'Angicourt). He was requested to judge two poetic competitions in his youth, but modern scholars do not esteem his poetry. The Provençal troubadours were mostly critical when writing of Charles, but French poets were willing to praise him. Bertran d'Alamanon wrote a poem against the salt tax and Raimon de Tors de Marseilha rebuked Charles for invading the Regno. The trouvère Adam de la Halle dedicated an unfinished epic poem, entitled The King of Sicily, to Charles and Jean de Meun glorified his victories in the Romance of the Rose. Dante described Charles\"who bears a manly nose\"singing peacefully together with his one-time rival, Peter III of Aragon, in Purgatory.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 50926585, 63788, 14671030, 15290827, 5121166, 518761, 1344561, 213563, 26305234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 142 ], [ 269, 279 ], [ 372, 390 ], [ 429, 456 ], [ 501, 509 ], [ 510, 526 ], [ 606, 618 ], [ 650, 669 ], [ 795, 804 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charles also showed interest in architecture. He designed a tower in Brindisi, but it soon collapsed. He ordered the erection of the Castel Nuovo in Naples, of which only the palatine chapel survives. He is also credited with the introduction of French-style glassed windows in southern Italy.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 6929210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Charles_I_of_Anjou", "1227_births", "1285_deaths", "13th-century_monarchs_of_Naples", "Albanian_monarchs", "Capetian_House_of_Anjou", "Characters_in_The_Decameron", "Counts_of_Anjou", "Counts_of_Maine", "Burials_at_the_Basilica_of_Saint-Denis", "Counts_of_Provence", "Princes_of_Achaea", "13th_century_in_the_Kingdom_of_Albania", "Christians_of_the_Seventh_Crusade", "Christians_of_the_Eighth_Crusade", "Children_of_Louis_VIII_of_France", "Prisoners_and_detainees_of_the_Abbasid_Caliphate", "Counts_of_Malta" ]

[ "Charles of Anjou" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The phrase \"correlation does not imply causation\" refers to the inability to legitimately deduce a cause-and-effect relationship between two events or variables solely on the basis of an observed association or correlation between them. The idea that \"correlation implies causation\" is an example of a questionable-cause logical fallacy, in which two events occurring together are taken to have established a cause-and-effect relationship. This fallacy is also known by the Latin phrase cum hoc ergo propter hoc ('with this, therefore because of this'). This differs from the fallacy known as post hoc ergo propter hoc (\"after this, therefore because of this\"), in which an event following another is seen as a necessary consequence of the former event, and from conflation, the errant merging of two events, ideas, databases, etc., into one.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37196, 30423282, 157057, 235588, 53986, 174725, 37531624, 1220499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 115 ], [ 152, 161 ], [ 212, 223 ], [ 303, 321 ], [ 322, 337 ], [ 594, 619 ], [ 712, 733 ], [ 764, 774 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As with any logical fallacy, identifying that the reasoning behind an argument is flawed does not necessarily imply that the resulting conclusion is false. Statistical methods have been proposed that use correlation as the basis for hypothesis tests for causality, including the Granger causality test and convergent cross mapping.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 234892, 26685, 30284, 1648224, 37188661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 115 ], [ 156, 167 ], [ 233, 249 ], [ 279, 301 ], [ 306, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In casual use, the word \"implies\" loosely means suggests rather than requires. However, in logic, the technical use of the word \"implies\" means \"is a sufficient condition for\". This is the meaning intended by statisticians when they say causation is not certain. Indeed, p implies q has the technical meaning of the material conditional: if p then q symbolized as p→q. That is \"if circumstance p is true, then q follows.\" In this sense, it is always correct to say \"Correlation does not imply causation.\" ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Usage, and meaning of 'imply'", "target_page_ids": [ 46426065, 169319, 658808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 96 ], [ 150, 170 ], [ 316, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Where there is causation, there is correlation, but also a sequence in time from cause to effect, a plausible mechanism, and sometimes common and intermediate causes. While correlation is often used when inferring causation because it is a necessary condition, it is not a sufficient condition.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Usage, and meaning of 'imply'", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Causal analysis is the field of experimental design and statistics pertaining to establishing cause and effect. For any two correlated events, A and B, their possible relationships include:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causal analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 9541, 26685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 51 ], [ 56, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A causes B (direct causation);", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causal analysis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " B causes A (reverse causation);", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causal analysis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A and B are both caused by C (common causation);", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causal analysis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A causes B and B causes A (bidirectional or cyclic causation);\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causal analysis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " There is no connection between A and B; the correlation is a coincidence.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causal analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 1397857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus there can be no conclusion made regarding the existence or the direction of a cause-and-effect relationship only from the fact that A and B are correlated. Determining whether there is an actual cause-and-effect relationship requires further investigation, even when the relationship between A and B is statistically significant, a large effect size is observed, or a large part of the variance is explained.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causal analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 160995, 437276, 1500869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 308, 333 ], [ 343, 354 ], [ 391, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The nature of causality is systematically investigated in several academic disciplines, including philosophy and physics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causal analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 14924067, 13692155, 22939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 86 ], [ 98, 108 ], [ 113, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In academia, there are a significant number of theories on causality; The Oxford Handbook of Causation encompasses 770 pages. Among the more influential theories within philosophy are Aristotle's Four causes and Al-Ghazali's occasionalism. David Hume argued that beliefs about causality are based on experience, and experience similarly based on the assumption that the future models the past, which in turn can only be based on experience– leading to circular logic. In conclusion, he asserted that causality is not based on actual reasoning: only correlation can actually be perceived. Immanuel Kant, according to , held that \"a causal principle according to which every event has a cause, or follows according to a causal law, cannot be established through induction as a purely empirical claim, since it would then lack strict universality, or necessity\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causal analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 13692155, 308, 4599105, 146607, 340238, 7925, 313944, 177456, 14631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 180 ], [ 185, 194 ], [ 197, 208 ], [ 213, 223 ], [ 226, 239 ], [ 241, 251 ], [ 453, 467 ], [ 501, 543 ], [ 589, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Outside the field of philosophy, theories of causation can be identified in classical mechanics, statistical mechanics, quantum mechanics, spacetime theories, biology, social sciences, and law. To establish a correlation as causal within physics, it is normally understood that the cause and the effect must connect through a local mechanism (cf. for instance the concept of impact) or a nonlocal mechanism (cf. the concept of field), in accordance with known laws of nature.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causal analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 19555586, 28481, 25202, 28758, 9127632, 26781, 18949668, 22939, 39127306, 2325044, 26998617, 244629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 95 ], [ 97, 118 ], [ 120, 137 ], [ 139, 148 ], [ 159, 166 ], [ 168, 182 ], [ 189, 192 ], [ 238, 245 ], [ 332, 341 ], [ 375, 381 ], [ 427, 432 ], [ 460, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the point of view of thermodynamics, universal properties of causes as compared to effects have been identified through the second law of thermodynamics, confirming the ancient, medieval and Cartesian view that \"the cause is greater than the effect\" for the particular case of thermodynamic free energy. This, in turn, is challenged by popular interpretations of the concepts of nonlinear systems and the butterfly effect, in which small events cause large effects due to, respectively, unpredictability and an unlikely triggering of large amounts of potential energy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causal analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 29952, 133017, 25525, 39221, 146103, 4024, 23703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 40 ], [ 129, 157 ], [ 196, 205 ], [ 282, 307 ], [ 384, 400 ], [ 410, 426 ], [ 556, 572 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Intuitively, causation seems to require not just a correlation, but a counterfactual dependence. Suppose that a student performed poorly on a test and guesses that the cause was his not studying. To prove this, one thinks of the counterfactual– the same student writing the same test under the same circumstances but having studied the night before. If one could rewind history, and change only one small thing (making the student study for the exam), then causation could be observed (by comparing version 1 to version 2). Because one cannot rewind history and replay events after making small controlled changes, causation can only be inferred, never exactly known. This is referred to as the Fundamental Problem of Causal Inference– it is impossible to directly observe causal effects.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causal analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 491578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A major goal of scientific experiments and statistical methods is to approximate as best possible the counterfactual state of the world. For example, one could run an experiment on identical twins who were known to consistently get the same grades on their tests. One twin is sent to study for six hours while the other is sent to the amusement park. If their test scores suddenly diverged by a large degree, this would be strong evidence that studying (or going to the amusement park) had a causal effect on test scores. In this case, correlation between studying and test scores would almost certainly imply causation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causal analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 59861, 167202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 37 ], [ 167, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Well-designed experimental studies replace equality of individuals as in the previous example by equality of groups. The objective is to construct two groups that are similar except for the treatment that the groups receive. This is achieved by selecting subjects from a single population and randomly assigning them to two or more groups. The likelihood of the groups behaving similarly to one another (on average) rises with the number of subjects in each group. If the groups are essentially equivalent except for the treatment they receive, and a difference in the outcome for the groups is observed, then this constitutes evidence that the treatment is responsible for the outcome, or in other words the treatment causes the observed effect. However, an observed effect could also be caused \"by chance\", for example as a result of random perturbations in the population. Statistical tests exist to quantify the likelihood of erroneously concluding that an observed difference exists when in fact it does not (for example see P-value).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causal analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 59861, 554994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 34 ], [ 1033, 1040 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When experimental studies are impossible and only pre-existing data are available, as is usually the case for example in economics, regression analysis can be used. Factors other than the potential causative variable of interest are controlled for by including them as regressors in addition to the regressor representing the variable of interest. False inferences of causation due to reverse causation (or wrong estimates of the magnitude of causation due to the presence of bidirectional causation) can be avoided by using explanators (regressors) that are necessarily exogenous, such as physical explanators like rainfall amount (as a determinant of, say, futures prices), lagged variables whose values were determined before the dependent variable's value was determined, instrumental variables for the explanators (chosen based on their known exogeneity), etc. See causality in statistics and economics. Spurious correlation due to mutual influence from a third, common, causative variable, is harder to avoid: the model must be specified such that there is a theoretical reason to believe that no such underlying causative variable has been omitted from its analysis.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causal analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 9223, 826997, 437701, 60138629, 1514405, 37196, 484778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 130 ], [ 132, 151 ], [ 269, 279 ], [ 572, 581 ], [ 777, 799 ], [ 872, 909 ], [ 912, 932 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reverse causation or reverse causality or wrong direction is an informal fallacy of questionable cause where cause and effect are reversed. The cause is said to be the effect and vice versa.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 1655450, 235588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 80 ], [ 84, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Example 1", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The faster that windmills are observed to rotate, the more wind is observed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Therefore, wind is caused by the rotation of windmills. (Or, simply put: windmills, as their name indicates, are machines used to produce wind.)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In this example, the correlation (simultaneity) between windmill activity and wind velocity does not imply that wind is caused by windmills. It is rather the other way around, as suggested by the fact that wind does not need windmills to exist, while windmills need wind to rotate. Wind can be observed in places where there are no windmills or non-rotating windmills—and there are good reasons to believe that wind existed before the invention of windmills.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Example 2", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Subjects with low cholesterol correlate with an increase in mortality.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Therefore, low cholesterol increases your risk of mortality.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is the other way around. Whereby the disease, such as cancer, causes a low cholesterol due to a myriad of factors, such as weight loss, and an increase in mortality.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This is also seen with ex-smokers. Ex-smokers are more likely to die of lung cancer than current smokers. When lifelong smokers are told they have lung cancer, many quit smoking. This change can make it seem as if ex-smokers are more likely to die of lung cancer than current smokers. This can also be seen in alcoholics. As alcoholics become diagnosed with cirrhosis of the liver, many quit drinking. However, they also experience an increased risk of mortality. In these instances, it is the diseases that cause an increased risk of mortality, but the increased mortality is attributed to the beneficial effects that follow the diagnosis, making healthy changes look unhealthy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Example 3", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In other cases it may simply be unclear which is the cause and which is the effect. For example:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Children that watch a lot of TV are the most violent. Clearly, TV makes children more violent.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 29831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This could easily be the other way round; that is, violent children like watching more TV than less violent ones.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Example 4", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A correlation between recreational drug use and psychiatric disorders might be either way around: perhaps the drugs cause the disorders, or perhaps people use drugs to self medicate for preexisting conditions. Gateway drug theory may argue that marijuana usage leads to usage of harder drugs, but hard drug usage may lead to marijuana usage (see also confusion of the inverse). Indeed, in the social sciences where controlled experiments often cannot be used to discern the direction of causation, this fallacy can fuel long-standing scientific arguments. One such example can be found in education economics, between the screening/signaling and human capital models: it could either be that having innate ability enables one to complete an education, or that completing an education builds one's ability.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 25949, 19356, 578436, 1197243, 1481886, 17118964, 26781, 19918654, 4558361, 1865916, 45804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 43 ], [ 48, 68 ], [ 168, 181 ], [ 210, 229 ], [ 245, 254 ], [ 351, 375 ], [ 393, 407 ], [ 589, 608 ], [ 622, 631 ], [ 632, 641 ], [ 646, 659 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Example 5", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A historical example of this is that Europeans in the Middle Ages believed that lice were beneficial to your health, since there would rarely be any lice on sick people. The reasoning was that the people got sick because the lice left. The real reason however is that lice are extremely sensitive to body temperature. A small increase of body temperature, such as in a fever, will make the lice look for another host. The medical thermometer had not yet been invented, so this increase in temperature was rarely noticed. Noticeable symptoms came later, giving the impression that the lice left before the person got sick.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 18836, 58288, 46253, 30993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 65 ], [ 80, 84 ], [ 369, 374 ], [ 430, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In other cases, two phenomena can each be a partial cause of the other; consider poverty and lack of education, or procrastination and poor self-esteem. One making an argument based on these two phenomena must however be careful to avoid the fallacy of circular cause and consequence. Poverty is a cause of lack of education, but it is not the sole cause, and vice versa.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 39834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 253, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The third-cause fallacy (also known as ignoring a common cause or questionable cause) is a logical fallacy where a spurious relationship is confused for causation. It asserts that X causes Y when, in reality, X and Y are both caused by Z. It is a variation on the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy and a member of the questionable cause group of fallacies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 1655450, 484778, 37196, 174725, 235588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 106 ], [ 115, 136 ], [ 153, 162 ], [ 264, 289 ], [ 318, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All of these examples deal with a lurking variable, which is simply a hidden third variable that affects both causes of the correlation. A difficulty often also arises where the third factor, though fundamentally different from A and B, is so closely related to A and/or B as to be confused with them or very difficult to scientifically disentangle from them (see Example 4).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 3105999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Example 1", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sleeping with one's shoes on is strongly correlated with waking up with a headache.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Therefore, sleeping with one's shoes on causes headache.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The above example commits the correlation-implies-causation fallacy, as it prematurely concludes that sleeping with one's shoes on causes headache. A more plausible explanation is that both are caused by a third factor, in this case going to bed drunk, which thereby gives rise to a correlation. So the conclusion is false.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 8011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Example 2", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Young children who sleep with the light on are much more likely to develop myopia in later life.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 88042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Therefore, sleeping with the light on causes myopia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This is a scientific example that resulted from a study at the University of Pennsylvania Medical Center. Published in the May 13, 1999, issue of Nature, the study received much coverage at the time in the popular press. However, a later study at Ohio State University did not find that infants sleeping with the light on caused the development of myopia. It did find a strong link between parental myopia and the development of child myopia, also noting that myopic parents were more likely to leave a light on in their children's bedroom. In this case, the cause of both conditions is parental myopia, and the above-stated conclusion is false.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 31793, 2127795, 43427, 22217, 73165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 89 ], [ 90, 104 ], [ 146, 152 ], [ 247, 268 ], [ 287, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Example 3", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As ice cream sales increase, the rate of drowning deaths increases sharply.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Therefore, ice cream consumption causes drowning.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This example fails to recognize the importance of time of year and temperature to ice cream sales. Ice cream is sold during the hot summer months at a much greater rate than during colder times, and it is during these hot summer months that people are more likely to engage in activities involving water, such as swimming. The increased drowning deaths are simply caused by more exposure to water-based activities, not ice cream. The stated conclusion is false.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 27999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 313, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Example 4", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A hypothetical study shows a relationship between test anxiety scores and shyness scores, with a statistical r value (strength of correlation) of +.59.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Therefore, it may be simply concluded that shyness, in some part, causally influences test anxiety.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, as encountered in many psychological studies, another variable, a \"self-consciousness score\", is discovered that has a sharper correlation (+.73) with shyness. This suggests a possible \"third variable\" problem, however, when three such closely related measures are found, it further suggests that each may have bidirectional tendencies (see \"bidirectional variable\", above), being a cluster of correlated values each influencing one another to some extent. Therefore, the simple conclusion above may be false.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 39834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 352, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Example 5", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since the 1950s, both the atmospheric CO2 level and obesity levels have increased sharply.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 5906, 56435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 41 ], [ 52, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hence, atmospheric CO2 causes obesity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Richer populations tend to eat more food and produce more CO2.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Example 6", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "HDL (\"good\") cholesterol is negatively correlated with incidence of heart attack.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 13885, 6437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ], [ 13, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Therefore, taking medication to raise HDL decreases the chance of having a heart attack.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Further research has called this conclusion into question. Instead, it may be that other underlying factors, like genes, diet and exercise, affect both HDL levels and the likelihood of having a heart attack; it is possible that medicines may affect the directly measurable factor, HDL levels, without affecting the chance of heart attack.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Causality is not necessarily one-way; ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "in a predator-prey relationship, predator numbers affect prey numbers, but prey numbers, i.e. food supply, also affect predator numbers. Another well-known example is that cyclists have a lower Body Mass Index than people who do not cycle. This is often explained by assuming that cycling increases physical activity levels and therefore decreases BMI. Because results from prospective studies on people who increase their bicycle use show a smaller effect on BMI than cross-sectional studies, there may be some reverse causality as well (i.e. people with a lower BMI are more likely to cycle).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 57559, 4788, 2741315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 31 ], [ 194, 209 ], [ 299, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The two variables are not related at all, but correlate by chance. The more things are examined, the more likely it is that two unrelated variables will appear to be related. For example:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The result of the last home game by the Washington Commanders prior to the presidential election predicted the outcome of every presidential election from 1936 to 2000 inclusive, despite the fact that the outcomes of football games had nothing to do with the outcome of the popular election. This streak was finally broken in 2004 (or 2012 using an alternative formulation of the original rule). ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 33673, 20074209, 1297662, 20102947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 61 ], [ 97, 177 ], [ 326, 330 ], [ 335, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mierscheid law, which correlates the Social Democratic Party of Germany's share of the popular vote with the size of crude steel production in Western Germany.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 585765, 60585, 652563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 41, 75 ], [ 91, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alternating bald–hairy Russian leaders: A bald (or obviously balding) state leader of Russia has succeeded a non-bald (\"hairy\") one, and vice versa, for nearly 200 years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 33209023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bible code, Hebrew words predicting historical events supposedly hidden within the Torah: the huge number of combinations of letters makes appearances of any word in sufficiently lengthy text statistically insignificant.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation", "target_page_ids": [ 298274, 30343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 87, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Much of scientific evidence is based upon a correlation of variables – they are observed to occur together. Scientists are careful to point out that correlation does not necessarily mean causation. The assumption that A causes B simply because A correlates with B is often not accepted as a legitimate form of argument.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use of correlation as scientific evidence", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, sometimes people commit the opposite fallacy – dismissing correlation entirely. This would dismiss a large swath of important scientific evidence. Since it may be difficult or ethically impossible to run controlled double-blind studies, correlational evidence from several different angles may be useful for prediction despite failing to provide evidence for causation. For example, social workers might be interested in knowing how child abuse relates to academic performance. Although it would be unethical to perform an experiment in which children are randomly assigned to receive or not receive abuse, researchers can look at existing groups using a non-experimental correlational design. If in fact a negative correlation exists between abuse and academic performance, researchers could potentially use this knowledge of a statistical correlation to make predictions about children outside the study who experience abuse, even though the study failed to provide causal evidence that abuse decreases academic performance. The combination of limited available methodologies with the dismissing correlation fallacy has on occasion been used to counter a scientific finding. For example, the tobacco industry has historically relied on a dismissal of correlational evidence to reject a link between tobacco and lung cancer, as did biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher, frequently in its behalf.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use of correlation as scientific evidence", "target_page_ids": [ 277248, 52631, 3585815, 140824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 224, 236 ], [ 1203, 1219 ], [ 1310, 1333 ], [ 1369, 1382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Correlation is a valuable type of scientific evidence in fields such as medicine, psychology, and sociology. Correlations must first be confirmed as real, then every possible causative relationship must be systematically explored. In the end correlation alone cannot be used as evidence for a cause-and-effect relationship between a treatment and benefit, a risk factor and a disease, or a social or economic factor and various outcomes. It is one of the most abused types of evidence, because it is easy and even tempting to come to premature conclusions based upon the preliminary appearance of a correlation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use of correlation as scientific evidence", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bundled references", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Causal_fallacies", "Causal_inference", "Covariance_and_correlation", "English_phrases", "Misuse_of_statistics" ]

[ "cum hoc ergo propter hoc" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Jan Bos (born 29 March 1975) is a Dutch speedskater and sprint cyclist. In the late 1990s he was world champion in speed skating and he competed in the 1998 and 2002 Winter Olympics.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 989619, 30611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 51 ], [ 63, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1998 Bos both became the world champion sprint and won the silver medal that year in the 1000 meter sprint during the Winter Olympics in Nagano. He won the silver medal on that same distance in Salt Lake City.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Speed skater", "target_page_ids": [ 113189, 6792932, 38678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 136 ], [ 140, 146 ], [ 197, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He competed at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens in the team sprint track cycling event, together with his brother Theo Bos, who won the silver at the individual sprint, and Teun Mulder. The Dutch finished sixth after being knocked out by Japan.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Speed skater", "target_page_ids": [ 77741, 1216, 2065121, 9142631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 39 ], [ 43, 49 ], [ 116, 124 ], [ 175, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bos ended his career as a competitive speed skater in 2011.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Speed skater", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2012 Bos (in cooperation with the Human Power Team from Delft) tried to become the fastest cyclist in the world during the World Human Powered Speed Challenge in Battle Mountain, Nevada. At the time, the International Human Powered Vehicle Association record was 133km/h, held by the Canadian Sam Whittingham. Bos used a recumbent bicycle specially developed for the occasion by students of the Delft University of Technology and the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, but only managed a maximum speed of 126.5km/h. In September 2013, his teammate Sebastiaan Bowier did manage to break the record, reaching a speed of 133.78 kilometres per hour (83.13mph)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cyclist", "target_page_ids": [ 124434, 21216, 857028, 194958, 167248, 103244, 324167, 40596438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 180 ], [ 182, 188 ], [ 207, 254 ], [ 296, 311 ], [ 324, 341 ], [ 398, 428 ], [ 437, 465 ], [ 546, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bos specialized in the sprint events but does have an Adelsalender score of 156.494", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Records", "target_page_ids": [ 3109857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " DNF = Did not finish", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Tournament overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " DQ = Disqualified", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Tournament overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " List of Dutch Olympic cyclists", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 44916339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jan Bos at SpeedSkatingStats.com", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1975_births", "Living_people", "People_from_Harderwijk", "Dutch_male_speed_skaters", "Dutch_male_cyclists", "Dutch_track_cyclists", "Speed_skaters_at_the_1998_Winter_Olympics", "Speed_skaters_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Speed_skaters_at_the_2006_Winter_Olympics", "Speed_skaters_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics", "Cyclists_at_the_2004_Summer_Olympics", "Olympic_cyclists_of_the_Netherlands", "Olympic_speed_skaters_of_the_Netherlands", "Olympic_silver_medalists_for_the_Netherlands", "Olympic_medalists_in_speed_skating", "World_record_setters_in_speed_skating", "Medalists_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Medalists_at_the_1998_Winter_Olympics", "Sportspeople_from_Gelderland", "World_Single_Distances_Speed_Skating_Championships_medalists", "Dutch_speed_skating_coaches", "Dutch_sports_coaches", "Cyclists_from_Gelderland" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Gerard Pieter Hendrik van Velde (born 30 November 1971) is a Dutch retired speed skater who specialised in sprinting. He won an Olympic gold medal in 2002.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 989619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Van Velde was considered the best Dutch sprinter during the early 1990s, but did not manage to win a medal in either the 1992 or 1994 Winter Olympics. The 1992 Games were particularly frustrating, as he missed a bronze medal by only one-hundredth of a second.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 113357, 113198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 125 ], [ 129, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the late 1990s, clap skates became standard in Olympic competition. Van Velde had such difficulty adjusting to the techniques required with these new skates that he retired from skating and became a car salesman. However, he was not finished with the skating world.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 63126, 22576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 34 ], [ 54, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rintje Ritsma, another Dutch skater invited Van Velde to be his training partner, and, during training, he mastered the clap skate techniques. He decided to try out for the 2002 Winter Olympics, in spite of the arrival of a new generation of Dutch sprinters such as Jan Bos, Erben Wennemars and Jakko Jan Leeuwangh. Van Velde became the fourth sprinter to qualify for the games.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 2945996, 21148, 38678, 39838, 3377664, 47009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 23, 28 ], [ 173, 193 ], [ 266, 273 ], [ 275, 290 ], [ 295, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Salt Lake City, he started before all the other favorites and raced to a world record finish with a time of 1:07.18. This time he shaved more than half a second from the previous best world time, and more than a second from his personal best. The skaters who followed were unable to best him, and he won the gold medal.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 53837, 3157211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 17 ], [ 76, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2005, at the Dutch Olympic trials in Heerenveen, van Velde failed to qualify for the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin. In retirement he became a coach.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 99186, 77743, 19450529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 59 ], [ 97, 117 ], [ 121, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DQ = Disqualified", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tournament overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "DNF = Did not finish", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tournament overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "DNS = Did not start", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tournament overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NC = No classification", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tournament overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PB's Gerard van Velde at SpeedskatingBase.eu with link to results International Championships", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gerard van Velde at SpeedSkatingStats.com", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1971_births", "Living_people", "People_from_Heerde", "Dutch_male_speed_skaters", "Speed_skaters_at_the_1992_Winter_Olympics", "Speed_skaters_at_the_1994_Winter_Olympics", "Speed_skaters_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "Olympic_speed_skaters_of_the_Netherlands", "Olympic_gold_medalists_for_the_Netherlands", "Olympic_medalists_in_speed_skating", "World_record_setters_in_speed_skating", "Medalists_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics", "World_Single_Distances_Speed_Skating_Championships_medalists", "Dutch_speed_skating_coaches", "Dutch_sports_coaches", "Sportspeople_from_Gelderland" ]

[ "Gerard Pieter Hendrik van Velde" ]

[ { "plaintext": "{{Infobox organization", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| name = Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| logo = Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences logo.svg", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| image = ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| caption = ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| map = ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| msize = ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| mcaption = ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| abbreviation = AMPAS", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| motto = ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| formation = ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| type = Trade association", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| status = 501(c)(6)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1979418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| purpose = To recognize and uphold excellence in the motion picture arts and sciences, inspire imagination, and connect the world through the medium of motion pictures.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| headquarters = Beverly Hills, California, U.S.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 75346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| region_served = ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| membership = 9,921 (2020)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| leader_title = President", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40811786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| leader_name = Janet Yang (since 2022)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 44198798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| subsidiaries = Academy Museum Foundation 501(c)(3), Academy Foundation 501(c)(3), Archival Foundation 501(c)(3), Vine Street Archive Foundation 501(c)(3)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5971097, 5971097, 5971097, 5971097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 55 ], [ 77, 86 ], [ 109, 118 ], [ 152, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "| employees = 255", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| employees_year = 2018", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| volunteers = 632", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| volunteers_year = 2018", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| revenue = $147,889,867", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| revenue_year = 2019", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| expenses = $103,813,370", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| expenses_year = 2019", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| website = ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| coordinates = ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| tax_id = 95-0473280<ref name= irseos>\"Academy Of Motion Picture Arts And Sciences\". Tax Exempt Organization Search. Internal Revenue Service. Retrieved March 30, 2022.</ref>", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23430752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "}}", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS, often pronounced ; also known as simply the Academy or the Motion Picture Academy) is a professional honorary organization with the stated goal of advancing the arts and sciences of motion pictures. The Academy's corporate management and general policies are overseen by a board of governors, which includes representatives from each of the craft branches.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21555729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of April 2020, the organization was estimated to consist of around 9,921 motion picture professionals. The Academy is an international organization and membership is open to qualified filmmakers around the world.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Academy is known around the world for its annual Academy Awards, now officially and popularly known as \"The Oscars\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition, the Academy holds the Governors Awards annually for lifetime achievement in film; presents Scientific and Technical Awards annually; gives Student Academy Awards annually to filmmakers at the undergraduate and graduate level; awards up to five Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting annually; and operates the Margaret Herrick Library (at the Fairbanks Center for Motion Picture Study) in Beverly Hills, California, and the Pickford Center for Motion Picture Study in Hollywood, Los Angeles. The Academy opened the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures in Los Angeles in 2021.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28730376, 1540099, 2263271, 31924059, 40604870, 75346, 15486772, 53849, 18110, 15487437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 51 ], [ 104, 135 ], [ 152, 174 ], [ 257, 293 ], [ 321, 345 ], [ 400, 425 ], [ 435, 475 ], [ 479, 488 ], [ 490, 501 ], [ 526, 559 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The notion of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) began with Louis B. Mayer, head of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM). He said he wanted to create an organization that would mediate labor disputes without unions and improve the film industry's image. He met with actor Conrad Nagel, director Fred Niblo, and the head of the Association of Motion Picture Producers, Fred Beetson to discuss these matters. The idea of this elite club having an annual banquet was discussed, but no mention of awards at that time. They also established that membership into the organization would only be open to people involved in one of the five branches of the industry: actors, directors, writers, technicians, and producers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 382576, 58819, 2216473, 1573233, 14038128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 95 ], [ 105, 124 ], [ 282, 294 ], [ 305, 315 ], [ 337, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After their brief meeting, Mayer gathered up a group of thirty-six people involved in the film industry and invited them to a formal banquet at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles on January 11, 1927. That evening Mayer presented to those guests what he called the International Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Everyone in the room that evening became a founder of the Academy. Between that evening and when the official Articles of Incorporation for the organization were filed on May 4, 1927, the \"International\" was dropped from the name, becoming the \"Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 652622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several organizational meetings were held prior to the first official meeting held on May 6, 1927. Their first organizational meeting was held on May 11 at the Millennium Biltmore Hotel. At that meeting Douglas Fairbanks, Sr. was elected as the first president of the Academy, while Fred Niblo was the first vice-president, and their first roster, composed of 230 members, was printed. That night, the Academy also bestowed its first honorary membership, to Thomas Edison. Initially, the Academy was broken down into five main groups, or branches, although this number of branches has grown over the years. The original five were: Producers, Actors, Directors, Writers and Technicians.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1784658, 29818009, 29778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 185 ], [ 203, 225 ], [ 458, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The initial concerns of the group had to do with labor.\" However, as time went on, the organization moved \"further away from involvement in labor-management arbitrations and negotiations.\" One of several committees formed in those initial days was for \"Awards of Merit,\" but it was not until May 1928 that the committee began to have serious discussions about the structure of the awards and the presentation ceremony. By July 1928, the board of directors had approved a list of 12 awards to be presented. During July the voting system for the Awards was established, and the nomination and selection process began. This \"award of merit for distinctive achievement\" is what we know now as the Academy Awards.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 693, 706 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The initial location of the organization was 6912 Hollywood Boulevard. In November 1927, the Academy moved to the Roosevelt Hotel at 7010 Hollywood Boulevard, which was also the month the Academy's library began compiling a complete collection of books and periodicals dealing with the industry from around the world. In May 1928, the Academy authorized the construction of a state of the art screening room, to be located in the Club lounge of the hotel. The screening room was not completed until April 1929.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 725872, 30862778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 69 ], [ 114, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the publication of Academy Reports (No. 1): Incandescent Illumination in July 1928, the Academy began a long history of publishing books to assist its members. Research Council of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences trained Signal Corps officers, during World War II, who later won two Oscars, for Seeds of Destiny and Toward Independence.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1682898, 32927, 10935965, 17617912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 241, 253 ], [ 271, 283 ], [ 315, 331 ], [ 336, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1929, Academy members, in a joint venture with the University of Southern California, created America's first film school to further the art and science of moving pictures. The school's founding faculty included Fairbanks (President of the Academy), D. W. Griffith, William C. deMille, Ernst Lubitsch, Irving Thalberg, and Darryl F. Zanuck.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32005, 7888, 1828159, 83143, 171036, 192275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 87 ], [ 253, 267 ], [ 269, 287 ], [ 289, 303 ], [ 305, 320 ], [ 326, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1930 saw another move, to 7046 Hollywood Boulevard, in order to accommodate the enlarging staff, and by December of that year the library was acknowledged as \"having one of the most complete collections of information on the motion picture industry anywhere in existence.\" They remained at that location until 1935 when further growth caused them to move once again. This time, the administrative offices moved to one location, to the Taft Building at the corner of Hollywood and Vine, while the library moved to 1455 North Gordon Street.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1934, the Academy began publication of the Screen Achievement Records Bulletin, which today is known as the Motion Picture Credits Database. This is a list of film credits up for an Academy Award, as well as other films released in Los Angeles County, using research materials from the Academy's Margaret Herrick Library. Another publication of the 1930s was the first annual Academy Players Directory in 1937. The Directory was published by the Academy until 2006 when it was sold to a private concern. The Academy had been involved in the technical aspects of film making since its founding in 1927, and by 1938, the Science and Technology Council consisted of 36 technical committees addressing technical issues related to sound recording and reproduction, projection, lighting, film preservation, and cinematography.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40604870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 299, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2009, the inaugural Governors Awards were held, at which the Academy awards the Academy Honorary Award, the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award and the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 28730376, 181774, 45184, 45182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 39 ], [ 83, 105 ], [ 111, 143 ], [ 152, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016, the Academy became the target of criticism for its failure to recognize the achievements of minority professionals. For the second year in a row, all 20 nominees in the major acting categories were white. The president of the Academy Cheryl Boone Isaacs, the first African American and third woman to lead the Academy, denied in 2015 that there was a problem. When asked if the Academy had difficulty with recognizing diversity, she replied \"Not at all. Not at all.\" When the nominations for acting were all white for a second year in a row Gil Robertson IV, president of the African American Film Critics Association called it \"offensive.\" The actors' branch is \"overwhelmingly white\" and the question is raised whether conscious or unconscious racial biases played a role.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 46392016, 40138591, 5126387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 51 ], [ 243, 262 ], [ 550, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spike Lee, interviewed shortly after the all-white nominee list was published, pointed to Hollywood leadership as the root problem, \"We may win an Oscar now and then, but an Oscar is not going to fundamentally change how Hollywood does business. I'm not talking about Hollywood stars. I'm talking about executives. We're not in the room.\" Boone Isaacs also released a statement, in which she said \"I am both heartbroken and frustrated about the lack of inclusion. This is a difficult but important conversation, and it's time for big changes.\" After Boone Isaac's statement, prominent African-Americans such as director Spike Lee, actors Will Smith and Jada Pinkett Smith, and activist Rev. Al Sharpton called for a boycott of the 2016 Oscars for failing to recognize minority achievements, the board voted to make \"historic\" changes to its membership. The Academy stated that by 2020 it would double its number of women and minority members. While the Academy has addressed a higher profile for African-Americans, it has yet to raise the profile of other people of color artists, in front of and behind the camera.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26941, 154698, 235916, 166702, 526594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 638, 648 ], [ 653, 671 ], [ 691, 702 ], [ 1056, 1071 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, the Academy invited a record 928 new members.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Casting director David Rubin was elected President of the Academy in August, 2019.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2020, Parasite became the first non-English language film to win Best Picture. In June 2022, Bill Kramer was named the CEO of the Academy. Also in 2022, Janet Yang was elected as the first Asian American President of the Academy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 56746570, 61702, 44198798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 17 ], [ 68, 80 ], [ 156, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Academy's numerous and diverse operations are housed in three facilities in the Los Angeles area: the headquarters building in Beverly Hills, which was constructed specifically for the Academy, and two Centers for Motion Picture Study – one in Beverly Hills, the other in Hollywood – which were existing structures restored and transformed to contain the Academy's Library, Film Archive and other departments and programs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Galleries and theaters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Academy Headquarters Building in Beverly Hills once housed two galleries that were open free to the public. The Grand Lobby Gallery and the Fourth Floor Gallery offered changing exhibits related to films, film-making and film personalities. These galleries have since been closed in preparation for the opening of the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures in 2020.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Galleries and theaters", "target_page_ids": [ 75346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The building includes the Samuel Goldwyn Theater, which seats 1,012, and was designed to present films at maximum technical accuracy, with state-of-the-art projection equipment and sound system. The theater is busy year-round with the Academy's public programming, members-only screenings, movie premieres and other special activities (including the live television broadcast of the Academy Awards nominations announcement every January). The building once housed the Academy Little Theater, a 67-seat screening facility, but this was converted to additional office space in a building remodel.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Galleries and theaters", "target_page_ids": [ 21227623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Pickford Center for Motion Picture Study, located in central Hollywood and named for legendary actress and Academy founder Mary Pickford, houses several Academy departments, including the Academy Film Archive, the Science and Technology Council, Student Academy Awards and Grants, and the Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting. The building, originally dedicated on August 18, 1948, is the oldest surviving structure in Hollywood that was designed specifically with television in mind. Additionally, it is the location of the Linwood Dunn Theater, which seats 286 people.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Galleries and theaters", "target_page_ids": [ 15486772, 18823, 3374356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 44 ], [ 127, 140 ], [ 192, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Fairbanks Center for Motion Picture Study is located at 333 S. La Cienega Boulevard in Beverly Hills. It is home to the Academy's Margaret Herrick Library, a world-renowned, non-circulating reference and research collection devoted to the history and development of the motion picture as an art form and an industry. Established in 1928, the library is open to the public and used year-round by students, scholars, historians and industry professionals. The library is named for Margaret Herrick, the Academy's first librarian who also played a major role in the Academy's first televised broadcast, helping to turn the Oscar ceremony into a major annual televised event.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Galleries and theaters", "target_page_ids": [ 1742663, 40604870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 87 ], [ 134, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The building itself was built in 1928, where it was originally built to be a water treatment plant for Beverly Hills. Its \"bell tower\" held water-purifying hardware.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Galleries and theaters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Academy Museum of Motion Pictures, a Los Angeles museum, is the newest facility associated with the Academy. Its scheduled opening was on September 30, 2021, and it contains over of galleries, exhibition spaces, movie theaters, educational areas, and special event spaces.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Galleries and theaters", "target_page_ids": [ 15487437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Academy also has a New York City-based East Coast showcase theater, the Academy Theater at Lighthouse International. The 220-seat venue was redesigned in 2011 by renowned theater designer Theo Kalomirakis, including an extensive installation of new audio and visual equipment. The theater is in the East 59th Street headquarters of the non-profit vision loss organization, Lighthouse International. In July 2015, it was announced that the Academy was forced to move out, due to Lighthouse International selling the property the theater was in.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Galleries and theaters", "target_page_ids": [ 36809120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Membership in the Academy is by invitation only. Invitation comes from the Board of Governors. Membership eligibility may be achieved by earning a competitive Oscar nomination, or by the sponsorship of two current Academy members from the same branch to which the candidate seeks admission.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "New membership proposals are considered annually in the spring. Press releases announce the names of those who have recently been invited to join. Membership in the Academy does not expire, even if a member struggles later in his or her career.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Academy membership is divided into 17 branches, representing different disciplines in motion pictures. Members may not belong to more than one branch. Members whose work does not fall within one of the branches may belong to a group known as \"Members at Large\". Members at Large have all the privileges of branch membership except for representation on the Board. Associate members are those closely allied to the industry but not actively engaged in motion picture production. They are not represented on the Board and do not vote on Academy Awards.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to a February 2012 study conducted by the Los Angeles Times (sampling over 5,000 of its 5,765 members), the Academy at that time was 94% white, 77% male, 86% age 50 or older, and had a median age of 62. A third of members were previous winners or nominees of Academy Awards themselves. Of the Academy's 54-member Board of Governors, 25 are female.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [ 273319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On June 29, 2016, a paradigm shift began in the Academy's selection process, resulting in a new class comprising 46% women and 41% people of color. The effort to diversify the Academy was led by social activist and Broadway Black managing-editor April Reign. Reign created the Twitter hashtag #OscarsSoWhite as a means of criticizing the dearth of non-white nominees for the 2015 Academy Awards. Though the hashtag drew widespread media attention, the Academy remained obstinate on the matter of adopting a resolution that would make demonstrable its efforts to increase diversity. With the 2016 Academy Awards, many, including April Reign, were dismayed by the Academy's indifference about representation and inclusion, as the 2016 nominees were once again entirely white. April Reign revived #OscarsSoWhite, and renewed her campaign efforts, which included multiple media appearances and interviews with reputable news outlets. As a result of Reign's campaign, the discourse surrounding representation and recognition in film spread beyond the United States and became a global discussion . Faced with mounting pressure to expand the Academy membership, the Academy capitulated and instituted new policies to ensure that future Academy membership invitations would better represent the demographics of modern film-going audiences. The A2020 initiative was announced in January 2016 to double the number of women and people of color in membership by 2020.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Members are able to see many new films for free at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater within two weeks of their debut, and sometimes before release; in addition, some of the screeners are available through iTunes to its members.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [ 186266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of invitees for AMPAS Membership (2004)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [ 61451588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of invitees for AMPAS Membership (2005)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [ 61631646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of invitees for AMPAS Membership (2006)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [ 62379249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of invitees for AMPAS Membership (2007)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [ 11865840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of invitees for AMPAS Membership (2008)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [ 62426785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of invitees for AMPAS Membership (2009)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [ 62380801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of invitees for AMPAS Membership (2010)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [ 64543495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of invitees for AMPAS Membership (2011)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [ 70814461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Five people are known to have been expelled from the Academy. Academy officials acknowledge that other members have been expelled in the past, most for selling their Oscar tickets, but no numbers are available.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Actor Carmine Caridi was expelled on February 3, 2004, for copyright infringement. He was accused of leaking screeners that had been sent to him.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [ 457843, 18948365, 395371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ], [ 60, 82 ], [ 110, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Producer Harvey Weinstein was expelled for \"sexually predatory behavior and workplace harassment\" after an emergency meeting held on October 13, 2017.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [ 1624086, 55516959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ], [ 45, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Actor Bill Cosby and director Roman Polanski were expelled \"in accordance with the organization's Standards of Conduct\" on May 1, 2018. Cosby had been convicted of sexual assault one week earlier, while Polanski had been convicted in 1977 of unlawful sexual intercourse with a minor.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [ 158894, 25428, 44590252, 24531422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 17 ], [ 31, 45 ], [ 152, 196 ], [ 243, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cinematographer Adam Kimmel was expelled in 2021 after a Variety story exposed the fact that he is a registered sex offender.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [ 22101487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following members have voluntarily resigned from the organization:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sound engineer Tom Fleischman resigned from the Academy on March 5, 2022, citing changes to the broadcast of the 94th Academy Awards ceremony, during which eight award categories including Best Sound were not presented live, but rather during the commercial breaks. Production sound mixer Peter Kurland also resigned his membership on March 23, 2022, citing the changes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [ 21189305, 33353208, 67454547, 99028, 180557, 170976, 4515132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 16, 30 ], [ 114, 142 ], [ 191, 201 ], [ 250, 267 ], [ 269, 291 ], [ 292, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Actor Will Smith announced his resignation from the Academy on April 1, 2022, five days after his onstage slap of Chris Rock, one of the ceremony's presenters, during the 94th Academy Awards.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Membership", "target_page_ids": [ 154698, 70411523, 171268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 17 ], [ 99, 111 ], [ 115, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 17 branches of the Academy are:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Actors", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Casting Directors (created July 31, 2013)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [ 1428218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cinematographers", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [ 51028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Costume Designers (created from former Art Directors Branch)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [ 8122589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Designers (created from former Art Directors Branch)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [ 555539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Directors", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [ 21554680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Documentary", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [ 8088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Executives", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [ 5163519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Film Editors", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [ 10775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Make-up Artists and Hairstylists", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [ 3768005, 1283127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 21, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Music", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [ 176945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Producers", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [ 211405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Public Relations", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [ 24389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Short Films and Feature Animation", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [ 498104, 593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 17, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sound", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [ 488401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Visual Effects", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [ 323862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Writers", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Academy branches", "target_page_ids": [ 53016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", the Board of Governors consists of 54 governors: three governors from each of the 17 Academy branches and three governors-at-large. 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[ "Academy_of_Motion_Picture_Arts_and_Sciences", "Academy_Awards", "Cinema_of_Southern_California", "Culture_of_Los_Angeles", "Film-related_professional_associations", "Media_museums_in_California", "Beverly_Hills,_California", "Organizations_established_in_1927", "1927_establishments_in_California" ]

[ "AMPAS", "A.M.P.A.S.", "The Academy" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Margaret (, ; March or April 1283 – September 1290), known as the Maid of Norway, was the queen-designate of Scotland from 1286 until her death. As she was never inaugurated, her status as monarch is uncertain and has been debated by historians.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23248387, 402120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 117 ], [ 162, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Margaret was the daughter of King Eric II of Norway and Margaret of Scotland. By the end of the reign of her maternal grandfather, King Alexander III of Scotland, she was his only surviving descendant and recognized heir presumptive. Alexander III died in 1286, his posthumous child was stillborn, and Margaret inherited the crown. Owing to her young age, she remained in Norway rather than going to Scotland. Her father and the Scottish leaders negotiated her marriage to Edward of Caernarfon, son of King Edward I of England. She was finally sent to Great Britain in September 1290, but died in Orkney, sparking off the succession dispute between thirteen competitors for the crown of Scotland.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 353627, 6886180, 1596, 238594, 17416907, 44848, 46373, 13530298, 22645, 1130058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 51 ], [ 56, 76 ], [ 136, 161 ], [ 216, 232 ], [ 266, 282 ], [ 473, 493 ], [ 507, 526 ], [ 552, 565 ], [ 597, 603 ], [ 658, 695 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Margaret, Maid of Norway, was the only child of King Eric II of Norway and his first wife, Margaret, daughter of King Alexander III of Scotland. She was born in Tønsberg, a coastal town in southeastern Norway, between March and 9 April 1283, when her mother died, apparently from the complications of childbirth. Aged fifteen and possessing little royal authority, King Eric did not have much say about his daughter's future. The infant Margaret was instead in the custody of the leading Norwegian magnate, Narve, Bishop of Bergen. Margaret's upbringing in the city of Bergen shows that her future marriage was expected to be important to the kingdom's foreign policy. The 1281 treaty arranging the marriage of Eric of Norway and Margaret of Scotland specified that the Scottish princess and her children would succeed to the throne of Scotland if King Alexander died leaving no legitimate sons and if no legitimate son of King Alexander left legitimate children. It also stated that the couple's daughters could inherit the Norwegian throne \"if it is the custom\". The Scottish party seems to have been deceived because the succession law of Norway, codified in 1280, provided only for succession by males, meaning that the Maid could not have succeeded to her father's kingdom.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Infancy", "target_page_ids": [ 353627, 6886180, 1596, 178268, 354076, 2300688, 19215264, 56494, 574821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 70 ], [ 91, 99 ], [ 118, 143 ], [ 161, 169 ], [ 258, 262 ], [ 284, 311 ], [ 514, 530 ], [ 569, 575 ], [ 879, 889 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alexander, brother of Margaret's mother and the last surviving child of the King of Scotland, died on 28 January 1284. The Maid was left as the only living descendant of Alexander III. The King did not wait to discover whether his son's widow, Margaret of Flanders, was pregnant. Already on 5 February he had all thirteen earls, twenty-four barons, and three clan chiefs come to Scone and swear to recognize his granddaughter as his successor if he died leaving neither son nor daughter and if no posthumous child was born to his son. By April it had presumably become clear that the young Alexander's widow was not expecting a child and that Margaret was the heir presumptive. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Infancy", "target_page_ids": [ 12870447, 67334867, 409570, 1643816, 7647628, 18699529, 17416907, 238594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 244, 264 ], [ 322, 327 ], [ 341, 347 ], [ 359, 369 ], [ 379, 384 ], [ 497, 513 ], [ 660, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alexander III's wife, another Margaret, sister of King Edward I of England, had died in 1275, and the oath he exacted strongly implied that he now intended to remarry. When Edward expressed his condolence to Alexander III that month for the death of his son, the latter responded that \"much good may come to pass yet through your kinswoman, the daughter of your niece ... who is now our heir\", suggesting that the two kings may have already been discussing a suitable marriage for Margaret. Alexander and his magnates may have hoped for an English match. The King took a new wife, Yolanda of Dreux, on 14 October 1285, hoping to father another child. On the evening of 18 March 1286, he set out to meet with Queen Yolanda, only to be found dead with a broken neck the next day.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Infancy", "target_page_ids": [ 5048432, 46373, 5038124, 1258362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 38 ], [ 55, 74 ], [ 581, 597 ], [ 752, 763 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the unexpected death of King Alexander, Scottish magnates gathered to discuss the future of the kingdom. They swore to preserve the throne for the right heir and chose six regents, known as guardians of Scotland, to govern the country. Although the succession had been laid out by the time King Alexander III died, Margaret's accession was not yet assured: Her stepgrandmother, Queen Yolanda, was pregnant and the child was expected to succeed to the throne. There was a dispute in parliament in April involving Robert Bruce, 5th Lord of Annandale, and John Balliol, Lord of Galloway. Bruce may have opposed the Maid's succession, or the two men may have both claimed to be next in line to the throne after Yolanda's child and Margaret. Queen Yolanda delivered a stillborn child in November, and within a few months King Eric's most prominent councilor, Bjarne Erlingsson, arrived in Scotland to claim the kingdom for Margaret. Bruce raised a rebellion with his son, Robert, Earl of Carrick, but was defeated in early 1287. The precariousness of the situation made King Eric reluctant to see his three-year-old daughter leave Norway for Scotland.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lady and queen", "target_page_ids": [ 35348624, 3300200, 2604517, 50961, 1531963, 2604236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 188 ], [ 200, 221 ], [ 522, 557 ], [ 563, 575 ], [ 577, 593 ], [ 977, 1000 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 1289, Eric II sent envoys to Edward I as part of the kings' unfolding discussion about the future of Margaret, whom they called \"lady and queen\". As Margaret was still with her father, the Scots could only observe the negotiations between the two kings. Eric was indebted to Edward, and Edward was determined to make the most of the situation. The guardians, accompanied by Bruce, finally met with English and Norwegian envoys at Salisbury in October. The Treaty of Salisbury was drawn up on 6 November 1289, stating that Eric and Margaret, \"queen and heir of the kingdom\", asked Edward to intervene on behalf of his grandniece so \"that she could ordain and enjoy therein as other kings do in their kingdoms\". Margaret was to be sent, by 1 November 1290, to England directly or via Scotland. Once the Scots could assure Edward that Scotland was peaceful and safe, he would send her to them. Edward was allowed to choose her husband, though her father retained the right to veto the choice. At Edward's request, a papal dispensation permitting Margaret to marry her granduncle's son, Edward of Caernarfon, was issued on 16 November 1289. The guardians and other prelates and magnates wrote that they were firmly in favour of the English match for \"the lady Margaret queen of Scotland, our lady\". It was strongly implied that Margaret's husband would be king, and Edward insisted on referring to Margaret as queen in order to speed up the accession of his own son, though the Scots themselves normally described her only as their lady.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lady and queen", "target_page_ids": [ 72119, 2416630, 4086742, 44848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 437, 446 ], [ 463, 482 ], [ 1020, 1038 ], [ 1090, 1110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Negotiations about Margaret's marriage, dower, succession, and the nature of the intended personal union between England and Scotland continued into 1290. A lavishly provisioned ship failed to fetch the Maid in May because of diplomatic difficulties. The Treaty of Birgham, agreed on 18 July, provided that Scotland was to remain fully independent despite the personal union and that Margaret alone would be inaugurated as monarch at Scone. By late August 1290, Margaret was preparing to sail from Bergen to the island of Great Britain or was already at sea. The ship was her father's but he did not accompany her; the most prominent men in her entourage were Bishop Narve and Baron Tore Haakonsson. She must have embarked in good health, but became ill during her journey. The ship landed in Orkney, a Norwegian archipelago off the coast of Scotland, on about 23 September. Having suffered there for up to a week from either food poisoning or, less likely, motion sickness, Margaret died between 26 and 29 September 1290 in the arms of Bishop Narve. The Scottish magnates, who had assembled at Scone for the child queen's inauguration, learned about her death in October. Her body was returned to Bergen, where King Eric insisted on having the coffin opened to confirm his daughter's identity. He then had it buried in the north wall of the chancel of Christ Church, now destroyed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lady and queen", "target_page_ids": [ 3044226, 475807, 2416630, 402120, 18699529, 22645, 531611, 62580, 26250617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 45 ], [ 90, 104 ], [ 255, 272 ], [ 408, 419 ], [ 434, 439 ], [ 793, 799 ], [ 926, 940 ], [ 958, 973 ], [ 1353, 1366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Margaret was the last legitimate scion of the line of King William the Lion. Thirteen men laid claim to succession, most notably Bruce and Balliol. King Eric half-heartedly claimed the Scottish crown as well, and died in 1299. In 1301 she was impersonated by a German woman, False Margaret, who was burned at the stake.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 33915, 1130058, 5311087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 75 ], [ 77, 89 ], [ 276, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historians debate whether Margaret should be considered a queen and included in the list of Scottish monarchs. She was never inaugurated, and her contemporaries in Scotland described her as queen very rarely, referring to her instead as their \"lady\". She was called Scotland's \"lady\", \"heir\", or \"lady and heir\" during the deliberations of the Great Cause after her death. On the other hand, documents issued from late 1286 no longer refer to the \"king whosoever he may be\", indicating that the throne may have been regarded as already occupied by Margaret. Pope Nicholas IV considered Margaret to be the monarch of Scotland and treated her as such, sending to her a bull regarding the episcopal election of Matthew the Scot. In modern historiography she is nearly unanimously called \"queen\", and reference books give 19 March 1286, the date of Alexander III's death, as the start of her reign.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1049565, 1130058, 5334724, 6163331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 109 ], [ 344, 355 ], [ 686, 704 ], [ 708, 724 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Margaret's family ties resulted from the marital diplomacy that sought to ensure peace among the three kingdoms on the North Sea Norway, Scotland, and England, and placed her at the centre of the Scottish succession intrigues. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Family tree", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1283_births", "1290_deaths", "House_of_Dunkeld", "Norwegian_princesses", "Queens_regnant_of_Scotland", "Rulers_who_died_as_children", "Medieval_child_rulers", "Norwegian_people_of_Scottish_descent", "Scottish_people_of_Norwegian_descent", "13th-century_Scottish_monarchs", "13th-century_women_rulers", "Burials_at_Christ_Church,_Bergen", "House_of_Sverre", "Fairhair_dynasty", "13th-century_Norwegian_people", "Gaelic_monarchs_in_Scotland", "People_from_Tønsberg" ]

[ "Margaret", "Margaret 'Maid of Norway' Eriksdottir, Queen of Scotland", "Fair Maid of Norway", "Maid of Norway" ]

[ { "plaintext": "A Roman villa was typically a farmhouse or country house built in the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, sometimes reaching extravagant proportions. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2752506, 1312933, 25816, 25507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 39 ], [ 43, 56 ], [ 70, 84 ], [ 93, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) distinguished two kinds of villas near Rome: the villa urbana, a country seat that could easily be reached from Rome (or another city) for a night or two; and the villa rustica, the farmhouse estate permanently occupied by the servants who generally had charge of the estate. The Roman Empire contained many kinds of villas, not all of them lavishly appointed with mosaic floors and frescoes. In the provinces, any country house with some decorative features in the Roman style may be called a \"villa\" by modern scholars. Some were pleasure houses, like Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli, that were sited in the cool hills within easy reach of Rome or, like the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, on picturesque sites overlooking the Bay of Naples. Some villas were more like the country houses of England, the visible seat of power of a local magnate, such as the famous palace rediscovered at Fishbourne in Sussex.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Typology and distribution", "target_page_ids": [ 44920, 16926862, 2752506, 25507, 61309, 11144, 314732, 1903893, 92884, 25458, 879245, 21476679, 1104490, 1312933, 47082, 49699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 190, 203 ], [ 209, 218 ], [ 307, 319 ], [ 392, 398 ], [ 410, 416 ], [ 427, 435 ], [ 581, 596 ], [ 600, 606 ], [ 663, 667 ], [ 681, 700 ], [ 704, 715 ], [ 754, 767 ], [ 800, 813 ], [ 915, 925 ], [ 929, 935 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Suburban villas on the edge of cities also occurred, such as the Middle and Late Republican villas that encroached on the Campus Martius, at that time on the edge of Rome, and which can be also seen outside the city walls of Pompeii. These early suburban villas, such as the one at Rome's Parco della Musica or at Grottarossa in Rome, demonstrate the antiquity and heritage of the villa suburbana in Central Italy. It is possible that these early, suburban villas were also in fact the seats of power of regional strongmen or heads of important families (gentes). A third type of villa provided the organisational centre of the large holdings called latifundia, which produced and exported agricultural produce; such villas might lack luxuries. By the 4th century, \"villa\" could simply connote an agricultural holding: Jerome translated in the Gospel of Mark (xiv, 32) chorion, describing the olive grove of Gethsemane, with villa, without an inference that there were any dwellings there at all.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Typology and distribution", "target_page_ids": [ 415574, 21476593, 6799852, 483649, 16005, 12490, 372051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 136 ], [ 225, 232 ], [ 289, 307 ], [ 651, 661 ], [ 820, 826 ], [ 845, 859 ], [ 909, 919 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under the Empire, a concentration of imperial villas grew up near the Bay of Naples, especially on the isle of Capri, at Monte Circeo on the coast and at Antium. Wealthy Romans escaped the summer heat in the hills around Rome, especially around Frascati (cf. Hadrian's Villa). Cicero allegedly possessed no fewer than seven villas, the oldest of them, which he inherited, near Arpinum in Latium. Pliny the Younger had three or four, of which the example near Laurentium is the best known from his descriptions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Typology and distribution", "target_page_ids": [ 1104490, 295223, 44244, 797181, 1553997, 6046, 1891117, 49407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 83 ], [ 111, 116 ], [ 121, 133 ], [ 154, 160 ], [ 245, 253 ], [ 277, 283 ], [ 377, 384 ], [ 396, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the first century BC, the \"classic\" villa took many architectural forms, with many examples employing atrium or peristyle, for enclosed spaces open to light and air. Upper class, wealthy Roman citizens in the countryside around Rome and throughout the Empire lived in villa complexes, the accommodation for rural farms. The villa-complex consisted of three parts:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture of the villa complex", "target_page_ids": [ 1317246, 692857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 112 ], [ 116, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the pars urbana where the owner and his family lived. This would be similar to the wealthy person's home in the city and would have painted walls.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture of the villa complex", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the pars rustica where the chef and slaves of the villa worked and lived. This was also the living quarters for the farm's animals. There would usually be other rooms here that might be used as store rooms, a hospital and even a prison.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture of the villa complex", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the villa fructuaria would be the storage rooms. These would be where the products of the farm were stored ready for transport to buyers. Storage rooms here would have been used for oil, wine, grain, grapes and any other produce of the villa. Other rooms in the villa might include an office, a temple for worship, several bedrooms, a dining room and a kitchen.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture of the villa complex", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Villas were often furnished with plumbed bathing facilities and many would have had an under-floor central heating known as the hypocaust.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture of the villa complex", "target_page_ids": [ 43982, 312103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 59 ], [ 128, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A villa might be quite palatial, such as the villas of the imperial period, built on seaside slopes overlooking the Gulf of Naples at Baiae; others were preserved at Stabiae and Herculaneum by the ashfall and mudslide from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79, which also preserved the Villa of the Papyri and its library. Smaller in the countryside, even non-commercial villas operated as largely self-supporting units, with associated farms, olive groves, and vineyards. Roman writers refer with satisfaction to the self-sufficiency of their villas, where they drank their own wine and pressed their own oil, a commonly used literary topos. An ideal Roman citizen was the independent farmer tilling his own land, and the agricultural writers wanted to give their readers a chance to link themselves with their ancestors through this image of self-sufficient villas. The truth was not too far from the image, either, while even the profit-oriented latifundia, large slave-run villas, probably grew enough of all the basic foodstuffs to provide for their own consumption.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Social history", "target_page_ids": [ 888906, 21476661, 21476679, 46817, 879245, 167276, 429955, 483649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 139 ], [ 166, 173 ], [ 178, 189 ], [ 239, 253 ], [ 286, 305 ], [ 462, 470 ], [ 628, 642 ], [ 950, 960 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The late Roman Republic witnessed an explosion of villa construction in Italy, especially in the years following the dictatorship of Sulla (81 BC). In Etruria, the villa at Settefinestre was the centre of one of the latifundia that were involved in large-scale agricultural production. At Settefinestre and elsewhere, the central housing of such villas was not richly appointed. Other villas in the hinterland of Rome are interpreted in light of the agrarian treatises written by the elder Cato, Columella and Varro, all of whom sought to define the suitable lifestyle of conservative Romans, at least in idealistic terms.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Social history", "target_page_ids": [ 239672, 72845, 1467560, 75861, 872956, 235965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 138 ], [ 151, 158 ], [ 173, 186 ], [ 484, 494 ], [ 496, 505 ], [ 510, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Large villas dominated the rural economy of the Po Valley, Campania, and Sicily, and also operated in Gaul. Villas were centers of a variety of economic activity such as mining, pottery factories, or horse raising such as those found in northwestern Gaul. Villas specializing in the seagoing export of olive oil to Roman legions in Germany became a feature of the southern Iberian province of Hispania Baetica. Some luxurious villas have been excavated in North Africa in the provinces of Africa and Numidia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Social history", "target_page_ids": [ 8320582, 44943, 27619, 36545, 33152938, 22478, 25994, 770608, 5334607, 75459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 57 ], [ 59, 67 ], [ 73, 79 ], [ 102, 106 ], [ 238, 255 ], [ 304, 313 ], [ 317, 329 ], [ 395, 411 ], [ 491, 497 ], [ 502, 509 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Certain areas within easy reach of Rome offered cool lodgings in the heat of summer. Gaius Maecenas asked what kind of house could possibly be suitable at all seasons. The emperor Hadrian had a villa at Tibur (Tivoli), in an area that was popular with Romans of rank. Hadrian's Villa, dated to 123, was more like a palace, as Nero's palace, the Domus Aurea on the Palatine Hill in Rome, was disposed in groupings in a planned rustic landscape, more like a villa. Cicero had several villas. Pliny the Younger described his villas in his letters. The Romans invented the seaside villa: a vignette in a frescoed wall at the in Pompeii still shows a row of seafront pleasure houses, all with porticos along the front, some rising up in porticoed tiers to an altana at the top that would catch a breeze on the most stifling evenings.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Social history", "target_page_ids": [ 19813, 13621, 92884, 1903893, 21632, 225521, 159890, 6046, 49407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 99 ], [ 180, 187 ], [ 210, 216 ], [ 268, 283 ], [ 326, 330 ], [ 345, 356 ], [ 364, 377 ], [ 463, 469 ], [ 490, 507 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some late Roman villae had luxuries like hypocaust-heated rooms with mosaic floors; mosaics are known even from Roman Britain. As the Roman Empire collapsed, villas in Britain were abandoned. In other areas some at least survived; large working villas were donated by aristocrats and territorial magnates to individual monks, often to become the nucleus of famous monasteries. In this way, the villa system of late Antiquity was preserved into the Early Middle Ages. Benedict of Nursia established his influential monastery of Monte Cassino in the ruins of a villa at Subiaco that had belonged to Nero. Around 590, Saint Eligius was born in a highly placed Gallo-Roman family at the 'villa' of Chaptelat near Limoges, in Aquitaine. The abbey at Stavelot was founded ca 650 on the domain of a former villa near Liège and the abbey of Vézelay had a similar founding. As late as 698, Willibrord established an abbey at a Roman villa of Echternach, in Luxembourg near Trier, which Irmina of Oeren, daughter of Dagobert II, king of the Franks, presented to him.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Social history", "target_page_ids": [ 312103, 61309, 13525, 923406, 45856, 823343, 532476, 4001, 37785, 1845039, 21632, 414279, 177195, 46378, 176149, 28341707, 5025754, 198713, 649750, 17515, 30317, 34092815, 366567, 2462183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 50 ], [ 69, 75 ], [ 112, 125 ], [ 134, 156 ], [ 364, 375 ], [ 410, 424 ], [ 448, 465 ], [ 467, 485 ], [ 527, 540 ], [ 568, 575 ], [ 597, 601 ], [ 615, 628 ], [ 709, 716 ], [ 721, 730 ], [ 745, 753 ], [ 810, 815 ], [ 833, 840 ], [ 881, 891 ], [ 933, 943 ], [ 948, 958 ], [ 964, 969 ], [ 977, 992 ], [ 1006, 1017 ], [ 1031, 1037 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the empire expanded, villas spread into the Western provinces, including Gaul and Roman Britain. This was despite the fact that writers of the period could never quite decide on what was meant by villa, though it is clear from the treatise of Palladius that the villa had an agricultural and political role. In Roman Gaul the term villa was applied to many different buildings. The villas in Roman Gaul were also subject to regional differences, for example in northern and central Gaul colonnaded facades and pavilions were the fashion, whereas Southern Gaul were in peristyle. The villas style, locations, room numbers and proximity to a lake or ocean were manners of displaying the owners wealth.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Villas in Roman Gaul", "target_page_ids": [ 36545, 13525, 1218351, 2068003, 33152938, 692857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 80 ], [ 85, 98 ], [ 246, 255 ], [ 314, 324 ], [ 464, 489 ], [ 571, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Villas were also centres of production, and Gallo-Roman villa appear to have been closely associated with vineries and wine production. The owners were probably a combination of local Gallic elites who became quickly romanised after the conquest, as well as Romans and Italians who wished to exploit rich local resources. The villas would have been the centre of complex relationships with the local area. Much work would have been undertaken by slave labour or by local coloni (\"tenant farmers\"). There would also have been a steward in addition to the inhabiting family.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Villas in Roman Gaul", "target_page_ids": [ 167276, 373172, 143229, 5339004, 4550284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 114 ], [ 119, 134 ], [ 237, 245 ], [ 446, 458 ], [ 471, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli, Italy", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Attested Roman villas", "target_page_ids": [ 1903893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Villa Armira, near Ivaylovgrad, Bulgaria", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Attested Roman villas", "target_page_ids": [ 24179704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fishbourne Roman Palace and Bignor Roman Villa in West Sussex, England", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Attested Roman villas", "target_page_ids": [ 47082, 8737872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 29, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lullingstone Roman Villa in Kent, England", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Attested Roman villas", "target_page_ids": [ 39744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Villa Romana del Casale in Piazza Armerina, Sicily, Italy", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Attested Roman villas", "target_page_ids": [ 3976258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Villa of the Quintilii, Rome, Italy", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Attested Roman villas", "target_page_ids": [ 19755253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chedworth Roman Villa in Gloucestershire, England", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Attested Roman villas", "target_page_ids": [ 5194483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Littlecote Roman Villa in Wiltshire, England", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Attested Roman villas", "target_page_ids": [ 8973278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Villa Rumana in Żejtun, Malta", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Attested Roman villas", "target_page_ids": [ 41424423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Attested Roman villas", "target_page_ids": [ 5484549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " House of Menander, Pompeii", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Attested Roman villas", "target_page_ids": [ 11168515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pliny's Comedy and Tragedy villas, Lake Como, Italy", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Attested Roman villas", "target_page_ids": [ 55893612, 250437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 36, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " La Olmeda Roman Villa in Palencia, Spain", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Attested Roman villas", "target_page_ids": [ 28291171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roman Villa Borg, Germany", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Attested Roman villas", "target_page_ids": [ 29689103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Roman villas in Belgium", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15725587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Roman villas in England", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5194390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Roman villas in Wales", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 35822027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roman villas in northwestern Gaul", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33152938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Villa Villae, French Ministry of Culture Website on Gallo-Roman villas", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Roman_villa" ]

[ "villa" ]

[ { "plaintext": "An outboard motor is a propulsion system for boats, consisting of a self-contained unit that includes engine, gearbox and propeller or jet drive, designed to be affixed to the outside of the transom. They are the most common motorised method of propelling small watercraft. As well as providing propulsion, outboards provide steering control, as they are designed to pivot over their mountings and thus control the direction of thrust. The skeg also acts as a rudder when the engine is not running. Unlike inboard motors, outboard motors can be easily removed for storage or repairs.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8379893, 3996, 609147, 23738, 171513, 15624764, 217852, 219794, 5846868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 33 ], [ 45, 49 ], [ 110, 117 ], [ 122, 131 ], [ 135, 144 ], [ 191, 198 ], [ 440, 444 ], [ 460, 466 ], [ 506, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In order to eliminate the chances of hitting bottom with an outboard motor, the motor can be tilted up to an elevated position either electronically or manually. This helps when traveling through shallow waters where there may be debris that could potentially damage the motor as well as the propeller. If the electric motor required to move the pistons which raise or lower the engine is malfunctioning, every outboard motor is equipped with a manual piston release which will allow the operator to drop the motor down to its lowest setting.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 292, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Large outboards affixed to the transom using clamps and are either tiller steer up to approx 100hp. Generally 100hp plus is linked to controls at the helm. These range from 2-, 3-, and 4-cylinder models generating 15 to 135 horsepower suitable for hulls up to in length to powerful V6 and V8 cylinder blocks rated up to ., with sufficient power to be used on boats of or longer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Small outboard motors, up to 15 horsepower or so are easily portable. They are affixed to the boat via clamps and thus easily moved from boat to boat. These motors typically use a manual start system, with throttle and gearshift controls mounted on the body of the motor, and a tiller for steering. The smallest of these weigh as little as , have integral fuel tanks, and provide sufficient power to move a small dinghy at around ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General use", "target_page_ids": [ 4707019, 724926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 214 ], [ 278, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This type of motor is typically used:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " to power small craft such as jon boats, dinghies, canoes, etc.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General use", "target_page_ids": [ 6117716, 135131, 99960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 39 ], [ 41, 49 ], [ 51, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " to provide auxiliary power for sailboats", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General use", "target_page_ids": [ 67783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " for trolling aboard larger craft, as small outboards are typically more efficient at trolling speeds. In this application, the motor is frequently installed on the transom alongside and connected to the primary outboard to enable helm steering. In addition many small motor manufacturers have begun offering variants with power trim/tilt and electric starting functions so that they may be completely controlled remotely.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General use", "target_page_ids": [ 47327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electric outboard motors are self-contained propulsory units for boats, first invented in 1973 by Morton Ray of Ray Electric Outboards. These are not to be confused with trolling motors, which are not designed as a primary source of power. Most electric outboard motors have 0.5 to 4 kW direct current (DC) electric motors, operated at 12 to 60 volts DC. Recently developed outboard motors are powered with an alternating current (AC) or DC electric motor in the power head like a conventional petrol engine. With this setup, a motor can produce 10kW output or more and is able to replace a petrol engine of 15 HP or more. The advantage of the induction or asynchronous motor is the power transfer to the rotor by means of electromagnetic induction. As these engines do not use permanent magnets, they require less maintenance and develop more torque at lower RPM.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General use", "target_page_ids": [ 3996, 588441, 21347693, 47713, 76086, 42986, 166194, 14019, 65888, 51079, 30400, 1318086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 69 ], [ 170, 184 ], [ 284, 286 ], [ 287, 301 ], [ 307, 321 ], [ 410, 429 ], [ 494, 507 ], [ 611, 613 ], [ 723, 748 ], [ 778, 794 ], [ 844, 850 ], [ 860, 863 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pump-jet propulsion is available as an option on most outboard motors. Although less efficient than an open propeller, they are particularly useful in applications where the ability to operate in very shallow water is important. They also eliminate the laceration dangers of an open propeller.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General use", "target_page_ids": [ 670510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Propane outboard motors are available from several manufacturers. These products have several advantages such as lower emissions, absence of ethanol-related issues, and no need for choke once the system is pressurized. Lehr is regarded as the first manufacturer to have brought a propane-powered outboard motor to market by Popular Mechanics and other boating publications.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General use", "target_page_ids": [ 623990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 324, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first known outboard motor was a small 5 kilogram (11lb) electric unit designed around 1870 by Gustave Trouvé, and patented in May 1880 (Patent N° 136,560). Later about 25 petrol powered outboards may have been produced in 1896 by American Motors Co—but neither of these two pioneering efforts appear to have had much impact.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and developments", "target_page_ids": [ 12376839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Waterman outboard engine appears to be the first gasoline-powered outboard offered for sale in significant numbers. It was developed from 1903 in Grosse Ile, Michigan, with a patent application filed in 1905 Starting in 1906, the company went on to make thousands of his \"Porto-Motor\" units, claiming 25,000 sales by 1914. The inboard boat motor firm of Caille Motor Company of Detroit were instrumental in making the cylinder and engines.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and developments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most successful early outboard motor, was created by Norwegian-American inventor Ole Evinrude in 1909. Between 1909 and 1912, Evinrude made thousands of his outboards and the three-horsepower units were sold around the world. His Evinrude Outboard Co. was spun off to other owners, and he went on to success after starting the ELTO company to produce a two-cylinder motor - ELTO stood for Evinrude Light Twin Outboard. The 1920s were the first high-water mark for the outboard with Evinrude, Johnson, ELTO, Atwater Lockwood and dozens of other makers in the field.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and developments", "target_page_ids": [ 1182314, 780617, 19644247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 75 ], [ 85, 97 ], [ 331, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historically, a majority of outboards have been two-stroke powerheads fitted with a carburetor due to the design's inherent simplicity, reliability, low cost and light weight. Drawbacks include increased pollution, due to the high volume of unburned gasoline and oil in their exhaust, and louder noise.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and developments", "target_page_ids": [ 82156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although four stroke outboards have been sold since the late 1920s, particularly Roness and Sharland, in 1962 Homelite introduced a commercially viable four cycle outboard a 55-horsepower motor, based on the 4 cylinder Crosley automobile engine. This was called the Bearcat and was later purchased by Fischer-Pierce, the makers of Boston Whaler, for use in their boats because of their advantages over two strokes. In 1964, Honda Motor Co. introduced its first four-stroke powerhead. In 1984, Yamaha introduced their first four-stroke powerhead. These motors were only available in the smaller horsepower range. In 1990 Honda released 35hp and 45hp four-stroke models. They continued to lead in the development of four-stroke engines throughout the 1990s as US and European exhaust emissions regulations such as CARB (California Air Resources Board) led to the proliferation of four-stroke outboards. At first, North American manufacturers such as Mercury and OMC used engine technology from Japanese manufacturers such as Yamaha and Suzuki until they were able to develop their own four-stroke engine. The inherent advantages of four-stroke motors included: lower pollution (especially oil in the water), noise reduction, increase fuel economy, and increased low rpm torque.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and developments", "target_page_ids": [ 601867, 420881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 219, 226 ], [ 819, 849 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Honda Marine Group, Mercury Marine, Mercury Racing, Nissan Marine, Suzuki Marine, Tohatsu Outboards, Yamaha Marine, and China Oshen-Hyfong marine have all developed new four-stroke engines. Some are carburetted, usually the smaller engines. The balance are electronically fuel-injected. Depending on the manufacturer, newer engines benefit from advanced technology such as multiple valves per cylinder, variable camshaft timing (Honda's VTEC), boosted low end torque (Honda's BLAST), 3-way cooling systems, and closed loop fuel injection. Mercury Verado four-strokes are unique in that they are supercharged.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and developments", "target_page_ids": [ 13729, 2248401, 7493486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 20, 34 ], [ 595, 607 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mercury Marine, Mercury Racing, Tohatsu, Yamaha Marine, Nissan and Evinrude each developed computer-controlled direct-injected two-stroke engines. Each brand boasts a different method of DI.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and developments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fuel economy on both direct injected and four-stroke outboards measures from a 10 percent to 80 percent improvement, compared with conventional two-strokes. Depending on rpm and load at cruising speeds, figure on about a 30 percent mileage improvement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and developments", "target_page_ids": [ 1318086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, the gap between two-stroke and four-stroke outboard fuel economy is beginning to narrow. Two-stroke outboard motor manufacturers have recently introduced new technologies that help to improve two-stroke fuel economy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and developments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2012, Lehr inc. introduced some small (<5hp) outboards based on modified Chinese petrol engines to run on propane gas. Tohatsu currently also produces propane powered models, all rated 5hp. Conversion of larger outboards to run on Liquified petroleum gas is considered unusual and exotic although some hobbyists continue to experiment.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History and developments", "target_page_ids": [ 23643, 3371020, 361384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 116 ], [ 122, 129 ], [ 234, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is important to select a motor that is a good match for the hull in terms of power and shaft length.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Outboard motor selection", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Overpowering is a dangerous condition that can lead to the transom accelerating past the rest of the vessel and underpowering often results in a boat that is incapable of performing in the role for which it was designed. Boats built in the US have a Coast Guard Rating Plate, which specifies the maximum recommended horsepower for the hull. A motor with less than 75% of the maximum will most likely result in unsatisfactory performance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Outboard motor selection", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Outboard motor shaft lengths are standardized to fit 15-inch, 20-inch and 25-inch transoms. If the shaft is too long it will extend farther into the water than necessary creating drag, which will impair performance and fuel economy. If the shaft is too short, the motor will be prone to ventilation. Even worse, if the water intake ports on the lower unit are not sufficiently submerged, engine overheating is likely, which can result in severe damage.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Outboard motor selection", "target_page_ids": [ 15624764, 2137292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 90 ], [ 179, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Different outboard engine brands require different transom dimensions and sizes, that affects performance and trim.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Outboard motor selection", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Motor height on the transom is an important factor in achieving optimal performance. The motor should be as high as possible without ventilating or loss of water pressure. This minimizes the effect of hydrodynamic drag while underway, allowing for greater speed. Generally, the antiventilation plate should be about the same height as, or up to two inches higher than, the keel, with the motor in neutral trim.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operational issues", "target_page_ids": [ 15624764, 2137292, 219807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 27 ], [ 201, 218 ], [ 373, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trim is the angle of the motor in relation to the hull, as illustrated below. The ideal trim angle is the one in which the boat rides level, with most of the hull on the surface instead of plowing through the water.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operational issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the motor is trimmed out too far, the bow will ride too high in the water. With too little trim, the bow rides too low. The optimal trim setting will vary depending on many factors including speed, hull design, weight and balance, and conditions on the water (wind and waves). Many large outboards are equipped with power trim, an electric motor on the mounting bracket, with a switch at the helm that enables the operator to adjust the trim angle on the fly. In this case, the motor should be trimmed fully in to start, and trimmed out (with an eye on the tachometer) as the boat gains momentum, until it reaches the point just before ventilation begins or further trim adjustment results in an RPM increase with no increase in speed. Motors not equipped with power trim are manually adjustable using a pin called a topper tilt lock.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operational issues", "target_page_ids": [ 1989771, 233487, 1318086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 44 ], [ 560, 570 ], [ 699, 702 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ventilation is a phenomenon that occurs when surface air or exhaust gas (in the case of motors equipped with through-hub exhaust) is drawn into the spinning propeller blades. With the propeller pushing mostly air instead of water, the load on the engine is greatly reduced, causing the engine to race and the propeller to spin fast enough to result in cavitation, at which point little thrust is generated at all. The condition continues until the prop slows enough for the air bubbles to rise to the surface. The primary causes of ventilation are: motor mounted too high, motor trimmed out excessively, damage to the antiventilation plate, damage to propeller, foreign object lodged in the diffuser ring.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operational issues", "target_page_ids": [ 7807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 352, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the helmsman goes overboard, the boat may continue under power but uncontrolled, risking serious or fatal injuries to the helmsman and others in the water. A safety measure is a \"kill cord\" attached to the boat and helmsman, which cuts the motor if the helmsman falls overboard.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operational issues", "target_page_ids": [ 351284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most common type of cooling used on outboards of all eras use a rubber impeller to pump water from below the waterline up into the engine. This design has remained the standard due mainly to the efficiency and simplicity of its design. One disadvantage to this system is that if the impeller is run dry for a length of time (such as leaving the engine running when pulling the boat out of the water or in some cases tilting the engine out of the water while running), the impeller is likely to be ruined in the process.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operational issues", "target_page_ids": [ 708520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Air cooled outboard engines are currently produced by some manufacturers, these tend to be small engines of less than 5 horsepower. Outboard engines made by Briggs & Stratton are air-cooled", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operational issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Outboards manufactured by Seven Marine use a closed-loop cooling system with heat exchanger. This means saltwater is not pumped through the engine block as is the case with most outboards but still has to be pumped through the heat exchanger", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operational issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Engine Stalls", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operational issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An outboard engine may stall if it does not have the correct inputs. Common problems that lead to stalling are electrical issues, low quality gas or clogged fuel filer. Other issues may include a damaged carburetor oil switch. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operational issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Vietnam and other parts of southeast Asia a long-tailed motor design is used. In Vietnam these are called \"May Duoi Tom\" (Shrimp Tail Motor). The outboard motors, which can be smallish air-cooled or water-cooled gasoline, diesel or even modified automotive engines, are bolted to a welded steel tube frame, with another long steel tube up to 3m long to hold the drive shaft, driving a conventional looking propeller. The frame that holds the motor has a short, swiveling steel pin/tube approximately 15cm long underneath, to be inserted into a corresponding hole on the transom, or a solid block or wood purposely built-in thereof.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other outboard motoring method", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This drop-in arrangement enables extremely quick transfer of the motor to another boat or for storage - all that is needed is to lift it out. The pivoting design allows the outboard motor to be swiveled by the operator in almost all directions: Sideways for direction, up and down to change the thrust line according to speed or bow lift, elevate completely out of water for easy starting, placing the drive shaft and the propeller forward along the side of the boat for reverse, or put them inside the boat for propeller replacement, which can be a regular occurrence to the cheap cast aluminum propellers on the often debris-prone inland waterways. This design is utilized to propel long-tail boats.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other outboard motoring method", "target_page_ids": [ 10394047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 685, 699 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquawatt Electric Outboard Motor", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bolinder", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Briggs & Stratton - USA - Up to 5hp", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 1156647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cimco Marine AB", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " DBD Marine", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " EP Carry", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ePropulsion - Hong Kong", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Halmarine Outboards", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hidea - China", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Honda Marine Group - Japan - Up to 250hp", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 13729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " KARVIN motors - electric outboard see KARVIN website", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kohler Company", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 625919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jarvis Marine", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 39407853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lehr", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Maxus outboards", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mud-skipper Longtail outboard", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " McCulloch", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 1192047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mercury/Mariner/Mercury Racing - USA - Up to 600hp", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 2248401, 2248401, 2248401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 9, 16 ], [ 17, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nissan Marine (now Tohatsu)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 16934056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oshen-Hyfong Marine", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Photon Marine Electric Outboard Motors for Commercial Boat Fleets see Photon Marine website", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Propel part of Saietta Group - Electric outboards", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 3274024, 45059831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 16, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Parsun - China", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Selva Marine - Italy - Up to 250hp", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Suzuki Marine - Japan - Up to 350hp", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 59859981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tohatsu - Japan", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 3371020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tomos", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 851336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Torqeedo part of Deutz AG - Electric outboards", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 1291456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zomair", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ul'yanovsk Motor Plant", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " West Bend", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 1213722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yamaha Outboards - Japan - Up to 425hp", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 332378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yanmar Diesel", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 4612055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " British Anzani", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 855123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " British Seagull (defunct)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 2305766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chrysler", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 6882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Homelite", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 22477370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Johnson Outboards (folded into Evinrude Outboard Motors)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 1666424, 1661822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 32, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ELTO", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 19644247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Evinrude, a division of Bombardier Recreational Products - USA - Up to 300hp", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 1661822, 703414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 25, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Seven Marine - USA - 3 models rated up to 627hp utilising a General Motors sourced V8 supercharged power-plant", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 12102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Volvo Penta", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 736856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oliver", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " [ \"How A Kicker Works, June 1951, Popular Science] by George W. Waltz Jr - basic article on outboard motors with many drawings and illustrations", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Antique Outboard Motor Club International", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Super-Elto Outboard Motor (1927) Smithsonian Institution Libraries", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Early Outboard Motor Boat Racing in British Columbia", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Yamaha Outboards Resources Collection", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " - Marine propulsion mechanism", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Patents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " - Canoe and other small craft", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Patents", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Marine_propulsion", "Marine_engines" ]

[ "outboard" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Roman conquest of Britain refers to the conquest of the island of Britain by occupying Roman forces. It began in earnest in AD43 under Emperor Claudius, and was largely completed in the southern half of Britain by 87 when the Stanegate was established. Conquest of the far north and Scotland took longer with fluctuating success.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13530298, 25507, 6140, 149264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 77 ], [ 91, 96 ], [ 147, 155 ], [ 230, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Roman army was generally recruited in Italia, Hispania, and Gaul. To control the English Channel they used the newly formed fleet.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 753281, 1873263, 20597079, 36545, 9230, 5169172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 42, 48 ], [ 50, 58 ], [ 64, 68 ], [ 85, 100 ], [ 128, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Romans under their general Aulus Plautius first forced their way inland in several battles against British tribes, including the Battle of the Medway, the Battle of the Thames, and in later years Caratacus's last battle and the Roman conquest of Anglesey. Following a widespread uprising in AD 60 in which Boudica sacked Camulodunum, Verulamium and Londinium, the Romans suppressed the rebellion in the Defeat of Boudica. They went on eventually to push as far north as central Caledonia in the Battle of Mons Graupius. Even after Hadrian's Wall was established as the border, tribes in Scotland and northern England repeatedly rebelled against Roman rule and forts continued to be maintained across northern Britain to protect against these attacks.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 203153, 416630, 461964, 1269828, 27454687, 4517, 4517, 189203, 57185, 207211, 1056186, 2233278, 311078, 18618416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 45 ], [ 103, 117 ], [ 133, 153 ], [ 200, 223 ], [ 232, 258 ], [ 283, 291 ], [ 310, 317 ], [ 325, 336 ], [ 338, 348 ], [ 353, 362 ], [ 407, 424 ], [ 482, 491 ], [ 499, 522 ], [ 535, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In common with other regions on the edge of the empire, Britain had enjoyed diplomatic and trading links with the Romans in the century since Julius Caesar's expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, and Roman economic and cultural influence was a significant part of the British late pre-Roman Iron Age, especially in the south.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 15924, 5169185, 14711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 155 ], [ 158, 185 ], [ 282, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 55BC and the 40sAD, the status quo of tribute, hostages, and client states without direct military occupation, begun by Caesar's invasions of Britain, largely remained intact. Augustus prepared invasions in 34BC, 27BC and 25BC. The first and third were called off due to revolts elsewhere in the empire, the second because the Britons seemed ready to come to terms. According to Augustus's Res Gestae, two British kings, Dubnovellaunus and Tincomarus, fled to Rome as supplicants during his reign, and Strabo's Geography, written during this period, says Britain paid more in customs and duties than could be raised by taxation if the island were conquered.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 1545226, 5169185, 1273, 584100, 1547966, 1164744, 52121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 82 ], [ 128, 157 ], [ 184, 192 ], [ 398, 408 ], [ 429, 443 ], [ 448, 458 ], [ 510, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the 40sAD, the political situation within Britain was in ferment. The Catuvellauni had displaced the Trinovantes as the most powerful kingdom in south-eastern Britain, taking over the former Trinovantian capital of Camulodunum (Colchester). The Atrebates tribe whose capital was at Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester) had friendly trade and diplomatic links with Rome and Verica was recognised by Rome as their king, but Caratacus' Catuvellauni conquered the entire kingdom some time after AD 40 and Verica was expelled from Britain.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 455822, 310076, 189203, 264105, 454851, 1197805, 845660, 48690, 455822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 85 ], [ 104, 115 ], [ 218, 229 ], [ 231, 241 ], [ 248, 257 ], [ 304, 314 ], [ 370, 376 ], [ 419, 428 ], [ 430, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Caligula may have planned a campaign against the Britons in AD 40, but its execution was unclear: according to Suetonius' The Twelve Caesars, he drew up his troops in battle formation facing the English Channel and, once his forces had become quite confused, ordered them to gather seashells, referring to them as \"plunder from the ocean due to the Capitol and the Palace\". Alternatively, he may have actually told them to gather \"huts\", since the word musculi was also soldier's slang for engineers' huts and Caligula himself was very familiar with the Empire's soldiers. In any case this readied the troops and facilities that would make Claudius' invasion possible three years later. For example, Caligula built a lighthouse at (modern Boulogne-sur-Mer), the Tour D'Ordre, that provided a model for the one built soon after at (Dover).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 6852, 37323, 4358254, 9230, 80849, 144901, 159890, 27181, 128242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 111, 120 ], [ 122, 140 ], [ 195, 210 ], [ 282, 290 ], [ 349, 356 ], [ 365, 371 ], [ 480, 485 ], [ 740, 756 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 43, possibly by reassembling Caligula's troops from 40, Claudius mounted an invasion force under overall charge of Aulus Plautius, a distinguished senator. A pretext of the invasion was to reinstate Verica, the exiled king of the Atrebates.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Claudian preparations", "target_page_ids": [ 6140, 203153, 845660, 454851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 67 ], [ 118, 132 ], [ 202, 208 ], [ 233, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is unclear how many legions were sent as only the , commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was directly attested to have taken part.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Claudian preparations", "target_page_ids": [ 25994, 32570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 30 ], [ 83, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The , the (later styled ) and the (later styled ) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion, but the Roman army was flexible, with cohorts and auxiliary units being moved around whenever necessary.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Claudian preparations", "target_page_ids": [ 4517, 753281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 103 ], [ 174, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three other men of appropriate rank to command legions are known from the sources to have been involved in the invasion. Cassius Dio mentions Gnaeus Hosidius Geta, who probably led the IX Hispana, and Vespasian's brother Titus Flavius Sabinus the Younger. He wrote that Sabinus was Vespasian's lieutenant, but as Sabinus was the older brother and preceded Vespasian into public life, he could hardly have been a military tribune. Eutropius mentions Gnaeus Sentius Saturninus, although as a former consul he may have been too senior, and perhaps accompanied Claudius later.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Claudian preparations", "target_page_ids": [ 159964, 1997293, 8314699, 1642481, 1401089, 2336276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 132 ], [ 142, 162 ], [ 221, 254 ], [ 412, 428 ], [ 430, 439 ], [ 449, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main invasion force under Aulus Plautius crossed in three divisions. The port of departure is usually taken to have been Boulogne (), and the main landing at Rutupiae (Richborough, on the east coast of Kent). Neither of these locations is certain. Dio does not mention the port of departure, and although Suetonius says that the secondary force under Claudius sailed from Boulogne, it does not necessarily follow that the entire invasion force did. Richborough has a large natural harbour which would have been suitable, and archaeology shows Roman military occupation at about the right time. However, Dio says the Romans sailed east to west, and a journey from Boulogne to Richborough is south to north. Some historians suggest a sailing from Boulogne to the Solent, landing in the vicinity of Noviomagus (Chichester) or Southampton, in territory formerly ruled by Verica.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Crossing and landing", "target_page_ids": [ 128242, 2614913, 2068611, 16766, 43229, 350972, 7920751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 133 ], [ 162, 170 ], [ 172, 183 ], [ 206, 210 ], [ 765, 771 ], [ 812, 822 ], [ 827, 838 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "British resistance was led by Togodumnus and Caratacus, sons of the late king of the Catuvellauni, Cunobeline. A substantial British force met the Romans at a river crossing thought to be near Rochester on the River Medway. The Battle of the Medway raged for two days. Gnaeus Hosidius Geta was almost captured, but recovered and turned the battle so decisively that he was awarded the \"Roman triumph\". At least one division of auxiliary Batavian troops swam across the river as a separate force.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "River battles", "target_page_ids": [ 525159, 48690, 506922, 218768, 242224, 461964, 1997293, 38012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 40 ], [ 45, 54 ], [ 99, 109 ], [ 193, 202 ], [ 210, 222 ], [ 228, 248 ], [ 269, 289 ], [ 386, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The British were pushed back to the Thames. They were pursued by the Romans across the river, causing some Roman losses in the marshes of Essex. Whether the Romans made use of an existing bridge for this purpose or built a temporary one is uncertain.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "River battles", "target_page_ids": [ 49031, 40100758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 42 ], [ 138, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Togodumnus died shortly after the battle on the Thames. Plautius halted and sent word for Claudius to join him for the final push. Cassius Dio presents this as Plautius needing the emperor's assistance to defeat the resurgent British, who were determined to avenge Togodumnus. However, Claudius was no military man. The Praetorian cohorts accompanied Emperor Claudius to Britain in AD 43. The Arch of Claudius in Rome says he received the surrender of eleven British kings with no losses, and Suetonius' The Twelve Caesars says that Claudius received the surrender of the Britons without battle or bloodshed. It is likely that the Catuvellauni were already as good as beaten, allowing the emperor to appear as conqueror on the final march on Camulodunum. Cassius Dio relates that he brought war elephants and heavy armaments which would have overawed any remaining native resistance. Eleven tribes of South East Britain surrendered to Claudius and the Romans prepared to move further west and north. The Romans established their new capital at Camulodunum and Claudius returned to Rome to celebrate his victory. Caratacus escaped with his family, retainers, and treasure, to continue his resistance further west.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "River battles", "target_page_ids": [ 197406, 9363825, 378625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 320, 338 ], [ 389, 409 ], [ 791, 803 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the invasion, Verica may have been restored as king of the Atrebates although by this time he would have been very elderly. In any case a new ruler for their region, Cogidubnus, soon appeared as his heir and as king of a number of territories following the first stage of the conquest as a reward as a Roman ally.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "River battles", "target_page_ids": [ 618165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vespasian took a force westwards, subduing tribes and capturing oppida settlements as he went. The force proceeded at least as far as Exeter, which became a base for the Roman legion, Legio II Augusta, from 55 until 75. Legio IX Hispana was sent north towards Lincoln () and by 47 it is likely that an area south of a line from the Humber to the Severn Estuary was under Roman control. That this line is followed by the Roman road of the Fosse Way has led many historians to debate the route's role as a convenient frontier during the early occupation. It is unlikely that the border between Roman and Iron Age Britain was fixed with modern precision during this period.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "AD 44–60", "target_page_ids": [ 32570, 652429, 36614585, 370034, 17880, 143904, 2065098, 189710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 64, 70 ], [ 134, 140 ], [ 220, 236 ], [ 260, 267 ], [ 332, 338 ], [ 346, 360 ], [ 438, 447 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Late in 47 the new governor of Britain, Publius Ostorius Scapula, began a campaign against the tribes of modern-day Wales, and the Cheshire Gap. The Silures of southeast Wales caused considerable problems to Ostorius and fiercely defended the Welsh border country. Caratacus himself led this guerilla campaign but was defeated when he finally chose to offer a decisive battle; he fled to the Roman client tribe of the Brigantes who occupied the Pennines. Their queen Cartimandua was unable or unwilling to protect him however, given her own accommodation with the Romans, and handed him over to the invaders. Ostorius died and was replaced by Aulus Didius Gallus who brought the Welsh borders under control but did not move further north or west, probably because Claudius was keen to avoid what he considered a difficult and drawn-out war for little material gain in the mountainous terrain of upland Britain. When Nero became emperor in 54, he seems to have decided to continue the invasion and appointed Quintus Veranius as governor, a man experienced in dealing with the troublesome hill tribes of Anatolia. Veranius and his successor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus mounted a successful campaign across North Wales, famously killing many druids when he invaded the island of Anglesey in 60. Final occupation of Wales was postponed however when the rebellion of Boudica forced the Romans to return to the south east in 60 or 61.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "AD 44–60", "target_page_ids": [ 732484, 69894, 7123453, 169474, 1269828, 224606, 86196, 1169071, 21632, 1169394, 854, 146117, 33931676, 27454687, 4517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 64 ], [ 116, 121 ], [ 131, 143 ], [ 149, 156 ], [ 369, 375 ], [ 445, 453 ], [ 467, 478 ], [ 643, 662 ], [ 916, 920 ], [ 1007, 1023 ], [ 1102, 1110 ], [ 1139, 1163 ], [ 1236, 1241 ], [ 1251, 1281 ], [ 1359, 1366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the successful suppression of Boudica's uprising in 60 or 61, a number of new Roman governors continued the conquest by edging north.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "AD 60–78", "target_page_ids": [ 1056186, 4517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ], [ 40, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The leader of the Brigantes was queen Cartimandua. Her husband was Venutius; one speculation is that he might have been a Carvetian and may therefore have been responsible for the incorporation of Cumbria into a Brigantian federation whose territory straddled Britain along the Solway-Tyne line. Cartimandua may have ruled the Brigantian peoples east of the Pennines (possibly with a centre at Stanwick), while Venutius was the chief of the Brigantes (or Carvetii) west of the Pennines in Cumbria (with a possible centre based at Clifton Dykes.) Cartimandua was forced to ask for Roman aid following a rebellion by Venutius in 69. The Romans evacuated Cartimandua leaving Venutius in power.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "AD 60–78", "target_page_ids": [ 86196, 454882, 454881, 76505, 145607, 3257870, 3182384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 49 ], [ 67, 75 ], [ 122, 131 ], [ 278, 284 ], [ 285, 289 ], [ 394, 402 ], [ 530, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tacitus says that in 71 Quintus Petillius Cerialis (governor AD 71-74) waged a successful war against the Brigantes. Tacitus praises both Cerialis and his successor Julius Frontinus (governor 75–78).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "AD 60–78", "target_page_ids": [ 447974, 650928, 169472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 50 ], [ 106, 115 ], [ 165, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Much of the conquest of the north may have been achieved under the governorships of Vettius Bolanus (governor AD 69-71), and of Cerialis. From other sources, it seems that Bolanus had possibly dealt with Venutius and penetrated into Scotland, and evidence from the carbon-dating of the gateway timbers of the Roman fort at Carlisle (Luguvalium) suggest that they were felled in AD 72, during the governorship of Cerialis. Lead ingots from Deva Victrix, the Roman fortress at Chester, indicate that construction there was probably under way by AD 74. Nevertheless, Gnaeus Julius Agricola played his part in the west as commander of the legion XX Valeria Victrix (71-73), while Cerialis led the IX Hispania in the east. In addition, the Legio II Adiutrix sailed from Chester up river estuaries to cause surprise to the enemy.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "AD 60–78", "target_page_ids": [ 1169623, 7387302, 9185100, 153718, 12408, 312967, 370034, 307777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 99 ], [ 333, 343 ], [ 439, 451 ], [ 475, 482 ], [ 564, 586 ], [ 645, 660 ], [ 693, 704 ], [ 735, 752 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The western thrust was started from Lancaster, where there is evidence of a Cerialian foundation, and followed the line of the Lune and Eden river valleys through Low Borrow Bridge and Brougham (Brocavum). On the Cumbrian coast, Ravenglass and Blennerhasset were probably involved from evidence of one of the earliest Roman occupations in Cumbria. Beckfoot and Maryport may also have featured early on. At some point between 72 and 73, part of Cerialis's force moved across the Stainmore Pass from Corbridge westwards to join Agricola, as evidenced by campaign camps (which may have been previously set up by Bolanus) at Rey Cross, Crackenthorpe, Kirkby Thore and Plumpton Head. Signal- or watch-towers are also in evidence across the Stainmore area - Maiden Castle, Bowes Moor and Roper Castle, for example. The two forces then moved up from the vicinity of Penrith to Carlisle, establishing the fort there in AD 72/73.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "AD 60–78", "target_page_ids": [ 87578, 3312267, 38638054, 1345593, 3277176, 12778259, 520579, 36838574, 5639971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 45 ], [ 185, 193 ], [ 195, 203 ], [ 229, 239 ], [ 244, 257 ], [ 348, 356 ], [ 361, 369 ], [ 621, 630 ], [ 647, 659 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frontinus was sent into Roman Britain in 74 to succeed Cerialis as governor.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "AD 60–78", "target_page_ids": [ 30874129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He returned to the conquest of Wales interrupted years before and with steady and successful progress finally subdued the Silures in circa 76 and other hostile tribes, establishing a new base at Caerleon for Legio II Augusta (Isca Augusta) in 75 and a network of smaller forts fifteen to twenty kilometres apart for his auxiliary units. During his tenure, he probably established the fort at Pumsaint in west Wales, largely to exploit the gold deposits at Dolaucothi. He left the post in 78, and later he was appointed water commissioner in Rome.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "AD 60–78", "target_page_ids": [ 69894, 169474, 161828, 275068, 9505818, 1715892, 69894, 12240, 1714630, 25458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 36 ], [ 122, 129 ], [ 195, 203 ], [ 208, 224 ], [ 226, 238 ], [ 392, 400 ], [ 409, 414 ], [ 439, 443 ], [ 456, 466 ], [ 541, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The new governor was Agricola, returning to Britain, and made famous through the highly laudatory biography of him written by his son-in-law, Tacitus. Arriving in mid-summer of 78, Agricola completed the conquest of Wales in defeating the Ordovices who had destroyed a cavalry ala of Roman auxiliaries stationed in their territory. Knowing the terrain from his prior military service in Britain, he was able to move quickly to subdue them. He then invaded Anglesey, forcing the inhabitants to sue for peace.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Campaigns of Agricola (AD 78–84)", "target_page_ids": [ 1791289, 18932156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 277, 280 ], [ 456, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following year he moved against the Brigantes of northern England and the Selgovae along the southern coast of Scotland, using overwhelming military power to establish Roman control.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Campaigns of Agricola (AD 78–84)", "target_page_ids": [ 650928, 989112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 49 ], [ 78, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tacitus says that after a combination of force and diplomacy quieted discontent among the Britons who had been conquered previously, Agricola built forts in their territories in 79. In 80 he marched to the Firth of Tay (some historians hold that he stopped along the Firth of Forth in that year), not returning south until 81, at which time he consolidated his gains in the new lands that he had conquered, and in the rebellious lands that he had re-conquered. In 82 he sailed to either Kintyre or the shores of Argyll, or to both. In 83 and 84 he moved north along Scotland's eastern and northern coasts using both land and naval forces, campaigning successfully against the inhabitants, and winning a significant victory over the northern British peoples led by Calgacus at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Archaeology has shown the Romans built military camps in the north along Gask Ridge, controlling the glens that provided access to and from the Scottish Highlands, and also throughout the Scottish Lowlands in northeastern Scotland.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Campaigns of Agricola (AD 78–84)", "target_page_ids": [ 145943, 144598, 455617, 452024, 1077024, 311078, 871950, 28894, 435859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 218 ], [ 267, 281 ], [ 487, 494 ], [ 512, 518 ], [ 764, 772 ], [ 780, 803 ], [ 878, 888 ], [ 949, 967 ], [ 993, 1010 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Agricola built a network of military roads and forts to secure the Roman occupation. Existing forts were strengthened and new ones planted in northeastern Scotland along the Highland Line, consolidating control of the glens that provided access to and from the Scottish Highlands. The line of military communication and supply along southeastern Scotland and northeastern England (i.e., Dere Street) was well-fortified. In southernmost Caledonia, the lands of the Selgovae (approximating to modern Dumfriesshire and the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright) were heavily planted with forts, not only establishing effective control there, but also completing a military enclosure of south-central Scotland (most of the Southern Uplands, Teviotdale, and western Tweeddale). In contrast to Roman actions against the Selgovae, the territories of the Novantae, Damnonii, and Votadini were not planted with forts, and there is nothing to indicate that the Romans were at war with them. Agricola was recalled to Rome in 84.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Campaigns of Agricola (AD 78–84)", "target_page_ids": [ 28894, 28894, 1449671, 989112, 441159, 189890, 1763184, 441152, 489746, 3015879, 3936949, 618571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 187 ], [ 261, 279 ], [ 387, 398 ], [ 464, 472 ], [ 498, 511 ], [ 520, 546 ], [ 708, 724 ], [ 726, 736 ], [ 750, 759 ], [ 836, 844 ], [ 846, 854 ], [ 860, 868 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2019, GUARD Archaeology team led by Iraia Arabaolaza uncovered a marching camp dating to the 1st century AD, used by Roman legions during the invasion of Roman General Agricola. According to Arabaolaza, the fire pits were split 30 metres apart into two parallel lines. The findings also included clay-domed ovens and 26 fire pits dated to between AD 77 and 86 and AD 90 loaded with burn and charcoal contents. Archaeologists suggested that this site had been chosen as a strategic location for the Roman conquest of Ayrshire.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Campaigns of Agricola (AD 78–84)", "target_page_ids": [ 68208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 519, 527 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Agricola's successors are not named in any surviving source, but it seems they were unable or unwilling to further subdue the far north. The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled before its completion and the other fortifications of the Gask Ridge in Perthshire, erected to consolidate the Roman presence in Scotland in the aftermath of Mons Graupius, were abandoned within the space of a few years. It is equally likely that the costs of a drawn-out war outweighed any economic or political benefit and it was more profitable to leave the Caledonians alone and only under de jure submission.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "AD 84–117", "target_page_ids": [ 898790, 871950, 52280, 311078, 9160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 163 ], [ 237, 247 ], [ 251, 261 ], [ 337, 350 ], [ 573, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the decline of imperial ambitions in Scotland (and Ireland) by AD 87 (the withdrawal of the XX legion), consolidation based on the line of the Stanegate road (between Carlisle and Corbridge) was settled upon. Carlisle was the seat of a 'centurio regionarius' (or 'district commissioner'). When the Stanegate became the new frontier it was augmented by large forts as at Vindolanda and additional forts at half-day marching intervals were built at Newbrough, Magnis (Carvoran) and Brampton Old Church.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "AD 84–117", "target_page_ids": [ 149264, 37757, 20195205, 6705266, 27038589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 158 ], [ 376, 386 ], [ 453, 462 ], [ 464, 470 ], [ 486, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The years 87-117 were of consolidation and only a few sites north of the Stanegate line were maintained, while the signs are that an orderly withdrawal to the Solway-Tyne line was made. There does not seem to have been any rout caused as a result of battles with various tribes.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "AD 84–117", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Modifications to the Stanegate line, with the reduction in the size of the forts and the addition of fortlets and watchtowers between them, seem to have taken place from the mid-90s onwards. Apart from the Stanegate line, other forts existed along the Solway Coast at Beckfoot, Maryport, Burrow Walls (near to the present town of Workington) and Moresby (near to Whitehaven). Other forts in the region were built to consolidate Roman presence (Beckfoot, for example may date from the late 1st century). A fort at Troutbeck may have been established from the period of Trajan (emperor 98–117) onwards. Other forts that may have been established during this period include Ambleside (Galava), positioned to take advantage of ship-borne supply to the forts of the Lake District. From here, a road was constructed during the Trajanic period to Hardknott Roman Fort. A road between Ambleside to Old Penrith and/or Brougham, going over High Street, may also date from this period.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "AD 84–117", "target_page_ids": [ 9348923, 25972136, 10226520, 6169569, 143752, 1801461, 1411762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 286 ], [ 347, 354 ], [ 514, 523 ], [ 683, 689 ], [ 762, 775 ], [ 841, 861 ], [ 931, 942 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under Hadrian (r. 117-138), Roman occupation was withdrawn to a defendable frontier in the River Tyne-Solway Firth frontier area by the construction of Hadrian's Wall from around 122.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "From AD 117", "target_page_ids": [ 13621, 145607, 76505, 18618416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 13 ], [ 91, 101 ], [ 102, 114 ], [ 152, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Antoninus Pius rose to the throne he moved quickly to reverse the empire limit system put in place by his predecessor. Following his defeat of the Brigantes in 139 AD, Quintus Lollius Urbicus, the Roman Governor of Britannia, was ordered by Antoninus Pius to march north of Hadrian's Wall to conquer the Caledonian Lowlands which were settled by the Otadini, Selgovae, Damnonii and the Novantae, and to push the frontier further north. Lollius Urbicus moved three legions into position initially establishing his supply routes from Coria and Bremenium and moved three legions, the Legio II Augusta from Caerleon, the Legio VI Victrix from Eboracum, and the Legio XX Valeria Victrix from Deva Victrix into the theatre between 139 and 140 AD, and thereafter moved his army, a force of at least 16,500 men, north of Hadrian's Wall.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "From AD 117", "target_page_ids": [ 1256, 650928, 1194692, 30874129, 18618416, 435859, 618571, 989112, 3936949, 3015879, 9214937, 3153817, 275068, 161828, 387969, 1003514, 312967, 9185100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 19 ], [ 152, 161 ], [ 173, 196 ], [ 202, 229 ], [ 279, 293 ], [ 320, 328 ], [ 355, 362 ], [ 364, 372 ], [ 374, 382 ], [ 391, 399 ], [ 537, 542 ], [ 547, 556 ], [ 586, 602 ], [ 608, 616 ], [ 622, 638 ], [ 644, 652 ], [ 662, 686 ], [ 692, 704 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Selgovae, having settled in the regions of present-day Kirkcudbrightshire and Dumfriesshire immediately northwest of Hadrian's Wall, were amongst the first of the Caledonian tribes to face Lollius Urbicus's legions together with the Otadini. The Romans, who were well versed in warfare on hilly terrain since their founding, moved quickly to occupy strategic points and high ground, some of which had already been fortified by the Caledonians with hill forts. One such was Burnswark Hill which was strategically located commanding the western route north further into Caledonia and where significant evidence of the battle has been found.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "From AD 117", "target_page_ids": [ 989112, 189890, 441159, 618571, 38490527, 54202353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 59, 77 ], [ 82, 95 ], [ 237, 244 ], [ 452, 462 ], [ 477, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 142 the Romans had pacified the entire area and had successfully moved the frontier north to the River Clyde-River Forth area when the Antonine Wall was constructed. After two decades this was abandoned in 162 and only subsequently re-occupied on an occasional basis. Meanwhile, the Romans retreated to the earlier and stronger Hadrian's Wall.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "From AD 117", "target_page_ids": [ 26417, 341605, 18949154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 111 ], [ 112, 123 ], [ 138, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roman troops, however, penetrated far into the north of modern Scotland several more times. Indeed, there is a greater density of Roman marching camps in Scotland than anywhere else in Europe as a result of at least four major attempts to subdue the area.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "From AD 117", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most notable later expedition was in 209 when the emperor Septimius Severus, claiming to be provoked by the belligerence of the Maeatae tribe, campaigned against the Caledonian Confederacy, a coalition of Brittonic Pictish tribes of the north of Britain. He used the three legions of the British garrison (augmented by the recently formed 2nd Parthica legion), 9000 imperial guards with cavalry support, and numerous auxiliaries supplied from the sea by the British fleet, the Rhine fleet and two fleets transferred from the Danube for the purpose. According to Dio Cassius, he inflicted genocidal depredations on the natives and incurred the loss of 50,000 of his own men to the attrition of guerrilla tactics before having to withdraw to Hadrian's Wall. He repaired and reinforced the wall with a degree of thoroughness that led most subsequent Roman authors to attribute the construction of the wall to him. During the negotiations to purchase the truce necessary to secure the Roman retreat to the wall, Septimius Severus's wife, Julia Domna, criticised the sexual morals of the Caledonian women; the wife of Argentocoxos, a Caledonian chief, replied: \"We consort openly with the best of men while you allow yourselves to be debauched in private by the worst\". This is the first recorded utterance confidently attributable to a native of the area now known as Scotland. The emperor Septimius Severus died at York while planning to renew hostilities, and these plans were abandoned by his son Caracalla.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "3rd and 4th centuries", "target_page_ids": [ 28413, 899787, 899729, 29039811, 310437, 159964, 12720, 369656, 71134386, 34361, 49907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 79 ], [ 132, 139 ], [ 170, 192 ], [ 209, 218 ], [ 219, 226 ], [ 567, 578 ], [ 698, 707 ], [ 1039, 1050 ], [ 1118, 1130 ], [ 1417, 1421 ], [ 1501, 1510 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emperor Constantius came to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, after the provincial defences had been rebuilt following the Carausian Revolt. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "3rd and 4th centuries", "target_page_ids": [ 616052, 5168764, 7236, 24632, 18618416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 19 ], [ 178, 194 ], [ 434, 455 ], [ 536, 541 ], [ 549, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later excursions into Scotland by the Romans were generally limited to the scouting expeditions of exploratores in the buffer zone that developed between the walls, trading contacts, bribes to purchase truces from the natives, and eventually the spread of Christianity. The degree to which the Romans interacted with the Goidelic-speaking island of Hibernia (modern Ireland) is still unresolved amongst archaeologists in Ireland.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "3rd and 4th centuries", "target_page_ids": [ 12469, 180380, 147575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 321, 329 ], [ 349, 357 ], [ 366, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ancient Britain", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 448467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "British military history", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16949754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roman governors of Britain", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30874129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roman mining", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20260125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roman sites in Great Britain", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 143118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Itius Portus", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3203011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pugnaces Britanniae", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4439602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Great Invasion, Leonard Cottrell, Coward–McCann, New York, 1962, hardback. Was published in the UK in 1958.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tacitus, Histories, Annals and De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 19594563, 1663237, 1661325, 1663256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 9, 18 ], [ 20, 26 ], [ 31, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A.D. 43, John Manley, Tempus, 2002.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 25884065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roman Britain, Peter Salway, Oxford, 1986", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Miles Russel – Ruling Britannia – History Today 8/2005 pp 5–6", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 7078369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Francis Pryor. 2004. Britain BC. New York: HarperPerennial.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 2613460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Francis Pryor. 2004. Britain AD. New York: HarperCollins.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 253375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George Shipway – Imperial Governor. 2002. London: Cassell Military Paperbacks.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1st-century_conflicts", "1st_century_in_Great_Britain", "1st_century_in_the_Roman_Empire", "43", "Iron_Age_Britain", "Military_history_of_Roman_Britain", "Wars_involving_the_Roman_Empire", "Invasions_of_England", "Roman_Britain" ]

[ "Roman invasion of Britain" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Chevrolet ( ), colloquially referred to as Chevy and formally the Chevrolet Motor Division of General Motors Company, is an American automobile division of the American manufacturer General Motors (GM). Louis Chevrolet (1878–1941) and ousted General Motors founder William C. Durant (1861–1947) started the company on November 3, 1911 as the Chevrolet Motor Car Company. Durant used the Chevrolet Motor Car Company to acquire a controlling stake in General Motors with a reverse merger occurring on May 2, 1918, and propelled himself back to the GM presidency. After Durant's second ousting in 1919, Alfred Sloan, with his maxim \"a car for every purse and purpose\", would pick the Chevrolet brand to become the volume leader in the General Motors family, selling mainstream vehicles to compete with Henry Ford's Model T in 1919 and overtaking Ford as the best-selling car in the United States by 1929 with the Chevrolet International.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23576520, 12102, 349594, 369262, 1672188, 144657, 3353015, 13371, 156891, 30433662, 38106117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 143 ], [ 182, 196 ], [ 203, 218 ], [ 265, 282 ], [ 471, 485 ], [ 600, 612 ], [ 623, 628 ], [ 799, 809 ], [ 812, 819 ], [ 843, 847 ], [ 910, 933 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet-branded vehicles are sold in most automotive markets worldwide. In Oceania, Chevrolet was represented by Holden Special Vehicles, having returned to the region in 2018 after a 50-year absence with the launching of the Camaro and Silverado pickup truck (HSV was partially and formerly owned by GM subsidiary Holden, which GM retired in 2021). In 2021, General Motors Specialty Vehicles took over the distribution and sales of Chevrolet vehicles in Oceania, starting with the Silverado. In 2005, Chevrolet was relaunched in Europe, primarily selling vehicles built by GM Daewoo of South Korea with the tagline \"Daewoo has grown up enough to become Chevrolet\", a move rooted in General Motors' attempt to build a global brand around Chevrolet. With the reintroduction of Chevrolet to Europe, GM intended Chevrolet to be a mainstream value brand, while GM's traditional European standard-bearers, Opel of Germany and Vauxhall of the United Kingdom, would be moved upmarket. However, GM reversed this move in late 2013, announcing that the brand would be withdrawn from Europe from 2016 onward, with the exception of the Camaro and Corvette. Chevrolet vehicles were to continue to be marketed in the CIS states, including Russia. After General Motors fully acquired GM Daewoo in 2011 to create GM Korea, the last usage of the Daewoo automotive brand was discontinued in its native South Korea and succeeded by Chevrolet.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22621, 671337, 234492, 865341, 13625, 8215329, 354543, 22284, 11867, 184378, 31717, 234492, 221005, 36870, 25391, 306128, 354543, 27019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 84 ], [ 115, 138 ], [ 228, 234 ], [ 239, 248 ], [ 317, 323 ], [ 504, 538 ], [ 576, 585 ], [ 903, 907 ], [ 911, 918 ], [ 923, 931 ], [ 939, 953 ], [ 1126, 1132 ], [ 1137, 1145 ], [ 1205, 1208 ], [ 1227, 1233 ], [ 1274, 1280 ], [ 1299, 1307 ], [ 1386, 1397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In North America, Chevrolet produces and sells a wide range of vehicles, from subcompact automobiles to medium-duty commercial trucks. Due to the prominence and name recognition of Chevrolet as one of General Motors' global marques, 'Chevrolet', 'Chevy' or 'Chev' is used at times as a synonym for General Motors or its products, one example being the GM LS1 engine, commonly known by the name or a variant thereof of its progenitor, the Chevrolet small-block engine.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 964483, 877441, 70146388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 88 ], [ 352, 365 ], [ 438, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On November 3, 1911, Swiss race car driver and automotive engineer Louis Chevrolet co-founded the \"Chevrolet Motor Company\" in Detroit with his brother Arthur Chevrolet, William C. Durant and investment partners William Little (maker of the Little automobile), former Buick owner James H. Whiting, Dr. Edwin R. Campbell (son-in-law of Durant) and in 1912 R. S. McLaughlin CEO of General Motors in Canada.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 349594, 1408513, 369262, 11490003, 42254, 1702832, 5042916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 82 ], [ 152, 168 ], [ 170, 187 ], [ 241, 258 ], [ 268, 273 ], [ 355, 371 ], [ 397, 403 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Durant was fired from his senior management position at General Motors in 1910, a company that he had founded in 1908. In 1904 he had taken over the Flint Wagon Works and Buick Motor Company of Flint, Michigan. He also incorporated the Mason and Little companies. As head of Buick, Durant had hired Louis Chevrolet to drive Buicks in promotional races. Durant planned to use Chevrolet's reputation as a racer as the foundation for his new automobile company. The first factory location was in Flint, Michigan at the corner of Wilcox and Kearsley Street, now known as \"Chevy Commons\" at coordinates , along the Flint River, across the street from Kettering University.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 57905257, 42254, 42254, 88021, 58727903, 218085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 166 ], [ 171, 190 ], [ 275, 280 ], [ 493, 508 ], [ 568, 581 ], [ 646, 666 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the technical advancements Chevrolet benefited from was the implementation of an overhead valve engine from the very beginning, as the company was developed as a junior model to Buick, who had patented the overhead valve and cross-flow cylinder design as being more efficient than the conventional use of the flathead engine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1081905, 42254, 1458687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 102 ], [ 185, 190 ], [ 316, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Actual design work for the first Chevy, the costly Series C Classic Six, was drawn up by Etienne Planche, following instructions from Louis. The first C prototype was ready months before Chevrolet was actually incorporated. However, the first actual production was not until the 1913 model. So in essence there were no 1911 or 1912 production models, only one pre-production model was made and fine tuned throughout the early part of 1912. Then in the fall of that year the new 1913 model was introduced at the New York auto show.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26420552, 1479831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 71 ], [ 511, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet first used the \"bowtie emblem\" logo in 1914 on the H series models (Royal Mail and Baby Grand) and The L Series Model (Light Six). It may have been designed from wallpaper Durant once saw in a French hotel room. More recent research by historian Ken Kaufmann presents a case that the logo is based on a logo of the \"Coalettes\" coal company. An example of this logo as it appeared in an advertisement for Coalettes appeared in the Atlanta Constitution on November 12, 1911. Others claim that the design was a stylized Swiss cross, in tribute to Chevrolet's home country. Over time, Chevrolet would use several different iterations of the bowtie logo at the same time, often using blue for passenger cars, gold for trucks, and an outline (often in red) for cars that had performance packages. Chevrolet eventually unified all vehicle models with the gold bowtie in 2004, for both brand cohesion as well as to differentiate itself from Ford (with its blue oval logo) and Dodge (who has often used red for its imaging), its two primary domestic rivals.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 318209, 30433662, 42969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 527, 538 ], [ 943, 947 ], [ 978, 983 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis Chevrolet had differences with Durant over design and in 1914 sold Durant his share in the company. By 1916, Chevrolet was profitable enough with successful sales of the cheaper Series 490 to allow Durant to repurchase a controlling interest in General Motors. After the deal was completed in 1918, Durant became president of General Motors, and Chevrolet was merged into GM as a separate division. In 1919, Chevrolet's factories were located at Flint, Michigan; branch assembly locations were sited in Tarrytown, N.Y., Norwood, Ohio, St. Louis, Missouri, Oakland, California, Ft. Worth, Texas, and Oshawa, Ontario General Motors of Canada Limited. McLaughlin's were given GM Corporation stock for the proprietorship of their Company article September 23, 1933 Financial Post page 9. In the 1918 model year, Chevrolet introduced the Series D, a V8-powered model in four-passenger roadster and five-passenger tourer models. Sales were poor and it was dropped in 1919.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26477525, 12102, 9445678, 3612865, 11208971, 3612677, 44847932, 2014973, 4508331, 26434423, 13147596, 519878, 743761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 194 ], [ 251, 265 ], [ 452, 467 ], [ 509, 524 ], [ 526, 539 ], [ 541, 560 ], [ 562, 581 ], [ 583, 599 ], [ 605, 653 ], [ 839, 847 ], [ 851, 853 ], [ 886, 894 ], [ 914, 920 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beginning also in 1919, GMC commercial grade trucks were rebranded as Chevrolet, and using the same chassis of Chevrolet passenger cars and building light-duty trucks, sharing an almost identical appearance with GMC products.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 330932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until 1921, Chevrolet Corporate headquarters were located at 57th and Broadway in New York City until April when the office was relocated to the General Motors Building at Cadillac Place in Detroit. In January 1921 a General Motors management survey recommended that the Chevrolet Division be cancelled, but Alfred P. Sloan Jr. recommended that the division be saved and William S. Knudsen, a former Ford employee who oversaw production of the Model T, was made Vice President of Operations and performance improved In May 1925 the Chevrolet Export Boxing plant at Bloomfield, New Jersey was repurposed from a previous owner where Knock-down kits for Chevrolet, Oakland, Oldsmobile, Buick and Cadillac passenger cars, and both Chevrolet and G. M. C. truck parts are crated and shipped by railroad to the docks at Weehawken, New Jersey for overseas GM assembly factories.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1566490, 144657, 2239658, 125156, 1272663, 125244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 186 ], [ 308, 326 ], [ 371, 389 ], [ 565, 587 ], [ 631, 645 ], [ 813, 834 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet continued into the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s competing with Ford, and after the Chrysler Corporation formed Plymouth in 1928, Plymouth, Ford, and Chevrolet were known as the \"Low-priced three\". In 1929 they introduced the famous \"Stovebolt\" overhead-valve inline six-cylinder engine, giving Chevrolet a marketing edge over Ford, which was still offering a lone flathead four (\"A Six at the price of a Four\"). In 1933 Chevrolet launched the Standard Six, which was advertised in the United States as the cheapest six-cylinder car on sale. During the Great Depression the Chevrolet Master introduced a streamlined appearance, showing Art Deco influences and before and after the World War II era, the Chevrolet Deluxe and Chevrolet Fleetline found many buyers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6882, 255109, 31990527, 19283335, 38111083, 1881, 23235837, 22711320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 108 ], [ 116, 124 ], [ 448, 460 ], [ 557, 573 ], [ 578, 594 ], [ 640, 648 ], [ 707, 723 ], [ 728, 747 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet had a great influence on the American automobile market during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1953 it produced the Corvette, a two-seater sports car with a fiberglass body. In 1957 Chevy introduced its first fuel injected engine, the Rochester Ramjet option on Corvette and Chevrolet Bel Air passenger cars, priced at $484 ($ today). In 1960 Chevrolet joined the newly popular \"compact car\" market by introducing the Corvair, with a rear-mounted air-cooled engine. In 1963 one out of every ten cars sold in the United States was a Chevrolet.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 221005, 5382536, 407729, 350850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 126 ], [ 237, 246 ], [ 277, 294 ], [ 420, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1960s and early 1970s, the standard Chevrolet, particularly the deluxe Chevrolet Impala series, became one of the United States' best selling lines of automobiles in history. During that era, the mid-sized Chevrolet Chevelle which was used to introduce the Chevrolet Monte Carlo, and the economically priced Chevrolet Nova, which was the basis for the Chevrolet Camaro, all were commercially successful and included family sedans, practical station wagons, and sporty coupes and convertibles. As the popularity of small, fuel efficient imported vehicles began to find buyers in the US during the 1970s and 1980s, the Chevrolet Vega was introduced while the Chevrolet Chevette was the result of international collaboration. By the mid-1980s, the Vega was gone and the Chevette was about to be discontinued. Lacking a line of competitive small cars, Chevrolet imported several Japanese models and re-badged them as Chevrolets. The Suzuki-sourced Chevrolet Sprint and the Isuzu-supplied Chevrolet Spectrum were a better match to compete against the popular Toyota Corolla and Honda Civic. The Chevrolet Citation was the division's first compact sized front-wheel-drive car along with the Chevrolet Cavalier, followed up by the Chevrolet Celebrity. Chevrolet during the 1990s formed a partnership with Toyota and introduced the Geo Prizm while also offering the domestically produced Chevrolet Corsica. As mid-sized family sedans began to gain popularity, the Chevrolet Lumina found many buyers and as minivans began to find buyers, the Chevrolet Venture followed the popular selling Chevrolet Trailblazer and Chevrolet Traverse SUV's.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 284998, 345658, 1172775, 1092314, 234492, 879605, 496257, 1598238, 1138424, 737584, 363413, 889733, 684166, 622553, 1092287, 510471, 622541, 1039796, 63971609, 11507238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 98 ], [ 217, 235 ], [ 268, 289 ], [ 319, 333 ], [ 363, 379 ], [ 628, 642 ], [ 668, 686 ], [ 955, 971 ], [ 995, 1013 ], [ 1065, 1079 ], [ 1084, 1095 ], [ 1101, 1119 ], [ 1196, 1214 ], [ 1235, 1254 ], [ 1335, 1344 ], [ 1391, 1408 ], [ 1467, 1483 ], [ 1544, 1561 ], [ 1591, 1612 ], [ 1617, 1635 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The basic Chevrolet small-block V8 design has remained in continuous production since its debut in 1955, longer than any other mass-produced engine in the world, although current versions share few if any parts interchangeable with the original. Descendants of the basic small-block OHV V8 design platform in production today have been much modified with advances such as aluminium block and heads, electronic engine management, and sequential port fuel injection. Depending on the vehicle type, Chevrolet V8s are built in displacements from 4.3 to 9.4 litres with outputs ranging from to as installed at the factory. The engine design has also been used over the years in GM products built and sold under the Pontiac, Oldsmobile, Buick, Hummer, Opel (Germany), and Holden (Australia) nameplates.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 70146388, 76165, 52040, 42254, 14395, 22284, 11867, 13625, 4689264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 34 ], [ 712, 719 ], [ 721, 731 ], [ 733, 738 ], [ 740, 746 ], [ 748, 752 ], [ 754, 761 ], [ 768, 774 ], [ 776, 785 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2000, Chevrolet brought back the iconic Impala, although unlike its predecessors, this car was a mid-sized front-wheel drive four door sedan. It was produced until 2020, and the last generation (2014-2020) was larger and classified as a full-size passenger car.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 284998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2005, General Motors re-launched the Chevrolet marque in Europe, using rebadged versions of the Daewoo cars produced by GM Korea.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12102, 9317, 306128, 16749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 23 ], [ 60, 66 ], [ 99, 105 ], [ 126, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Chevrolet division largely recovered from the economic downturn of 2007–2010 through launching new vehicles and improving existing lines. GM began developing more fuel efficient cars and trucks to compete with foreign automakers. In late 2010 General Motors began production of the plug-in hybrid Chevrolet Volt, sold as the Opel/Vauxhall Ampera in Europe, which received multiple awards including the 2012 North American Car of the Year, European Car of the Year, and World Green Car of the Year. The Volt/Ampera family was the world's best selling plug-in electric car in 2012 with 31,400 units sold. The Opel/Vauxhall Ampera was Europe's top selling plug-in electric car in 2012 with 5,268 units, representing a market share of 21.5% of the region's plug-in electric passenger car segment. Combined global Volt/Ampera sales passed the 100,000 unit milestone in October 2015. , the Volt family of vehicles ranks as the world's all-time top selling plug-in hybrid, and it is also the third-best-selling plug-in electric car ever, after the Nissan Leaf and the Tesla Model S. Volt sales in the American market passed the 100,000 milestone in July 2016.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12102, 163778, 1611987, 8783360, 22284, 9317, 21139, 459478, 1462671, 23840623, 22284, 184378, 9239, 23833126, 18215937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 144 ], [ 222, 232 ], [ 286, 300 ], [ 301, 315 ], [ 329, 342 ], [ 353, 359 ], [ 411, 424 ], [ 443, 467 ], [ 473, 488 ], [ 554, 574 ], [ 611, 615 ], [ 616, 624 ], [ 636, 644 ], [ 1045, 1056 ], [ 1065, 1078 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2016, GM began production of the Chevrolet Bolt EV, the first ever affordable mass market all-electric car with a range over . The Chevrolet Bolt won several awards including the 2017 Motor Trend Car of the Year award, the 2017 AutoGuide.com Reader's Choice Green Car of the Year, Green Car Reports Best Car To Buy 2017, Green Car Journal's 2017 Green Car of the Year, and was listed in Time magazine's Best 25 Inventions of the Year of 2016.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 45029951, 16105186, 45029951, 798543, 1380940, 14263719, 4468337, 31600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 61 ], [ 101, 117 ], [ 142, 156 ], [ 195, 206 ], [ 269, 278 ], [ 332, 349 ], [ 357, 378 ], [ 398, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On February 14, 2021, Chevrolet unveiled the 2022 Bolt EUV and redesigned Bolt EV.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 45029951, 45029951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 58 ], [ 74, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chevrolet had operations in over 140 countries, and global sales in 2011 set a record with 4.76million vehicles sold worldwide.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mexico has a mix of Chevrolet models from different GM brands and platforms branded as Chevrolet. The models come from Chevrolet USA, GM Korea, Mexico and other origins.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Examples of Opel-sourced vehicles are Vectra, Astra, Corsa, Meriva, Zafira and Captiva (Opel Antara). Mexico also has some cars of its own, such as the Chevy C2, which is a reworked older-generation Corsa B. Vehicles based on US platforms are the Avalanche, the Suburban, the Equinox, the Tahoe, the Cheyenne (which is similar to the Silverado), the Aveo, the HHR, the Traverse, the Malibu, the Camaro and the Corvette. The Chevrolet Optra, assembled in South Korea by GM Korea, was also sold in Mexico. The European Epica was sold as a business-only vehicle. In the past, GM also assembled the Suburban and Avalanche in Mexico for export to other markets, chiefly the U.S. and Canada.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 31410894, 1663528, 947375, 321396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 160 ], [ 424, 439 ], [ 595, 603 ], [ 608, 617 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2009 China became Chevrolet's third-largest market, with sales of 332,774 vehicles, behind only the United States and Brazil (1,344,629 and 595,500 vehicles respectively). By 2010, Chevy sold just over half a million, with the Cruze being its best seller there.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A total of 673,376 locally-manufactured Chevrolets were sold in China in 2018 (down from a record of 767,001 in 2014).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, Chevrolet held just 2.90% share of the Chinese market (down from a record market share of 5.33% in 2012).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The best-selling Chevrolet models in China by 2019 were the Cavalier (~ 10 000 units per month). Malibu (~ 3500 units per month), Equinox (~ 2000 units per month), Cruze - at one time the best selling model (~ 1500 units per month), Sail (~ 1200 units per month), new Orlando (~ 1000 units per month), Malibu XL (~ 800 units per month), Trax (~ 100 units per month), Lova RV (~ 100 units per month), representing just 9 of the staggering total of 628 (sic) models of passenger cars being produced in China by February 2019.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Until 2003, GM India—originally a joint venture with Hindustan Motors, sold the Opel Corsa, Opel Astra and the Opel Vectra. Launched by GM's India operations, Chevrolet officially began business in India on June 6, 2003. The Corsa and Astra were built at a plant in Halol, Gujarat.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 417116, 31410894, 373870, 374939, 5794132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 69 ], [ 80, 90 ], [ 92, 102 ], [ 111, 122 ], [ 266, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet sold the Chevrolet Cruze, Chevrolet Spark, Chevrolet Optra, Chevrolet Aveo, Chevrolet Tavera, Chevrolet Captiva, Chevrolet SRV, Chevrolet Beat, Chevrolet Sail and Chevrolet Aveo U-VA. The Chevrolet Forester, a rebadged Subaru, was imported directly from Fuji Heavy Industries in Japan until 2005. The Cruze and Tavera were built at the Halol plant. Chevrolet also was the sole engine supplier for the Formula Rolon single-seater series in India. In 2017, GM ceased the production and sale of Chevrolet cars in India, but it continues to run service centers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 14315121, 1753031, 1663528, 30393328, 3589496, 1826282, 1780646, 1753031, 1728518, 947390, 29311, 23901899, 302444, 8736693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 34 ], [ 36, 51 ], [ 53, 68 ], [ 70, 84 ], [ 86, 102 ], [ 104, 121 ], [ 123, 136 ], [ 138, 152 ], [ 154, 168 ], [ 173, 192 ], [ 198, 216 ], [ 229, 235 ], [ 264, 285 ], [ 411, 424 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1999, Opel was rebranded to Chevrolet as a coincidence of Chevy's entry to Indonesia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet stopped selling cars and ceased production in Indonesia by the end of March 2020.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From 1995 to 2000 Toyota in an agreement with GM sold the third-generation model Chevrolet Cavalier as the Toyota Cavalier in Japan in exchange for the Geo/Chevrolet Prism in an effort to avoid additional restrictions on their exports to the US. The OHV Chevrolet Stovebolt engine was used and reverse-engineered by Toyota when they created the Toyota Type A engine when GM had a factory manufacturing GM cars in Japan at Osaka Assembly during the 1920s. In the mid-2000s, Suzuki imported and marketed the Chevrolet TrailBlazer and the Chevrolet Optra wagon in Japan. Suzuki, a GM partner, also assembled and marketed the Chevrolet MW microvan. The MW was originally a rebadged Suzuki Wagon R+ and later a rebadged Suzuki Solio. Suzuki had also marketed the Chevrolet Cruze subcompact in the past.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 30984, 684166, 1092287, 880236, 12589341, 1733152, 63971609, 1663528, 14315121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 107, 122 ], [ 152, 171 ], [ 254, 280 ], [ 345, 365 ], [ 422, 436 ], [ 506, 527 ], [ 536, 551 ], [ 758, 773 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2010s, General Motors Japan Limited distributed and marketed the Sonic, Captiva, Camaro, and Corvette in limited numbers through an agreement with Yanase Co., Ltd. dealerships. In the 2000s, General Motors Asia Pacific (Japan) had distributed and marketed the TrailBlazer also. , Mitsui Bussan Automotive distributes and markets the Chevrolet Tahoe, Chevrolet Express, Chevrolet HHR, Silverado, and Traverse.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 30393328, 1826282, 234492, 221005, 42519497, 290271, 947387, 947425, 1361602, 865341, 11507238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 77 ], [ 79, 86 ], [ 88, 94 ], [ 100, 108 ], [ 154, 170 ], [ 287, 293 ], [ 340, 355 ], [ 357, 374 ], [ 376, 389 ], [ 391, 400 ], [ 406, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Previously, it had also marketed the Starcraft versions of the G-Van and Chevrolet TrailBlazer. Mitsui Bussan Automotive had been importing and distributing certain GM models since 1992, but will cease their GM import business in November 2011, as GM Japan wants to consolidate the distribution channels. The Chevrolet models that have been imported by Mitsui will no longer be sold once existing inventories are depleted. As of 2022, General Motors Japan imports and distributes the Camaro and right-hand-drive Corvette in Japan.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 947425, 63971609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 68 ], [ 73, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet entered the Malaysian market in 2003, replacing Opel. Between 2003 and 2009, a joint-venture between GM and DRB-HICOM called Hicomobil, marketed the Chevrolet Aveo, Chevrolet Optra, Chevrolet Nabira and Chevrolet Lumina. The joint venture was ended and Naza was taking over Chevrolet's dealership as Naza Quest Sdn Bhd in 2010. The lineup of Chevrolet cars available were Chevrolet Sonic, Chevrolet Cruze, Chevrolet Malibu, Chevrolet Captiva, Chevrolet Orlando and Chevrolet Colorado.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 22284, 1707708, 947390, 1780646, 535201, 6295014, 1847696, 30393328, 14315121, 1039628, 1826282, 19271750, 947409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 62 ], [ 118, 127 ], [ 159, 173 ], [ 175, 190 ], [ 192, 208 ], [ 213, 229 ], [ 263, 267 ], [ 382, 397 ], [ 399, 414 ], [ 416, 432 ], [ 434, 451 ], [ 453, 470 ], [ 475, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, Naza Quest Sdn Bhd ceased to distribute new Chevrolet vehicles in Malaysia, but continues to provide warranty support and aftersales service for existing Chevrolet customers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the Middle East, Chevrolet-badged cars, trucks, SUVs, and crossovers are sourced from GM Korea (in South Korea), GM in North America, and GM Holden (in Australia). The Middle Eastern market has a separate division called Chevrolet Special Vehicles, which (as of December 2007) sources the high-performance CR8 sedan from Holden Special Vehicles. The Holden Commodore is badged as the Chevrolet Lumina in the Middle East, as well as South Africa. The longer wheelbase Holden Caprice was sold as the Chevrolet Caprice in the Middle East. The Middle East fleet (particularly Saudi Arabia) also includes the likes of Cruze, Malibu and Sonic in the Sedan category, Captiva in the SUV category, Tahoe and Traverse in the Wagon category and Avalanche and Silverado in the Truck category.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 671337, 671337, 305472, 1100476, 406306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 224, 250 ], [ 325, 348 ], [ 354, 370 ], [ 471, 485 ], [ 502, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Pakistan, Chevrolet introduced its cars in collaboration with a local automobile manufacturer called Nexus Automotive. The lineup from Chevrolet Pakistan included the Chevrolet Optra, Chevrolet Spark, Chevrolet Joy, Chevrolet Aveo, Chevrolet Cruze, and Chevrolet Colorado.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 5032640, 1663528, 1753031, 1753031, 30393328, 14315121, 947409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 120 ], [ 170, 185 ], [ 187, 202 ], [ 204, 217 ], [ 219, 233 ], [ 235, 250 ], [ 256, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet has been in the Philippines for a long time, assembling the Chevrolet Bel-Air, Chevrolet Impala, Chevrolet Malibu and even the 1st generation Chevrolet Camaro by the Yutivo family-owned General Motors plant. Other than Chevrolets, the plant also assembled Opels, Pontiacs, Holdens, Buicks, and Vauxhalls for the Filipino market.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 407729, 284998, 1039628, 234492, 22284, 76165, 13625, 42254, 184378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 87 ], [ 89, 105 ], [ 107, 123 ], [ 152, 168 ], [ 266, 270 ], [ 273, 280 ], [ 283, 289 ], [ 292, 297 ], [ 304, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GM withdrew from the Philippines in 1985 and returned in 2000. During Chevrolet's absence in the market, many cars like the Chevrolet Suburban and the Chevrolet Astro have been imported new in the country via grey-market and sold to retailers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 947375, 377143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 142 ], [ 151, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet's current Philippine operations are under the control of The Covenant Car Company Inc. The company was officially incorporated on July 1, 2009 and assumed business operations on October 1, 2009.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are at least 24 dealerships around the country as of 2020. Its current lineup include the Chevrolet Spark, Chevrolet Sail, Chevrolet Cruze, Chevrolet Malibu, Chevrolet Colorado, Chevrolet Trax, Chevrolet Trailblazer, Chevrolet Suburban, and the Chevrolet Tahoe.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 1753031, 1728518, 14315121, 1039628, 7362797, 35829879, 63971609, 947375, 947387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 111 ], [ 113, 127 ], [ 129, 144 ], [ 146, 162 ], [ 164, 182 ], [ 184, 198 ], [ 200, 221 ], [ 223, 241 ], [ 251, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, the Corvette was added to the roster, making it the most expensive vehicle in the lineup. It is legally imported, as the government has seized and destroyed expensive vehicles that were bought into the country illegally.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2019, the Camaro returned to the Philippines with a 2.0-liter turbo engine at 275hp and 398Nm to compete with the Ford Mustang ever since it was introduced in 2010.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many global-market Chevrolet vehicles are designed and manufactured by GM Korea of South Korea, but they had been sold under the Daewoo Motors brand in South Korea until February 2011. The Daewoo brand was fully replaced by Chevrolet in March 2011. All Daewoo products relaunched under the Chevrolet brand, with the release of the Chevrolet Camaro, Chevrolet Orlando and Chevrolet Aveo. In 2015, the Impala was added to the lineup as Chevrolet began importing the American-built sedan to South Korea for the first time. In 2018, Gunsan plant was shut down on May 31 and VIDAMCO plant in Hanoi, Vietnam was sold by Vinfast in June. Chevrolet Cruze and Chevrolet Orlando was discontinued on May 31. Also Chevrolet Captiva discontinued in July 2018. Their best-selling vehicle is Chevrolet Spark and Chevrolet Malibu.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 354543, 947394, 234492, 19271750, 30393328, 56667, 202354, 14315121, 19271750, 1826282, 1753031, 1039628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 79 ], [ 129, 142 ], [ 331, 347 ], [ 349, 366 ], [ 371, 385 ], [ 587, 592 ], [ 594, 601 ], [ 631, 646 ], [ 651, 668 ], [ 702, 719 ], [ 777, 792 ], [ 797, 813 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American-built Chevrolet Colorado pickup is also manufactured in Rayong, Thailand. Starting in 2003, the Holden Commodore was badged as the Chevrolet Lumina in Thailand for the VY and VZ model series. Exports lasted until 2005.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 947409, 305472, 622541, 30128, 6295014, 5699537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 37 ], [ 109, 125 ], [ 144, 160 ], [ 164, 172 ], [ 181, 183 ], [ 188, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "General Motors is currently exploring cost-cutting options as part of its restructuring plan. One of these options involves expanding the Rayong, Thailand plant to add additional capacity to export Colorados to the U.S. This would allow the Shreveport, Louisiana plant to be closed (where the Colorado is also produced). This scenario is plausible only if a free-trade agreement is signed between the U.S. and Thailand, as the American tariff on imported pickup trucks from non-FTA countries is currently 25%. The United Auto Workers is the most vocal opponent to a change in the tariff structure.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 55551, 320140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 436, 442 ], [ 514, 533 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to the Colorado pickup trucks, General Motors began assembling Chevrolet Captiva sport utility vehicle in its Rayong plant during June 2007. The Thai-assembled Captiva is based on THETA platform under the program code C100. Also produced at the General Motors' Rayong plant are the Chevrolet Aveo (launched in September 2009 under the platform T100) and Chevrolet Cruze (launched in November 2010 under the platform GLOBAL DELTA).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet stopped selling its vehicles throughout Thailand in 2020, and sold the Rayong plant to Great Wall. Aftermarket sales, repairs and warranties will be honored for its Thai customers through authorized shops.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "UzAuto Motors (formerly GM Uzbekistan and Uz-DaewooAuto) is an automotive manufacturer owned by the Government of Uzbekistan. It is based in Asaka, Uzbekistan. It manufactures vehicles under the marques Chevrolet and Ravon, for domestic sales and export. GM Uzbekistan was partly owned (25%) by General Motors and, in 2019, it was acquired by Government of Uzbekistan and renamed UzAuto Motors.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "General Motors Uzbekistan, or GM Uzbekistan, became the new name of Uz-Daewoo Auto in March 2008 as part of a new joint venture owned by Uzavtosanoat JSC (75%) and General Motors Corporation (25%) with a factory in Asaka producing a variety of Chevrolet models. In the 2010s, the Damas (N150), Matiz (M150), Nexia (N150), Spark (M300), Epica, Malibu, and Captiva were assembled at the plant.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 28139004, 28139004, 7495147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 43 ], [ 68, 82 ], [ 215, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even though the Australian market of today mainly consists of Australia's own automotive companies alongside European and Asian automobile brands, Australia once had its fair share of American cars as well.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bodies for the local assembly of Chevrolets were built in Australia as early as 1918 and by 1926 the newly created General Motors (Australia) Pty Ltd had established assembly plants in five Australian states to produce Chevrolet and other GM vehicles using bodies supplied by Holden Motor Body Builders.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 13625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 276, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The merger of General Motors (Australia) Pty Ltd with the troubled Holden Motor Body Builders in 1931 saw the creation of General Motors-Holden and the ongoing production of various GM products including Chevrolet. GMH departed from traditional US body styles with the release of the Chevrolet Coupe Utility in 1934 and the Chevrolet \"Sloper\" Coupe in 1935. Post-war production recommenced in 1946. From 1949 Australian Chevrolets were to be locally assembled from components imported from Chevrolet in Canada although local production of the Coupe Utility body continued until 1952. 1968 was the last full year of Chevrolet assembly in Australia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 13625, 7127739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 143 ], [ 294, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Classic Chevrolet models such as Bel Air, Biscayne, Impala etc., are still found in many states around Australia. From the early 1970s to the early 1980s the Chevrolet name was also used on various light commercials in Australia. These ranged from the LUV (a rebadged Isuzu KB) to the third-generation C-series trucks. From 1998 to 2001 the Chevrolet Suburban was sold in Australia as the Holden Suburban, which is expected to return under the Chevrolet badge with the twelfth generation models.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 338360, 407729, 284998, 947375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 33, 40 ], [ 52, 58 ], [ 341, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet and Holden share a number of models and model names including Malibu, Caprice, Colorado, Volt, Spark/Barina Spark, Sonic/Barina, Cruze, Equinox, and VF Commodore/Chevrolet SS. The Holden VF Commodore was exported from Australia to the United States as the Chevrolet SS until Holden ended production in May 2017 during its transition to a distribution platform of vehicles that are sourced from GM's American and international plants that is expected to badge as Holden vehicles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 31579266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, the Chevrolet brand returned to Australia and New Zealand with the launch of the Camaro 2SS Coupe and the Silverado 2500HD/3500HD. These vehicles retained the Chevrolet badge and nameplate, and converted to RHD in Australia. In addition to the relaunch, Holden Special Vehicles added the Camaro and Silverado to their performance lineup.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 671337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the Holden brand retired in 2021, GM continues to export Chevrolet models to the region under the \"General Motors Specialty Vehicles\" network, which would expand more American models in that region. The imported Silverado pickup trucks are re-manufactured as right-hand-drive vehicles in Australia before distribution. Chevrolet is also looking at making the Camaro part of the V8 Supercar Series in 2022, where it would succeed the Holden ZB Commodore after its contracts with both Holden and the teams involved with the series expire in 2021.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Australia and New Zealand Chevrolets are often called Chevs as well as Chevys.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In South Africa, Chevrolet was GM's main brand name until 1982, with a number of Vauxhall Motors and Holden derivatives being built under the Chevy name from 1965. In the 1970s, the advertising jingle \"braaivleis, rugby, sunny skies and Chevrolet\" (adapted from the US \"Baseball, Hot Dogs, Apple Pies and Chevrolet\") came to epitomise the ideal lifestyle of white male South Africans. Holden in Australia used the jingle \"Football, Meat Pies, Kangaroos and Holden cars\". Originally, Chevrolets were CKD kits of US models assembled in their plant in Port Elizabeth. However, since South Africa was right-hand drive and the US was left-hand drive, along with encouragement by the South African government to use local content, Chevrolets such as the Biscayne were eventually made entirely in South Africa, along with GM's \"own car for South Africa\": the Ranger.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 184378, 13625, 3160820, 13625, 1272663, 2013184, 388178, 4393323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 96 ], [ 101, 107 ], [ 201, 247 ], [ 385, 391 ], [ 499, 502 ], [ 549, 563 ], [ 748, 756 ], [ 852, 858 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the 1970s, larger South African Chevrolets were based on Australian General Motors-Holden's models, the Kommando being based on the Holden Kingswood and the Constantia on the Statesman, while the smaller Firenza was based on the Vauxhall Viva. The Chevrolet Nomad sold in South Africa was entirely different from the Nomad sold in the US; whereas the American Nomad was originally conceived as a station wagon version of the Corvette and eventually became the station wagon version of the Bel Air, the South African Nomad was an SUV of truck proportions before SUVs were popular. Due to local content laws the cars usually received different engines than in their home markets.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 13625, 1101672, 1327143, 11708645, 230897, 3902988, 168037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 92 ], [ 135, 151 ], [ 160, 170 ], [ 178, 187 ], [ 232, 245 ], [ 251, 266 ], [ 399, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, these were replaced by Opel models like the Rekord, Commodore, and Senator, and in 1982 the Chevrolet brand name was dropped in favour of Opel. Because of the political climate at the time, GM decided to divest from South Africa in 1986, and a local group eventually bought out GM's South African operations (including the Port Elizabeth plant) and renamed the company Delta Motor Corporation, which concentrated on Opels, Isuzus, and Suzukis, built under licence.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 22284, 1083223, 305472, 914554, 375691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 36 ], [ 53, 59 ], [ 61, 70 ], [ 76, 83 ], [ 378, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, thanks to an improved political climate in the 1990s, GM decided to reenter South Africa, eventually buying out the whole of Delta. In 2001, the Chevrolet name made a comeback, used on the Lumina, a rebadged Holden Commodore, and later on, on the Daewoo range of cars. Current Chevrolets (2013) include the Spark Lite (a rebadged Daewoo Matiz), Spark (a third-generation Matiz based on the 2007 Chevrolet Beat), Aveo Sedan and Hatch, the Sonic Sedan and Hatch (the second generation Aveo), Cruze Sedan and Hatch (underpinned by the front-wheel drive GM Delta II platform), the Lumina Sedan (including the Ute model), the Chevrolet Orlando (a five-door, seven-seat compact MPV manufactured by GM Korea under the Chevrolet division for worldwide markets), the Chevrolet Captiva a mid-size sport utility vehicle (SUV) developed by GM Daewoo (now GM Korea) the South Korean subsidiary of General Motors (GM) and sold under the Chevrolet brand, the Chevrolet TrailBlazer (a mid-size sport utility vehicle produced by the Chevrolet division of American automaker General Motors and based on a pickup truck chassis in this case the 2012 Chevrolet Colorado), and a pick-up version which was previously based on the Opel Corsa known as the Corsa Ute; but the current model which in collaboration with GM Brazil who developed it, is the Chevrolet Utility which is based on the Chevrolet Agila platform (a vehicle developed in Brazil and built in Argentina).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 622541, 305472, 1753031, 947390, 947390, 5190113, 31410894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 204 ], [ 217, 233 ], [ 339, 351 ], [ 421, 425 ], [ 492, 496 ], [ 614, 617 ], [ 1216, 1226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, GM withdrew from South Africa, with its truck division and its plant changing hands to Isuzu while at the same time ending all sales and the dealership network of the Chevrolet brand. GM worked with both Isuzu and PSA (the new owners of Opel, which GM spun off the division to) to ensure existing customers receive parts and technical support during and after the company exit the country.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Until 2005, Chevrolet Europe sold a few models, mostly United States domestic market (USDM) models modified to suit European regulations. Among them were the Chevrolet Alero (which was a rebadged Oldsmobile Alero) and the Chevrolet Trans Sport (which was a Chevrolet Venture with the front end of the Pontiac Trans Sport). Among other models sold were the Camaro, the Corsica/Beretta, the Corvette, the Blazer, and the TrailBlazer. North American–built Chevrolet Impala V8 sedans have also been available in Europe in recent years, marketed as both large family sedans and more economically priced alternatives as high-performance executive cars.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 8215329, 2212820, 626051, 1039796, 926923, 234492, 510471, 1088255, 221005, 63971609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ], [ 55, 84 ], [ 196, 212 ], [ 257, 274 ], [ 301, 320 ], [ 356, 362 ], [ 368, 375 ], [ 376, 383 ], [ 389, 397 ], [ 419, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 2005 all models from GM Daewoo were rebranded as Chevrolet in Europe. In the rest of the world, most Daewoo models have worn the Chevrolet badge since 2003. Exceptions include the use of the Suzuki badge in the United States and Canada, the Pontiac badge in Canada, the Holden badge in Australia and New Zealand, and the Buick badge in China.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 354543, 614614, 76165, 13625, 42254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 35 ], [ 196, 202 ], [ 246, 253 ], [ 275, 281 ], [ 326, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the mid-2000s, the Corvette and Cadillac range were marketed in Europe through a separate distribution channel operated by Netherlands-based Kroymans Corporation Group but following its bankruptcy in 2010, General Motors established a new Swiss based subsidiary to relaunch Chevrolet in Europe and add the Corvette, Camaro and Malibu models to the European range.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 221005, 64252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 34 ], [ 39, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the beginning of 2016, General Motors reduced its presence in Europe only to its iconic models, such as the Corvette, in order to strengthen its Opel and Vauxhall brands. Although announcing that they will maintain a broad presence in Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States, General Motors later reduced their line-up to the iconic models in Russia, and more, the Opel division also exited the Russian market in 2015, while also abandoning production at their Saint Petersburg plant. As of March 2016, only the US-built Corvette Stingray and Tahoe, as well as the Russian-built Niva, were being offered on the Russian market.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 8215329, 221005, 22284, 184378, 36870, 24320051, 37393650, 947387, 1244169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 99 ], [ 113, 121 ], [ 150, 154 ], [ 159, 167 ], [ 255, 289 ], [ 476, 492 ], [ 536, 553 ], [ 558, 563 ], [ 594, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet sales in Western and Central Europe ranged around 200,000 units per year since 2005, peaking at 216,160 units in 2007, while the market share achieved its highest of 1.28 percent in 2012. In Russia, sales grew constantly over the same period, from 67,000 units in 2005 to 205,040 units in 2012, Chevrolet holding a market share of 6.84 percent and being the top import car brand. In 2012, the top markets for Chevrolet in Europe, by the number of registrations, were Italy (31,150), Germany (29,694), France (24,613), Turkey (18,492) and Spain (15,165). The best selling model during the same year was the Aveo (54,800), followed by the Spark (47,600) and the Cruze (40,500).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 30393328, 1753031, 14315121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 616, 620 ], [ 647, 652 ], [ 670, 675 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Currently, as of 2022, only the Corvette Stingray is available in most countries in Europe. In the Commonwealth of Independent States countries where Chevrolet vehicles are officially sold, the vehicles are mostly or wholly sourced from Uzbekistan-based UzAuto Motors, a former General Motors-Uzbekistan joint venture. UzAuto Motors is now a state-owned enterprise with a license to assemble and sell Chevrolet-branded vehicles in several CIS member nations. Chevrolet vehicles are also assembled in Kazakhstan from semi-knocked-down kits supplied by UzAuto Motors. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 36870, 28139004, 204768, 1272663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 133 ], [ 254, 267 ], [ 342, 364 ], [ 516, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During World War II in Poland, the Home Army of the Polish resistance movement built an improvised armoured car – Kubuś which was based on the chassis of a civilian Chevrolet 157 truck, license-built in pre-war Poland by the Lilpop, Rau i Loewenstein company. The car was used against the German army in Warsaw during the Warsaw Uprising in 1944. The damaged Kubuś survived the war and in 1945 was towed to the Polish Army Museum where it is currently on exhibition. A full-scale operational replica was created in 2004 by Juliusz Siudziński and is, as of 2009, on exhibition at the Warsaw Uprising Museum.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 66231, 2287, 6256196, 42454506, 32908, 376841, 6343982, 2353975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 44 ], [ 99, 111 ], [ 114, 119 ], [ 225, 250 ], [ 304, 310 ], [ 322, 337 ], [ 411, 429 ], [ 583, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between the autumn of 2007 and the beginning of 2011, the Chevrolet Aveo was produced at the FSO plant in Warsaw, in collaboration with the Ukrainian company UkrAVTO, in both hatchback and sedan body styles. Between 2005 and 2014 GM sold some 60,000 cars under Chevrolet brand that represented 0.5–1% market share compere to Opel's 7% market share each year.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 30393328, 1429829, 32908, 1586264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 72 ], [ 93, 96 ], [ 106, 112 ], [ 158, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GM-AvtoVAZ was a joint venture between GM and the Russian company AvtoVAZ established in 2001, which produced the Chevrolet Niva, an SUV especially designed for the Russian market and conditions. The venture ended in December 2019, after AvtoVAZ acquired all General Motors' stake in it.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 1597207, 18352, 1244169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 66, 73 ], [ 114, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "General Motors also operated the GM Avto factory, located in Saint Petersburg and opened in 2008. It was upgraded in 2012 and has produced the Opel Antara and Chevrolet Captiva SUVs, the Chevrolet Cruze from late 2009, and the TrailBlazer from semi-knocked down kits. It ceased production in July 2015, before Chevrolet's exit from the Russian market at the end of the year.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 24320051, 2673631, 1826282, 14315121, 63971609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 77 ], [ 143, 154 ], [ 159, 176 ], [ 187, 202 ], [ 227, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In collaboration with the Russian company GAZ, the second generation Chevrolet Aveo was produced at the plant in Nizhny Novgorod for the Russian market, starting from the beginning of 2013, until 2015.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 69155, 30393328, 65430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 45 ], [ 69, 83 ], [ 113, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet vehicles were also produced at the Avtotor plant, located in Kaliningrad. The models produced here were the Lacetti, Aveo, Epica, Captiva, Orlando and Tahoe.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 39512352, 40387679, 1780646, 30393328, 3301790, 1826282, 19271750, 947387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 52 ], [ 71, 82 ], [ 118, 125 ], [ 127, 131 ], [ 133, 138 ], [ 140, 147 ], [ 149, 156 ], [ 161, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of December 2017, the Chevrolet Tahoe, Chevrolet Camaro, Chevrolet Corvette, and Chevrolet Niva were officially available for sale in Russia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 947387, 234492, 221005, 1244169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 40 ], [ 42, 58 ], [ 60, 78 ], [ 84, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the first quarter of 2022, there were two distinct sales channels in Russia for Chevrolet vehicles. The first, operated by General Motors, sold the Tahoe and the Trailblazer. The second sales channel sold economical mass-market Chevrolet-branded vehicles assembled by UzAuto Motors in Uzbekistan. Both sales channels stopped selling Chevrolet vehicles in Russia in April 2022 due to U.S. and South Korean sanctions resulting from the Russo-Ukrainian War.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 28139004, 42085878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 271, 284 ], [ 437, 456 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historically, many Latin American-market vehicles from GM were modified derivatives of older models from GM's North American and European operations. The current S-10 and Blazer exemplify this strategy. However, more modern vehicles are now being marketed as market conditions change and competition increases. Besides those older models made in Mexico, Ecuador, Colombia, and Mercosur countries, Korean-sourced cars from former Daewoo factories in some markets also get Korean- and U.S.-made Chevrolets on top of their local line-ups.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 865304, 1518071, 25869317, 354543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 166 ], [ 171, 177 ], [ 377, 385 ], [ 422, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1924, General Motors de Argentina, the local GM subsidiary, started importing Chevrolet Double Phaeton models which were welcomed with great demand. In 1925, in order to reduce costs in the Argentine market, General Motors decided to manufacture in Argentina and started producing a sedan, a roadster, a truck chassis and the Chevrolet Double Phaeton, now called \"Especial Argentino\", a model exclusively designed for the Argentinean market. Sales increased and soon the Oldsmobile, Oakland and Pontiac units were incorporated to the assembly line.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 60374856, 567852, 52040, 1502565, 76165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 36 ], [ 51, 61 ], [ 474, 484 ], [ 486, 493 ], [ 498, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the Second World War broke out the operations were complicated. In 1941 the Chevrolet number 250,000 was made, but the shortage of products made car production impossible. The last Chevrolet went out of the plant in August 1942. In order to avoid the total stoppage, the company made electrical and portable refrigerators and car accessories amongst other items. After the war, GM started producing the Oldsmobile and Pontiac lines and later Chevrolet was added.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1959, manufacturing plants are enlarged and set up to produce cars, pick-ups and trucks. On January 25, 1960, the first Argentinean Chevrolet pick-up was introduced. The following year the national government approves the investment plan for 45million dollars which included a plant of 12,000 m2. On March 12, 1962, the first Chevrolet 400 was made based on the North American Chevy II. The original plan considered a national integration of 50% during the first year of production; this amount had to be 90% in 1964 with a production of 15,000 units. By 1969, the Chevy line, derived from the American Chevy Nova, was presented.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 25306979, 1092314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 329, 342 ], [ 380, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the middle of the seventies, General Motors market share was reduced sharply from 9% in 1976 to 2% in 1978. Losses exceeded $30 million and the head company in the USA decided to halt production activities in Argentina.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 8012445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Chevrolet trademark reappeared in 1985 for the production of the pick-up in its versions C-20 and D-20. In 1995, a plan for the manufacturing destined for export specially to Brazil and other countries of Mercosur materialized with the building of a new facility near Rosario, Santa Fe, for the production of the Opel-based Chevrolet Corsa and the Suzuki-based Chevrolet Grand Vitara 4x4.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 865369, 25339876, 25869317, 592784, 31410894, 1598326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 97 ], [ 102, 106 ], [ 209, 217 ], [ 272, 289 ], [ 328, 343 ], [ 365, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 2010, the range was based on a variety of GM Korea based cars, together with the Brazilian Chevrolet Prisma.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 354543, 1839677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 53 ], [ 94, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Brazil, the Chevrolet Opala was based on the German Opel Rekord and American Chevrolet Nova from the late 1960s, continuing in production until the early 1990s, when it was replaced by a version of the Opel Omega. In the basic version had 151 four-cylinder engine with 82hp and 143.2 lb-ft. The top-of-the-line version was called Opala SS and used the GM engine 250-S inline six-cylinder and possessed solid lifters with 171hp and 278.5 lb-ft, which led to the record-breaking South American speed road cars in 1976, with 118.36mph (190.47km/h), beating the Puma GTB (which also used the GM 250 engine inline six-cylinder, but without solid lifters) and the Brazilian version of the Dodge Charger R / T 318 and Ford Maverick V8 302 quadrijet.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 3319510, 1083223, 1092314, 620846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 30 ], [ 55, 66 ], [ 80, 94 ], [ 205, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other smaller Chevrolets in Brazil, such as the Kadett and Monza, were based on the Opel Kadett and Ascona respectively.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 402834, 709289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 95 ], [ 100, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet's product line-up in Brazil comprised some exclusive designs like the Corsa \"B\" based Celta, which was sold in Argentina under the Suzuki brand, the Astra, and a Brazilian-designed Vectra based on the Opel Astra H. The passenger car range currently includes the Cruze, the Captiva, the Agile hatchback, Chevrolet Onix. The latest home-grown product is the Chevrolet Prisma MKII, released in 2013.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 1839677, 373870, 374939, 373870, 38292166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 101 ], [ 159, 164 ], [ 191, 197 ], [ 211, 221 ], [ 313, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Utility and four-wheel drive vehicles line-up includes the S-10, the Blazer, and the Montana. The Montana is a compact pickup truck, based on the Agile, that is also sold in other Latin American markets. From the 1960s to the mid-1980s, there was also a large station wagon, derived from the C10 truck (somewhat similar to the Suburban), called the Veraneio.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 444649, 2175164, 865369, 947375, 947375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ], [ 85, 92 ], [ 292, 295 ], [ 327, 335 ], [ 349, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chile has a mix of Chevrolet models from different GM brands and platforms branded as Chevrolet. The models come from Chevrolet USA, GM Korea, Mexico, India and other origins. Chevrolet production in Chile began in 1962, although at first through local partners (in this case, Avayu with the Nova II). The Chevrolet C/K truck was manufactured in Chile between 1975-88.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 865369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 306, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet has been operating in Ecuador for 80 years. GM Ecuador sells US Chevrolets alongside GM Korea sourced models. It also sells the 1983 Suzuki Supercarry under the Chevrolet name, and the Isuzu Rodeo was sold as the Chevrolet Rodeo throughout the 1990s.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 9334, 354543, 8267850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 39 ], [ 95, 103 ], [ 143, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Venezuela, Chevrolet has been operating since 1948, when truck production began in Caracas. In 1979 production moved to a plant in Valencia that was purchased from Chrysler. Chevrolet assembled more than 1,500,000 vehicles in its first 50 years in Venezuela.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [ 32374, 55289, 351952, 6882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 86, 93 ], [ 134, 142 ], [ 167, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Colombian Automotive Factory SA (Colmotores) was founded in 1956 and initially produced vehicles in Austin; in the '60s, Simca and Dodge automobiles (its first car manufactured was a Coronet 440); and then, in 1980, began producing Chevrolet cars. Currently, Colmotores has more than 75% of the domestic market, with models from GM Korea and Suzuki. Particularly worthy of mention is the Aveo, Optra and the Spark.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since the early 1920s, Chevrolet cars and trucks were marketed in this country. The Master Deluxe Sedan of the late 1930s was considered to be a pinnacle of luxury. All cars sold through the local dealer, Neal and Massey (also franchisee for Vauxhall and Buick), were right-hand-drive, and imported from Canada and Australia. Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, GM maintained a market presence with the Bel Air, Impala and Fleetline. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Australian Holden DeVilles badged as Chevrolet Caprices were sold, though a few \"Islander\" limited edition American Chevrolet Caprices were imported. Neal and Massey gave up the GM franchise in 1974 and the brand left the market.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the period 1998–2001, Southern Sales Ltd. imported the Chevy Monza and Joy. Based on the Opel Corsa platform and assembled in Mexico, these were the cheapest new cars available. Poor build quality, unprofessional dealer service, and a limited spare parts supply saw these cars exit the market with only a few units being sold.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2003, the local Renault dealer marketed the Aveo sedan and hatchback, as well as the Optra sedan (a rebadged Suzuki Forenza), with limited success.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A more intensive marketing campaign by a subsequent Chevrolet dealer, Lifestyle Motors, met with moderately more success. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The models available were the Chevrolet Colorado (Isuzu D-Max twin), Spark (micro-car based on the Daewoo Matiz), Aveo sedan and hatchback, Optra sedan, hatchback and wagon, the Captiva SUV, and the Epica large saloon. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2011, the Cruze was added to the lineup and features a 1.8 litre gasoline engine. It bridged the gap between Optra and Epica models. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Once the Optra was phased out, a 1.6 litre Cruze was made available.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "International operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet enters a variety of cars in sporting events around the world and is particularly well known in NASCAR, IndyCar, and the FIA World Touring Car Championship.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 21114, 30446232, 2701925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 111 ], [ 113, 120 ], [ 134, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Major teams include Hendrick Motorsports, Richard Childress Racing, and Chip Ganassi Racing, who all drive Chevrolet Camaro ZL1 1LE-themed cars. Hendrick has twelve championships, Childress has six championships, and now-Ford Stewart-Haas Racing has two. Chevrolet is the most successful manufacturer to be involved in NASCAR with thirty-nine manufacturer's titles and the most recorded wins by a manufacturer. Previously, the Chevy Monte Carlo, Impala and the SS were used in both the NASCAR Cup Series and NASCAR Xfinity Series.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 2089777, 2569903, 1882119, 2500915, 4653138, 56571945, 147515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 40 ], [ 42, 66 ], [ 72, 91 ], [ 226, 245 ], [ 272, 300 ], [ 486, 503 ], [ 508, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet teams in the NASCAR Cup Series currently use the Camaro ZL1 1LE, while Xfinity teams run the Camaro SS and NASCAR Gander RV & Outdoors Truck Series organizations race with the Silverado.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 426494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet claimed six consecutive Indianapolis 500 wins from 1986 to 1993 and five consecutive CART World Series wins from 1986 to 1992, with notable drivers such as Rick Mears, Al Unser Jr., Michael Andretti, Danny Sullivan, Arie Luyendyk, Emerson Fittipaldi, and Bobby Rahal.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 159018, 20924091, 512299, 768194, 1048955, 1226454, 105851, 241678, 693427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 50 ], [ 95, 112 ], [ 166, 176 ], [ 178, 190 ], [ 192, 208 ], [ 210, 224 ], [ 226, 239 ], [ 241, 259 ], [ 265, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet replaced Oldsmobile as the General Motor brand at the IndyCar Series from 2002 to 2005. Hélio Castroneves won the Indianapolis 500 and Sam Hornish Jr. the championship, but the American brand had little success the next years.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 8511358, 345352, 2502831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 78 ], [ 98, 115 ], [ 145, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet returned to IndyCar in 2012. After several years of Honda being the only engine provider, Chevrolet rejoined the series in 2012. Major teams include Team Penske, KV Racing, Chip Ganassi Racing and CFH Racing who all use Chevy engines. Chevrolet won several races including the 2013 and 2015 Indianapolis 500, as well as three drivers championships.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 13729, 2321219, 4503325, 1882119, 44053349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 67 ], [ 159, 170 ], [ 172, 181 ], [ 183, 202 ], [ 207, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Corvette runs in the GT LeMans class for Tudor United SportsCar Championship, which was, until 2014, the American Le Mans Series in the GT class, when ALMS merged with Grand-Am to form Tudor United SportsCar Championship. Corvette Racing started in 1999 at the Daytona 24-hour race and has since won eight consecutive ALMS GT1 manufacturers and team championships and seven ALMS GT1 drivers' titles. The Corvette also takes part in the French", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 221005, 657573, 13059398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 109, 132 ], [ 226, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "24 Hours of Le Mans race.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 1401596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2005, when the Chevrolet brand was re-launched in Europe, Chevrolet took part in the WTCC with a version of the Lacetti, developed by the UK-based Ray Mallock Ltd (RML). In 2009 the Cruze replaced the Lacetti and won the Drivers' and Manufacturers' championship from 2010 to 2012.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 2701925, 1780646, 22016223, 14315121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 92 ], [ 115, 122 ], [ 150, 161 ], [ 185, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet participated in the British Touring Car Championship with the Cruze between 2010 and 2011.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 1513032, 14315121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 62 ], [ 72, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 2012, Chevrolet replaced Audi as the official automotive sponsor of the English football team Manchester United. From the start of the 2014–15 season Chevrolet became the team's principal shirt sponsor. The deal is contracted to run for seven years, worth a world-record $560million USD.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 848, 19961, 18717338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 36 ], [ 101, 118 ], [ 290, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2012, Chevrolet and English Premier League football team Liverpool F.C. announced a four-year partnership that would see Chevrolet become the official automotive partner of the club. The deal ended two years prematurely, in 2014, following GM pulling the Chevrolet brand out of Europe. GM's subsidiary in the UK, Vauxhall Motors, took over from Chevrolet as the club's automotive sponsor.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 18119, 184378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 79 ], [ 321, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Chevrolet bowtie logo was introduced by company co-founder William C. Durant in late 1913. According to an official company publication titled The Chevrolet Story of 1961, the logo originated in Durant's imagination when, as a world traveler in 1908, he saw the pattern marching off into infinity as a design on wallpaper in a French hotel. He tore off a piece of the wallpaper and kept it to show friends, with the thought that it would make a good nameplate for a car. However, in an interview with Durant's widow, Catherine, published in a 1986 issue of Chevrolet Pro Management Magazine, Catherine recalled how she and her husband were on holiday in Hot Springs, Virginia, in 1912. While reading a newspaper in their hotel room, Durant spotted a design and exclaimed, \"I think this would be a very good emblem for the Chevrolet.\" Unfortunately, at the time, Mrs. Durant didn't clarify what the motif was or how it was used. Ken Kaufmann, historian and editor of The Chevrolet Review, discovered in a November 12, 1911, edition of the Atlanta Constitution newspaper, an advertisement from the Southern Compressed Coal Company for \"Coalettes\", a refined fuel product for fires. The Coalettes logo, as published in the ad, had a slanted bowtie form, very similar to the shape that would soon become the Chevrolet icon. The date of the paper was just nine days after the incorporation of the Chevrolet Motor Co. One other explanation attributes the design to a stylized version of the cross of the Swiss flag. Louis Chevrolet was born in Switzerland at La Chaux-de-Fonds, Canton of Neuchâtel, to French parents, on Christmas Day 1878. An October 2, 1913, edition of The Washington Post seems, so far, to be the earliest known example of the symbol being used to advertise the brand.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [ 369262, 2545696, 623714, 318209, 1647196, 321715, 102226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 80 ], [ 658, 679 ], [ 1042, 1062 ], [ 1502, 1512 ], [ 1557, 1574 ], [ 1576, 1595 ], [ 1670, 1689 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first bowtie logo without embedded text first appeared in 1985, as part of the Heartbeat of America ad campaign. In 2004, Chevrolet began to phase-in the gold bowtie that serves as the brand identity for all of its cars and trucks marketed globally, where previously the logo was blue for passenger cars and gold for trucks.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Klavika Condensed font was designed by type design studio Process Type Foundry under the art direction of Aaron Carámbula for General Motors marketer FutureBrand as part of Chevrolet's 2006 redesign. After the expiry of the exclusivity period, the commercial version of the font (Klavika Condensed) was released to the public in the fall of 2008. In the Young Creative Chevrolet corporate identity guidelines, Klavika is listed for use in all communication materials. Klavika was phased out beginning in 2012 and replaced by Knockout (from Hoefler & Frere-Jones) while the campaign was still ongoing. Currently, Goodby, Silverstein & Partners is utilizing the typeface families Louis, a group of simplified, legible grotesque gothics named after co-founder Louis Chevrolet, and Durant, a roman group, just as simplified and legible, named after co-founder William Durant, on print, television and Chevrolet's website advertisements.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [ 30064727, 3841123, 4312130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 544, 565 ], [ 616, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As part of Chevrolet's 100th anniversary in 2011, a dedicated channel was created by the American internet based Pandora Radio station, playing the Top 100 songs mentioning the brand. Beginning on November 3, 2011, Chevrolet celebrated the countdown to its 100th birthday by encouraging its customers and fans to tell their Chevy stories, vote for their favorite Chevrolet cars and trucks, and take the birthday party to their communities with the help of Chevrolet and its dealers. A feature-length documentary titled 'Chevy100, An American Story', produced by Roger Sherman, was premiered on November 3 at Detroit Institute of Arts in downtown Detroit, features drivers, collectors, restorers, racers and journalists who live and breathe cars and trucks. In honor of the 100th birthday of Chevrolet, Indianapolis Motor Speedway, Chevrolet and Indianapolis businessman David Ring have arranged to properly mark the grave of Arthur Chevrolet, brother of Chevrolet co-founder Louis Chevrolet.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [ 3261504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Earlier marketing efforts touted efficiency combined with savings – (\"enormous buying power\", 1914; \"Quality at low cost\", 1923, \"A Six for the Price of a Four\", 1929), interspersed with what could be described as \"loftier\" messages (positioning the automobile –and Chevy by extension—as \"Man's conquest of time\", 1923). Of the marketing campaigns from more recent decades, \"See the U.S.A. in Your Chevrolet\" (used in the 50s and 60s) was one of the longest lasting. In 1949 Chevy sponsored \"Inside USA\" on CBS; while this was a short-lived show, the tune created for it got new life in 1951, when Chevy began sponsoring the Dinah Shore show and Shore sang it at the close of every show.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A selection of Chevrolet's more recent marketing campaigns includes the following:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " See the U.S.A. in Your Chevrolet (1950s–1960s)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [ 15381060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Putting you first keeps us first (1960s)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " It's Exciting! (mid-1960s)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Building a better way to see the U.S.A. (early 1970s)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Baseball, Hotdogs, Apple Pie & Chevrolet (1975; 2006)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Now that's more like it (late 1970s)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chevy makes good things happen (1982)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " USA-1 Taking Charge (1983)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Today's Chevrolet—Live It (1985)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Heartbeat of America (1987–1994)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rock, Flag and Eagle (1985–1987)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " From the country that invented Rock and roll (1993-1997; Chevrolet Camaro)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Genuine Chevrolet (1994–1999)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tried, Tested, and True (1996–2004 in Canada)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " We'll Be There (1999–2004 in United States)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Like a Rock (1991–2004; Chevrolet Trucks) Featuring the Bob Seger song of the same name", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [ 276085, 4840952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 66 ], [ 67, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " An American Revolution (2004–2009)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " For All Life's Roads (2004–2006; Canada)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Our Country, My Truck (2006–2007; Chevrolet Trucks)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " America's Best Trucks (2007–present; Chevrolet Trucks)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Let's Go (2007–2009; Canada)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " May the Best Car Win (2009–2010; United States and Canada)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Excellence for Everyone (2010–present)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chevy Runs Deep (2010–2013; United States): A series of TV commercials were produced with Goodby, Silverstein and Partners, and was unveiled during the week of 2010 MLB World Series. Early commercials include 'Chevrolet: Anthem', 'Chevrolet: Dogs and Pickups', 'First Car', 'Chevrolet: Coming Home', 'Chevrolet Volt: Anthem', which positioned Chevy as a brand that is part of the American fabric in song, culture and in most of our pasts in one way or another. Most television commercials run in this ongoing campaign feature voice-over by television and film star Tim Allen.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chevrolet is the Car (2011–2012; South Korea, Japan)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Driving Our World Forward/I'm proud (2011-; Canada): Chevrolet Sonic and Chevrolet Orlando ads were produced by Toronto-based production company Holiday Films. In Quebec, the brand introduced a new tag line: 'I'm proud'. The campaign included commercials in Mandarin, Cantonese, Tamil, Punjabi and Hindi languages. French version of the Antham ad also uses alternate slogan 'Chevrolet, et fier de l'être.' The fully integrated campaign includes TV, print and outdoor elements as well as extensive social media. The General Motors brand also held live events, including a concert in Toronto, presentations by parenting expert Nanny Robina and 'mompreneur' Erica Ehm, and a live yoga session. Mike Speranzini, director of advertising and communications for General Motors Canada, claimed that by leveraging the fact that Chevrolet is a global brand, consumers are seeing it in a more favourable light. Slogan in other languages include: 'Driving me (and) your world' (驅動你我的世界) (Mandarin Chinese, Cantonese Chinese)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Love. Life. Chevrolet (2012–present; South Korea, Japan) As part of the Cruze campaign (in association with MacLaren McCann, Canada), outdoor vinyl materials, recycled seatbelts and bicycle inner tubes were made into messenger bags, laptop sleeves, and oversize totes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Live Better. (2012–present; United States)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " What do you #playfor (2012–present; Global Campaign): Chevrolet sponsors Manchester United replacing Aon as the shirt sponsor. The campaign slogan, \"What do you #playfor?\" attempts to engage users on social media. Chevrolet also launched multiple sites across the globe under the main Chevrolet Football Club website.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Find New Roads (2013–; United States, Canada, Latin America): The slogan replaced the previous Chevy Runs Deep tag line, after Chevy Runs Deep campaign had been criticized as ineffectual. External applications of 'Find New Roads' was set to begin globally later in the first quarter of 2013. The first Find New Roads commercial, a 90-second commercial titled 'Dog & Doe' (produced by Commonwealth) featuring Chevrolet Volt, Spark, Sonic, Impala, Corvette Stingray, was premiered during 2013 Grammy Awards. The campaign was expected to cover 13 product launches for 2013 in the U.S. and 20 introductions throughout the world. In 2018, South Korea added a new slogan called \"Find New Roads\"+\"다시 힘차게 달리다\". Now they use \"Find New Roads\" again.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chevrolet's advertisement promoting reliability has been pulled after recent backlash.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the advertisement (which is part of their \"Real People. Not Actors\" campaign), Chevrolet spokesperson Potsch Boyd claims that \"based on a recent nationwide survey (by Ipsos), Chevy is more reliable than Toyota, Honda, and Ford.\" However, Chevrolet included a disclaimer stating that the survey was based on 2015 model year vehicles; several of these vehicles have been updated (facelifted and/or redesigned) since then. According to the Detroit Free Press and Detroit News, Ford, Honda and Toyota all challenged the accuracy of the claim. Furthermore, these claims were challenged by Consumer World, which noted that independent studies by J. D. Power and Consumer Reports contradicted them.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [ 3141209, 756902, 1654609, 286317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 175 ], [ 440, 458 ], [ 643, 654 ], [ 659, 675 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "FutureBrand, an Interpublic Group of Companies company, has been working with General Motors since 2000, who also involved the commissioning of a font that would later sold as Klavika Condensed, as part of re-design of Chevrolet in 2006.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [ 2928769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, General Motors replaced the advertising agency Campbell Ewald, also of Interpublic Group of Companies, with Publicis Worldwide. Campbell-Ewald had served Chevrolet since 1919. In May 2010 Chevrolet's advertising account was awarded to Goodby, Silverstein and Partners.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [ 8041436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As part of the attempt to attract 18- to 24-year-old drivers, General Motors hired MTV Scratch. Some of the collaboration results include Chevy ads showing their cars skydiving, bungee jumping, doing other stunts. The commercial was produced with consultations from students from UCLA, Pepperdyne and high schools. Some of the footage was later used in Chevrolet Sonic ad titled 'Stunt Anthem' during Super Bowl XLVI.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [ 30393328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 353, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2012, two competing agencies, San Francisco-based Goodby, Silverstein and Partners (part of Omnicom Group), and New York-based McCann Erickson Worldwide (part of Interpublic Group), joined to form an equal joint venture company called Commonwealth to handle most of Chevrolet's ads. Prior to the joint venture, Goodby, Silverstein and Partners performed marketing in the U.S., including the \"Chevy Runs Deep\" campaign; McCann handled Chevrolet ads in China, Latin America, Mexico, Canada and other markets. Commonwealth would handle and supervise creative work worldwide out of Detroit for all markets except China, India and Uzbekistan, where GM has joint auto-making ventures. McCann would continue to handle ads in China and India, and Uzbekistan will be contracted as needed. MacLaren McCann continued on as AOR for the entire GM brand in Canada, but the Chevrolet brand will act as a “spoke” to Detroit's creative hub, with content and messaging flowing through Commonwealth, but adapted for the Canadian market.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Performance Marketing Group Incorporated manages Chevrolet Racing's experiential marketing properties for its at-track activation platforms in conjunction with the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series, the IZOD IndyCar Series, and the American Le Mans Series with Team Corvette.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, a memo signed by Chevrolet sales and service vice president Alan Batey and General Motors marketing division vice president Jim Campbell was sent to Chevrolet employees at its Detroit headquarters, instructing employees to only use Chevrolet when addressing the brand, in order to present a consistent brand message. A postscript to the memo says a sort of cuss jar - a plastic \"Chevy\" can - has been placed in the hallway. \"Every time someone uses 'Chevy' rather than Chevrolet\", the note said, the employee is expected to put a quarter in the can. The proceeds were to be spent on \"a team building activity\". Paul Worthington, head of strategy for Wolff Olins, noted that the branding effort ran counter to a trend in which corporate names had become more casual. Ian Beavis of Nielsen Automotive Group noted that marketers cannot control what consumers call their products, but nicknames do not work in new markets where Chevrolet is trying to get a start. Following the release of the memo, General Motors published a statement claiming the note was in no way discouraging customers or fans from using the Chevy name. Following the 2010 memo incident, Chevy Runs Deep campaign remains to use the 'Chevy' name, while Driving Our World Forward and Find New Roads campaigns uses the 'Chevrolet' name.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [ 19972978, 10810050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 366, 374 ], [ 659, 670 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, General Motors allowed AJS-Production SA to register the Louis Chevrolet trademark for a line of premium quality Swiss watches watch marketed under the Louis Chevrolet brand name. Although the watches bear the name of Louis Chevrolet, they are not marketed or produced in association with General Motors.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Watches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The watch brand pays tribute to Louis Chevrolet, co-founder of the Chevrolet automobile company, whose father was a watchmaker and in his childhood helped his father at the workbench. The collection was called Frontenac, the name inherited from the race car company founded by Louis Chevrolet. The Chevrolet watch collection comprises automatic, manually wound and quartz models, equipped with ETA and Ronda movements.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Watches", "target_page_ids": [ 349594, 5735363, 1374327, 1006659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 47 ], [ 210, 219 ], [ 394, 397 ], [ 402, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Louis Chevrolet Frontenac watches, manufactured in Porrentruy, the Swiss Jura region, feature the styling cues suggested by the Chevrolet cars. The collection was developed while applying the same materials as used in the car industry. Pearled appliques on the Chevrolet watches' dials remind the metal forms of the old dashboards. The number \"8\", Chevrolet's racing number, is sported on the case back.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Watches", "target_page_ids": [ 1227894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2019, after AvtoVAZ acquired General Motors' stake in their former GM-AvtoVAZ joint venture and as part of the deal, AvtoVAZ kept using the Chevrolet branding for the Niva models. The Chevrolet branding by AvtoVAZ continued until August 2020, when it was replaced with Lada.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Branding by other manufacturers", "target_page_ids": [ 1597162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 281, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chevrolet big-block engine", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 878027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chevrolet Hall", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 391178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " General Motors Canada", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2918310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Geo – A brand of small cars and SUVs sold through Chevrolet dealerships throughout North America from 1989 to 1997", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 652979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mason Truck", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1458209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Super Sport", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1281576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " U.S. Soccer Athlete of the Year – Sponsored by Chevrolet", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 895369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] } ]

[ "Chevrolet", "1911_establishments_in_Michigan", "Car_manufacturers_of_the_United_States", "Emergency_services_equipment_makers", "General_Motors_marques", "IndyCar_Series_engine_manufacturers", "Motor_vehicle_manufacturers_based_in_Michigan", "Truck_manufacturers_of_the_United_States", "Vehicle_manufacturing_companies_established_in_1911" ]

[ "Chevy", "Chevrolet Division of General Motors Company y Nahuelito Gimenez" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Biosalinity is the study and practice of using saline (salty) water for irrigating agricultural crops.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26985, 627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 59 ], [ 83, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many arid and semi-arid areas actually do have sources of water, but the available water is usually brackish (0.5–5g/L salt) or saline (30–50g/L salt). The water may be present in underground aquifers or as seawater along coastal deserts. With traditional farming practices, saline water results in soil salinization, rendering it unfit for raising most crop plants. Indeed, many arid and semi-arid areas were simply considered unsuitable for agriculture, and agricultural development of these areas was not systematically attempted until the second half of the 20th century.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3336, 26985, 47481, 255244, 64599, 647987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 108 ], [ 128, 134 ], [ 192, 199 ], [ 207, 215 ], [ 304, 316 ], [ 460, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Research in biosalinity includes studies of the biochemical and physiological mechanisms of salt tolerance in plants, breeding and selection for salt tolerance (halotolerance), discovery of periods in a crop plant's life cycle when it may be less sensitive to salt, use of saline irrigation water to increase desirable traits (such as sugar concentration in a fruit) or to control the ripening process, study of the interaction between salinity and soil properties, and development of naturally salt-tolerant plant species (halophytes) into useful agricultural crops. See also halophile bacteria, which thrive under conditions of high salinity.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3954, 23597, 12266, 40245, 42261, 27712, 37738, 40465, 14204, 9028799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 59 ], [ 64, 77 ], [ 118, 126 ], [ 161, 174 ], [ 280, 290 ], [ 335, 340 ], [ 449, 453 ], [ 524, 533 ], [ 577, 586 ], [ 587, 595 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When properly applied (watering well in excess of evapotranspiration, maintaining soil structure for excellent drainage), brackish-water irrigation does not result in increased salinization of the soil. Sometimes this means that farmers have to add extra water after a rainstorm, to carry salts back down to below the root zone.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 78481, 303350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 68 ], [ 82, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CGIAR: Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ICBA: International Center for Biosaline Agriculture", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " USDA's George E. Brown Jr. Salinity Laboratory", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Salt Farm Texel", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Seawater Foundation", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Glenn, E. P.; Brown, J. J.; O'Leary, J. W. (1998). \"Irrigating Crops with Seawater,\" Scientific American, Vol. 279, no. 8, Aug. 1998, pp.56–61.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Irrigation" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A business plan is a formal written document containing the goals of a business, the methods for attaining those goals, and the time-frame for the achievement of the goals. It also describes the nature of the business, background information on the organization, the organization's financial projections, and the strategies it intends to implement to achieve the stated targets. In its entirety, this document serves as a road-map (a plan) that provides direction to the business.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39206, 239450, 179824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 79 ], [ 313, 323 ], [ 434, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Written business plans are often required to obtain a bank loan or other kind of financing. Templates and guides, such as the ones offered in the United States by the Small Business Administration can be used to facilitate producing a business plan.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 208852, 805953, 19985712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 63 ], [ 81, 90 ], [ 168, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Business plans may be internally or externally focused. Externally-focused plans draft goals that are important to outside stakeholders, particularly financial stakeholders. These plans typically have detailed information about the organization or the team making effort to reach its goals. With for-profit entities, external stakeholders include investors and customers, for non-profits, external stakeholders refer to donors and clients, for government agencies, external stakeholders are the tax-payers, higher-level government agencies, and international lending bodies such as the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, various economic agencies of the United Nations, and development banks.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Audience", "target_page_ids": [ 15251, 45358446, 31769, 6350415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 587, 614 ], [ 620, 630 ], [ 665, 679 ], [ 685, 702 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Internally-focused business plans target intermediate goals required to reach the external goals. They may cover the development of a new product, a new service, a new IT system, a restructuring of finance, the refurbishing of a factory or the restructuring of an organization. An internally-focused business plan is often developed in conjunction with a balanced scorecard or OGSM or a list of critical success factors. This allows the success of the plan to be measured using non-financial measures.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Audience", "target_page_ids": [ 522230, 46826529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 355, 373 ], [ 377, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Business plans that identify and target internal goals, but provide only general guidance on how they will be met are called strategic plans.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Audience", "target_page_ids": [ 227101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Operational plans describe the goals of an internal organization, working group or department. Project plans, sometimes known as project frameworks, describe the goals of a particular project. They may also address the project's place within the organization's larger strategic goals.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Audience", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Business plans are decision-making tools. The content and format of the business plan are determined by the goals and audience. For example, a business plan for a non-profit might discuss the fit between the business plan and the organization's mission. Banks are quite concerned about defaults, so a business plan for a bank loan will build a convincing case for the organization's ability to repay the loan. Venture capitalists are primarily concerned about initial investment, feasibility, and exit valuation. A business plan for a project requiring equity financing will need to explain why current resources, upcoming growth opportunities, and sustainable competitive advantage will lead to a high exit valuation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Content", "target_page_ids": [ 469578, 257210, 242418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 40 ], [ 413, 432 ], [ 653, 686 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Preparing a business plan draws on a wide range of knowledge from many different business disciplines: finance, human resource management, intellectual property management, supply chain management, operations management, and marketing, among others. It can be helpful to view the business plan as a collection of sub-plans, one for each of the main business disciplines.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Content", "target_page_ids": [ 11162, 14724, 27995, 59252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 110 ], [ 139, 160 ], [ 173, 196 ], [ 225, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"... a good business plan can help to make a good business credible, understandable, and attractive to someone who is unfamiliar with the business. Writing a good business plan can't guarantee success, but it can go a long way toward reducing the odds of failure.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Content", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The format of a business plan depends on its presentation context. It is common for businesses, especially start-ups, to have three or four formats for the same business plan.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presentation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An \"elevator pitch\" is a short summary of the plan's executive summary. This is often used as a teaser to awaken the interest of potential investors, customers, or strategic partners. It is called an elevator pitch as it is supposed to be content that can be explained to someone else quickly in an elevator. The elevator pitch should be between 30 and 60 seconds.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presentation", "target_page_ids": [ 1603488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A pitch deck is a slide show and oral presentation that is meant to trigger discussion and interest potential investors in reading the written presentation. The content of the presentation is usually limited to the executive summary and a few key graphs showing financial trends and key decision-making benchmarks. If a new product is being proposed and time permits, a demonstration of the product may be included.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presentation", "target_page_ids": [ 23841152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A written presentation for external stakeholders is a detailed, well written, and pleasingly formatted plan targeted at external stakeholders.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presentation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An internal operational plan is a detailed plan describing planning details that are needed by management but may not be of interest to external stakeholders. Such plans have a somewhat higher degree of candor and informality than the version targeted at external stakeholders and others.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Presentation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Typical structure for a business plan for a start-up venture ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "cover page and table of contents", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "executive summary", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [ 14371951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "mission statement", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [ 7623580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "business description", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "business environment analysis", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "SWOT analysis", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [ 294216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "industry background", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "competitor analysis", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [ 251378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "market analysis", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [ 8837930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "marketing plan", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [ 240147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "operations plan ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [ 15515380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "management summary", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "financial plan", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [ 3274612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "achievements and milestones", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Typical questions addressed by a business plan for a start-up venture ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " What problem does the company's product or service solve? What niche will it fill?", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " What is the company's solution to the problem?", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Who are the company's customers, and how will the company market and sell its products to them?", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " What is the size of the market for this solution?", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " What is the business model for the business (how will it make money)?", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [ 65533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Who are the competitors and how will the company maintain a competitive advantage?", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [ 242418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " How does the company plan to manage its operations as it grows?", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Who will run the company and what makes them qualified to do so?", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " What are the risks and threats confronting the business, and what can be done to mitigate them?", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " What are the company's capital and resource requirements?", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " What are the company's historical and projected financial statements?", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Business plans for start-ups", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cost and revenue estimates are central to any business plan for deciding the viability of the planned venture. But costs are often underestimated and revenues overestimated resulting in later cost overruns, revenue shortfalls, and possibly non-viability. During the dot-com bubble 1997-2001 this was a problem for many technology start-ups. Reference class forecasting has been developed to reduce the risks of cost overruns and revenue shortfalls and thus generate more accurate business plans.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Revising the business plan", "target_page_ids": [ 247120, 9021, 15212186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 16 ], [ 266, 280 ], [ 341, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An externally targeted business plan should list all legal concerns and financial liabilities that might negatively affect investors. Depending on the number of funds being raised and the audience to whom the plan is presented, failure to do this may have severe legal consequences.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legal and liability issues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Non-disclosure agreements (NDAs) with third parties, non-compete agreements, conflicts of interest, privacy concerns, and the protection of one's trade secrets may severely limit the audience to which one might show the business plan. Alternatively, they may require each party to receive the business plan to sign a contract accepting special clauses and conditions.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legal and liability issues", "target_page_ids": [ 22052, 3794519, 29960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 53, 74 ], [ 146, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This situation is complicated by the fact that many venture capitalists will refuse to sign an NDA before looking at a business plan, lest it put them in the untenable position of looking at two independently developed look-alike business plans, both claiming originality. In such situations, one may need to develop two versions of the business plan: a stripped-down plan that can be used to develop a relationship and a detailed plan that is only shown when investors have sufficient interest and trust to sign a Non-disclosure agreement.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legal and liability issues", "target_page_ids": [ 22052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Traditionally business plans have been highly confidential and quite limited in the audience.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Open business plans", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The business plan itself is generally regarded as a secret.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Open business plans", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An open business plan is a business plan with an unlimited audience. The business plan is typically", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Open business plans", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "web published and made available to all.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Open business plans", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the free software and open source business model, trade secrets, copyright and patents can no longer", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Open business plans", "target_page_ids": [ 5278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "be used as effective locking mechanisms to provide sustainable advantages to a particular business and therefore a secret business plan is less relevant in those models.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Open business plans", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Education", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 9252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Business plans are used in some primary and secondary programs to teach economic principles. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wikiversity has a Lunar Boom Town project where students of all ages can collaborate with designing and revising business models and practice evaluating them to learn practical business planning techniques and methodology", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 21401715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fundraising", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fundraising is the primary purpose of many business plans since they are related to the inherent probable success/failure of the company risk.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Angel investors", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 15148069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Business loans", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 46465036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grants", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1980975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Startup company funding", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 63216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Venture capital", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 257210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Internal use", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Management by objectives (MBO) is a process of agreeing upon objectives (as can be detailed within business plans) within an organization so that management and employees agree to the objectives and understand what they are in the organization.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 326713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Strategic planning is an organization's process of defining its strategy, or direction, and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy, including its capital and people. Business plans can help decision-makers see how specific projects relate to the organization's strategic plan.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 227101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Total quality management (TQM) is a business management strategy aimed at embedding awareness of quality in all organizational processes. TQM has been widely used in manufacturing, education, call centers, government, and service industries, as well as NASA space and science programs.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 143996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The business goals may be defined both for non-profit or for-profit organizations. For-profit business plans typically focus on financial goals, such as profit or creation of wealth. Non-profit, as well as government agency business plans tend to focus on the \"organizational mission\" which is the basis for their governmental status or their non-profit, tax-exempt status, respectively—although non-profits may also focus on optimizing revenue.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Not for-profit businesses", "target_page_ids": [ 72487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The primary difference between profit and non-profit organizations is that \"for-profit\" organizations look to maximize wealth versus non-profit organizations, which look to provide a greater good to society. In non-profit organizations, creative tensions may develop in the effort to balance mission with \"margin\" (or revenue).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Not for-profit businesses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The business plan is the subject of many satires. Satires are used both to express cynicism about business plans and as an educational tool to improve the quality of business plans. For example,", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Satires", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In his presentation, Five Criteria For a Successful Business Plan in Biotech, Dr. Roger Bernier, uses Dilbert comic strips to remind people what not to do when researching and writing a business plan for a biotech start-up. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Satires", "target_page_ids": [ 8127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Selena Maranjian's \"Fool on the Hill\" article in The Motley Fool, \"'South Park's' Investing Lesson\" (November 8, 2001), references the \"Underpants Gnomes\" to illustrate the fallacy of focusing on goals without a clear implementation strategy. That \"Gnomes\" episode satirizes the business plans of the Dot-com era.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Satires", "target_page_ids": [ 1515931, 300587, 9021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 65 ], [ 250, 256 ], [ 302, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chapter 26 of Neal Stephenson's 1999 novel Cryptonomicon begins with the business plan of a fictional high tech company, satirizing both the writing style and the physical form of slickly produced business publications like business plans and annual reports.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Satires", "target_page_ids": [ 21443, 21861, 1272420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 30 ], [ 44, 57 ], [ 244, 257 ] ] } ]

[ "Business_documents", "Business_plan_competitions", "Entrepreneurship", "Formal_statements", "Strategic_management", "Venture_capital" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A horoscope (or other commonly used names for the horoscope in English include natal chart, astrological chart, astro-chart, celestial map, sky-map, star-chart, cosmogram, vitasphere, radical chart, radix, chart wheel or simply chart) is an astrological chart or diagram representing the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets, astrological aspects and sensitive angles at the time of an event, such as the moment of a person's birth. The word horoscope is derived from the Greek words ōra and scopos meaning \"time\" and \"observer\" (horoskopos, pl. horoskopoi, or \"marker(s) of the hour\"). It is used as a method of divination regarding events relating to the point in time it represents, and it forms the basis of the horoscopic traditions of astrology. Horoscope columns are often featured in print and online newspapers.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2122, 26751, 19331, 22915, 179966, 83449, 11887, 8691, 3740333, 22112840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 241, 253 ], [ 305, 308 ], [ 310, 314 ], [ 316, 323 ], [ 325, 345 ], [ 425, 430 ], [ 471, 476 ], [ 612, 622 ], [ 715, 736 ], [ 808, 817 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In common usage, horoscope often refers to an astrologer's interpretation, usually based on a system of solar Sun sign astrology; based strictly on the position of the Sun at the time of birth, or on the calendar significance of an event, as in Chinese astrology. In particular, many newspapers and magazines carry predictive columns, written in prose that may be written more for increasing readership than tied directly to the Sun or other aspects of the solar system, allegedly based on celestial influences in relation to the zodiacal placement of the Sun on the month of birth, cusp (two days before or after any particular sign, an overlap), or decant (the month divided into three ten-day periods) of the person's month of birth, identifying the individual's Sun sign or \"star sign\" based on the tropical zodiac.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2122, 4528170, 159669, 34411, 30872816, 405765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 56 ], [ 110, 128 ], [ 245, 262 ], [ 530, 536 ], [ 766, 774 ], [ 803, 818 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Hindu astrology, birth charts are called kundali which are claimed to be based on movement of stars and moon. Auspicious events and rituals are started after checking the kundali of a person including the marriage in which the birth charts of the boy and girl are matched.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 186462, 39870, 25287366, 25287366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 20, 31 ], [ 44, 51 ], [ 174, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are no scientific studies that have shown support for the accuracy of horoscopes, and the methods used to make interpretations are pseudo-scientific. In modern scientific framework no known interaction exists that could be responsible for the transmission of the alleged influence between a person and the position of stars in the sky at the moment of birth. In all tests completed, keeping strict methods to include a control group and proper blinding between experimenters and subjects, horoscopes have shown no effect beyond pure chance. Furthermore, some psychological tests have shown that it is possible to construct personality descriptions and foretelling generic enough to satisfy most members of a large audience simultaneously, referred to as the Forer or Barnum effect.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23047, 730437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 154 ], [ 764, 786 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The horoscope serves as a stylized map of the heavens over a specific location at a particular moment in time. In most applications the perspective is Geocentc (heliocentric astrology being one exception). The positions of the actual planets (including Sun and Moon) are placed in the chart, hose of purely calculated factors such as the lunar nodes, the house cusps including the midheaven and the ascendant, zodiac signs, fixed stars and the lots. Angular relationships between the planets themselves and other points, called aspects, are typi, including weakness.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2122, 226305, 160338, 39870, 226307, 34411, 1780064, 179966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 183 ], [ 338, 348 ], [ 355, 360 ], [ 381, 390 ], [ 399, 408 ], [ 410, 416 ], [ 444, 448 ], [ 528, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Latin word horoscopus, ultimately from Greek \"nativity, horoscope\", \"observer of the hour [of birth]\", from \"time, hour\" and \"observer, watcher\". In Middle English texts from the 11th century, the word appears in the Latin form and is anglicized to horoscope in Early Modern English. The noun horoscopy for \"casting of horoscopes\" has been in use since the 17th century (OED). In Greek, in the sense of \"ascendant\" – not only of the time of someone's birth, but more generally of any significant event – and \"observation of the ascendant\" has been in use since Ptolemy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 11887, 50711, 419808, 1003268, 22641, 226307, 23979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ], [ 43, 48 ], [ 158, 172 ], [ 244, 254 ], [ 271, 291 ], [ 380, 383 ], [ 414, 423 ], [ 572, 579 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The native is the subject of the event (a birth, for example) being charted at a particular time and place, and is considered to be at the centre of the celestial sphere.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Concepts in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere onto which the zodiac, constellations and planets are projected.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Concepts in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The plane of the equator is the plane of the Earth's equator projected into space.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Concepts in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [ 20611356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The plane of the ecliptic is defined by the orbits of the earth and the sun. For practical purposes the plane of the equator and the plane of the ecliptic maintain a constant inclination to each other of approximately 23.5°.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Concepts in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [ 30872816, 9264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 76 ], [ 147, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The plane of the horizon is centred on the native and is tangential to the earth at that point. In a sphere whose radius is infinitely large, this plane may be treated as nearly equivalent to the parallel plane with its centre at the Earth's centre. This greatly simplifies the geometry of the horoscope but does not take into account that the native is in motion. Some writers on astrology have thus considered the effects of parallax, but most would agree that (apart from that of the moon) they are relatively minor.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Concepts in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [ 23253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 428, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are four primary angles in the horoscope. These are, in order of power:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Concepts in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " First House (Ascendant – East Angle)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Concepts in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [ 226307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tenth House (Midheaven, or Medium Coeli (M.C.) – North Angle)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Concepts in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Seventh House (Descendant – West Angle)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Concepts in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fourth House (Nadir, or Imum Coeli (I.C.) – South Angle)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Concepts in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [ 1149086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ascendant is the easternmost or sunrise point where the ecliptic and horizon intersect; the ascendant and the midheaven are considered the most important angles in the horoscope by the vast majority of astrologers. In most systems of house division, the ascendant is the cusp of the 1st house and the midheaven is the cusp of the 10th house. The placement of the planetary ruler of the ascendant called the Chart Ruler is also considered to be significant. The point in the west diametrically opposing the ascendant is called the descendant, normally the cusp of the 7th house; and the point opposing the M.C. is the cusp of the 4th house, the northernmost point of the chart, called the Imum Coeli or I.C.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Concepts in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [ 226307, 39870, 17492230, 1149086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ], [ 114, 123 ], [ 411, 422 ], [ 692, 702 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In creating a horoscope the ascendant is traditionally placed at the \"nine o'clock\" position on the left-hand side of the chart wheel (though traditional rectangular chart formats need not follow this convention). During the course of a day, because of the Earth's rotation, the entire circle of the ecliptic will pass through the ascendant and will be advanced by about 1°. This movement provides us with the term rising sign, which is the sign of the zodiac rising over the eastern horizon at the moment of birth. The point on the ecliptic that is furthest above the plane of the horizon at the time is called the Midheaven, or Medium Coeli (M.C.), placed at the \"twelve o'clock position\" effectively where the Sun would be if the birth time was midday.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Concepts in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Zodiac, or \"circle of animals\" is a zone or belt in space projected onto the celestial sphere through which, from our viewpoint, the planets move. A symbolic geometric construction around 16 degrees wide, it is divided into 12 signs, each of 30 degrees longitude (making 360 degrees, a full circle), with the ecliptic, the apparent path of the Sun, as its middle line. The tropical zodiac used by most Western astrologers has its beginning at the exact moment that the Sun crosses the celestial equator and enters the zodiacal sign of Aries. Some Western astrologers use the sidereal zodiac favored by Indian (\"Jyotish\") astrologers, which is based more closely on actual positions of constellations in the heavens, as opposed to the tropical zodiac, which is a moveable format based on the seasons.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Concepts in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [ 153681, 2367203, 405765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 489, 506 ], [ 539, 544 ], [ 579, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The tropical zodiac defines the vernal point (the first day of spring in the northern hemisphere) as the first degree of Aries, but the sidereal zodiac allows it to precess. Many people are confused regarding the difference between the sidereal zodiac and the tropical zodiac signs. Because of a \"wobble\" in the Earth's axis of rotation over a period of about 26,000 years (often called a \"great year\"), the rate at which the vernal equinox precesses in the heavens is approximately 0 deg, 0 min, 50.23 seconds a year, drifting by one degree every 72 years. Precession of the equinoxes thus occurs at a rate of roughly 5 arc minutes of a degree every 6 years. The tropical signs relate to the seasons and not the stars. Here is an example: a person born on, say August 28, 2002, would come to understand that their Sun sign was in Virgo according to Western astrology (conventional Sun sign dates August 23, to September 22, of every year), but Sun on that same calendar date of the year 2002 was in the constellation Leo (where it had been since August 10, 2002, and would remain until September 15, when it would then finally cross into Virgo).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Concepts in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [ 1078755, 72576, 159668, 17703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 390, 400 ], [ 559, 586 ], [ 853, 870 ], [ 1007, 1024 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sidereal signs and the tropical signs are both geometrical conventions of 30° each, whereas the zodiacal constellations are pictorial representations of mythological figures projected onto the celestial sphere based on patterns of visible star groupings, none of which occupy precisely 30° of the ecliptic. So constellations and signs are not the same, although for historical reasons they might have the same names.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Concepts in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some astrologers do not use the signs of the zodiac at all, focusing more instead on the astrological aspects and other features of the horoscope. The sun sign is the sign of the zodiac in which the sun is located for the native. This is the single astrological fact familiar to most people. If an event occurs at sunrise the ascendant and sun sign will be the same; other rising signs can then be estimated at two-hour intervals from there. A cusp is the boundary between two signs or houses. For some, the cusp includes a small portion of the two signs or houses under consideration.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Concepts in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [ 179966, 30872816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 109 ], [ 151, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To create a horoscope, an astrologer first has to ascertain the exact time and place of the subject's birth, or the initiation of an event. The local standard time (adjusting for any daylight saving time or war time) is then converted into Greenwich Mean Time or Universal Time at that same instant. The astrologer then has to convert this into the local sidereal time at birth in order to be able to calculate the ascendant and midheaven. The astrologer will next consult a set of tables called an ephemeris, which lists the location of the Sun, Moon and planets for a particular year, date and sidereal time, with respect to the northern hemisphere vernal equinox or the fixed stars (depending on which astrological system is being used). The astrologer then adds or subtracts the difference between the longitude of Greenwich and the longitude of the place in question to determine the true local mean time (LMT) at the place of birth to show where planets would be visible above the horizon at the precise time and place in question. Planets hidden from view beneath the earth are also shown in the horoscope.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of a horoscope in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [ 655358, 47548, 480675, 12701, 41835, 48837, 226307, 39870, 160332, 30872816, 1730537, 659190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 163 ], [ 183, 203 ], [ 207, 215 ], [ 240, 259 ], [ 263, 277 ], [ 355, 368 ], [ 415, 424 ], [ 429, 438 ], [ 499, 508 ], [ 556, 563 ], [ 631, 665 ], [ 673, 683 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Using the above process, practitioners of astrology commonly construct a composite chart when two people meet and form a relationship. According to astrologers, the composite chart will give clues as to the nature and function of the relationship.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of a horoscope in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [ 2122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The horoscope features 12 sectors around the circle of the ecliptic, starting from the eastern horizon with the ascendant or rising sign. These 12 sectors are called the houses and numerous systems for calculating these divisions exist. Tables of houses have been published since the 19th Century to make this otherwise demanding task easier.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of a horoscope in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [ 9264, 226307, 160338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 67 ], [ 112, 121 ], [ 170, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The chart thus begins with a framework of 12 houses. Upon this the signs of the zodiac are superimposed. In the equal house system the cusp between any two houses will fall at the same degree for each of the at 12° of Leo, the second house will begin at 12° of Virgo, the third at 12° Libra, and so on. In house systems that take into consideration the effects of the angle of intersection between the planes of the horizon and the ecliptic, the calculations are more complicated. For these calculations it is essential to know the latitude of the event. Tables are available for these calculations, but they are now commonly calculated by computer. Most astrology computer programs allow the user to choose from a variety of house systems.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of a horoscope in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [ 160338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having established the relative positions of the signs in the houses, the astrologer positions the sun, moon, and planets at their proper celestial longitudes. Some astrologers also take note of minor planetary bodies, fixed stars, asteroids (for example, Chiron) and other mathematically calculated points and angles such as the vertex, equatorial ascendant, etc. Many astrologers also use what are commonly referred to as Arabic parts (or Greek Lots), the most common of which is the Part of Fortune (Pars Fortunae).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of a horoscope in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [ 791, 53479, 11308417, 1780064, 12108, 1780064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 232, 240 ], [ 256, 262 ], [ 330, 336 ], [ 424, 436 ], [ 441, 446 ], [ 486, 501 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To complete the horoscope the astrologer will consider the aspects or relative angles between pairs of planets. More exact aspects are considered more important. The difference between the exact aspect and the actual aspect is called the orb. Those generally recognized by the astrological community are Conjunction (0°), Opposition (180°), Square (90°), Trine (120°), Sextile (60°), Semi-Square (45°), Sesquisquare (135°), and Quincunx (150°). Understandably these aspects are more significant when they are exact, but they are considered to function within an orb of influence, the size of which varies according to the importance of each aspect. Thus conjunctions are believed to operate with a larger orb than sextiles. Most modern astrologers use an orb of 8° or less for aspects involving the Sun, Moon, and Jupiter and smaller orbs for the other points. Some astrologers, such as practitioners of Cosmobiology, and Uranian astrology, use minor aspects (15°, 22.5°, 67.5°, 72°, 75°, 105°, 112.5°, 157.5°, 165°) with much narrower orbs.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of a horoscope in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [ 179966, 179966, 179966, 179966, 179966, 179966, 179966, 179966, 1809547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 304, 315 ], [ 322, 332 ], [ 341, 347 ], [ 355, 360 ], [ 369, 376 ], [ 384, 395 ], [ 404, 416 ], [ 429, 437 ], [ 906, 918 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The major astrological system regarded universally is Vedic Hindu Astrology. As per this, all planets see just opposite i.e. 180 degree aspect. But Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn have special aspects. Mars sees the houses 4th and 8 too from its place in the horoscope, Saturn sees the houses 3 and 10 too from its place, and Jupiter sees 5 and 9 from its place in the horoscope i.e. the house in which they are posited in the lagna chart.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of a horoscope in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ascendant (ASC) is a point on the ecliptic that rises on the eastern horizon at sunrise and changes as the earth rotates on its axis. The ascendant is very important in astrological chart interpretation. It exerts more power than the sun, moon and planets because it infiltrates everything in the natal chart.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of a horoscope in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ascendant is the first point of energy in the natal chart and it represents the way we view life. The sign on the ascendant characterises our expression of \"who we are\" when dealing with others, and our initial action when dealing with day-to-day concerns. Longitude is necessary in order to determine the position of the Ascendant because horoscopes use local time. Having constructed the horoscope, the astrologer can begin the task of interpreting the chart. This interpretation depends upon which branch of horoscopic astrology is being used.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Construction of a horoscope in Western astrology", "target_page_ids": [ 17617, 226307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 261, 270 ], [ 326, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Chinese astrology, horoscopes are based on the symbolism of the Chinese zodiac, a system of elements and animals associated with each year according to a Sexagenary cycle. Chinese horoscopes often appear in horoscope sections in newspapers and magazine alongside Western horoscopes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Chinese horoscopes", "target_page_ids": [ 159669, 21360689, 159669, 6966, 477968, 4528170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 67, 81 ], [ 95, 103 ], [ 108, 115 ], [ 157, 173 ], [ 210, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Interest in horoscopes and the zodiac sign have been very popular throughout history and today. There are many faithful followers, from celebrities to the general public. With so many believers, and perhaps a personal connection to the horoscope or the zodiac, it can be difficult to accept that astrology is not grounded in scientific evidence and is a pseudoscience.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Natal birth charts, or zodiac signs, are often used to predict a person's personality traits. However, the use of natal birth charts to predict personality is not valid or reliable. In a double-blind study that tested the zodiac's reliability to predict personality, an astrologer had to match a person's zodiac sign to their CPI (California Personality Inventory) result. The CPI is a reliable method to determine an individual's personality. It was found that the astrologers were not able to correctly match the zodiac sign to the CPI result beyond random assignment. This means that astrology is no more than a test of chance and it is not a reliable way to predict personality.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 277248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similarly, the zodiac sign can be used to create horoscopes that predict the events that will happen in an individual's life. However, like using the zodiac sign for personality traits, using it for horoscopes is also unreliable. One astrologer's prediction for a horoscope is typically completely unrelated to the prediction of another astrologer. However, many people still believe their horoscope perfectly aligns with the events in their lives. There are some possible explanations for this. Horoscopes have vague wording and are based on typical everyday activities. Due to this, it is easier for people to relate to these claims and increase their belief that it is a real science. Also, a person's expectations typically lead them to bias the way they perceive information, so their expectations are confirmed. In a study, participant's horoscopes were paired with the events of their previous day. When the horoscopes were presented with the participant's zodiac sign, other participants were more likely to report that the horoscope matched the previous day's events compared to when their zodiac sign was not present. This shows how individuals will bias their perceptions based on the expectations. This makes horoscopes seem reliable, when they are not valid.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although it has its proponents, astrology has been rejected by the scientific community. Some horoscopes base their predictions on the \"movement\" of stars. However, this is inaccurate as stars actually do not move but appear to because the earth rotates on its axis and orbits around the sun. Furthermore, none of the answers given by astrology are actually based on science. According to American astronomer, the reason why people rely on horoscopes is explained by a psychological phenomenon known as \"self-selection bias\", which is the tendency of humans to look for interpretations or confirmations for what they already hope to be true. Hence, the reason why astrology may seem like it works is because our brains are wired to look for patterns, even when none exists. Many practitioners of astrology claim that astrology is indeed a science however, despite many trial and experiments, the effectiveness and scientific evidence of astrology is still yet to be demonstrated. In conclusion, astrology has no verifiable mechanism behind it and astrologers follow no sort of scientific method in their process hence it cannot be classified as science.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Christianity, many say that people should not use horoscopes or practice astrology in general, citing Deuteronomy 4:19, Deuteronomy 18:10-12, and Isaiah 47:13-14 from the Bible. Evangelist and minister Billy Graham has said, \"God did make the stars (as well as everything else in the universe), but he intended them to be a witness to his power and glory, not as a means to guide us or foretell the future.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 5211, 3390, 690865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 15 ], [ 174, 179 ], [ 205, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Forer Effect", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 730437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Horology", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 332592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Synoptical horoscope", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 42602734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mars Effect", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 185290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] } ]

[ "Horoscopic_astrology", "Technical_factors_of_astrology", "Astrology" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Scholasticism was a medieval school of philosophy that employed a critical organic method of philosophical analysis predicated upon the Aristotelian 10 Categories. Christian scholasticism emerged within the monastic schools that translated scholastic Judeo—Islamic philosophies, and thereby \"rediscovered\" the collected works of Aristotle. Endeavoring to harmonize his metaphysics and its account of a prime mover with the Latin Catholic dogmatic trinitarian theology, these monastic schools became the basis of the earliest European medieval universities, and scholasticism dominated education in Europe from about 1100 to 1700. The rise of scholasticism was closely associated with these schools that flourished in Italy, France, Portugal, Spain and England.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18836, 499019, 309909, 1692652, 27209215, 1367068, 1666053, 2590334, 3446100, 30869117, 30511, 86344, 1161280, 2687967, 230578, 303062, 407950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 28 ], [ 66, 89 ], [ 136, 148 ], [ 149, 162 ], [ 208, 223 ], [ 252, 278 ], [ 311, 339 ], [ 371, 382 ], [ 404, 415 ], [ 425, 439 ], [ 449, 460 ], [ 536, 557 ], [ 719, 724 ], [ 726, 732 ], [ 734, 742 ], [ 744, 749 ], [ 754, 761 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scholasticism is a method of learning more than a philosophy or a theology, since it places a strong emphasis on dialectical reasoning to extend knowledge by inference and to resolve contradictions. Scholastic thought is also known for rigorous conceptual analysis and the careful drawing of distinctions. In the classroom and in writing, it often takes the form of explicit disputation; a topic drawn from the tradition is broached in the form of a question, oppositional responses are given, a counterproposal is argued and oppositional arguments rebutted. Because of its emphasis on rigorous dialectical method, scholasticism was eventually applied to many other fields of study.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 52813, 317465, 75807, 410766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 134 ], [ 158, 167 ], [ 183, 197 ], [ 375, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scholasticism was initially a program conducted by medieval Christian thinkers attempting to harmonize the various authorities of their own tradition, and to reconcile Christian theology with classical and late antiquity philosophy, especially that of Aristotle but also of Neoplatonism.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 308, 23385833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 252, 261 ], [ 274, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Scholastics, also known as Schoolmen, included as its main figures Anselm of Canterbury (\"the father of scholasticism\"), Peter Abelard, Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham, Bonaventure, and Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas's masterwork Summa Theologica (1265–1274) is considered to be the pinnacle of scholastic, medieval, and Christian philosophy; it began while Aquinas was regent master at the studium provinciale of Santa Sabina in Rome, the forerunner of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum. Important work in the scholastic tradition has been carried on well past Aquinas's time, for instance by Francisco Suárez and Luis de Molina, and also among Lutheran and Reformed thinkers. English scholastics Robert Grosseteste and his student Roger Bacon.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21492554, 37464286, 2881, 1573, 34293405, 33617, 95429, 21490957, 3047155, 634900, 2174683, 1058313, 2361022, 94721, 25879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 91 ], [ 125, 138 ], [ 140, 158 ], [ 160, 175 ], [ 177, 188 ], [ 190, 207 ], [ 209, 220 ], [ 226, 240 ], [ 263, 279 ], [ 447, 459 ], [ 491, 547 ], [ 654, 670 ], [ 675, 689 ], [ 759, 777 ], [ 794, 805 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The terms \"scholastic\" and \"scholasticism\" derive from the Latin word , the Latinized form of the Greek (), an adjective derived from (), \"school\". Scholasticus means \"of or pertaining to schools\". The \"scholastics\" were, roughly, \"schoolmen\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 148363, 28022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 64 ], [ 98, 103 ], [ 141, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The foundations of Christian scholasticism were laid by Boethius through his logical and theological essays, and later forerunners (and then companions) to scholasticism were Islamic Ilm al-Kalām, literally \"science of discourse\", and Jewish philosophy, especially Jewish Kalam.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 195684, 236828, 166200, 13037880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 64 ], [ 183, 195 ], [ 235, 252 ], [ 265, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first significant renewal of learning in the West came with the Carolingian Renaissance of the Early Middle Ages. Charlemagne, advised by Peter of Pisa and Alcuin of York, attracted the scholars of England and Ireland. By decree in AD 787, he established schools in every abbey in his empire. These schools, from which the name scholasticism is derived, became centers of medieval learning.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 118560, 532476, 5314, 17369505, 1408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 91 ], [ 99, 116 ], [ 118, 129 ], [ 142, 155 ], [ 160, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During this period, knowledge of Ancient Greek had vanished in the West except in Ireland, where its teaching and use was widely dispersed in the monastic schools. Irish scholars had a considerable presence in the Frankish court, where they were renowned for their learning. Among them was Johannes Scotus Eriugena (815–877), one of the founders of scholasticism. Eriugena was the most significant Irish intellectual of the early monastic period and an outstanding philosopher in terms of originality. He had considerable familiarity with the Greek language and translated many works into Latin, affording access to the Cappadocian Fathers and the Greek theological tradition.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 27209215, 62229, 1082384, 197271, 6368949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 161 ], [ 214, 228 ], [ 290, 314 ], [ 620, 639 ], [ 648, 675 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The other three founders of scholasticism were the 11th-century scholars Peter Abelard, Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury and Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 37464286, 145841, 21492554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 86 ], [ 99, 121 ], [ 137, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This period saw the beginning of the 'rediscovery' of many Greek works which had been lost to the Latin West. As early as the 10th century, the Toledo school of translators in Spain had begun to gather translated texts and, in the latter half of that century, began transmitting them to the rest of Europe. After a successful burst of Reconquista in the 12th century, Spain opened even further for Christian scholars, and as these Europeans encountered Judeo-Islamic philosophies, they opened a wealth of Arab and Judaic knowledge of mathematics and astronomy. Scholars such as Adelard of Bath traveled to Spain and Sicily, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete translation of Euclid's Elements into Latin.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15038903, 5553546, 26550, 1367068, 85563, 9331, 244107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 49 ], [ 145, 173 ], [ 336, 347 ], [ 454, 480 ], [ 579, 594 ], [ 717, 723 ], [ 726, 734 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the same time, Anselm of Laon systematized the production of the gloss on Scripture, followed by the rise to prominence of dialectic (the middle subject of the medieval trivium) in the work of Abelard. Peter Lombard produced a collection of Sentences, or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 173378, 425002, 52813, 30666, 37464286, 600883, 611591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 32 ], [ 68, 73 ], [ 126, 135 ], [ 172, 179 ], [ 196, 203 ], [ 205, 218 ], [ 244, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 13th Century, a syndicate of priests and scholars collaborated and sketched a rough draft of a raw market economy. These scholars and priests fostered Christianity and addressed the philosophical issues of an early economic thought. Christianity being the fundamental faith that shaped moral attitudes of these groups was primarily transitioned from the patristic Christology. Leinsle (2010) confirms the permeation of the patristic Christology into the Scholastic theology by arguing that medieval theology didn’t develop itself through philosophical contact. It adopted patristic culture and matured its way through the medieval age.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The early set of rules for trade were first introduced by the Christian Theologians. Theologians had spiritual beliefs with morals driven by religion. Novikoff (2012) in his narrative describes the belief system of the Scholastics. He elaborates that scholastics adopted their moral and ethical behaviors from the early theologians. Early theologians, mainly Christians accepted certain set of rules from Christian Bible as their model of outlook. Spiegel (1991) highlights that scholastics economic thought had its principle sources in the Bible. He further emphasizes on the teachings and writings of the Father of the Church which designed the groundwork for exercising economic and moral thoughts. Later, in the ages, the scholastics used the writings of Aristotle to shape their philosophical perspective. Greek Philosophy was deemed foundation for early moral principles which the scholastics exercised. Preaching of such principles was mainly transitioned from Italian to European localities. Greek philosophy became the initiating stance of high scholasticism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 13th and early 14th centuries are generally seen as the high period of scholasticism. The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy. Schools of translation grew up in Italy and Sicily, and eventually in the rest of Europe. Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige. William of Moerbeke's translations and editions of Greek philosophical texts in the middle half of the thirteenth century helped form a clearer picture of Greek philosophy, particularly of Aristotle, than was given by the Arabic versions on which they had previously relied. Edward Grant writes \"Not only was the structure of the Arabic language radically different from that of Latin, but some Arabic versions had been derived from earlier Syriac translations and were thus twice removed from the original Greek text. Word-for-word translations of such Arabic texts could produce tortured readings. By contrast, the structural closeness of Latin to Greek, permitted literal, but intelligible, word-for-word translations.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32555744, 318826, 988402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 174 ], [ 389, 408 ], [ 664, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Universities developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life. The two main orders founded in this period were the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The Franciscans were founded by Francis of Assisi in 1209. Their leader in the middle of the century was Bonaventure, a traditionalist who defended the theology of Augustine and the philosophy of Plato, incorporating only a little of Aristotle in with the more neoplatonist elements. Following Anselm, Bonaventure supposed that reason can only discover truth when philosophy is illuminated by religious faith. Other important Franciscan scholastics were Duns Scotus, Peter Auriol and William of Ockham.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19725260, 64176, 8973, 11638, 95429, 2030, 22954, 34293405, 2756164, 33617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 264, 275 ], [ 284, 294 ], [ 328, 345 ], [ 401, 412 ], [ 460, 469 ], [ 492, 497 ], [ 750, 761 ], [ 763, 775 ], [ 780, 797 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By contrast, the Dominican order, a teaching order founded by St Dominic in 1215, to propagate and defend Christian doctrine, placed more emphasis on the use of reason and made extensive use of the new Aristotelian sources derived from the East and Moorish Spain. The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were Albertus Magnus and (especially) Thomas Aquinas, whose artful synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy. Aquinas placed more emphasis on reason and argumentation, and was one of the first to use the new translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological writing. This was a significant departure from the Neoplatonic and Augustinian thinking that had dominated much of early scholasticism. Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the \"errors\" of the Commentator, Averroes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 681770, 32555744, 1573, 21490957, 23385833, 47836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 72 ], [ 198, 222 ], [ 332, 347 ], [ 365, 379 ], [ 704, 715 ], [ 929, 937 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the Reformation, Calvinists largely adopted the scholastic method of theology, while differing regarding sources of authority and content of theology.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The revival and development from the second half of the 19th century of medieval scholastic philosophy is sometimes called neo-Thomism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 838801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As J. A. Weisheipl O.P. emphasizes, within the Dominican Order Thomistic scholasticism has been continuous since the time of Aquinas: \"Thomism was always alive in the Dominican Order, small as it was after the ravages of the Reformation, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic occupation. Repeated legislation of the General Chapters, beginning after the death of St. Thomas, as well as the Constitutions of the Order, required all Dominicans to teach the doctrine of St. Thomas both in philosophy and in theology.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8973, 8973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 23 ], [ 47, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thomistic scholasticism or scholastic Thomism identifies with the philosophical and theological tradition stretching back to the time of St. Thomas. It focuses not only on exegesis of the historical Aquinas but also on the articulation of a rigorous system of orthodox Thomism to be used as an instrument of critique of contemporary thought. Due to its suspicion of attempts to harmonize Aquinas with non-Thomistic categories and assumptions, Scholastic Thomism has sometimes been called, according to philosophers like Edward Feser, \"Strict Observance Thomism\". A discussion of recent and current Thomistic scholasticism can be found in La Metafisica di san Tommaso d'Aquino e i suoi interpreti (2002) by , which includes such figures as Sofia Vanni Rovighi (1908–1990), Cornelio Fabro (1911–1995), Carlo Giacon (1900–1984), Tomas Tyn O.P. (1950–1990), Abelardo Lobato O.P. (1925–2012), Leo Elders (1926– ) and Giovanni Ventimiglia (1964– ) among others. Fabro in particular emphasizes Aquinas' originality, especially with respect to the actus essendi or act of existence of finite beings by participating in being itself. Other scholars such as those involved with the \"Progetto Tommaso\" seek to establish an objective and universal reading of Aquinas' texts.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 838801, 40870765, 3536995, 33393697, 8973, 8973, 31292072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 45 ], [ 522, 534 ], [ 775, 789 ], [ 829, 838 ], [ 839, 843 ], [ 873, 877 ], [ 915, 935 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thomistic scholasticism in the English speaking world went into decline in the 1970s when the Thomistic revival that had been spearheaded by Jacques Maritain, Étienne Gilson, and others, diminished in influence. Partly, this was because this branch of Thomism had become a quest to understand the historical Aquinas after the Second Vatican Council.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 592243, 1082423, 838801, 28134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 157 ], [ 159, 173 ], [ 252, 259 ], [ 326, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A renewed interest in the \"scholastic\" way of doing philosophy has recently awoken in the confines of the analytic philosophy. Attempts emerged to combine elements of scholastic and analytic methodology in pursuit of a contemporary philosophical synthesis. Proponents of various incarnations of this approach include Anthony Kenny, Peter King, Thomas Williams or David Oderberg. Analytical Thomism can be seen as a pioneer part of this movement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 159211, 302882, 24786349, 402112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 125 ], [ 317, 330 ], [ 363, 377 ], [ 379, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cornelius O'Boyle explained that Scholasticism focuses on how to acquire knowledge and how to communicate effectively so that it may be acquired by others. It was thought that the best way to achieve this was by replicating the discovery process (modus inveniendi).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scholastic method", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The scholasticists would choose a book by a renowned scholar, auctor (author), as a subject for investigation. By reading it thoroughly and critically, the disciples learned to appreciate the theories of the author. Other documents related to the book would be referenced, such as Church councils, papal letters and anything else written on the subject, be it ancient or contemporary. The points of disagreement and contention between multiple sources would be written down in individual sentences or snippets of text, known as sententiae. Once the sources and points of disagreement had been laid out through a series of dialectics, the two sides of an argument would be made whole so that they would be found to be in agreement and not contradictory. (Of course, sometimes opinions would be totally rejected, or new positions proposed.) This was done in two ways. The first was through philological analysis. Words were examined and argued to have multiple meanings. It was also considered that the auctor might have intended a certain word to mean something different. Ambiguity could be used to find common ground between two otherwise contradictory statements. The second was through logical analysis, which relied on the rules of formal logic – as they were known at the time – to show that contradictions did not exist but were subjective to the reader.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Scholastic method", "target_page_ids": [ 195295, 4514291, 52813, 23193, 46426065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 68 ], [ 531, 541 ], [ 625, 634 ], [ 891, 903 ], [ 1249, 1254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scholastic instruction consisted of several elements. The first was the lectio: a teacher would read an authoritative text followed by a commentary, but no questions were permitted. This was followed by the meditatio (meditation or reflection) in which students reflected on and appropriated the text. Finally, in the quaestio students could ask questions (quaestiones) that might have occurred to them during meditatio. Eventually the discussion of questiones became a method of inquiry apart from the lectio and independent of authoritative texts. Disputationes were arranged to resolve controversial quaestiones.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Scholastic instruction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Questions to be disputed were ordinarily announced beforehand, but students could propose a question to the teacher unannounced – disputationes de quodlibet. In this case, the teacher responded and the students rebutted; on the following day the teacher, having used notes taken during the disputation, summarised all arguments and presented his final position, riposting all rebuttals.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Scholastic instruction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The quaestio method of reasoning was initially used especially when two authoritative texts seemed to contradict one another. Two contradictory propositions would be considered in the form of an either/or question, and each part of the question would have to be approved (sic) or denied (non). Arguments for the position taken would be presented in turn, followed by arguments against the position, and finally the arguments against would be refuted. This method forced scholars to consider opposing viewpoints and defend their own arguments against them.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Scholastic instruction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Actus primus", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6534421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Allegory in the Middle Ages", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1957445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aristotelianism", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 309909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Casuistry", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of science in the Middle Ages", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of scholastic philosophers", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 181278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medieval philosophy", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26571896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nominalism", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pardes (Jewish exegesis)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5617860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Renaissance of the 12th century", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3225161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Scotism", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1179960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Decock, W. (2013), Theologians and Contract Law: The Moral Transformation of the Ius Commune (c. 1500–1650), Leiden/Boston, Brill/Nijhoff, . ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Secondary sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fryde, E., The Early Palaeologan Renaissance, Brill 2000.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Secondary sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gracia, J. G. and Noone, T. B., eds., (2003) A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages. London: Blackwell, ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Secondary sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " McGrade, A. S., ed., (2003) The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Secondary sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Trueman, Carl R. and R. Scott Clark, jt. eds. (1999). Protestant Scholasticism: Essays in Reassessment. Carlisle, Eng.: Paternoster Press. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Scholasticon by Jacob Schmutz", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Medieval Philosophy Electronic Resources", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Scholasticism\". In Encyclopædia Britannica Online.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 9508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Scholasticism Joseph Rickaby, (1908), 121 pp. (also at googlebooks)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Scholasticism in The Catholic Encyclopedia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Yahoo! directory category: Scholasticism", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The genius of the scholastics and the orbit of Aristotle, article by James Franklin on the influence of scholasticism on later thought", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Medieval Philosophy, Universities and the Church by James Hannam", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ALCUIN – Regensburger Infothek der Scholastik – Huge database with information on biography, text chronology, editions.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Scholasticism", "Philosophical_schools_and_traditions", "Philosophical_traditions", "Christian_theological_movements", "Catholicism_in_the_Middle_Ages", "Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages", "Thomas_Aquinas", "Trinitarianism", "Christian_terminology", "Western_Christianity", "Western_culture", "Western_philosophy" ]

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[ { "plaintext": "DNS is the Domain Name System, a network system used to translate names into IP addresses.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DNS may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Deviated nasal septum, a displaced part of the nose", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 1578885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 3,5-Dinitrosalicylic acid, an aromatic compound", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 2527458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dinalbuphine sebacate, an analgesic", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 57709360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Direct numerical simulation, a simulation method in computational fluid dynamics", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 3740698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dragon NaturallySpeaking, speech recognition software", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 1853411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Do not stuff\", the omitting of a component on a printed circuit board ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 1132096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Doctor of Nursing Science, an academic research degree", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 17019227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Det Nødvendige Seminarium, a teacher training college in Denmark", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 28342585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (Democratic People's Alliance), a political party in Bosnia and Herzegovina", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dinas Powys railway station (station code), Wales", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3542076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Distressed non-swimmer, a swimming victim type", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 16531722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Did not start, in the glossary of motorsport terms", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 21130709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " DNS (retail company), an electronics retailer in Russia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 69320114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Didcot, Newbury and Southampton Railway (DN&SR), an English railway 1891–1923", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7828031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "A domain name is a string that identifies a realm of administrative autonomy, authority or control within the Internet. Domain names are used in various networking contexts and for application-specific naming and addressing purposes. In general, a domain name identifies a network domain or an Internet Protocol (IP) resource, such as a personal computer used to access the Internet, or a server computer. Domain names are often used to identify services provided through the Internet, such as websites and email services. As of 2017, 330.6 million domain names had been registered.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27701, 14539, 43124569, 15323, 33898, 9738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 25 ], [ 110, 118 ], [ 273, 287 ], [ 294, 311 ], [ 494, 501 ], [ 507, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Domain names are formed by the rules and procedures of the Domain Name System (DNS). Any name registered in the DNS is a domain name. Domain names are organized in subordinate levels (subdomains) of the DNS root domain, which is nameless. The first-level set of domain names are the top-level domains (TLDs), including the generic top-level domains (gTLDs), such as the prominent domains com, info, net, edu, and org, and the country code top-level domains (ccTLDs). Below these top-level domains in the DNS hierarchy are the second-level and third-level domain names that are typically open for reservation by end-users who wish to connect local area networks to the Internet, create other publicly accessible Internet resources or run web sites.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8339, 286054, 31115, 1007311, 222859, 394868, 618379, 404726, 290328, 997380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 77 ], [ 203, 211 ], [ 283, 299 ], [ 323, 347 ], [ 388, 391 ], [ 393, 397 ], [ 399, 402 ], [ 404, 407 ], [ 413, 416 ], [ 426, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The registration of a second- or third-level domain name is usually administered by a domain name registrar who sell its services to the public. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 458505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A fully qualified domain name (FQDN) is a domain name that is completely specified with all labels in the hierarchy of the DNS, having no parts omitted. Traditionally a FQDN ends in a dot (.) to denote the top of the DNS tree. Labels in the Domain Name System are case-insensitive, and may therefore be written in any desired capitalization method, but most commonly domain names are written in lowercase in technical contexts.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 706155, 46063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 29 ], [ 264, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Domain names serve to identify Internet resources, such as computers, networks, and services, with a text-based label that is easier to memorize than the numerical addresses used in the Internet protocols. A domain name may represent entire collections of such resources or individual instances. Individual Internet host computers use domain names as host identifiers, also called hostnames. The term hostname is also used for the leaf labels in the domain name system, usually without further subordinate domain name space. Hostnames appear as a component in Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) for Internet resources such as websites (e.g., en.wikipedia.org).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Purpose", "target_page_ids": [ 611421, 47817022, 33898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 381, 389 ], [ 560, 584 ], [ 624, 632 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Domain names are also used as simple identification labels to indicate ownership or control of a resource. Such examples are the realm identifiers used in the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), the Domain Keys used to verify DNS domains in e-mail systems, and in many other Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Purpose", "target_page_ids": [ 28684, 973458, 9738, 32146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 186 ], [ 198, 209 ], [ 240, 246 ], [ 274, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An important function of domain names is to provide easily recognizable and memorizable names to numerically addressed Internet resources. This abstraction allows any resource to be moved to a different physical location in the address topology of the network, globally or locally in an intranet. Such a move usually requires changing the IP address of a resource and the corresponding translation of this IP address to and from its domain name.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Purpose", "target_page_ids": [ 14921, 37481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 118 ], [ 287, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Domain names are used to establish a unique identity. Organizations can choose a domain name that corresponds to their name, helping Internet users to reach them easily.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Purpose", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A generic domain is a name that defines a general category, rather than a specific or personal instance, for example, the name of an industry, rather than a company name. Some examples of generic names are books.com, music.com, and travel.info. Companies have created brands based on generic names, and such generic domain names may be valuable.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Purpose", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Domain names are often simply referred to as domains and domain name registrants are frequently referred to as domain owners, although domain name registration with a registrar does not confer any legal ownership of the domain name, only an exclusive right of use for a particular duration of time. The use of domain names in commerce may subject them to trademark law.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Purpose", "target_page_ids": [ 18935023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 355, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The practice of using a simple memorable abstraction of a host's numerical address on a computer network dates back to the ARPANET era, before the advent of today's commercial Internet. In the early network, each computer on the network retrieved the hosts file (host.txt) from a computer at SRI (now SRI International), which mapped computer hostnames to numerical addresses. The rapid growth of the network made it impossible to maintain a centrally organized hostname registry and in 1983 the Domain Name System was introduced on the ARPANET and published by the Internet Engineering Task Force as RFC 882 and RFC 883.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 253111, 481262, 15285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 130 ], [ 301, 318 ], [ 566, 597 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following table shows the first five .com domains with the dates of their registration:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 222859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and the first five .edu domains:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 404726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) manages the top-level development and architecture of the Internet domain name space. It authorizes domain name registrars, through which domain names may be registered and reassigned.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Domain name space", "target_page_ids": [ 15236, 458505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 62 ], [ 171, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The domain name space consists of a tree of domain names. Each node in the tree holds information associated with the domain name. The tree sub-divides into zones beginning at the DNS root zone.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Domain name space", "target_page_ids": [ 30806, 286054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 40 ], [ 180, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A domain name consists of one or more parts, technically called labels, that are conventionally concatenated, and delimited by dots, such as example.com.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Domain name space", "target_page_ids": [ 1191806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The right-most label conveys the top-level domain; for example, the domain name www.example.com belongs to the top-level domain com.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Domain name space", "target_page_ids": [ 31115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The hierarchy of domains descends from the right to the left label in the name; each label to the left specifies a subdivision, or subdomain of the domain to the right. For example: the label example specifies a node example.com as a subdomain of the com domain, and www is a label to create www.example.com, a subdomain of example.com. Each label may contain from 1 to 63 octets. The empty label is reserved for the root node and when fully qualified is expressed as the empty label terminated by a dot. The full domain name may not exceed a total length of 253 ASCII characters in its textual representation. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Domain name space", "target_page_ids": [ 844468, 4240997, 23523100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 141 ], [ 374, 380 ], [ 501, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A hostname is a domain name that has at least one associated IP address. For example, the domain names www.example.com and example.com are also hostnames, whereas the com domain is not. 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In addition, a group of seven generic top-level domains (gTLD) was implemented which represented a set of categories of names and multi-organizations. These were the domains gov, edu, com, mil, org, net, and int. These two types of top-level domains (TLDs) are the highest level of domain names of the Internet. Top-level domains form the DNS root zone of the hierarchical Domain Name System. Every domain name ends with a top-level domain label.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Domain name space", "target_page_ids": [ 997380, 223179, 1007311, 387397, 404726, 222859, 578946, 290328, 618379, 465323, 31115, 286054, 8339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 154 ], [ 225, 233 ], [ 287, 311 ], [ 431, 434 ], [ 436, 439 ], [ 441, 444 ], [ 446, 449 ], [ 451, 454 ], [ 456, 459 ], [ 465, 468 ], [ 489, 505 ], [ 596, 609 ], [ 630, 648 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the growth of the Internet, it became desirable to create additional generic top-level domains. As of October 2009, 21 generic top-level domains and 250 two-letter country-code top-level domains existed. In addition, the ARPA domain serves technical purposes in the infrastructure of the Domain Name System.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Domain name space", "target_page_ids": [ 1004393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 32nd International Public ICANN Meeting in Paris in 2008, ICANN started a new process of TLD naming policy to take a \"significant step forward on the introduction of new generic top-level domains.\" This program envisions the availability of many new or already proposed domains, as well as a new application and implementation process. Observers believed that the new rules could result in hundreds of new top-level domains to be registered. In 2012, the program commenced, and received 1930 applications. By 2016, the milestone of 1000 live gTLD was reached.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Domain name space", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) maintains an annotated list of top-level domains in the DNS root zone database.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Domain name space", "target_page_ids": [ 84022, 286054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 39 ], [ 103, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For special purposes, such as network testing, documentation, and other applications, IANA also reserves a set of special-use domain names. This list contains domain names such as example, local, localhost, and test. Other top-level domain names containing trade marks are registered for corporate use. Cases include brands such as BMW, Google, and Canon.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Domain name space", "target_page_ids": [ 1239768, 4038193, 569755, 2249147, 3772, 1092923, 196034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 187 ], [ 189, 194 ], [ 196, 205 ], [ 211, 215 ], [ 332, 335 ], [ 337, 343 ], [ 349, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Below the top-level domains in the domain name hierarchy are the second-level domain (SLD) names. These are the names directly to the left of .com, .net, and the other top-level domains. As an example, in the domain example.co.uk, co is the second-level domain.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Domain name space", "target_page_ids": [ 1662624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Next are third-level domains, which are written immediately to the left of a second-level domain. There can be fourth- and fifth-level domains, and so on, with virtually no limitation. Each label is separated by a full stop (dot). An example of an operational domain name with four levels of domain labels is sos.state.oh.us. 'sos' is said to be a sub-domain of 'state.oh.us', and 'state' a sub-domain of 'oh.us', etc. In general, subdomains are domains subordinate to their parent domain. An example of very deep levels of subdomain ordering are the IPv6 reverse resolution DNS zones, e.g., 1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.ip6.arpa, which is the reverse DNS resolution domain name for the IP address of a loopback interface, or the localhost name.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Domain name space", "target_page_ids": [ 23523100, 844468, 15318, 1375901, 160478, 569755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 214, 223 ], [ 431, 440 ], [ 551, 555 ], [ 575, 583 ], [ 738, 746 ], [ 765, 774 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Second-level (or lower-level, depending on the established parent hierarchy) domain names are often created based on the name of a company (e.g., bbc.co.uk), product or service (e.g. hotmail.com). Below these levels, the next domain name component has been used to designate a particular host server. Therefore, ftp.example.com might be an FTP server, www.example.com would be a World Wide Web server, and mail.example.com could be an email server, each intended to perform only the implied function. Modern technology allows multiple physical servers with either different (cf. load balancing) or even identical addresses (cf. anycast) to serve a single hostname or domain name, or multiple domain names to be served by a single computer. The latter is very popular in Web hosting service centers, where service providers host the websites of many organizations on just a few servers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Domain name space", "target_page_ids": [ 33139, 61118, 387545, 157465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 379, 393 ], [ 579, 593 ], [ 628, 635 ], [ 770, 789 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The hierarchical DNS labels or components of domain names are separated in a fully qualified name by the full stop (dot, .).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Domain name space", "target_page_ids": [ 8339, 23523100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 26 ], [ 105, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The character set allowed in the Domain Name System is based on ASCII and does not allow the representation of names and words of many languages in their native scripts or alphabets. ICANN approved the Internationalized domain name (IDNA) system, which maps Unicode strings used in application user interfaces into the valid DNS character set by an encoding called Punycode. For example, københavn.eu is mapped to xn--kbenhavn-54a.eu. Many registries have adopted IDNA.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Domain name space", "target_page_ids": [ 586, 15236, 407936, 31742, 380586, 158284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 69 ], [ 183, 188 ], [ 202, 231 ], [ 258, 265 ], [ 365, 373 ], [ 440, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first commercial Internet domain name, in the TLD com, was registered on 15 March 1985 in the name symbolics.com by Symbolics Inc., a computer systems firm in Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Domain name registration", "target_page_ids": [ 28195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1992, fewer than 15,000 com domains had been registered.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Domain name registration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the first quarter of 2015, 294 million domain names had been registered. A large fraction of them are in the com TLD, which as of December 21, 2014, had 115.6 million domain names, including 11.9 million online business and e-commerce sites, 4.3 million entertainment sites, 3.1 million finance related sites, and 1.8 million sports sites. As of July 2012 the com TLD had more registrations than all of the ccTLDs combined.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Domain name registration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The right to use a domain name is delegated by domain name registrars, which are accredited by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), the organization charged with overseeing the name and number systems of the Internet. In addition to ICANN, each top-level domain (TLD) is maintained and serviced technically by an administrative organization operating a registry. A registry is responsible for maintaining the database of names registered within the TLD it administers. The registry receives registration information from each domain name registrar authorized to assign names in the corresponding TLD and publishes the information using a special service, the WHOIS protocol.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Domain name registration", "target_page_ids": [ 458505, 15236, 4315433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 68 ], [ 99, 150 ], [ 687, 692 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Registries and registrars usually charge an annual fee for the service of delegating a domain name to a user and providing a default set of name servers. Often, this transaction is termed a sale or lease of the domain name, and the registrant may sometimes be called an \"owner\", but no such legal relationship is actually associated with the transaction, only the exclusive right to use the domain name. More correctly, authorized users are known as \"registrants\" or as \"domain holders\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Domain name registration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "ICANN publishes the complete list of TLD registries and domain name registrars. Registrant information associated with domain names is maintained in an online database accessible with the WHOIS protocol. For most of the 250 country code top-level domains (ccTLDs), the domain registries maintain the WHOIS (Registrant, name servers, expiration dates, etc.) information.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Domain name registration", "target_page_ids": [ 15236, 997380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 224, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some domain name registries, often called network information centers (NIC), also function as registrars to end-users. The major generic top-level domain registries, such as for the com, net, org, info domains and others, use a registry-registrar model consisting of hundreds of domain name registrars (see lists at ICANN or VeriSign). In this method of management, the registry only manages the domain name database and the relationship with the registrars. The registrants (users of a domain name) are customers of the registrar, in some cases through additional layers of resellers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Domain name registration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are also a few other alternative DNS root providers that try to compete or complement ICANN's role of domain name administration, however, most of them failed to receive wide recognition, and thus domain names offered by those alternative roots cannot be used universally on most other internet-connecting machines without additional dedicated configurations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Domain name registration", "target_page_ids": [ 387462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the process of registering a domain name and maintaining authority over the new name space created, registrars use several key pieces of information connected with a domain:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Domain name registration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Administrative contact. A registrant usually designates an administrative contact to manage the domain name. The administrative contact usually has the highest level of control over a domain. Management functions delegated to the administrative contacts may include management of all business information, such as name of record, postal address, and contact information of the official registrant of the domain and the obligation to conform to the requirements of the domain registry in order to retain the right to use a domain name. Furthermore, the administrative contact installs additional contact information for technical and billing functions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Domain name registration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Technical contact. The technical contact manages the name servers of a domain name. The functions of a technical contact include assuring conformance of the configurations of the domain name with the requirements of the domain registry, maintaining the domain zone records, and providing continuous functionality of the name servers (that leads to the accessibility of the domain name).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Domain name registration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Billing contact. The party responsible for receiving billing invoices from the domain name registrar and paying applicable fees.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Domain name registration", "target_page_ids": [ 458505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Name servers. Most registrars provide two or more name servers as part of the registration service. However, a registrant may specify its own authoritative name servers to host a domain's resource records. The registrar's policies govern the number of servers and the type of server information required. Some providers require a hostname and the corresponding IP address or just the hostname, which must be resolvable either in the new domain, or exist elsewhere. Based on traditional requirements (RFC 1034), typically a minimum of two servers is required.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Domain name registration", "target_page_ids": [ 39241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A domain name consists of one or more labels, each of which is formed from the set of ASCII letters, digits, and hyphens (a-z, A-Z, 0–9, -), but not starting or ending with a hyphen. The labels are case-insensitive; for example, 'label' is equivalent to 'Label' or 'LABEL'. In the textual representation of a domain name, the labels are separated by a full stop (period).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Domain name registration", "target_page_ids": [ 23523100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 352, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Domain names are often seen in analogy to real estate in that domain names are foundations on which a website can be built, and the highest quality domain names, like sought-after real estate, tend to carry significant value, usually due to their online brand-building potential, use in advertising, search engine optimization, and many other criteria.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Domain name registration", "target_page_ids": [ 47707435, 187946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 53 ], [ 300, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A few companies have offered low-cost, below-cost or even free domain registration with a variety of models adopted to recoup the costs to the provider. These usually require that domains be hosted on their website within a framework or portal that includes advertising wrapped around the domain holder's content, revenue from which allows the provider to recoup the costs. Domain registrations were free of charge when the DNS was new. A domain holder may provide an infinite number of subdomains in their domain. For example, the owner of example.org could provide subdomains such as foo.example.org and foo.bar.example.org to interested parties.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Domain name registration", "target_page_ids": [ 844468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 487, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many desirable domain names are already assigned and users must search for other acceptable names, using Web-based search features, or WHOIS and dig operating system tools. Many registrars have implemented domain name suggestion tools which search domain name databases and suggest available alternative domain names related to keywords provided by the user.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Domain name registration", "target_page_ids": [ 4315433, 7724754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 140 ], [ 145, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The business of resale of registered domain names is known as the domain aftermarket. Various factors influence the perceived value or market value of a domain name. Most of the high-prize domain sales are carried out privately.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resale of domain names", "target_page_ids": [ 8485438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Intercapping is often used to emphasize the meaning of a domain name, because DNS names are not case-sensitive. Some names may be misinterpreted in certain uses of capitalization. For example: Who Represents, a database of artists and agents, chose whorepresents.com, which can be misread. In such situations, the proper meaning may be clarified by placement of hyphens when registering a domain name. For instance, Experts Exchange, a programmers' discussion site, used expertsexchange.com, but changed its domain name to experts-exchange.com.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Domain name confusion", "target_page_ids": [ 6698, 3201061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 416, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The domain name is a component of a uniform resource locator (URL) used to access web sites, for example:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Use in web site hosting", "target_page_ids": [ 47817022, 33898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 60 ], [ 82, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "URL: ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Use in web site hosting", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Top-level domain: ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Use in web site hosting", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Second-level domain: ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Use in web site hosting", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hostname: ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Use in web site hosting", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A domain name may point to multiple IP addresses to provide server redundancy for the services offered, a feature that is used to manage the traffic of large, popular web sites.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Use in web site hosting", "target_page_ids": [ 14921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Web hosting services, on the other hand, run servers that are typically assigned only one or a few addresses while serving websites for many domains, a technique referred to as virtual web hosting. Such IP address overloading requires that each request identifies the domain name being referenced, for instance by using the HTTP request header field Host:, or Server Name Indication.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Use in web site hosting", "target_page_ids": [ 157465, 407617, 13106156, 15499235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 177, 196 ], [ 324, 349 ], [ 360, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Critics often claim abuse of administrative power over domain names. Particularly noteworthy was the VeriSign Site Finder system which redirected all unregistered .com and .net domains to a VeriSign webpage. For example, at a public meeting with VeriSign to air technical concerns about SiteFinder, numerous people, active in the IETF and other technical bodies, explained how they were surprised by VeriSign's changing the fundamental behavior of a major component of Internet infrastructure, not having obtained the customary consensus. SiteFinder, at first, assumed every Internet query was for a website, and it monetized queries for incorrect domain names, taking the user to VeriSign's search site. Unfortunately, other applications, such as many implementations of email, treat a lack of response to a domain name query as an indication that the domain does not exist, and that the message can be treated as undeliverable. The original VeriSign implementation broke this assumption for mail, because it would always resolve an erroneous domain name to that of SiteFinder. While VeriSign later changed SiteFinder's behaviour with regard to email, there was still widespread protest about VeriSign's action being more in its financial interest than in the interest of the Internet infrastructure component for which VeriSign was the steward.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Abuse and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 319632, 511063, 15285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 109 ], [ 110, 121 ], [ 330, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite widespread criticism, VeriSign only reluctantly removed it after the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) threatened to revoke its contract to administer the root name servers. ICANN published the extensive set of letters exchanged, committee reports, and ICANN decisions.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Abuse and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 15236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is also significant disquiet regarding the United States Government's political influence over ICANN. This was a significant issue in the attempt to create a .xxx top-level domain and sparked greater interest in alternative DNS roots that would be beyond the control of any single country.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Abuse and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 574533, 31115, 387462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 168 ], [ 169, 185 ], [ 218, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Additionally, there are numerous accusations of domain name front running, whereby registrars, when given whois queries, automatically register the domain name for themselves. Network Solutions has been accused of this.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Abuse and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 15160679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, the Truth in Domain Names Act of 2003, in combination with the PROTECT Act of 2003, forbids the use of a misleading domain name with the intention of attracting Internet users into visiting Internet pornography sites.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Abuse and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 1650133, 1650133, 21469584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 51 ], [ 85, 104 ], [ 212, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Truth in Domain Names Act follows the more general Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act passed in 1999 aimed at preventing typosquatting and deceptive use of names and trademarks in domain names.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Abuse and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 985754, 18935330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 97 ], [ 133, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 21st century, the US Department of Justice (DOJ) pursued the seizure of domain names, based on the legal theory that domain names constitute property used to engage in criminal activity, and thus are subject to forfeiture. For example, in the seizure of the domain name of a gambling website, the DOJ referenced and . In 2013 the US government seized Liberty Reserve, citing .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Abuse and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 572687, 26263777, 39506373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 81 ], [ 224, 234 ], [ 365, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The U.S. Congress passed the Combating Online Infringement and Counterfeits Act in 2010. Consumer Electronics Association vice president Michael Petricone was worried that seizure was a blunt instrument that could harm legitimate businesses. After a joint operation on February 15, 2011, the DOJ and the Department of Homeland Security claimed to have seized ten domains of websites involved in advertising and distributing child pornography, but also mistakenly seized the domain name of a large DNS provider, temporarily replacing 84,000 websites with seizure notices.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Abuse and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 29036067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United Kingdom, the Police Intellectual Property Crime Unit has been attempting to seize domain names from registrars without court orders.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Abuse and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 31717, 42382327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ], [ 27, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "PIPCU and other UK law enforcement organisations make domain suspension requests to Nominet which they process on the basis of breach of terms and conditions. Around 16,000 domains are suspended annually, and about 80% of the requests originate from PIPCU.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Abuse and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 185185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of the economic value it represents, the European Court of Human Rights has ruled that the exclusive right to a domain name is protected as property under article 1 of Protocol 1 to the European Convention on Human Rights.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Abuse and regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 42622, 9830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 79 ], [ 194, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ICANN Business Constituency (BC) has spent decades trying to make IDN variants work at the second level, and in the last several years at the top level. Domain name variants are domain names recognized in different character encodings, like a single domain presented in traditional Chinese and simplified Chinese. It is an Internationalization and localization problem. Under Domain Name Variants, the different encodings of the domain name (in simplified and traditional Chinese) would resolve to the same host.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "IDN variants", "target_page_ids": [ 15236, 266210, 261949, 126844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 270, 289 ], [ 294, 312 ], [ 323, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to John Levine, an expert on Internet related topics, \"Unfortunately, variants don't work. The problem isn't putting them in the DNS, it's that once they're in the DNS, they don't work anywhere else.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "IDN variants", "target_page_ids": [ 652136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A fictitious domain name is a domain name used in a work of fiction or popular culture to refer to a domain that does not actually exist, often with invalid or unofficial top-level domains such as \".web\", a usage exactly analogous to the dummy 555 telephone number prefix used in film and other media. The canonical fictitious domain name is \"example.com\", specifically set aside by IANA in RFC 2606 for such use, along with the .example TLD.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Fictitious domain name", "target_page_ids": [ 31115, 2811963, 481348, 1191806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 187 ], [ 198, 202 ], [ 244, 271 ], [ 343, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Domain names used in works of fiction have often been registered in the DNS, either by their creators or by cybersquatters attempting to profit from it. This phenomenon prompted NBC to purchase the domain name Hornymanatee.com after talk-show host Conan O'Brien spoke the name while ad-libbing on his show. O'Brien subsequently created a website based on the concept and used it as a running gag on the show.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Fictitious domain name", "target_page_ids": [ 23623098, 21780, 5176810, 4221870, 174688, 252984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 122 ], [ 178, 181 ], [ 210, 226 ], [ 248, 261 ], [ 297, 305 ], [ 384, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term Domain name spoofing (or simply though less accurately, Domain spoofing) is used generically to describe one or more of a class of phishing attacks that depend on falsifying or misrepresenting an internet domain name. These are designed to persuade unsuspecting users into visiting a web site other than that intended, or opening an email that is not in reality from the address shown (or apparently shown). Although website and email spoofing attacks are more widely known, any service that relies on domain name resolution may be compromised.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Domain name spoofing", "target_page_ids": [ 428364, 47765880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 148 ], [ 511, 533 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are a number of better-known types of domain spoofing:", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Domain name spoofing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Typosquatting also called \"URL hijacking\", a \"sting site\", or a \"fake URL\", is a form of cybersquatting, and possibly brandjacking which relies on mistakes such as typos made by Internet users when inputting a website address into a web browser or composing an email address. Should a user accidentally enter an incorrect domain name, they may be led to any URL (including an alternative website owned by a cybersquatter).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Domain name spoofing", "target_page_ids": [ 18935330, 23623098, 26594253, 1057428, 47817022, 33173, 295032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 90, 104 ], [ 119, 131 ], [ 165, 170 ], [ 211, 226 ], [ 234, 245 ], [ 262, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The typosquatter's URL will usually be one of five kinds, all similar to the victim site address:", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Domain name spoofing", "target_page_ids": [ 47817022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A common misspelling, or foreign language spelling, of the intended site", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Domain name spoofing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A misspelling based on a typographical error", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Domain name spoofing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A plural of a singular domain name", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Domain name spoofing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A different top-level domain: (i.e. .com instead of .org)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Domain name spoofing", "target_page_ids": [ 31115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An abuse of the Country Code Top-Level Domain (ccTLD) (.cm, .co, or .om instead of .com)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Domain name spoofing", "target_page_ids": [ 997380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Internationalised domain name homograph attack. This type of attack depends on registering a domain name that is similar to the 'target' domain, differing from it only because its spelling includes one or more characters that come from a different alphabet but look the same to the naked eye. For example, the Cyrillic, Latin, and Greek alphabets each have their own letter , each of which has its own binary code point. Turkish has a dotless letter i () that may not be perceived as different from the ASCII letter . Most web browsers warn of 'mixed alphabet' domain names, Other services, such as email applications, may not provide the same protection. Reputable top level domain and country code domain registrars will not accept applications to register a deceptive name but this policy cannot be presumed to be infallible.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Domain name spoofing", "target_page_ids": [ 1609031, 5639, 17730, 715909, 2102354, 29992, 2503777, 31115, 997380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 47 ], [ 311, 319 ], [ 321, 326 ], [ 332, 337 ], [ 410, 420 ], [ 422, 429 ], [ 436, 452 ], [ 668, 684 ], [ 689, 708 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (\"Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting and Conformance\")", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Domain name spoofing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (SSL certificate)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Domain name spoofing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Domain hack", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2636393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Domain hijacking", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 365507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Domain name registrar", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 458505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Domain name speculation", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 617973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Domain name warehousing", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5738235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Domain registration", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34133842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Domain tasting", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10254767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Geodomain", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4832370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Internet top-level domains", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reverse domain hijacking", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 311470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reverse domain name notation", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12236714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(domain bias in web search) a research by Microsoft", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Top Level Domain Bias in Search Engine Indexing and Rankings", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Icann New gTLD Program Factsheet - October 2009 (PDF)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IANA Two letter Country Code TLD", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ICANN - Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Internic.net, public information regarding Internet domain name registration services", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Internet Domain Names: Background and Policy Issues Congressional Research Service", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 370772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " , Domain Names — Concepts and Facilities, an Internet Protocol Standard", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , Domain Names — Implementation and Specification, an Internet Protocol Standard", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " UDRP, Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Special use domain names", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Domain_Name_System", "Domain_names", "Identifiers" ]

[ "DN" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Alan Sidney Patrick Rickman (21 February 1946– 14 January 2016) was an English actor and director. Known for his deep, languid voice, he trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London and became a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC), performing in modern and classical theatre productions. He played the Vicomte de Valmont in the RSC stage production of Les Liaisons Dangereuses in 1985, and after the production transferred to the West End in 1986 and Broadway in 1987, he was nominated for a Tony Award.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 163026, 17867, 167785, 19641627, 1154952, 725252, 2386256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 181 ], [ 185, 191 ], [ 219, 244 ], [ 372, 396 ], [ 450, 458 ], [ 471, 479 ], [ 512, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rickman's first cinema role came when he was cast as the German terrorist leader Hans Gruber in Die Hard (1988). He appeared as the Sheriff of Nottingham in Prince of Thieves (1991), for which he received the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. He earned critical attention for his leading roles in Truly, Madly, Deeply (1991) and An Awfully Big Adventure (1995) before gaining acclaim for his supporting roles as Colonel Brandon in Sense and Sensibility (1995), and Éamon de Valera in Michael Collins (1996). He is also known for his comedic roles in Dogma (1999), Galaxy Quest (1999), and The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (2005). He played Severus Snape in the Harry Potter series (2001–2011). During this time he also appeared in Love Actually (2003), The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007), and Alice in Wonderland (2010). His final film roles were Eye in the Sky (2015), and Alice Through the Looking Glass (2016).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 61974259, 97646, 18831196, 8682579, 168747, 17324736, 29247002, 142426, 42178, 26609228, 98991, 13149, 982874, 44331, 7629286, 370064, 14482638, 43791914, 43472499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 92 ], [ 96, 104 ], [ 132, 153 ], [ 210, 257 ], [ 313, 333 ], [ 345, 369 ], [ 428, 443 ], [ 447, 468 ], [ 481, 496 ], [ 501, 516 ], [ 567, 572 ], [ 581, 593 ], [ 606, 642 ], [ 661, 674 ], [ 682, 694 ], [ 752, 765 ], [ 820, 839 ], [ 874, 888 ], [ 901, 932 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rickman made his television acting debut playing Tybalt in Romeo and Juliet (1978) as part of the BBC's Shakespeare series. His breakthrough role was Obadiah Slope in the BBC television adaptation of The Barchester Chronicles (1982). He later starred in television films, playing the title character in Dark Servant of Destiny (1996), which won him a Golden Globe Award, an Emmy Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award, and Alfred Blalock in Something the Lord Made (2004). Rickman died of pancreatic cancer on 14 January 2016 at age 69.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 767576, 25821, 19344654, 187709, 2355682, 142724, 151921, 4293294, 726855, 4155619, 363559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 55 ], [ 59, 75 ], [ 98, 101 ], [ 104, 122 ], [ 200, 225 ], [ 352, 370 ], [ 375, 385 ], [ 392, 417 ], [ 423, 437 ], [ 441, 464 ], [ 489, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alan Sidney Patrick Rickman was born in the Acton area of London on 21 February 1946, the son of housewife Margaret Doreen Rose (née Bartlett) and factory worker, house painter and decorator, and former Second World War aircraft fitter Bernard William Rickman. His mother was Welsh, and his paternal grandmother was Irish; Rickman would later say in April 2015, \"I was talking to Sharleen Spiteri about being a Celt, how you smell each other out, because my mother's family is Welsh. There's not a lot of English blood in me.\" His father was Catholic and his mother was a Methodist. He had two brothers named David and Michael and a sister named Sheila.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 93846, 17867, 32927, 2082, 2368472, 1040165, 606848, 20119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 49 ], [ 58, 64 ], [ 203, 219 ], [ 220, 235 ], [ 380, 396 ], [ 411, 415 ], [ 542, 550 ], [ 572, 581 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rickman was born with a tight jaw, contributing to the deep tone of voice and languid delivery for which he would become famous. Rickman himself said that a vocal coach told him he had a \"spastic soft palate\". When he was eight years old, his father died of cancer, leaving his mother to raise him and his three siblings mostly alone. According to biographer Maureen Paton, the family was \"rehoused by the council and moved to an Acton estate to the west of Wormwood Scrubs Prison, where his mother struggled to bring up four children on her own by working for the Post Office\". Margaret Rickman married again in 1960, but divorced Rickman's stepfather after three years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 2412903, 23310800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 459, 481 ], [ 566, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before Rickman met his longtime partner Rima Horton at age 19, he stated that his first crush was at 10 years old on a girl named Amanda at his school's sports day. As a child, he excelled at calligraphy and watercolour painting. Rickman attended West Acton First School followed by Derwentwater Primary School in Acton, and then Latymer Upper School in London through the Direct Grant system, where he became involved in drama. Rickman went on to attend Chelsea College of Art and Design from 1965 to 1968. He then attended the Royal College of Art from 1968 to 1970. His training allowed him to work as a graphic designer for the Royal College of Art's in-house magazine, ARK, and the Notting Hill Herald, which he considered a more stable occupation than acting; he later said that drama school \"wasn't considered the sensible thing to do at 18\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 49152699, 53682, 180046, 1653483, 20333696, 533493, 269757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 51 ], [ 192, 203 ], [ 208, 219 ], [ 330, 350 ], [ 373, 392 ], [ 455, 488 ], [ 529, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following graduation, Rickman and several friends opened a graphic design studio called Graphiti, but after three years of successful business, he decided that he was going to pursue acting professionally. He wrote to request an audition with the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA), which he attended from 1972 until 1974. While there, he supported himself by working as a dresser for Sir Nigel Hawthorne and Sir Ralph Richardson.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 163026, 10563897, 93754, 163036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 247, 276 ], [ 375, 382 ], [ 391, 406 ], [ 415, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After graduating from RADA, Rickman worked extensively with British repertory and experimental theatre groups in productions including Chekhov's The Seagull and Snoo Wilson's The Grass Widow at the Royal Court Theatre, and appeared three times at the Edinburgh International Festival. In 1978, he performed with the Court Drama Group, gaining roles in Romeo and Juliet and A View from the Bridge, among other plays. While working with the Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC), he was cast in As You Like It. His breakthrough role was in The Barchester Chronicles (1982), the BBC's adaptation of Trollope's first two Barchester novels, as the Reverend Obadiah Slope.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2447, 474370, 4458695, 1691842, 881762, 25821, 1281035, 167785, 23454544, 2355682, 70159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 142 ], [ 145, 156 ], [ 161, 172 ], [ 198, 217 ], [ 251, 283 ], [ 352, 368 ], [ 373, 395 ], [ 439, 464 ], [ 487, 501 ], [ 532, 557 ], [ 590, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rickman was given the male lead, the Vicomte de Valmont, in the 1985 Royal Shakespeare Company production of Christopher Hampton's adaptation of Les Liaisons Dangereuses, directed by Howard Davies. After the RSC production transferred to the West End in 1986 and Broadway in 1987, Rickman received both a Tony Award nomination and a Drama Desk Award nomination for his performance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1302505, 19641627, 5102452, 54741, 417090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 128 ], [ 145, 169 ], [ 183, 196 ], [ 305, 315 ], [ 333, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1988, Rickman played the antagonist Hans Gruber in the action thriller Die Hard in what was his first feature film. Starring opposite Bruce Willis, Rickman's portrayal earned him critical acclaim and a spot on the AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains list as the 46th best villain in film history. Rickman later revealed he almost did not take the role as he did not think Die Hard was the kind of film he wanted to make.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 61974259, 97646, 64673, 10958682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 50 ], [ 74, 82 ], [ 137, 149 ], [ 217, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1990, he played the Australian Elliot Marston opposite Tom Selleck in Quigley Down Under (1990). The following year, Rickman was cast as the Sheriff of Nottingham in Kevin Reynolds's film adaptation of Prince of Thieves (1991). In the film, Rickman acted opposite Kevin Costner and Morgan Freeman. Entertainment Weekly proclaimed that while Robin Hood \"left critics and movie goers underwhelmed, Rickman’s gleefully wicked villain became the summer’s most talked-about performance\". For his performance he received the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. Upon winning the award Rickman stated, \"This will be a healthy reminder to me that subtlety isn't everything\". Despite gaining acclaim within the media for his ability to portray villainous roles in films Rickman took issue with being typecast as a villain. During this decade he would portray a range of characters that would defy media perceptions. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2688769, 18831196, 2635448, 144152, 20584, 541239, 8682579, 641121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 91 ], [ 144, 165 ], [ 169, 183 ], [ 268, 281 ], [ 286, 300 ], [ 302, 322 ], [ 523, 570 ], [ 807, 815 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rickman soon started to play leading roles such as the romantic lead of Jamie in the independent romance film Truly, Madly, Deeply (1991). The film directed by Anthony Minghella and starring Rickman and Juliet Stevenson proved to be a critical success. Rickman was nominated for another BAFTA Award, and received the Evening Standard British Film Award for Best Actor and the London Film Critics' Circle Award for Actor of the Year. Rickman was able to break out of the mold of the movie villain with critic Roger Ebert noting, \"The man is Rickman, who you will look at on the screen, and know you have seen somewhere, and rattle your memory all during the movie without making the connection that he was the villain in \"Die Hard.\" ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 168747, 496675, 1715351, 150200, 2845957, 8619616, 50908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 130 ], [ 160, 177 ], [ 203, 219 ], [ 287, 298 ], [ 317, 367 ], [ 376, 431 ], [ 508, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A few years later he was cast as Colonel Brandon in Ang Lee's adaptation of Jane Austen's novel Sense and Sensibility (1995). The film also starred Emma Thompson, Hugh Grant, and Kate Winslet. Thompson noted that Rickman could express the \"extraordinary sweetness [of] his nature,\" as he had played \"Machiavellian types so effectively\" in other films. For his performance, Rickman earned his third BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role nomination, and his first Screen Actors Guild Award nomination. The following year he portrayed Éamon de Valera in the Neil Jordan period drama, Michael Collins starring Liam Neeson, Julia Roberts, and Stephen Rea. Rickman earned his fourth BAFTA Award nomination. In 1996, Rickman starred as the \"mad monk\" Rasputin in the HBO television biopic Dark Servant of Destiny. A role for which he won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie, a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie, and a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 29247002, 18949253, 15782, 27490, 142426, 160985, 170779, 52707, 8682579, 4293294, 42178, 315569, 26609228, 64182, 16553, 171061, 150200, 12804, 4038261, 4842037, 1476826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 48 ], [ 52, 59 ], [ 76, 87 ], [ 90, 95 ], [ 96, 117 ], [ 148, 161 ], [ 163, 173 ], [ 179, 191 ], [ 398, 445 ], [ 472, 497 ], [ 542, 557 ], [ 565, 576 ], [ 591, 606 ], [ 616, 627 ], [ 629, 642 ], [ 648, 659 ], [ 687, 698 ], [ 754, 762 ], [ 844, 933 ], [ 937, 1042 ], [ 1050, 1115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rickman directed The Winter Guest at London's Almeida Theatre in 1995 and the film version of the same play, released in 1997, starring Emma Thompson and her real-life mother Phyllida Law. Rickman's stage performances in the 1990s include Antony and Cleopatra in 1998 as Mark Antony, with Helen Mirren as Cleopatra, in the Royal National Theatre's production at the Olivier Theatre in London, which ran from October to December 1998. Rickman appeared in Victoria Wood with All the Trimmings (2000), a BBC One Christmas special with Victoria Wood, playing an aged colonel in the battle of Waterloo who is forced to break off his engagement to Honeysuckle Weeks' character.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1210579, 1306462, 1427800, 65169, 19960, 230698, 60827, 167775, 167775, 13809971, 212157, 61874, 1504219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 33 ], [ 46, 61 ], [ 175, 187 ], [ 239, 259 ], [ 271, 282 ], [ 289, 301 ], [ 305, 314 ], [ 323, 345 ], [ 366, 381 ], [ 454, 490 ], [ 501, 508 ], [ 532, 545 ], [ 642, 659 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his career, Rickman played comedic roles, including as Sir Alexander Dane/Dr. Lazarus in the cult classic sci-fi parody Galaxy Quest (1999) with Tim Allen, Sigourney Weaver, Sam Rockwell, and Tony Shalhoub. Rockwell said that Rickman \"was very instrumental in making sure the script hit the dramatic notes, and everything had a strong logic and reason behind it\". He also played the angel Metatron, the voice of God, in Kevin Smith's Dogma (also 1999).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 13149, 188899, 64965, 1360740, 419248, 173948, 60296, 98991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 139 ], [ 152, 161 ], [ 163, 179 ], [ 181, 193 ], [ 199, 212 ], [ 396, 404 ], [ 427, 438 ], [ 441, 446 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2001, he first appeared as Severus Snape, the potions master, in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone. His portrayal of the role throughout the Harry Potter series (2001–2011) was dark, but the character's motivations were not clear early on.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 44331, 667361, 7629286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 43 ], [ 68, 108 ], [ 151, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2002, Rickman performed onstage in Noël Coward's romantic comedy Private Lives. After its successful run at the Albery Theatre in the West End it transferred to Broadway and ended in September 2002; he reunited with his Les Liaisons Dangereuses co-star Lindsay Duncan and director Howard Davies in the Olivier and Tony Award-winning production.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 16764285, 25531, 448865, 597013, 2464336, 5102452, 16432264, 54741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 49 ], [ 52, 67 ], [ 68, 81 ], [ 115, 129 ], [ 256, 270 ], [ 284, 297 ], [ 305, 312 ], [ 317, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With Katharine Viner, Rickman compiled the play My Name Is Rachel Corrie and directed the premiere production at the Royal Court Theatre in London, which opened in April 2005. He won the Theatre Goers' Choice Awards for Best Director. Rickman befriended the Corrie family and earned their trust, and the show was warmly received. But the next year, its original New York production was \"postponed\" over the possibility of boycotts and protests from those who saw it as \"anti-Israeli agit-prop\". Rickman denounced \"censorship born out of fear\". Tony Kushner, Harold Pinter and Vanessa Redgrave, among others, criticised the decision to indefinitely delay the show. The one-woman play was put on later that year at another theatre to mixed reviews, and has since been staged at venues around the world. Despite the adverse reaction from pro-Israel groups, overall, the film was very popular, especially in London. \"I never imagined that the play would create such acute controversy,\" Rickman said. He added, \"Many Jews supported it. The New York producer was Jewish and we held a discussion after every performance. Both Israelis and Palestinians participated in the discussions and there was no shouting in the theater. People simply listened to each other.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 31141228, 5413079, 1691842, 198665, 358894, 89530, 63741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 20 ], [ 48, 72 ], [ 117, 136 ], [ 483, 492 ], [ 544, 556 ], [ 558, 571 ], [ 576, 592 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2003, Rickman starred in the ensemble Christmas-themed romantic comedy Love Actually (2003) as Emma Thompson's character's foolish husband Harry. The film, written and directed by Richard Curtis, has been called \"a modern classic\" by The Independent. In 2005, he lent his voice to Marvin the Paranoid Android in science fiction comedy The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (2005) starring Martin Freeman, Sam Rockwell, and Zooey Deschanel. In 2007 he played the egotistical, Nobel Prize-winning father in the black comedy Nobel Son (2007).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 370064, 160985, 149506, 159973, 982874, 483492, 1360740, 936829, 2819995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 87 ], [ 98, 111 ], [ 183, 197 ], [ 284, 311 ], [ 338, 374 ], [ 391, 405 ], [ 407, 419 ], [ 425, 440 ], [ 524, 533 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early 2005, My Name is Rachel Corrie, a play composed from Corrie's journals and emails from Gaza and compiled by Rickman and journalist Katharine Viner, in a production directed by Rickman, was presented in London and later revived in October 2005. The play was to be transferred to the New York Theatre Workshop, but when it was postponed indefinitely, the British producers denounced the decision as censorship and withdrew the show. It finally opened Off-Broadway on 15 October 2006 for an initial run of 48 performances.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 5413079, 31141228, 1243552, 89127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 39 ], [ 140, 155 ], [ 291, 316 ], [ 458, 470 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rickman was nominated for an Primetime Emmy Award for his work as Dr. Alfred Blalock in HBO's Something the Lord Made (2004). He also starred in the independent film Snow Cake (2006) with Sigourney Weaver and Carrie-Anne Moss, and The Story of a Murderer (also 2006), directed by Tom Tykwer. He appeared as Judge Turpin in the critically acclaimed Tim Burton film The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007) alongside Johnny Depp, and his Harry Potter co-stars Helena Bonham Carter and Timothy Spall.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 6579025, 726855, 4765530, 4155619, 2953325, 64965, 245318, 365353, 16900849, 31501, 71870, 80335, 1653119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 49 ], [ 70, 84 ], [ 88, 91 ], [ 94, 117 ], [ 166, 175 ], [ 188, 204 ], [ 209, 225 ], [ 281, 291 ], [ 308, 320 ], [ 349, 359 ], [ 416, 427 ], [ 459, 479 ], [ 484, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2009, Rickman was awarded the James Joyce Award by University College Dublin's Literary and Historical Society. In October and November 2010, Rickman starred in the eponymous role in Henrik Ibsen's John Gabriel Borkman at the Abbey Theatre, Dublin alongside Lindsay Duncan and Fiona Shaw. The Irish Independent called Rickman's performance breathtaking.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 16620019, 41537643, 4217498, 14236, 6262016, 207971, 2464336, 235319, 169544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 50 ], [ 54, 79 ], [ 82, 113 ], [ 186, 198 ], [ 201, 221 ], [ 229, 242 ], [ 261, 275 ], [ 280, 290 ], [ 296, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, he starred in the BBC television production The Song of Lunch alongside Emma Thompson. That same year he provided the voice of Absolem the Caterpillar in Tim Burton's film Alice in Wonderland (2010).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 19344654, 29128683, 160985, 1372774, 14482638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 30 ], [ 53, 70 ], [ 81, 94 ], [ 136, 159 ], [ 181, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rickman again appeared as Severus Snape in the final instalment in the Harry Potter series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 (2011). Throughout the series, his portrayal of Snape garnered widespread critical acclaim. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times said Rickman \"as always, makes the most lasting impression\", while Peter Travers of Rolling Stone magazine called Rickman \"sublime at giving us a glimpse at last into the secret nurturing heart that... Snape masks with a sneer.\" Media coverage characterised Rickman's performance as worthy of nomination for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. His last appearance as Snape saw him receive award nominations in 2011, including at the Saturn Awards and the Scream Awards.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 44331, 31941988, 4123773, 273319, 1835552, 25441, 23251708, 34943408, 33014982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 39 ], [ 92, 137 ], [ 230, 243 ], [ 251, 268 ], [ 336, 349 ], [ 353, 366 ], [ 580, 619 ], [ 710, 723 ], [ 732, 745 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 2011, Rickman opened in Seminar, a new play by Theresa Rebeck, at the John Golden Theatre on Broadway. Rickman, who left the production in April, won the Broadway.com Audience Choice Award for Favorite Actor in a Play and was nominated for a Drama League Award. Rickman starred with Colin Firth and Cameron Diaz in Gambit (2012) by Michael Hoffman, a remake of the 1966 film. In 2013, he played Hilly Kristal, the founder of the East Village punk-rock club CBGB, in the CBGB film with Rupert Grint.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 34878016, 1755719, 4401257, 5097630, 170409, 42104, 31783951, 3297059, 3124974, 7370475, 294882, 39327349, 158595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 43 ], [ 59, 73 ], [ 82, 101 ], [ 254, 272 ], [ 295, 306 ], [ 311, 323 ], [ 327, 333 ], [ 344, 359 ], [ 377, 386 ], [ 407, 420 ], [ 469, 473 ], [ 482, 491 ], [ 497, 509 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, he directed and starred in the costume drama film, A Little Chaos starring Kate Winslet, Jennifer Ehle, and Stanley Tucci. The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival. The film received mixed reviews with its critics consensus reading, \"Stylish and well-acted without ever living up to its dramatic potential, A Little Chaos is shouldered by the impressive efforts of a talented cast.\" The following year he starred in Gavin Hood's Eye in the Sky (2015) starring Helen Mirren, Aaron Paul, and Barkhad Abdi. This would be Rickman's final onscreen performance. The film debuted at the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival to great acclaim, receiving a Rotten Tomatoes score of 95%, based on 175 critics, with the consensus being, \"As taut as it is timely, Eye in the Sky offers a powerfully acted – and unusually cerebral – spin on the modern wartime political thriller.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 39367139, 52707, 1005587, 454754, 42529911, 4293648, 43791914, 230698, 15957378, 40775929, 45626799, 832482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 74 ], [ 84, 96 ], [ 98, 111 ], [ 117, 130 ], [ 158, 193 ], [ 446, 456 ], [ 459, 473 ], [ 490, 502 ], [ 504, 514 ], [ 520, 532 ], [ 610, 650 ], [ 681, 696 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rickman was chosen by Empire as one of the 100 Sexiest Stars in film history (No. 34) in 1995 and ranked No. 59 in Empire \"The Top 100 Movie Stars of All Time\" list in October 1997. In 2009 and 2010, he was ranked once again as one of the 100 Sexiest Stars by Empire, both times placing No. 8 out of the 50 actors chosen. He was elected to the council of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) in 1993; he was subsequently RADA's vice-chairman and a member of its artistic advisory and training committees and development board.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reception and public image", "target_page_ids": [ 898017, 163026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ], [ 359, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rickman was voted No. 19 in Empire magazine's Greatest Living Movie Stars over the age of 50 and was twice nominated for Broadway's Tony Award as Best Actor (Play); in 1987 for Les Liaisons Dangereuses and in 2002 for a revival of Noël Coward's Private Lives. The Guardian named Rickman as an \"honourable mention\" in a list of the best actors never to have received an Academy Award nomination.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reception and public image", "target_page_ids": [ 16764285, 19344515, 324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 242 ], [ 260, 272 ], [ 369, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two researchers, a linguist and a sound engineer, found \"the perfect [male] voice\" to be a combination of Rickman's and Jeremy Irons' voices based on a sample of 50 voices. The BBC states that Rickman's \"sonorous, languid voice was his calling card—making even throwaway lines of dialogue sound thought-out and authoritative.\" In their vocal range exercises in studying for a GCSE in drama, he was singled out by the BBC for his \"excellent diction and articulation\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reception and public image", "target_page_ids": [ 26274410, 151712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 132 ], [ 376, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rickman is featured in several musical works, including a song composed by Adam Leonard entitled \"Not Alan Rickman\". Credited as 'A Strolling Player' in the sleeve notes, the actor played a \"Master of Ceremonies\" part, announcing the various instruments at the end of the first part of Mike Oldfield's Tubular Bells II (1992) on the track \"The Bell\". Rickman was one of the many artists who recited Shakespearian sonnets on the album When Love Speaks (2002), and also featured prominently in a music video by Scottish rock band Texas entitled \"In Demand\", which premiered on MTV Europe in August 2000.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Reception and public image", "target_page_ids": [ 291345, 20032, 451108, 28260, 19862206, 412899, 12697248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 87 ], [ 286, 299 ], [ 302, 318 ], [ 413, 419 ], [ 434, 450 ], [ 528, 533 ], [ 544, 553 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1965, at age 19, Rickman met 18-year-old Rima Horton, who became his girlfriend and would later be a Labour Party councillor on the Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council (1986–2006) and an economics lecturer at Kingston University. In 2015, Rickman confirmed that they had married in a private ceremony in New York City in 2012. They lived together from 1977 until Rickman's death. The two had no children.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 49152699, 19279158, 29302013, 41137348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 55 ], [ 104, 116 ], [ 135, 180 ], [ 222, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rickman was the godfather of fellow actor Tom Burke. Rickman's brother Michael is a Conservative Party district councillor in Leicestershire.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 7108138, 32113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 51 ], [ 84, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rickman was an active patron of the research foundation Saving Faces and honorary president of the International Performers' Aid Trust, a charity that works to fight poverty amongst performing artists all over the world.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When discussing politics, Rickman said he \"was born a card-carrying member of the Labour Party.\" His last recorded work prior to his death was for a short video to help Oxford University students raise funds and awareness of the refugee crisis for Save the Children and Refugee Council.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 31797, 47842317, 436885, 1973229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 186 ], [ 229, 243 ], [ 248, 265 ], [ 270, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rickman was political until his last days. His last onscreen performance was with Helen Mirren in the drama Eye in the Sky, which he had described as \"a film about the moral responsibilities governments face regarding the use of drones.\" In 2003, after reading published emails by Rachel Corrie, a US activist who was crushed to death by an Israeli bulldozer in Gaza, he was motivated to produce My Name Is Rachel Corrie which was well received and popular in London.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 230698, 43791914, 197517, 39766702, 12047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 94 ], [ 108, 122 ], [ 281, 294 ], [ 301, 309 ], [ 362, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 2015, Rickman had a minor stroke, which led to the diagnosis of pancreatic cancer. He revealed that he had terminal cancer to only his closest confidants. On 14 January 2016, he died in London at the age of 69. His remains were cremated on 3 February 2016 in the West London Crematorium in Kensal Green. His ashes were given to his wife Rima Horton. His final two films, Eye in the Sky and Alice Through the Looking Glass, were dedicated to his memory, as was The Limehouse Golem, which would have been his next project.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Illness and death", "target_page_ids": [ 31621, 363559, 712395, 94132, 49152699, 43791914, 43472499, 48423461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 42 ], [ 74, 91 ], [ 117, 132 ], [ 300, 312 ], [ 347, 358 ], [ 381, 395 ], [ 400, 431 ], [ 470, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soon after his death, his fans created a memorial underneath the \"Platform 9¾\" sign at London King's Cross railway station. His death has been compared to that of David Bowie, a fellow British cultural figure who died at the same age as Rickman four days earlier; like Rickman, Bowie died of cancer and kept his cancer diagnosis from the public.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 667658, 87679, 49071585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 77 ], [ 87, 122 ], [ 155, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tributes from Rickman's co-stars and contemporaries appeared on social media following the announcement. Since his cancer was not publicly known, some—like Ralph Fiennes, who \"cannot believe he is gone\", and Jason Isaacs, who was \"sidestepped by the awful news\"—expressed their surprise. Sir Michael Gambon told BBC Radio 4 he was a \"great friend\" and \"a real man of the theatre and the stage\". At a West End performance of the play that made him a star (Les Liaisons Dangereuses), he was remembered as \"a great man of the British theatre\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 171521, 416641, 163618, 72758, 1154952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 169 ], [ 208, 220 ], [ 292, 306 ], [ 312, 323 ], [ 400, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harry Potter creator J. K. Rowling called Rickman \"a magnificent actor and a wonderful man.\" Emma Watson wrote, \"I feel so lucky to have worked and spent time with such a special man and actor. I'll really miss our conversations.\" Daniel Radcliffe appreciated his loyalty and support: \"I'm pretty sure he came and saw everything I ever did on stage both in Britain and America. He didn't have to do that.\" Evanna Lynch said it was scary to bump into Rickman in character as Snape, but \"he was so kind and generous in the moments he wasn't Snaping about.\" Rupert Grint said, \"even though he has gone I will always hear his voice.\" Johnny Depp, who co-starred with Rickman in two Tim Burton films, commented, \"That voice, that persona. There's hardly anyone unique anymore. He was unique.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 16027, 149243, 153295, 3931304, 158595, 71870, 37394933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 34 ], [ 93, 104 ], [ 231, 247 ], [ 406, 418 ], [ 555, 567 ], [ 630, 641 ], [ 674, 694 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kate Winslet, who gave a tearful tribute at the London Film Critics' Circle Awards, remembered Rickman as warm and generous, adding, \"And that voice! Oh, that voice.\" Dame Helen Mirren said his voice \"could suggest honey or a hidden stiletto blade\". Emma Thompson remembered \"the intransigence which made him the great artist he was—his ineffable and cynical wit, the clarity with which he saw most things, including me... I learned a lot from him.\" Colin Firth told The Hollywood Reporter that, as an actor, Rickman had been a mentor. John McTiernan, director of Die Hard, said Rickman was the antithesis of the villainous roles for which he was most famous on screen. Sir Ian McKellen wrote, \"behind [Rickman's] mournful face, which was just as beautiful when wracked with mirth, there was a super-active spirit, questing and achieving, a super-hero, unassuming but deadly effective.\" Writer/director Kevin Smith told a tearful 10-minute story about Rickman on his Hollywood Babble On podcast. Rickman's family offered their thanks \"for the messages of condolence\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 52707, 4220082, 230698, 160985, 170409, 791422, 618149, 97646, 15308, 60296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 48, 82 ], [ 172, 184 ], [ 250, 263 ], [ 450, 461 ], [ 467, 489 ], [ 536, 550 ], [ 564, 572 ], [ 674, 686 ], [ 903, 914 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rickman at Aveleyman website", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rickman news and commentary in The Independent", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 103958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 47 ] ] } ]

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[ "Alan Sidney Patrick Rickman", "Rickman" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, described as the Varian Disaster () by Roman historians, took place at modern Kalkriese in AD 9, when an alliance of Germanic peoples ambushed Roman legions and their auxiliaries, led by Publius Quinctilius Varus. The alliance was led by Arminius, a Germanic officer of Varus's auxilia. Arminius had acquired Roman citizenship and had received a Roman military education, which enabled him to deceive the Roman commander methodically and anticipate the Roman army's tactical responses.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 521555, 12332461, 12446, 1905, 25994, 5021645, 242216, 72581, 1037008, 753281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 80 ], [ 114, 123 ], [ 153, 169 ], [ 170, 176 ], [ 179, 191 ], [ 203, 210 ], [ 223, 248 ], [ 274, 282 ], [ 345, 362 ], [ 489, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Teutoburg Forest is commonly seen as one of the most important defeats in Roman history, bringing the triumphant period of expansion under Augustus to an abrupt end. The outcome of this battle dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and is thus considered one of the most important events in European history. The provinces of Germania Superior and Germania Inferior, sometimes collectively referred to as Roman Germania, were subsequently established in northeast Roman Gaul, while territories beyond the Rhine remained independent of Roman control. Retaliatory campaigns were commanded by Tiberius and Germanicus and would enjoy success, but the Rhine would eventually become the border between the Roman Empire and the rest of Germania. The Roman Empire would launch no other major incursion into Germania until Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) during the Marcomannic Wars.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1273, 251301, 13212, 437763, 307781, 2068003, 56374860, 30536, 12478, 25845, 25507, 20155, 3891002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 147 ], [ 248, 256 ], [ 317, 333 ], [ 352, 369 ], [ 374, 391 ], [ 490, 500 ], [ 576, 597 ], [ 616, 624 ], [ 629, 639 ], [ 673, 678 ], [ 726, 738 ], [ 840, 855 ], [ 880, 896 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some of the descendants of the vassal kingdoms, like the Suebi (by suzerainty), that Augustus tried to create in Germania to expand the romanitas and the Empire in a peaceful way would be the ones that invaded the Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 293401, 28487, 1131381, 3676364, 103155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 46 ], [ 57, 62 ], [ 67, 77 ], [ 136, 145 ], [ 202, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the attacks of Drusus I in 11–9 BC, Arminius, along with his brother Flavus, was sent to Rome as tribute by their father, Segimerus the Conqueror, chieftain of the noblest house in the tribe of the Cherusci. Arminius then spent his youth in Rome as a hostage, where he received a military education, and was even given the rank of Equestrian. During Arminius' absence, Segimerus was declared a coward by the other Germanic chieftains, because he had submitted to Roman rule, a crime punishable by death under Germanic law. Between 11BC and AD 4, hostility and suspicion among the allied Germanic peoples deepened. Trade and political accords between the warlords deteriorated.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 74773, 72581, 164392, 58209427, 146794, 378612, 30865179, 12446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 33 ], [ 46, 54 ], [ 107, 114 ], [ 132, 155 ], [ 261, 268 ], [ 341, 351 ], [ 519, 531 ], [ 598, 614 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In AD 4 the Roman general (and later emperor) Tiberius entered Germania and subjugated the Cananefates in Germania Inferior, the Chatti near the upper Weser River, and the Bructeri south of the Kalkriese. After these conquests he led his army across the Weser.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 30536, 1704204, 307781, 44507, 41885, 405976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 54 ], [ 91, 102 ], [ 106, 123 ], [ 129, 135 ], [ 151, 156 ], [ 172, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early AD 6, Legatus Gaius Sentius Saturninus and Consul Legatus Marcus Aemilius Lepidus led a massive army of 13 legions and their entourage, totalling around 100,000 men (65,000 heavy infantry legionaries, 10,000–20,000 cavalrymen, archers, and 10,000–20,000 civilians) against Maroboduus, the king of the Marcomanni, who were a tribe of the Suebi. Later in 6 AD, leadership of the Roman force was turned over to Publius Quinctilius Varus, a nobleman and experienced administrative official from a patrician family who was related to the Imperial family. He was assigned to consolidate the new province of Germania in the autumn of that year.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 37106894, 1531226, 288612, 20992655, 5021645, 20145, 20144, 28487, 242216, 181397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 47 ], [ 67, 90 ], [ 197, 208 ], [ 224, 234 ], [ 236, 243 ], [ 282, 292 ], [ 310, 320 ], [ 346, 351 ], [ 417, 442 ], [ 502, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tiberius was then forced to turn his attention to the Bellum Batonianum, also known as the Great Illyrian Revolt, which broke out in the Balkan province of Illyricum. Led by Bato the Daesitiate, Bato the Breucian, Pinnes of Pannonia, and elements of the Marcomanni, it lasted nearly four years. Tiberius was forced to stop his campaign against Maroboduus and recognise him as king so that he could then send his eight legions (VIII Augusta, XV Apollinaris, XX Valeria Victrix, XXI Rapax, XIII Gemina, XIV Gemina, XVI Gallica and an unknown unit) to crush the rebellion in the Balkans.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 6749892, 2489148, 6749498, 6749537, 24094415, 290400, 3407522, 312967, 291074, 308529, 288617, 3407574, 4829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 71 ], [ 156, 165 ], [ 174, 193 ], [ 195, 212 ], [ 214, 232 ], [ 427, 439 ], [ 441, 455 ], [ 457, 475 ], [ 477, 486 ], [ 488, 499 ], [ 501, 511 ], [ 513, 524 ], [ 576, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nearly half of all Roman legions in existence were sent to the Balkans to end the revolt, which was itself triggered by constant neglect, endemic food shortages, high taxes, and harsh behaviour on the part of the Roman tax collectors. This campaign, led by Tiberius and Quaestor Legatus Germanicus under Emperor Augustus, was one of the most difficult, and most crucial, in the history of the Roman Empire. Due to this massive redeployment of available legions, when Varus was named in Germania, only three legions were available to him.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 219117, 1273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 304, 311 ], [ 312, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Varus's name and deeds were well known beyond the empire because of his ruthlessness and crucifixion of insurgents. While he was feared by the people, he was highly respected by the Roman Senate. On the Rhine, he was in command of the XVII, XVIII, and XIX legions. These had previously been led by General Gaius Sentius Saturninus, who had been sent back to Rome after being awarded the . The other two legions in the winter-quarters of the army at were led by Varus' nephew, Lucius Nonius Asprenas, and perhaps Lucius Arruntius.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 38115, 16685964, 371090, 352232, 291162, 37520761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 100 ], [ 182, 194 ], [ 235, 239 ], [ 241, 246 ], [ 252, 255 ], [ 477, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After his return from Rome, Arminius became a trusted advisor to Varus, but in secret he forged an alliance of Germanic peoples that had traditionally been enemies. These probably included the Cherusci, Marsi, Chatti, and Bructeri. These were some of the fifty Germanic tribes at the time. Using the collective outrage over Varus' tyrannous insolence and wanton cruelty to the conquered, Arminius was able to unite the disorganized groups who had submitted in sullen hatred to the Roman dominion, and maintain the alliance until the most opportune moment to strike.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 1533848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Following the transfer of eight of eleven legions present in Germania to the Balkans, only three legions faced the Germanic tribesmen. This represented the perfect opportunity for Arminius to defeat Varus. While Varus was on his way from his summer camp west of the River Weser to winter headquarters near the Rhine, he heard reports of a local rebellion, reports which had been fabricated by Arminius. Edward Shepherd Creasy writes that \"This was represented to Varus as an occasion which required his prompt attendance on the spot; but he was kept in studied ignorance of its being part of a concerted national rising; and he still looked on Arminius as his submissive vassal\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 25845, 739597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 311, 316 ], [ 404, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Varus decided to quell this uprising immediately, expediting his response by taking a detour through territory that was unfamiliar to the Romans. Arminius, who accompanied him, directed him along a route that would facilitate an ambush. Another Cheruscan nobleman, Segestes, brother of Segimerus and unwilling father-in-law to Arminius, warned Varus the night before the Roman forces departed, allegedly suggesting that Varus should apprehend Arminius, along with other Germanic leaders whom he identified as participants in the planned uprising. His warning, however, was dismissed as stemming from the personal feud between Segestes and Arminius. Arminius then left under the pretext of drumming up Germanic forces to support the Roman campaign. Once free from prying eyes, he immediately led his troops in a series of attacks on the surrounding Roman garrisons.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 1509891, 292136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 265, 273 ], [ 613, 617 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Recent archaeological finds place the battle at Kalkriese Hill in Osnabrück county, Lower Saxony. On the basis of Roman accounts, the Romans were marching northwest from what is now the city of Detmold, passing east of Osnabrück after camping in the area, prior to the attack.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 12332461, 237051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 57 ], [ 194, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Varus' forces included his three legions (Legio XVII, Legio XVIII and Legio XIX), six cohorts of auxiliary troops (non-citizens or allied troops) and three squadrons of cavalry (alae). Most of these lacked combat experience, both with regard to Germanic fighters and under the prevalent local conditions. The Roman forces were not marching in combat formation and were interspersed with large numbers of camp followers. As they entered the forest northeast of Osnabrück, they found the track narrow and muddy. According to Cassius Dio, a violent storm had also arisen. He also writes that Varus neglected to send out reconnaissance parties ahead of the main body of troops.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Battles", "target_page_ids": [ 25994, 311247, 1791289, 5782518, 159964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 40 ], [ 86, 93 ], [ 178, 182 ], [ 405, 418 ], [ 524, 535 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The line of march was now stretched out perilously long—between . It was in this state when it came under attack by Germanic warriors armed with swords, large lances and narrow-bladed short spears called fremae. The attackers surrounded the entire Roman army and rained down javelins on the intruders. Arminius, recalling his education in Rome, understood his enemies' tactics and was able to direct his troops to counter them effectively by using locally superior numbers against the dispersed Roman legions. The Romans managed to set up a fortified night camp and, in the next morning, broke out into the open country north of the Wiehen Hills, near the modern town of Ostercappeln. The break-out was accompanied by heavy losses to the Roman survivors, as was a further attempt to escape by marching through another forested area, as the torrential rains continued.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Battles", "target_page_ids": [ 9325878, 2607981, 1834029, 4558437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 210 ], [ 448, 472 ], [ 633, 645 ], [ 671, 683 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Romans undertook a night march to escape, but marched into another trap that Arminius had set at the foot of Kalkriese Hill. There, a sandy, open strip on which the Romans could march was constricted by the hill, so that there was a gap of only about between the woods and the swampland at the edge of the Great Bog. The road was further blocked by a trench and, towards the forest, an earthen wall had been built along the roadside, permitting the Germanic alliance to attack the Romans from cover. The Romans made a desperate attempt to storm the wall, but failed, and the highest-ranking officer next to Varus, Legatus Numonius Vala, abandoned the troops by riding off with the cavalry. His retreat was in vain, however, as he was overtaken by the Germanic cavalry and killed shortly thereafter, according to Velleius Paterculus. The Germanic warriors then stormed the field and slaughtered the disintegrating Roman forces. Varus committed suicide, and Velleius reports that one commander, Praefectus Ceionius, surrendered, then later took his own life, while his colleague Praefectus Eggius died leading his doomed troops.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Battles", "target_page_ids": [ 14722909, 235981, 1980011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 627, 640 ], [ 817, 836 ], [ 998, 1008 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roman casualties have been estimated at 15,000–20,000 dead, and many of the officers were said to have taken their own lives by falling on their swords in the approved manner. Tacitus wrote that many officers were sacrificed by the Germanic forces as part of their indigenous religious ceremonies, cooked in pots and their bones used for rituals. Others were ransomed and some common soldiers appear to have been enslaved.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Battles", "target_page_ids": [ 19594563, 1087181, 850864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 183 ], [ 214, 224 ], [ 265, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All Roman accounts stress the completeness of the Roman defeat, and the finds at Kalkriese of 6,000 pieces of Roman equipment, but only a single item that is clearly Germanic (part of a spur), suggest few Germanic losses. However, the victors would most likely have removed the bodies of their fallen and their practice of burying their warriors' battle gear with them would have contributed to the lack of Germanic relics. Additionally, as many as several thousand Germanic soldiers were deserting militiamen and wore Roman armour, and thus would appear to be \"Roman\" in the archaeological digs. It is known, too, that the Germanic peoples wore perishable organic material, such as leather, and less metal than the Roman legionaries.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Battles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The victory was followed by a clean sweep of all Roman forts, garrisons and cities (of which there were at least two) east of the Rhine; the two Roman legions remaining in Germania, commanded by Varus' nephew Lucius Nonius Asprenas, simply tried to hold the Rhine. One fort, Aliso, most likely located in today's Haltern am See, fended off the Germanic alliance for many weeks, perhaps even a few months. After the situation became untenable, the garrison under Lucius Caedicius, accompanied by survivors of Teutoburg Forest, broke through the siege and reached the Rhine. They had resisted long enough for Nonius Asprenas to have organized the Roman defence on the Rhine with two legions and Tiberius to have arrived with a new army, together preventing Arminius from crossing the Rhine and invading Gaul.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Battles", "target_page_ids": [ 69486093, 4128914, 36545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 275, 280 ], [ 313, 327 ], [ 802, 806 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon hearing of the defeat, the Emperor Augustus, according to the Roman historian Suetonius in The Twelve Caesars, was so shaken that he stood butting his head against the walls of his palace, repeatedly shouting:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 37323, 4358254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 92 ], [ 96, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The legion numbers XVII, XVIII and XIX were not used again by the Romans. This was in contrast to other legions that were reestablished after suffering defeat.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The battle abruptly ended the period of triumphant Roman expansion that followed the end of the Civil Wars forty years earlier. Augustus' stepson Tiberius took effective control, and prepared for the continuation of the war. Legio II Augusta, XX Valeria Victrix and XIII Gemina were sent to the Rhine to replace the lost legions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 354393, 275068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 106 ], [ 225, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arminius sent Varus' severed head to Maroboduus, king of the Marcomanni, the other most powerful Germanic ruler, with the offer of an anti-Roman alliance. Maroboduus declined, sending the head to Rome for burial, and remained neutral throughout the ensuing war. Only thereafter did a brief, inconclusive war break out between the two Germanic leaders.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 1098271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though the shock at the slaughter was enormous, the Romans immediately began a slow, systematic process of preparing for the reconquest of the country. In 14 AD, just after Augustus' death and the accession of his heir and stepson Tiberius, a massive raid was conducted by the new emperor's nephew Germanicus. He attacked the Marsi with the element of surprise. The Bructeri, Tubanti and Usipeti were roused by the attack and ambushed Germanicus on the way to his winter quarters, but were defeated with heavy losses.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Roman retaliation", "target_page_ids": [ 12478, 5523810, 516516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 298, 308 ], [ 376, 383 ], [ 388, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next year was marked by two major campaigns and several smaller battles with a large army estimated at 55,000–70,000 men, backed by naval forces. In spring 15 AD, Legatus Caecina Severus invaded the Marsi a second time with about 25,000–30,000 men, causing great havoc. Meanwhile, Germanicus' troops had built a fort on Mount Taunus from where he marched with about 30,000–35,000 men against the Chatti. Many of the men fled across a river and dispersed themselves in the forests. Germanicus next marched on Mattium (\"caput gentis\", capital city) and burned it to the ground. After initial successful skirmishes in summer 15 AD, including the capture of Arminius' wife Thusnelda, the army visited the site of the first battle. According to Tacitus, they found heaps of bleached bones and severed skulls nailed to trees, which they buried, \"...looking on all as kinsfolk and of their own blood...\". At a location Tacitus calls the pontes longi (\"long causeways\"), in boggy lowlands somewhere near the Ems, Arminius' troops attacked the Romans. Arminius initially caught Germanicus' cavalry in a trap, inflicting minor casualties, but the Roman infantry reinforced the rout and checked them. The fighting lasted for two days, with neither side achieving a decisive victory. Germanicus' forces withdrew and returned to the Rhine.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Roman retaliation", "target_page_ids": [ 205374, 27438398, 1703166, 58276855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 330, 336 ], [ 512, 519 ], [ 673, 682 ], [ 1026, 1045 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under Germanicus, the Romans marched another army, along with allied Germanic auxiliaries, into Germania in 16 AD. He forced a crossing of the Weser near modern Minden, suffering some losses to a Germanic skirmishing force, and forced Arminius' army to stand in open battle at Idistaviso in the Battle of the Weser River. Germanicus' legions inflicted huge casualties on the Germanic armies while sustaining only minor losses. A final battle was fought at the Angrivarian Wall west of modern Hanover, repeating the pattern of high Germanic fatalities, which forced them to flee beyond the Elbe. Germanicus, having defeated the forces between the Rhine and the Elbe, then ordered Caius Silius to march against the Chatti with a mixed force of three thousand cavalry and thirty thousand infantry and lay waste to their territory, while Germanicus, with a larger army, invaded the Marsi for the third time and devastated their land, encountering no resistance.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Roman retaliation", "target_page_ids": [ 182340, 551252, 551236, 58276973, 53903454, 14197, 1511219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 167 ], [ 277, 287 ], [ 295, 320 ], [ 427, 441 ], [ 460, 476 ], [ 492, 499 ], [ 679, 691 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With his main objectives reached and winter approaching, Germanicus ordered his army back to their winter camps, with the fleet incurring some damage from a storm in the North Sea. After a few more raids across the Rhine, which resulted in the recovery of two of the three legions' eagles lost in 9 AD:One Legion Eagle was recovered from the Marsi in 14 AD; the Legion XIX Eagle was recovered from the Bructeri in 15 AD by troops under Lucius Stertinius: Tiberius ordered the Roman forces to halt and withdraw across the Rhine. Germanicus was recalled to Rome and informed by Tiberius that he would be given a triumph and reassigned to a new command.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Roman retaliation", "target_page_ids": [ 1806573, 1533848, 405976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 288 ], [ 342, 347 ], [ 402, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Germanicus' campaign had been taken to avenge the Teutoburg slaughter and also partially in reaction to indications of mutinous intent amongst his troops. Arminius, who had been considered a very real threat to stability by Rome, was now defeated. Once his Germanic coalition had been broken and honour avenged, the huge cost and risk of keeping the Roman army operating beyond the Rhine was not worth any likely benefit to be gained. Tacitus, with some bitterness, claims that Tiberius' decision to recall Germanicus was driven by his jealousy of the glory Germanicus had acquired, and that an additional campaign the next summer would have concluded the war and facilitated a Roman occupation of territories between the Rhine and the Elbe.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Roman retaliation", "target_page_ids": [ 174158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 296, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The third legionary standard was recovered in 41 AD by Publius Gabinius from the Chauci during the reign of Claudius, brother of Germanicus. Possibly the recovered aquilae were placed within the Temple of Mars Ultor (\"Mars the Avenger\"), the ruins of which stand today in the Forum of Augustus by the Via dei Fori Imperiali in Rome.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Roman retaliation", "target_page_ids": [ 6140, 1806573, 4139084, 19638032, 4139048, 7832112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 116 ], [ 164, 171 ], [ 195, 215 ], [ 218, 234 ], [ 276, 293 ], [ 301, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The last chapter was recounted by the historian Tacitus. Around 50 AD, bands of Chatti invaded Roman territory in Germania Superior, possibly an area in Hesse east of the Rhine that the Romans appear to have still held, and began to plunder. The Roman commander, Publius Pomponius Secundus, and a legionary force supported by Roman cavalry recruited auxiliaries from the Vangiones and Nemetes. They attacked the Chatti from both sides and defeated them, and joyfully found and liberated Roman prisoners, including some from Varus' legions who had been held for 40 years.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Roman retaliation", "target_page_ids": [ 437763, 1278298, 1462048, 8132075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 131 ], [ 263, 289 ], [ 371, 380 ], [ 385, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the time of the rediscovery of Roman sources in the 15th century, the Battles of the Teutoburg Forest have been seen as a pivotal event resulting in the end of Roman expansion into northern Europe. This theory became prevalent in the 19th century, and formed an integral part of the mythology of German nationalism.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Impact on Roman expansion", "target_page_ids": [ 1699385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 301, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More recently some scholars questioned this interpretation, advancing a number of reasons why the Rhine was a practical boundary for the Roman Empire, and more suitable than any other river in Germania. Logistically, armies on the Rhine could be supplied from the Mediterranean via the Rhône, Saône and Mosel, with a brief stretch of portage. Armies on the Elbe, on the other hand, would have to have been supplied either by extensive overland routes or ships travelling the hazardous Atlantic seas. Economically, the Rhine was already supporting towns and sizeable villages at the time of the Gallic conquest. Northern Germania was far less developed, possessed fewer villages, and had little food surplus and thus a far lesser capacity for tribute. Thus the Rhine was both significantly more accessible from Rome and better suited to supply sizeable garrisons than the regions beyond. There were also practical reasons to fall back from the limits of Augustus' expansionism in this region. The Romans were mostly interested in conquering areas that had a high degree of self-sufficiency which could provide a tax base for them to extract from. Most of Germania Magna did not have the higher level of urbanism at this time as in comparison with some Celtic Gallic settlements, which were in many ways already integrated into the Roman trade network in the case of southern Gaul. In a cost/benefit analysis, the prestige to be gained by conquering more territory was outweighed by the lack of financial benefits accorded to conquest.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Impact on Roman expansion", "target_page_ids": [ 19006, 80790, 86826, 143868, 50759, 374583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 277 ], [ 286, 291 ], [ 293, 298 ], [ 303, 308 ], [ 357, 361 ], [ 1385, 1406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Teutoburg Forest myth is noteworthy in 19th century Germanic interpretations as to why the \"march of the Roman Empire\" was halted, but in reality Roman punitive campaigns into Germania continued and they were intended less for conquest or expansion than they were to force the Germanic alliance into some kind of political structure that would be compliant with Roman diplomatic efforts. The most famous of those incursions, led by the Roman emperor Maximinus Thrax, resulted in a Roman victory in 235 AD at the Battle at the Harzhorn Hill, which is located in the modern German state of Lower Saxony, east of the Weser river, between the towns of Kalefeld and Bad Gandersheim. After the Marcomannic Wars, the Romans even managed to occupy the provinces of Marcomannia and Sarmatia, corresponding to modern Czech Republic, Slovakia and Bavaria/Austria/Hungary north of Danube. Final plans to annex those territories were discarded by Commodus deeming the occupation of the region too expensive for the imperial treasury.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Impact on Roman expansion", "target_page_ids": [ 28030743, 25177352, 18435, 4546785, 411622, 3891002, 5321, 26830, 3764, 44324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 454, 469 ], [ 516, 538 ], [ 592, 604 ], [ 652, 660 ], [ 665, 680 ], [ 692, 708 ], [ 811, 825 ], [ 827, 835 ], [ 840, 847 ], [ 938, 946 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Arminius was defeated and dead, having been murdered in 21 AD by opponents within his own tribe, Rome tried to control Germania beyond the Limes indirectly, by appointing client kings. Italicus, a nephew of Arminius, was appointed king of the Cherusci, Vangio and Sido became vassal princes of the powerful Suebi, and the Quadian client king Vannius was imposed as a ruler of the Marcomanni. Between 91 and 92 during the reign of emperor Domitian, the Romans sent a military detachment to assist their client Lugii against the Suebi in what is now Poland.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Impact on Roman expansion", "target_page_ids": [ 78359, 68501685, 268717, 77343, 6957748, 8592, 318340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 177, 188 ], [ 191, 199 ], [ 282, 288 ], [ 328, 333 ], [ 348, 355 ], [ 444, 452 ], [ 515, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roman controlled territory was limited to the modern states of Austria, Baden-Württemberg, southern Bavaria, southern Hesse, Saarland and the Rhineland as Roman provinces of Noricum, Raetia and Germania. The Roman provinces in western Germany, Germania Inferior (with the capital situated at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, modern Cologne) and Germania Superior (with its capital at Mogontiacum, modern Mainz), were formally established in 85 AD, after a long period of military occupation beginning in the reign of the emperor Augustus. Nonetheless, the Severan-era historian Cassius Dio is emphatic that Varus had been conducting the latter stages of full colonization of a greater German province, which has been partially confirmed by recent archaeological discoveries such as the Varian-era Roman provincial settlement at Waldgirmes Forum.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Impact on Roman expansion", "target_page_ids": [ 66401, 38412, 27123, 51556, 64716, 180305, 314732, 11872706, 6187, 20537, 20537, 159964, 13602773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 89 ], [ 118, 123 ], [ 125, 133 ], [ 142, 151 ], [ 174, 181 ], [ 183, 189 ], [ 208, 222 ], [ 292, 326 ], [ 335, 342 ], [ 387, 398 ], [ 407, 412 ], [ 581, 592 ], [ 831, 847 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The theories about the location of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest have emerged in large numbers especially since the beginning of the 16th century, when the Tacitus works Germania and Annales were rediscovered. The assumptions about the possible place of the battle are based essentially on place names and river names, as well as on the description of the topography by the ancient writers, on investigations of the prehistoric road network, and on archaeological finds. Only a few assumptions are scientifically based theories.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Site of the battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The prehistorian and provincial archaeologist Harald Petrikovits combined the several hundred theories in 1966 into four units:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Site of the battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " according to the northern theory on the northern edge of the Wiehen Hills and Weser Hills", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Site of the battle", "target_page_ids": [ 1834029, 23990886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 74 ], [ 79, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " according to Lippe theory in the eastern half of the Teutoburg Forest or between this and the Weser river", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Site of the battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " according to the Münsterland theory south of the Teutoburg Forest near Beckum or just to the east of it and", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Site of the battle", "target_page_ids": [ 188840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " according to the southern theory in the hill country southeast of the Westphalian Lowland.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Site of the battle", "target_page_ids": [ 23366184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For almost 2,000 years, the site of the battle was unidentified. The main clue to its location was an allusion to the saltus Teutoburgiensis in section i.60–62 of Tacitus' Annals, an area \"not far\" from the land between the upper reaches of the Lippe and Ems rivers in central Westphalia. During the 19th century, theories as to the site abounded, and the followers of one theory successfully argued for a long wooded ridge called the Osning, near Bielefeld. This was then renamed the Teutoburg Forest.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Site of the battle", "target_page_ids": [ 1661325, 186704, 145276, 33165, 152472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 178 ], [ 245, 250 ], [ 255, 258 ], [ 277, 287 ], [ 435, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Late 20th-century research and excavations were sparked by finds by a British amateur archaeologist, Major Tony Clunn, who was casually prospecting at Kalkriese Hill () with a metal detector in the hope of finding \"the odd Roman coin\". He discovered coins from the reign of Augustus (and none later), and some ovoid leaden Roman sling bolts. Kalkriese is a village administratively part of the city of Bramsche, on the north slope fringes of the Wiehen, a ridge-like range of hills in Lower Saxony north of Osnabrück. This site, some north west of Osning, was first suggested by the 19th-century historian Theodor Mommsen, renowned for his fundamental work on Roman history.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Site of the battle", "target_page_ids": [ 18951655, 28742142, 56284114, 28347, 188786, 73681, 85762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 99 ], [ 107, 117 ], [ 151, 165 ], [ 329, 340 ], [ 402, 410 ], [ 507, 516 ], [ 607, 622 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Initial systematic excavations were carried out by the archaeological team of the Kulturhistorisches Museum Osnabrück under the direction of Professor Wolfgang Schlüter from 1987. Once the dimensions of the project had become apparent, a foundation was created to organise future excavations and to build and operate a museum on the site, and to centralise publicity and documentation. Since 1990 the excavations have been directed by Susanne Wilbers-Rost.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Site of the battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Excavations have revealed battle debris along a corridor almost from east to west and little more than wide. A long zig-zagging wall of peat turves and packed sand had apparently been constructed beforehand: concentrations of battle debris in front of it and a dearth behind it testify to the Romans' inability to breach the Germanic tribes' strong defence. Human remains appear to corroborate Tacitus' account of the Roman legionaries' later burial. Coins minted with the countermark , distributed by Varus, also support the identification of the site. As a result, Kalkriese is now perceived to be an event of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Site of the battle", "target_page_ids": [ 99404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The includes a large outdoor area with trails leading to a re-creation of part of the earthen wall from the battle and other outdoor exhibits. An observation tower, which holds most of the indoor exhibits, allows visitors to get an overview of the battle site. A second building includes the ticket centre, museum store and a restaurant. The museum houses a large number of artefacts found at the site, including fragments of studded sandals legionaries lost, spearheads, and a Roman officer's ceremonial face-mask, which was originally silver-plated.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Site of the battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although the majority of evidence has the battle taking place east and north of Osnabrück and the end at Kalkriese Hill, some scholars and others still adhere to older theories. Moreover, there is controversy among Kalkriese adherents themselves as to the details.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Site of the battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The German historians Peter Kehne and Reinhard Wolters believe that the battle was probably in the Detmold area, and that Kalkriese is the site of one of the battles in 15 AD. This theory is, however, in contradiction to Tacitus' account.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Site of the battle", "target_page_ids": [ 188687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of authors, including the archaeologists Susanne Wilbers-Rost and Günther Moosbauer, historian Ralf Jahn, and British author Adrian Murdoch (see below), believe that the Roman army approached Kalkriese from roughly due east, from Minden, North Rhine-Westphalia, not from south of the Wiehen Hills (i.e., from Detmold). This would have involved a march along the northern edge of the Wiehen Hills, and the army would have passed through flat, open country, devoid of the dense forests and ravines described by Cassius Dio. Historians such as Gustav-Adolf Lehmann and Boris Dreyer counter that Cassius Dio's description is too detailed and differentiated to be thus dismissed.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Site of the battle", "target_page_ids": [ 38414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 247, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tony Clunn (see below), the discoverer of the battlefield, and a \"southern-approach\" proponent, believes that the battered Roman army regrouped north of Ostercappeln, where Varus committed suicide, and that the remnants were finally overcome at the Kalkriese Gap.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Site of the battle", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Peter Oppitz argues for a site in Paderborn, some south of Kalkriese. Based on a reinterpretation of the writings of Tacitus, Paterculus, and Florus and a new analysis of those of Cassius Dio, he proposes that an ambush took place in Varus's summer camp during a peaceful meeting between the Roman commanders and the Germanic leaders.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Site of the battle", "target_page_ids": [ 224123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The battle is a plot element in several operas of the Baroque era, notably Arminio by George Frideric Handel, first performed in 1737.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2632930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the 1792 historical novel Marcus Flaminius by Cornelia Knight, the main character is a survivor of the battle.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 5420851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Die Hermannsschlacht is an 1808 drama by Heinrich von Kleist based on the events of the battle.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 32692938, 216556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 42, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A re-enactment of the battle is featured in the Nazi produced film Ewiger Wald, which centres on the role of the forest in German culture. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 26749131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The battle and its aftermath feature in both the novel by Robert Graves and the television series I, Claudius. In the novel and TV series, Cassius Chaerea (the praetorian guardsman who later murdered the mad Emperor Caligula) is portrayed as one of the few Roman survivors. The Emperor Augustus is shown devastated by the shocking defeat and shouting, \"Varus, give me back my legions!\" (in the television adaptation, this is changed to \"Quinctilus Varus, where are my Eagles?\").", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 39345, 8333924, 30874250, 6852, 1273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 72 ], [ 99, 110 ], [ 140, 155 ], [ 217, 225 ], [ 287, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Die Sendung mit der Maus, a re-enactment for children's television using Playmobil toys to represent the Roman legions.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 979926, 306094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 74, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Give Me Back My Legions! is a 2009 historical novel by Harry Turtledove. It covers the events of Teutoburg Forest from the viewpoints of different major characters.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 22567283, 40212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 56, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " German folk metal Heilung included the poem \"Schlammschlacht\", which describes the battle from a Cherusci point of view, on their 2015 album Ofnir.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 57285878, 77329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 26 ], [ 98, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wolves of Rome is a 2016 historical novel by Valerio Massimo Manfredi. First published in Italian in 2016 as Teutoburgo, republished in English in 2018, it is a fictional recounting of the life of Armin (Hermann) and the events of Teutoburg Forest.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 551801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Barbarians, a German original series detailing the Roman Imperial campaign through Germania in 9 AD, premiered on Netflix in October 2020.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 65666122, 175537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 115, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Geraint Jones's novel, Blood Forest (2017), follows the events of the battle.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The legacy of the Germanic victory was resurrected with the recovery of the histories of Tacitus in the 15th century, when the figure of Arminius, now known as \"Hermann\" (a mistranslation of the name \"Armin\" which has often been incorrectly attributed to Martin Luther), became a nationalistic symbol of Pan-Germanism. From then, Teutoburg Forest has been seen as a pivotal clash that ended Roman expansion into northern Europe. This notion became especially prevalent in the 19th century, when it formed an integral part of the mythology of German nationalism.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "German nationalism", "target_page_ids": [ 7567080, 24727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 255, 268 ], [ 304, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1808 the German Heinrich von Kleist's play Die Hermannsschlacht aroused anti-Napoleonic sentiment, even though it could not be performed under occupation. In 1847, Josef Viktor von Scheffel wrote a lengthy song, \"Als die Römer frech geworden\" (\"When the Romans got cheeky\"), relating the tale of the battle with somewhat gloating humour. Copies of the text are found on many souvenirs available at the Detmold monument.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "German nationalism", "target_page_ids": [ 216556, 32692938, 69880, 1267138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 38 ], [ 46, 66 ], [ 80, 88 ], [ 167, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The battle had a profound effect on 19th-century German nationalism along with the histories of Tacitus; the Germans, at that time still divided into many states, identified with the Germanic peoples as shared ancestors of one \"German people\" and came to associate the imperialistic Napoleonic French and Austro-Hungarian forces with the invading Romans, destined for defeat.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "German nationalism", "target_page_ids": [ 261473, 2983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 161 ], [ 305, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a symbol of unified Romantic nationalism, the Hermannsdenkmal, a monument to Hermann surmounted by a statue, was erected in a forested area near Detmold, believed at that time to be the site of the battle. Paid for largely out of private funds, the monument remained unfinished for decades and was not completed until 1875, after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 unified the country. The completed monument was then a symbol of conservative German nationalism. The battle and the Hermannsdenkmal monument are commemorated by the similar Hermann Heights Monument in New Ulm, Minnesota, US, erected by the Sons of Hermanni, a support organisation for German immigrants to the United States. Hermann, Missouri, claims Hermann (Arminius) as its namesake and a third statue of Hermann was dedicated there in a ceremony on 24 September 2009, celebrating the 2,000th anniversary of the battle.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "German nationalism", "target_page_ids": [ 26096, 44035, 1820371, 119578, 122702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 43 ], [ 337, 356 ], [ 542, 566 ], [ 570, 588 ], [ 694, 711 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to journalist David Crossland, \"The old nationalism has been replaced by an easy-going patriotism that mainly manifests itself at sporting events like the soccer World Cup.\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "German nationalism", "target_page_ids": [ 24552, 11370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 107 ], [ 172, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Clades Lolliana", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24599541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of ancient Germanic peoples", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3600456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Demise of Legio XXII Deiotariana", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 305860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Battle of Cannae", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 157814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Battle of Carrhae", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 925498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ovid, Tristia (Sorrows), poetic verses written in 10 and 11 AD", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 37802, 1261521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 7, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marcus Manilius, Astronomica, a poem written early in the first century AD", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 52940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Strabo, Geographia 7:1.4, geographically themed history, written around 18 AD", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 52121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marcus Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2:117–120, written in 30 AD", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 235981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tacitus, Annals 1.3, 1.10, 1.43, 1.55–71, 2.7, 2.41, 2.45, 2.88, a history written in 109 AD", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 19594563, 1661325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars: Augustus 23, Tiberius 17–18, biographies written in 121 AD", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 37323, 4358254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Florus, Epitome de T. Livio Bellorum omnium annorum DCC Libri duo 30, history/panegyric, written in the early second century AD", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 56828957, 80454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 79, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dio Cassius, Roman History 56:18–24, written in the first half of the third century AD", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 159964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Seneca the Younger, \"Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium,\" referenced in Letter 47, Section 10", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 75150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gesa von Essen, Hermannsschlachten. Germanen- und Römerbilder in der Literatur des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts. Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen 1998, (Hermann Battles. Images of Teutons and Romans in the literature of the 18th and 19th centuries.)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wolfgang Schlüter (Ed.), Römer im Osnabrücker Land. Die archäologischen Untersuchungen in der Kalkrieser-Niewedder Senke. Rasch, Bramsche 1991, (Romans in the Osnabrück District. The archaeological excavations in the Kalkriese-Niewedde depression.)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Edward Shepherd Creasy, Germans under Arminius Revolt Against Rome in The Great Events by Famous Historians, Vol. 2, compilation of historical essays published in 1905", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 739597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ancient Warfare special \"The Varian Disaster\", June 2009 (essays by various authors, including Clunn and Murdoch)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 18210026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fergus M. Bordewich, \"The ambush that changed history\" in Smithsonian Magazine, September 2005, pp.74–81.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 35338106, 142608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 59, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wilm Brepohl, Neue Überlegungen zur Varusschlacht. Aschendorff, Münster 2004, (Reconsidering the Varus Battle.)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tony Clunn, The Quest for the Lost Roman Legions, Savas Beatie LLC, 2005, 372 pp.. The late author discovered the battlefield. This book is a combination of the account of his discovery, the artifacts he found, and his theory about the course of the battle, with that portion recounted in fictional style built around the history.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 28742142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Boris Dreyer, Arminius und der Untergang des Varus. Warum die Germanen keine Römer wurden. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2009, (Arminius and the downfall of Varus. Why the Teutons did not become Romans.)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Adrian Goldsworthy, In The Name of Rome: The Men Who Won The Roman Empire. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 2004.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 495202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joachim Harnecker, Arminius, Varus und das Schlachtfeld von Kalkriese. Eine Einführung in die archäologischen Arbeiten und ihre Ergebnisse. 2nd ed. Rasch, Bramsche 2002 (Arminius, Varus and the battlefield of Kalkriese. An introduction to the archaeological work and its results.)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ralf Günter Jahn, Der Römisch-Germanische Krieg (9–16 n. Chr.). Dissertation, Bonn 2001 (The Roman-Germanic war (9–16 AD).)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn, \"Auf dem Marsch in die Germania Magna. Roms Krieg gegen die Germanen\". In: Martin Müller, Hans-Joahim Schalles und Norbert Zieling (Eds.), Colonia Ulpia Traiana. Xanten und sein Umland in römischer Zeit. Zabern, Mainz 2008, , S. 67–91. (\"On the march into Germania Magna. Rome's war against the Germanic tribes\".)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fabian Link, Die Zeitdetektive. Die Falle im Teutoburger Wald: Ein Krimi aus der Römerzeit. Ravensburger, 2010, . (The time detectives. The events in the Teutoburg Forest: a crime story of Roman times.) (youth fiction)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ralf-Peter Märtin, Die Varusschlacht. Rom und die Germanen. S. Fischer Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2008, (The Varus Battle. Rome and the Germanic tribes.)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Günther Moosbauer, Die Varusschlacht. Beck'sche Reihe, Verlag C. H. Beck Wissen, München 2009, (The Varus Battle.)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Paweł Rochala, Las Teutoburski 9 rok n.e. Bellona, Warszawa, 2005.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Michael Sommer, Die Arminiusschlacht. Spurensuche im Teutoburger Wald. Stuttgart 2009 (The Arminius Battle. Search for traces in the Teutoburg Forest.)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dieter Timpe, Römisch-germanische Begegnung in der späten Republik und frühen Kaiserzeit. Voraussetzungen – Konfrontationen – Wirkungen. Gesammelte Studien. Saur, München & Leipzig, 2006, (Roman-Germanic encounter in the late Republic and early Empire. Conditions – Confrontations – Effects. Collected Studies.)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Strong on archaeology; \"Florus\"-based theory.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Peter Oppitz, Das Geheimnis der Varusschlacht. Zadara-Verlag, 2006, (The mystery of the Varus Battle.) Paderborn would have been the site of the battle.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rainer Wiegels (ed.), Die Varusschlacht. Wendepunkt der Geschichte? Theiss, Stuttgart 2007, (The Varus Battle. Turning point of history?)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Reinhard Wolters, Die Römer in Germanien. 5th ed. Verlag C.H. Beck, München 2006, (The Romans in Germania.)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Reinhard Wolters, Die Schlacht im Teutoburger Wald. Arminius, Varus und das römische Germanien. München 2008, (The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Arminius, Varus and Roman Germania.)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fergus M. Bordewich: \"The Ambush That Changed History\" Smithsonian Magazine, September 2005", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 142608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Official site of the Kalkriese foundation", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jona Lendering, The Battle in the Teutoburg Forest at livius.org", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Arminius / Varus. Die Varusschlacht im Jahre 9 n. Chr. , Internet-Portal Westfälische Geschichte, LWL – Institut für westfälische Regionalgeschichte, Münster ", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Student project site by Universität Osnabrück ", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Varusbattle in Netherland ", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Battle_of_the_Teutoburg_Forest", "1st-century_battles", "0s_conflicts", "0s_in_the_Roman_Empire", "AD_9", "Ambushes", "Arminius", "Augustus", "Battles_involving_Germanic_peoples", "Battles_involving_the_Roman_Empire", "Cherusci", "History_of_Europe", "Germania", "Germanic_paganism", "Marsi_(Germanic)", "Night_battles", "Roman_campaigns_in_Germania_(12_BC_–_AD_16)", "Wiehen_Hills", "World_history" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Howard Kingsbury Smith (May 12, 1914 – February 15, 2002) was an American journalist, radio reporter, television anchorman, political commentator, and film actor. He was one of the original members of the team of war correspondents known as the Murrow Boys.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 156746, 4561368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 122 ], [ 245, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Smith was born in Ferriday in Concordia Parish in eastern Louisiana near Natchez, Mississippi.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 115541, 97705, 18130, 122205, 16949861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 26 ], [ 30, 46 ], [ 58, 67 ], [ 73, 80 ], [ 82, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon graduating, Smith worked for the New Orleans Item, with United Press in London, and with The New York Times. In January 1940, Smith was sent to Berlin, where he joined the Columbia Broadcasting System under Edward R. Murrow. He visited Hitler's mountain retreat at Berchtesgaden and interviewed many leading Nazis, including Hitler himself, Schutzstaffel or \"SS\" leader Heinrich Himmler and Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early career and CBS years", "target_page_ids": [ 36807374, 42317, 30680, 37653, 154143, 2731583, 40158, 31045316, 27040, 13436, 15777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 54 ], [ 61, 73 ], [ 94, 112 ], [ 177, 205 ], [ 212, 228 ], [ 241, 247 ], [ 270, 283 ], [ 313, 318 ], [ 346, 359 ], [ 375, 391 ], [ 416, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was one of the last American reporters to leave Berlin before Germany and the United States went to war. His 1942 book, Last Train from Berlin: An Eye-Witness Account of Germany at War describes his observations from Berlin in the year after the departure of Berlin Diary author William L. Shirer. Last Train from Berlin became an American best-seller and was reprinted in 2001, shortly before Smith's death.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early career and CBS years", "target_page_ids": [ 1819095, 922503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 262, 274 ], [ 282, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Smith became a significant member of the \"Murrow Boys\" that made CBS the dominant broadcast news organization of the era. In May 1945, he returned to Berlin to recap the German surrender.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early career and CBS years", "target_page_ids": [ 4561368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1946, Smith went to London for CBS with the title of chief European correspondent. In 1947, he made a long broadcasting tour of most of the nations of Europe, including behind the Iron Curtain. In 1949, Knopf published his The State of Europe, a 408-page country-by-country survey of Europe that drew on these experiences and that argued \"both the American and the Russian policies are mistaken\"; he advocated more \"social reform\" for Western Europe and more \"political liberty\" for Eastern Europe.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early career and CBS years", "target_page_ids": [ 18953051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite these criticisms of Soviet policies, Smith was one of 151 alleged Communist sympathizers named in the Red Channels report issued in June 1950 at the beginning of the Red Scare, effectively placing him on the Hollywood blacklist.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early career and CBS years", "target_page_ids": [ 1530529, 174806, 21556126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 122 ], [ 174, 183 ], [ 216, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reporting on civil-rights riots in Birmingham in the early 1960s, Smith revealed the conspiracy that existed between police commissioner Bull Connor and the KKK to beat up black people and Freedom Riders. He planned to end his report \"Who Speaks for Birmingham?\" (broadcast date: May 18, 1961 with a quote from Edmund Burke, \"The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing,\" but the CBS lawyers intervened. Nonetheless, the documentary caused a stir (leading CBS to be sued and its Birmingham TV station to disaffiliate), and because his contract with CBS forbade editorializing, Smith was suspended and subsequently fired by CBS President William S. Paley.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early career and CBS years", "target_page_ids": [ 663363, 16779, 23814056, 10030, 37653, 366490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 148 ], [ 157, 160 ], [ 189, 203 ], [ 311, 323 ], [ 584, 587 ], [ 672, 688 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On June 5, 1968, Smith and fellow newsman Bill Lawrence were anchoring coverage of the California presidential primary that had stretched to 3am. New York time. As the closing credits for the special were airing, word came in that United States Senator Robert F. Kennedy of New York had been shot at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles. ABC simply showed a wide shot of the chaotic newsroom for several minutes until Smith was able to confirm the initial story and go back on the air with a special report. He and Lawrence continued at their anchor desks for several more hours for reports of Kennedy's condition.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "ABC, 1962 – 1979", "target_page_ids": [ 24569554, 185311, 24909346, 21131695, 21131596, 652622, 1525349, 1449800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 55 ], [ 98, 118 ], [ 231, 252 ], [ 253, 270 ], [ 287, 296 ], [ 304, 320 ], [ 382, 390 ], [ 491, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the summer of 1968, Smith moderated a series of debates on ABC between conservative journalist William F. Buckley Jr. and liberal author Gore Vidal.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "ABC, 1962 – 1979", "target_page_ids": [ 300279, 62169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 120 ], [ 140, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1969, the veteran reporter became the co-anchor of the ABC Evening News, first with Frank Reynolds, then the following year with another CBS alumnus, Harry Reasoner. He began making increasingly conservative commentaries, in particular a hard-line stance in support of the Vietnam War. He contrasted United States President Lyndon B. Johnson's decisive stance in Vietnam with the international failure to take preemptive action against Hitler. During this period, his son, future ABC newsman, Jack Smith (April 25, 1945 – April 7, 2004), was serving with the U.S. Army 7th Cavalry Regiment in South Vietnam and fought at the Battle of Ia Drang. These commentaries endeared him to President Nixon, who rewarded him with a rare, hour-long, one-on-one interview in 1971, at the height of the administration's animus against major newspapers, CBS, and NBC, despite Smith's having broadcast his \"political obituary\" only nine years earlier.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "ABC, 1962 – 1979", "target_page_ids": [ 1282066, 884714, 6675, 32611, 54533, 32087, 400103, 59756, 983126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 101 ], [ 153, 167 ], [ 198, 210 ], [ 276, 287 ], [ 327, 344 ], [ 562, 571 ], [ 572, 592 ], [ 596, 609 ], [ 628, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Smith remained as co-anchor at ABC until 1975, after which Reasoner anchored solo until Barbara Walters joined the broadcast a year later. Smith continued as an analyst until 1979; he left the network nearing full retirement, and as the Roone Arledge era was beginning at ABC News. Sources say that Smith was embittered over the reduction in time allowed for his commentaries and hence resigned after he criticized the revamped World News Tonight format as a \"Punch and Judy show.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "ABC, 1962 – 1979", "target_page_ids": [ 335069, 155217, 23013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 103 ], [ 237, 250 ], [ 460, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among honors which Smith received over the years were DuPont Awards in 1955 and 1963, a Sigma Delta Chi Award for radio journalism in 1957, and an award from the American Jewish Congress in 1960. In 1962 he received the Paul White Award from the Radio Television Digital News Association.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Awards and film roles", "target_page_ids": [ 366684, 6850829, 2743845, 6956369, 4598892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 66 ], [ 88, 109 ], [ 162, 186 ], [ 220, 230 ], [ 246, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Smith also appeared in a number of films, often as himself; The Best Man (1964), The Candidate (1972), The President's Plane Is Missing (1973, a made-for-television production of the Robert J. Serling novel of the same name), Nashville (1975), Network (1976), The Pink Panther Strikes Again (1976), Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977), The Pursuit of D. B. Cooper (1981), The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982), \"The Odd Candidate\" (1974) episode of the television series The Odd Couple (playing himself), the \"Kill Oscar\" episode (1977) of The Bionic Woman (playing himself anchoring an ABC newscast), and both V (1983) and the subsequent 1984 television series. He appeared as the Narrator in the 1987 film Escape From Sobibor.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Awards and film roles", "target_page_ids": [ 1365735, 3232438, 44824051, 23736027, 75259, 101935, 1540319, 146236, 6612094, 1367429, 6307761, 660049, 14705955, 14705731, 1062223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 72 ], [ 81, 94 ], [ 103, 135 ], [ 183, 200 ], [ 226, 235 ], [ 244, 251 ], [ 260, 290 ], [ 299, 333 ], [ 342, 369 ], [ 378, 413 ], [ 482, 496 ], [ 551, 567 ], [ 622, 623 ], [ 639, 672 ], [ 719, 738 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Along with Last Train from Berlin, he wrote three other books, The Population Explosion (1960), the children's book Washington, D.C.: The Story of our Nation's Capital (1967), and a memoir Events Leading Up to My Death: The Life of a Twentieth-Century Reporter (1996).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Awards and film roles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Smith met his future wife, Danish news reporter Benedicte Traberg, while working in Nazi Germany in 1941. Because she was only 20 at the time, she had to return to Denmark for parental approval, but the couple re-united three months later in Berne, Switzerland. The couple were married until Smith's death in 2002. Benedicte died in 2008. Their son Jack was an ABC correspondent who received Peabody and Emmy awards for his coverage of technology. Having left journalism for a job in Silicon Valley, Jack died at age 58 in 2004 of pancreatic cancer in Marin County, California.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 89062, 151921, 363559, 82017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 392, 399 ], [ 404, 408 ], [ 531, 548 ], [ 552, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Museum of Broadcast Communications ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Who's Who in America, 1972 edition", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1914_births", "2002_deaths", "20th-century_American_journalists", "American_broadcast_news_analysts", "American_male_film_actors", "20th-century_American_memoirists", "20th-century_American_non-fiction_writers", "American_radio_reporters_and_correspondents", "American_Rhodes_Scholars", "American_television_news_anchors", "Burials_at_Oak_Hill_Cemetery_(Washington,_D.C.)", "Cajun_people", "Deaths_from_pneumonia_in_Maryland", "People_from_Bethesda,_Maryland", "People_from_Ferriday,_Louisiana", "Writers_from_New_Orleans", "Alcee_Fortier_High_School_alumni", "Tulane_University_alumni", "Alumni_of_Merton_College,_Oxford", "American_war_correspondents", "Male_actors_from_New_Orleans", "ABC_News_personalities", "CBS_News_people", "American_male_journalists", "Maryland_Democrats", "Hollywood_blacklist", "20th-century_American_male_actors" ]

[ "Howard Kingsbury Smith" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Cockney is an accent and dialect of English, mainly spoken in London and its environs, particularly by working-class and lower middle-class Londoners. The term \"Cockney\" has traditionally been used to describe a person from the East End, or born within earshot of Bow Bells, although it most commonly refers to speakers of the accent/dialect from across London.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 256791, 8128, 8569916, 17867, 39903086, 1832268, 21221606, 384811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 20 ], [ 25, 32 ], [ 36, 43 ], [ 62, 68 ], [ 103, 116 ], [ 121, 139 ], [ 228, 236 ], [ 264, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Estuary English is an intermediate accent between Cockney and Received Pronunciation, also widely spoken in and around London, as well as in wider southeastern England. In multicultural areas of London, the Cockney dialect is, to an extent, being replaced by Multicultural London English—a new form of speech with significant Cockney influence.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 106502, 26247, 51885, 4825956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 62, 84 ], [ 172, 185 ], [ 259, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest recorded use of the term is 1362 in passus VI of William Langland's Piers Plowman, where it is used to mean \"a small, misshapen egg\", from Middle English coken + ey (\"a cock's egg\"). Concurrently, the mythical land of luxury Cockaigne (attested from 1305) appeared under a variety of spellings, including Cockayne, Cocknay, and Cockney, and became humorously associated with the English capital London.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Words and phrases", "target_page_ids": [ 305342, 175416, 19196010, 50711, 37402, 258885, 806290, 5777999, 407950, 17867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 78 ], [ 81, 94 ], [ 141, 144 ], [ 152, 166 ], [ 182, 186 ], [ 214, 227 ], [ 238, 247 ], [ 249, 257 ], [ 392, 399 ], [ 408, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The current meaning of Cockney comes from its use among rural Englishmen (attested in 1520) as a pejorative term for effeminate town-dwellers, from an earlier general sense (encountered in \"The Reeve's Tale\" of Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales ) of a \"cokenay\" as \"a child tenderly brought up\" and, by extension, \"an effeminate fellow\" or \"a \". This may have developed from the sources above or separately, alongside such terms as \"\" and \"\" which both have the sense of \"to make a ... or darling of\", \"to indulge or pamper\". By 1600, this meaning of cockney was being particularly associated with the Bow Bells area. In 1617, the travel writer Fynes Moryson stated in his Itinerary that \"Londoners, and all within the sound of Bow Bells, are in reproach called Cockneys.\" The same year, John Minsheu included the term in this newly restricted sense in his dictionary Ductor in Linguas.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Words and phrases", "target_page_ids": [ 588603, 12787, 7627, 384811, 2339914, 4052599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 206 ], [ 211, 227 ], [ 230, 250 ], [ 608, 617 ], [ 651, 664 ], [ 794, 806 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cockney sparrow: Refers to the archetype of a cheerful, talkative Cockney.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Words and phrases", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cockney diaspora: The term Cockney diaspora refers to the migration of Cockney speakers to places outside London, especially new towns. It also refers to the descendants of those people, in areas where there was enough migration for an identification with London to persist in subsequent generations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Words and phrases", "target_page_ids": [ 605942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mockney: Refers to a fake Cockney accent, though the term is sometimes also used as a self-deprecatory moniker, by second, third and subsequent generations of the Cockney diaspora.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Words and phrases", "target_page_ids": [ 1483362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Originally, when London consisted of little more than the walled City, the term applied to all Londoners, and this lingered into the 19th century. As the city grew the definitions shifted to alternatives based on more specific geography, or of dialect. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Region", "target_page_ids": [ 381305, 6883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 64 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The terms \"East End of London\" and \"within the sound of Bow bells\" are sometimes used interchangeably, and the bells are a symbol of East End identity. The area within earshot of the bells changes with the wind, but there is a correlation between the two geographic definitions under the typical prevailing wind conditions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Region", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The traditional core districts of the East End include Bethnal Green, Whitechapel, Spitalfields, Stepney, Wapping, Limehouse, Poplar, Haggerston, Aldgate, Shoreditch, the Isle of Dogs, Hackney, Hoxton, Bow and Mile End. The informal definition of the East End gradually expanded to include towns in south-west Essex such as Barking, East Ham, Leyton, Plaistow, Stratford, Wanstead, Walthamstow and West Ham as these formed part of London's growing conurbation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Region", "target_page_ids": [ 21221606, 93886, 94387, 381457, 94299, 94370, 94161, 94247, 21305953, 246137, 94278, 94123, 58667541, 94117, 743222, 504967, 40100758, 358393, 359242, 94157, 95383, 94305, 94368, 94358, 94380, 265943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 46 ], [ 55, 68 ], [ 70, 81 ], [ 83, 95 ], [ 97, 104 ], [ 106, 113 ], [ 115, 124 ], [ 126, 132 ], [ 134, 144 ], [ 146, 153 ], [ 155, 165 ], [ 171, 183 ], [ 185, 192 ], [ 194, 200 ], [ 202, 205 ], [ 210, 218 ], [ 310, 315 ], [ 324, 331 ], [ 333, 341 ], [ 343, 349 ], [ 351, 359 ], [ 361, 370 ], [ 372, 380 ], [ 382, 393 ], [ 398, 406 ], [ 448, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The church of St Mary-le-Bow is one of the oldest, largest and historically most important of the many churches in the City of London. The definition based on being born within earshot of the bells, cast at the Whitechapel Bell Foundry, reflects the early definition of the term as relating to all of London.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Region", "target_page_ids": [ 384811, 275131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 28 ], [ 211, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The audible range of the Bells is dependent on geography and wind conditions. The east is mostly low lying, a factor which combines with the strength and regularity of the prevailing wind, blowing from west-south-west for nearly three-quarters of the year, to carry the sound further to the east, and more often. A 2012 study showed that in the 19th century, and under typical conditions, the sound of the bells would carry as far as Clapton, Bow and Stratford in the east but only as far as Southwark to the south and Holborn in the west. An earlier study suggested the sound would have carried even further.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Region", "target_page_ids": [ 59391692, 743222, 94305, 54062, 373622, 94101, 60445975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 434, 441 ], [ 443, 446 ], [ 451, 460 ], [ 492, 501 ], [ 509, 514 ], [ 519, 526 ], [ 534, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2012 study showed that in the modern era, noise pollution means that the bells can only be heard as far as Shoreditch. According to legend, Dick Whittington heard the bells 4.5 miles away at the Highgate Archway, in what is now north London. The studies mean that it is credible that Whittington might have heard them on one of the infrequent days that the wind blows from the south.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Region", "target_page_ids": [ 94278, 55706, 739017, 380308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 121 ], [ 144, 160 ], [ 208, 215 ], [ 232, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The church of St. Mary-le-Bow was destroyed in 1666 by the Great Fire of London and rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren. Although the bells were destroyed again in 1941 in the Blitz, they had fallen silent on 13 June 1940 as part of the British anti-invasion preparations of World War II. Before they were replaced in 1961, there was a period when, by the \"within earshot\" definition, no \"Bow Bell\" Cockneys could be born. The use of such a literal definition produces other problems, since the area around the church is no longer residential and the noise pollution means few are born within earshot.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Region", "target_page_ids": [ 7669549, 52946, 112274, 5007072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 79 ], [ 95, 115 ], [ 168, 177 ], [ 233, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cockney speakers have a distinctive accent and dialect, and occasionally use rhyming slang. The Survey of English Dialects took a recording from a long-time resident of Hackney in the 1950s, and the BBC made another recording in 1999 which showed how the accent had changed. One of the characteristic pronunciations of Cockney is th-fronting.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 7264, 8439161, 19344654, 5586515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 90 ], [ 96, 122 ], [ 199, 202 ], [ 330, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The early development of Cockney vocabulary is obscure, but appears to have been heavily influenced by Essex and related eastern dialects, while borrowings from Yiddish, including kosher (originally Hebrew, via Yiddish, meaning legitimate) and stumm ( originally German, via Yiddish, meaning mute), as well as Romani, for example wonga (meaning money, from the Romani \"wanga\" meaning coal), and cushty (Kushty) (from the Romani kushtipen, meaning good) reflect the influence of those groups on the development of the speech.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 2450347, 34272, 146609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 108 ], [ 161, 168 ], [ 310, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Camden Hotten, in his Slang Dictionary of 1859, makes reference to \"their use of a peculiar slang language\" when describing the costermongers of London's East End.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 527254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A dialectological study of Leytonstone in 1964 found that the area's dialect was very similar to that recorded in Bethnal Green by Eva Sivertsen but there were still some features that distinguished Leytonstone speech from Cockney.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 240225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linguistic research conducted in the early 2010s suggests that today, certain elements of the Cockney accent are declining in usage within multicultural areas, where some traditional features of Cockney have been displaced by Multicultural London English, a multiethnolect particularly common amongst young people from diverse backgrounds. Nevertheless, the glottal stop, double negatives, and the vocalisation of the dark L (and other features of Cockney speech) are among the Cockney influences on Multicultural London English, and some rhyming slang terms are still in common usage.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 4825956, 53111373, 172450, 2695881, 7264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 254 ], [ 258, 272 ], [ 358, 370 ], [ 398, 424 ], [ 539, 552 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An influential July 2010 report by Paul Kerswill, professor of sociolinguistics at Lancaster University, Multicultural London English: the emergence, acquisition and diffusion of a new variety, predicted that the Cockney accent will disappear from London's streets within 30 years. The study, funded by the Economic and Social Research Council, said that the accent, which has been around for more than 500 years, is being replaced in London by a new hybrid language. \"Cockney in the East End is now transforming itself into Multicultural London English, a new, melting-pot mixture of all those people living here who learnt English as a second language\", Kerswill said.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 57104576, 316977, 7991854, 415406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 48 ], [ 83, 103 ], [ 307, 343 ], [ 625, 653 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A series of new and expanded towns have often had a strong influence on local speech. Many areas beyond the capital have become Cockney-speaking to a greater or lesser degree, including the new towns of Hemel Hempstead, Basildon and Harlow, and expanded towns such as Grays, Chelmsford and Southend. However, this is, except where least mixed, difficult to discern because of common features: linguistic historian and researcher of early dialects Alexander John Ellis in 1890 stated that Cockney developed owing to the influence of Essex dialect on London speech.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 605942, 258642, 206423, 349345, 438901, 176833, 206431, 779267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 15 ], [ 203, 218 ], [ 220, 228 ], [ 233, 239 ], [ 268, 273 ], [ 275, 285 ], [ 290, 298 ], [ 447, 467 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Writing in 1981, the dialectologist Peter Wright identified the building of the Becontree estate near Dagenham in Essex as influential in the spread of Cockney dialect. This very large estate was built by the Corporation of London to house poor East Enders in a previously rural area of Essex. The residents typically kept their Cockney dialect rather than adopt an Essex dialect. Wright also reports that cockney dialect spread along the main railway routes to towns in the surrounding counties as early as 1923, spreading further after World War II when many refugees left London owing to the bombing, and continuing to speak Cockney in their new homes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 93869, 143776, 367477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 89 ], [ 102, 110 ], [ 209, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A more distant example where the accent stands out is Thetford in Norfolk, which tripled in size from 1957 in a deliberate attempt to attract Londoners by providing social housing funded by the London County Council.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 382004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As with many accents of the United Kingdom, Cockney is non-rhotic. A final -er is pronounced or lowered in broad Cockney. As with all or nearly all non-rhotic accents, the paired lexical sets and , and , and , are merged. Thus, the last syllable of words such as cheetah can be pronounced as well in broad Cockney.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 43120428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Broad is used in words such as bath, path, demand. This originated in London in the 16th–17th centuries and is also part of Received Pronunciation (RP).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 1954637, 26247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 50 ], [ 125, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "T-glottalisation: use of the glottal stop as an allophone of in various positions, including after a stressed syllable. Glottal stops also occur, albeit less frequently for and , and occasionally for mid-word consonants. For example, Richard Whiteing spelt \"Hyde Park\" as Hy' Par'''. Like and light can be homophones. \"Clapham\" can be said as Cla'am (i. e., ). may also be flapped intervocalically, e.g. utter . London are often aspirated in intervocalic and final environments, e.g., upper , utter , rocker , up , out , rock , where RP is traditionally described as having the unaspirated variants. Also, in broad cockney at least, the degree of aspiration is typically greater than in RP, and may often also involve some degree of affrication . Affricatives may be encountered in initial, intervocalic, and final position.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 4112274, 2114724, 7944961, 26247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 236, 252 ], [ 376, 383 ], [ 538, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This feature results in Cockney being often mentioned in textbooks about Semitic languages while explaining how to pronounce the glottal stop.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 26919, 172450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 89 ], [ 129, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Th-fronting:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 5586515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " can become in any environment. \"thin\", \"maths\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " can become in any environment except word-initially when it can be . \"they\", \"bother\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Yod-coalescence in words such as tune or reduce (compare traditional RP ).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The alveolar stops , are often omitted in informal Cockney, in non-prevocalic environments, including some that cannot be omitted in Received Pronunciation. Examples include Dad's gonna and turn left.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 7341077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "H-dropping. Sivertsen considers that is to some extent a stylistic marker of emphasis in Cockney.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 229143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Diphthong alterations:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " → : \"beet\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " → : \"bait\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " → or even in \"vigorous, dialectal\" Cockney. The second element may be reduced or absent (with compensatory lengthening of the first element), so that there are variants such as . This means that pairs such as laugh-life, Barton-biting may become homophones: , . But this neutralisation is an optional, recoverable one: \"bite\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " → : \"choice\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " → or a monophthongal , perhaps with little lip rounding, or : \"boot\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " → this diphthong typically starts in the area of the London , . The endpoint may be , but more commonly it is rather opener and/or completely unrounded, i.e. or . Thus, the most common variants are and , with and also being possible. The broadest Cockney variant approaches . There's also a variant that is used only by women, namely . In addition, there are two monophthongal pronunciations, as in 'no, nah' and , which is used in non-prominent variants. \"coat\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " and have somewhat tenser onsets than in RP: , ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , according to , is being increasingly merged with ~ .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " may be or .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , , , and can be monophthongised to , , (if it doesn't merge with ~ ), and ~ . states that \"no rigid rules can be given for the distribution of monophthongal and diphthongal variants, though the tendency seems to be for the monophthongal variants to be commonest within the utterance, but the diphthongal realisations in utterance-final position, or where the syllable in question is otherwise prominent.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Disyllabic realizations of are also possible, and at least are regarded as very strongly Cockney. Among these, the triphthongal realization of occurs most commonly. There is not a complete agreement about the distribution of these; according to , they \"occur in sentence-final position\", whereas according to , these are \"most common in final position\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other vowel differences include", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " may be or , with the latter occurring before voiced consonants, particularly before : \"back\", \"bad\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " may be , , or before certain voiced consonants, particularly before : \"bed\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " may be a somewhat less open : \"cot\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " has a fully back variant, qualitatively equivalent to cardinal 5, which Beaken (1971) claims characterises \"vigorous, informal\" Cockney.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 6716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " is on occasion somewhat fronted and/or lightly rounded, giving Cockney variants such as , .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " → or a quality like that of cardinal 4, : \"jumped up\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " → or a closing diphthong of the type when in non-final position, with the latter variants being more common in broad Cockney: \"sauce\"-\"source\", \"lord\", \"water\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " → or a centring diphthong/triphthong of the type when in final position, with the latter variants being more common in broad Cockney; thus \"saw\"-\"sore\"-\"soar\", \"law\"-\"lore\", \"war\"-\"wore\". The diphthong is retained before inflectional endings, so that board and pause can contrast with bored and paws . has a somewhat tenser onset than the cardinal , that is .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " becomes something around or even in broad Cockney before dark l. These variants are retained when the addition of a suffix turns the dark l clear. Thus a phonemic split has occurred in London English, exemplified by the minimal pair wholly vs. holy . The development of L-vocalisation (see next section) leads to further pairs such as sole-soul vs. so-sew , bowl vs. Bow , shoulder vs. odour , while associated vowel neutralisations may make doll a homophone of dole, compare dough . All this reinforces the phonemic nature of the opposition and increases its functional load. It is now well-established in all kinds of London-flavoured accents, from broad Cockney to near-RP.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 524841, 524841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 67 ], [ 144, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in some words (particularly good) is central . In other cases, it is near-close near-back , as in traditional RP.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Vocalisation of dark L, hence for Millwall. The actual realisation of a vocalised is influenced by surrounding vowels and it may be realised as , , or . It is also transcribed as a semivowel by some linguists, e.g., Coggle and Rosewarne. However, according to , the vocalised dark l is sometimes an unoccluded lateral approximant, which differs from the RP only by the lack of the alveolar contact. Relatedly, there are many possible vowel neutralisations and absorptions in the context of a following dark L () or its vocalised version; these include:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 2695881, 450864, 69209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 35, 43 ], [ 184, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In broad Cockney, and to some extent in general popular London speech, a vocalised is entirely absorbed by a preceding : e.g., salt and sort become homophones (although the contemporary pronunciation of salt would prevent this from happening), and likewise fault-fought-fort, pause-Paul's, Morden-Malden, water-Walter. Sometimes such pairs are kept apart, in more deliberate speech at least, by a kind of length difference: Morden vs. Malden.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A preceding is also fully absorbed into vocalised . The reflexes of earlier and earlier are thus phonetically similar or identical; speakers are usually ready to treat them as the same phoneme. Thus awful can best be regarded as containing two occurrences of the same vowel, . The difference between musical and music-hall, in an H-dropping broad Cockney, is thus nothing more than a matter of stress and perhaps syllable boundaries.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With the remaining vowels a vocalised is not absorbed, but remains phonetically present as a back vocoid in such a way that and are kept distinct.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The clearest and best-established neutralisations are those of and . Thus rill, reel and real fall together in Cockney as ; while full and fool are and may rhyme with cruel . Before clear (i.e., prevocalic) the neutralisations do not usually apply, thus silly but ceiling-sealing, fully but fooling.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In some broader types of Cockney, the neutralisation of before non-prevocalic may also involve , so that fall becomes homophonous with full and fool .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The other pre- neutralisation which all investigators agree on is that of . Thus, Sal and sale can be merged as , fail and fowl as , and Val, vale-veil and vowel as . The typical pronunciation of railway is .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Siversten, and can also join in this neutralisation. They may on the one hand neutralise with respect to one another, so that snarl and smile rhyme, both ending , and Child's Hill is in danger of being mistaken for Charles Hill; or they may go further into a fivefold neutralisation with the one just mentioned, so that pal, pale, foul, snarl and pile all end in . But these developments are evidently restricted to broad Cockney, not being found in London speech in general.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A neutralisation discussed by Beaken (1971) and Bowyer (1973), but ignored by Siversten (1960), is that of . It leads to the possibility of doll, dole and dull becoming homophonous as or . Wells' impression is that the doll-dole neutralisation is rather widespread in London, but that involving dull less so.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One further possible neutralisation in the environment of a following non-prevocalic is that of and , so that well and whirl become homophonous as .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cockney has been occasionally described as replacing with . For example, (or fwee) instead of three, instead of frosty. Peter Wright, a Survey of English Dialects fieldworker, concluded that this was not a universal feature of Cockneys but that it was more common to hear this in the London area than anywhere else in Britain. This description may also be a result of mishearing the labiodental R as , when it is still a distinct phoneme in Cockney.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 8439161, 51083836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 165 ], [ 386, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An unstressed final -ow may be pronounced . In broad Cockney this can be lowered to . This is common to most traditional, Southern English dialects except for those in the West Country.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 289674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grammatical features:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Use of me instead of my, for example, \"At's me book you got 'ere\". (where 'ere' means 'there'). It cannot be used when \"my\" is emphasised; e.g., \"At's my book you got 'ere.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Use of ain't", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 28723479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Use of double negatives, for example \"I didn't see nuffink\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 194143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the 1980s and 1990s, most of the features mentioned above had partly spread into more general south-eastern speech, giving the accent called Estuary English; an Estuary speaker will use some but not all of the Cockney sounds.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 106502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Cockney accent has long been regarded as an indicator of low status. For example, in 1909 the Conference on the Teaching of English in London Elementary Schools issued by the London County Council, stating that \"the Cockney mode of speech, with its unpleasant twang, is a modern corruption without legitimate credentials, and is unworthy of being the speech of any person in the capital city of the Empire\". Others defended the language variety: \"The London dialect is really, especially on the South side of the Thames, a perfectly legitimate and responsible child of the old kentish tongue [...] the dialect of London North of the Thames has been shown to be one of the many varieties of the Midland or Mercian dialect, flavoured by the East Anglian variety of the same speech\". Since then, the Cockney accent has been more accepted as an alternative form of the English language rather than a lesser one, though the low status mark remains. In the 1950s, the only accent to be heard on the BBC (except in entertainment programmes such as The Sooty Show) was the RP of Standard English, whereas nowadays many different accents, including Cockney or accents heavily influenced by it, can be heard on the BBC. In a survey of 2,000 people conducted by Coolbrands in the autumn of 2008, Cockney was voted equal fourth coolest accent in Britain with 7% of the votes, while The Queen's English was considered the coolest, with 20% of the votes. Brummie was voted least popular, receiving just 2%. The Cockney accent often featured in films produced by Ealing Studios and was frequently portrayed as the typical British accent of the lower classes in movies by Walt Disney, though this was only so in London.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 353838, 4721, 19344654, 1498842, 26247, 18994400, 26247, 308734, 166395, 32917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 200 ], [ 403, 409 ], [ 997, 1000 ], [ 1045, 1059 ], [ 1069, 1071 ], [ 1320, 1327 ], [ 1374, 1393 ], [ 1445, 1452 ], [ 1552, 1566 ], [ 1660, 1671 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Studies have indicated that the heavy use of South East England accents on television and radio may be the cause of the spread of Cockney English since the 1960s. Cockney is more and more influential and some claim that in the future many features of the accent may become standard.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 52926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Studies have indicated that working-class adolescents in areas such as Glasgow have begun to use certain aspects of Cockney and other Anglicisms in their speech. infiltrating the traditional Glasgow patter. For example, TH-fronting is commonly found, and typical Scottish features such as the postvocalic are reduced. Research suggests the use of English speech characteristics is likely to be a result of the influence of London and South East England accents featuring heavily on television, such as the popular BBC One soap opera EastEnders. However, such claims have been criticised.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 68736, 277195, 318427, 18974628, 52926, 9995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 78 ], [ 191, 205 ], [ 263, 271 ], [ 348, 355 ], [ 435, 453 ], [ 534, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Certain features of cockney – Th-fronting, L-vocalisation, T-glottalisation, and the fronting of the and vowels – have spread across the south-east of England and, to a lesser extent, to other areas of Britain. However, Clive Upton has noted that these features have occurred independently in some other dialects, such as TH-fronting in Yorkshire and L-vocalisation in parts of Scotland.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 5586515, 2695881, 4112274, 2183660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 41 ], [ 43, 57 ], [ 59, 75 ], [ 222, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term Estuary English has been used to describe London pronunciations that are slightly closer to RP than Cockney. The variety first came to public prominence in an article by David Rosewarne in the Times Educational Supplement in October 1984. Rosewarne argued that it may eventually replace Received Pronunciation in the south-east. The phonetician John C. Wells collected media references to Estuary English on a website. Writing in April 2013, Wells argued that research by Joanna Przedlacka \"demolished the claim that EE was a single entity sweeping the southeast. Rather, we have various sound changes emanating from working-class London speech, each spreading independently\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Dialect", "target_page_ids": [ 106502, 1052485, 26247, 868237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 202, 230 ], [ 296, 318 ], [ 354, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Pearly Kings and Queens are famous as an East End institution, but that perception is not wholly correct as they are found in other places across London, including Peckham and Penge in south London.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pearly Tradition", "target_page_ids": [ 517915, 94218, 94222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 168, 175 ], [ 180, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adele, musician, from Tottenham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 13041163, 18253957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 22, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Danny Baker, broadcaster, born in Deptford", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 507035, 93977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 34, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Michael Barrymore, actor, comedian and television presenter, born in Bermondsey", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 233412, 93885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 69, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alfie Bass, actor, from Bethnal Green", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 1345088, 93886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 24, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "David Beckham, footballer, born in Leytonstone, raised in Chingford", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 8618, 240225, 93927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 35, 46 ], [ 58, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rob Beckett, comedian, from Lewisham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 38898810, 253414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 28, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roger Bisby, DIY expert, television presenter and 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"anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 38, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "James Buckley, actor and comedian, born in Croydon, raised in Dagenham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 18592362, 491650, 143776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 43, 50 ], [ 62, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jimmy Bullard, footballer and television personality, born in East Ham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 2604719, 359242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 62, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Garry Bushell, journalist and rock musician, from Woolwich", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 30871694, 94398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 50, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Michael Caine, actor, born in Rotherhithe", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 61479, 94266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 30, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cartrain, artist, born in Leytonstone", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 24398523, 240225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 26, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harry Champion, music-hall singer and comedian, born in Bethnal Green", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 2889808, 93886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 56, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charlie Chaplin, comic actor, filmmaker, and composer, 16 April 1889, born in Walworth", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 5142, 94363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 78, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lorraine Chase, actress and model, from Deptford", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 3065095, 93977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 40, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Albert Chevalier, famous Victorian music hall singer, born in Royal Crescent", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 2301706, 22003014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 62, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amy Childs, television personality, born in Barking", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 31299217, 358393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 44, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rylan Clark-Neal, television personality, presenter and singer, born in Stepney", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 37124776, 94299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 72, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cockney Rejects, credited with creating a sub-genre of punk rock called Oi!, which gained its name from the use of Cockney dialect in its songs", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 368323, 8886086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 72, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Joe Cole, footballer, born in Paddington, raised in Somers Town", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 559673, 94211, 251339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 30, 40 ], [ 52, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gemma Collins, television personality and businesswoman, born in Romford", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 34164969, 94264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 65, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roisin Conaty, comedian and actress, from Camden", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 31168185, 95813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 42, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brian Conley, comedian, television presenter and actor, born in Paddington", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 1540102, 94211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 64, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henry Cooper, boxer, born in Lambeth", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 412120, 298747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 29, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tony Cottee, footballer and commentator, born in Forest Gate, raised in East Ham", 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"plaintext": "Peter Dean, actor, born in Hoxton", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 4684428, 94117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 27, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Devlin, rapper, born in Bermondsey, raised in Dagenham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 26589358, 93885, 143776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 24, 34 ], [ 46, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ian Dury, punk musician, born in Harrow, raised in Cranham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 43492, 452233, 93947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 33, 39 ], [ 51, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dani Dyer, actress and television personality, from Newham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 48732428, 95382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 52, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Danny Dyer, actor, from Custom House", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 1910375, 4844470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 24, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Joey Essex, television personality, born in Southwark", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 34165000, 54062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 44, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Craig Fairbrass, actor, born in Mile End", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 6810931, 504967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 32, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Perry Fenwick, actor, from Canning Town", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 1276350, 451027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 27, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Micky Flanagan, comedian, born in Whitechapel, raised in Bethnal Green", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 28799500, 94387, 93886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 34, 45 ], [ 57, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alan Ford, actor, born in Walworth", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 1178441, 94363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 26, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jamie Foreman, actor, born in Bermondsey", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 3029013, 93885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 30, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dean Gaffney, actor, born in Hammersmith", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 48347038, 192166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 29, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bill Gardner, former football hooligan, born in Hornchurch", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 50285502, 94110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 48, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bobby George, darts player and television presenter, born in Manor Park", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 3616483, 418638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 61, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Len Goodman, ballroom dancer and television personality, from Bethnal Green", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 3183879, 93886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 62, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leslie Grantham, actor, born in Camberwell", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 938790, 93907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 32, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jimmy Greaves, footballer, born in Manor Park, raised in Hainault", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 231068, 418638, 296501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 35, 45 ], [ 57, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Steve Harley, musician, frontman of the band Cockney Rebel, born in Deptford", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 1520307, 263088, 93977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 45, 58 ], [ 68, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Simon Harris (musician), DJ and record producer, born in Westminster", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 3157995, 54060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ], [ 57, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Steve Harris, musician, founder of Iron Maiden, from Leytonstone", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 302710, 159172, 240225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 35, 46 ], [ 53, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brian Harvey, musician, from Walthamstow", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 356122, 94358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 29, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Barry Hearn, sporting events promoter, born in Dagenham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 3466333, 143776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 47, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eddie Hearn, sporting events promoter, born in Dagenham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 10099586, 143776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 47, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gordon Hill, also known as the Wealdstone Raider, internet meme, from Wealdstone", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 44706079, 1616492, 94373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 50, 63 ], [ 70, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chas Hodges, musician, member of the \"Rockney\" duo Chas & Dave, from Edmonton", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 2183474, 1431165, 2140991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 51, 62 ], [ 69, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roy Hodgson, football manager and former player, born in Croydon", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 2394550, 491650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 57, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bob Hoskins, actor, raised in Finsbury Park", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 164228, 11796901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 30, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Derek Jameson, journalist and broadcaster from Hackney", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 3109032, 58667541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 47, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Steve Jones, rock guitarist with the Sex Pistols, singer, actor and radio DJ, from Shepherd's Bush", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 351094, 30320, 234275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 37, 48 ], [ 83, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harry Kane, footballer, born in Walthamstow, raised in Chingford", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 30483842, 94358, 93927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 32, 43 ], [ 55, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gary Kemp, musician and actor, born in Smithfield", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 618425, 186876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 39, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Martin Kemp, musician and actor, born in Islington", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 40436204, 95855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 41, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ronnie Knight, former nightclub owner and gangster, born in Hoxton", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 55223448, 94117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 60, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ronnie and Reggie Kray, criminals, born in Hoxton and lived in Bethnal Green", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 210475, 94117, 93886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 43, 49 ], [ 63, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frank Lampard, football manager and former player, born in Romford", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 708834, 94264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 59, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frank Lampard, Sr, former footballer, born in East Ham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 1964066, 359242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 46, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ken Livingstone, former Mayor of London and leader of the Greater London Council, born in Streatham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 18247224, 40338, 61268, 94307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 24, 39 ], [ 58, 80 ], [ 90, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Lydon, also known as Johnny Rotten, punk rock singer with the Sex Pistols, born in Holloway", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 23369262, 30320, 94105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 67, 78 ], [ 88, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kellie Maloney, boxing promoter, born in Peckham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 660067, 94218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 41, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Glen Matlock, rock and punk rock musician, from Paddington", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 159352, 94211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 48, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Derek Martin, actor, born in Bow", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 1575799, 743222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 29, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hoxton Tom McCourt, punk rock/Oi! musician, from Hoxton/Shoreditch", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 12740162, 94117, 94278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 49, 55 ], [ 56, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lenny McLean, bare knuckle/unlicensed boxer, actor, born in Hoxton", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 911356, 94117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 60, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paul Merson, footballer, manager and Sky Sports pundit, from Harlesden", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 1014113, 30863501, 94058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 37, 47 ], [ 61, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Warren Mitchell, actor, known for playing Alf Garnett in Till Death Us Do Part, from Stoke 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Canning Town, raised in Beckton", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 5008457, 451027, 872221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 32, 44 ], [ 56, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chubby Oates, club comedian and actor, from Bermondsey", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 8003668, 93885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 44, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Des O'Connor, television personality and singer, born in Stepney", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 151547, 94299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 57, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cliff Parisi, actor and former stand-up comedian, born in Poplar", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 3204106, 94247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 58, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Joe Pasquale, comedian, actor and television presenter, born in Grays", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 1197173, 438901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 64, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dave Peacock, musician, member of the \"Rockney\" duo Chas & Dave, from Enfield", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 2183485, 1431165, 323444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 52, 63 ], [ 70, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jack Petchey, businessman and philanthropist, born in Plaistow", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 18699897, 95383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 54, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Martin Peters, former footballer and manager, born in Plaistow, raised in Dagenham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 484803, 95383, 143776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 54, 62 ], [ 74, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Claude Rains, the actor born in Camberwell in 1889 became famous after abandoning his heavy Cockney accent and developing a unique Mid-Atlantic accent described as \"half American, half English and a little Cockney thrown in\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 63527, 93907, 767248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 32, 42 ], [ 131, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harry Redknapp, former footballer and manager, born in Poplar", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 971392, 94247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 55, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mike Reid, actor and comedian, from Hackney", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 1301908, 58667541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 36, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shane Richie, actor and television presenter, born in Kensington", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 1108041, 54732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 54, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jonathan Ross, television and radio presenter, born in St Pancras, raised in Leytonstone", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 151585, 94272, 240225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 55, 65 ], [ 77, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paul Ross, television and radio presenter, born in Romford, raised in Leytonstone", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 1597326, 94264, 240225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 51, 58 ], [ 70, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roy Shaw, author, businessman and former criminal, born in Stepney, lived in Bethnal Green and Waltham Abbey", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 5337885, 94299, 93886, 1404622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 59, 66 ], [ 77, 90 ], [ 95, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Teddy Sheringham, footballer and manager, from Highams Park", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 526155, 2745659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 47, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marina Sirtis, actress, born in Hackney", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 2597320, 58667541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 32, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arthur Smith, comedian, from Bermondsey", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 469462, 93885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 29, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stacey Solomon, singer and television personality, born in Dagenham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 24595375, 143776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 59, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Terence Stamp, actor, born in Stepney", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 215628, 94299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 30, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nicola Stapleton, actress, born in Elephant and Castle, raised in Walworth", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 4322791, 234196, 94363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 35, 54 ], [ 66, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tommy Steele, 1950s pop and film artist, born in Bermondsey", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 193048, 93885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 49, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mark Strong, actor, born in Clerkenwell", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 850850, 93935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 28, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alan Sugar, business magnate and television personality, from Hackney", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 417559, 58667541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 62, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Joe Swash, actor and television presenter, from Islington", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 1925568, 95855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 48, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reg Varney, actor and comedian, born in Canning Town", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 2153055, 451027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 40, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Terry Venables, former footballer and manager, from Dagenham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 760573, 143776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 52, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sid Vicious, punk rock musician, born in Lewisham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 158287, 253414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 41, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gregg Wallace, television presenter and former greengrocer, born in Peckham", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 5657867, 94218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 68, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jessie Wallace, actress, born in Enfield", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 673126, 323444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 33, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Danniella Westbrook, actress, born in Walthamstow", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 1374188, 94358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 38, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Barbara Windsor, actress, born in Shoreditch", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 158991, 94278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 34, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amy Winehouse, musician, born in Enfield, raised in Southgate", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 939583, 323444, 94291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 33, 40 ], [ 52, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anna Wing, actress, from Hackney", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 1485130, 58667541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 25, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ray Winstone, actor, born in Homerton, raised in Plaistow and Enfield", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 633652, 94108, 95383, 323444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 29, 37 ], [ 49, 57 ], [ 62, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jake Wood, actor and GEICO gecko voiceover artist, born in Westminster", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 3763999, 21396796, 54060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 21, 32 ], [ 59, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adam Woodyatt, actor, known for his portrayal of the character and internet meme Ian Beale, from Walthamstow", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 1108022, 1983108, 94358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 81, 90 ], [ 97, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jess Wright, television personality, model and singer, born in Tower Hamlets", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 38555354, 95391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 63, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mark Wright, television personality and footballer, born in Buckhurst Hill", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Notable Cockneys", "target_page_ids": [ 31636098, 852477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 60, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of Ken Loach's early films were set in London. Loach has a reputation for using genuine dialect speakers in films:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 46398901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 3 Clear Sundays", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Up the Junction", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 41661908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cathy Come Home", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 905013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Poor Cow (the title being a Cockney expression for \"poor woman\")", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 3138227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alfie", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 98503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sparrows Can't Sing. The film had to be subtitled when released in the United States owing to difficulties with audience comprehension.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 6672250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bronco Bullfrog. The film's tagline was \"Cockney youth - with English subtitles\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 12728222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Long Good Friday. The DVD of this film has an extra feature that explains the rhyming slang used.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 1428872, 7264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 83, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " My Fair Lady", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 4836072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In A Clockwork Orange, the fictional language used of Nadsat had some influence from Cockney.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 1659954, 46264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ], [ 55, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mary Poppins (and featuring Dick Van Dyke's infamous approximation of a Cockney accent)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 77856, 462384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 29, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mary Poppins Returns (with Lin-Manuel Miranda, who plays Jack, stating \"If they [the audience] didn't like Dick's accent, they'll be furious with mine\")", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 47886328, 13072534, 462384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 28, 46 ], [ 108, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007)— Mrs. Nellie Lovett and Tobias Ragg have Cockney accents.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 14634975, 2800726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 61 ], [ 66, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Passport to Pimlico. A newspaper headline in the film refers to the Pimlico residents as \"crushed Cockneys\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 254991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cockneys vs Zombies", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 38075084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Equestria Girls – Spring Breakdown. Ragamuffin, portrayed by Jason Michas, has a Cockney accent.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pinocchio, The Coachman, voiced by Charles Judels, has a Cockney accent.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 187010, 7464464, 13911798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 24 ], [ 36, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Gentlemen", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 57326351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Football Factory", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 1033721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Green Street Elite", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 2405253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Legend. The two main characters, Ronnie and Reggie Kray plus a certain number of other characters have a cockney accent.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 43033675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peaky Blinders. The characters Alfie Solomons and Billie Kimber speak with a cockney accent.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Use in films and series", "target_page_ids": [ 38432808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cockney Wanker", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 856551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " EastEnders''", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Estuary English", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 106502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Languages of the United Kingdom", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 330788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of British regional nicknames", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 749563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Madras Bashai and Bambaiya Hindi, similar working class dialects of Tamil and Hindi respectively used in the cities of Chennai and Mumbai, India", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 619726, 610056, 29919, 13652, 45139, 19189, 14533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 19, 33 ], [ 69, 74 ], [ 79, 84 ], [ 120, 127 ], [ 132, 138 ], [ 140, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " London slang", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4825956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mockney", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1483362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Possessive me", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1276833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cockney rhyming slang", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " — Listen to examples of London and other regional accents and dialects of the UK on the British Library's \"Sounds Familiar\" website", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "English_language_in_England", "English_language_in_London", "British_regional_nicknames", "City_colloquials", "Culture_in_London", "Working-class_culture_in_England", "English_words" ]

[ "Cockney English" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Convention on the Future of the European Union, also known as the European Convention, was a body established by the European Council in December 2001 as a result of the Laeken Declaration. Inspired by the Philadelphia Convention that led to the adoption of the United States federal Constitution, its purpose was to produce a draft constitution for the European Union for the Council to finalise and adopt. The Convention finished its work in July 2003 with their Draft Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe. See History of the European Constitution for developments after this point.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9582, 11948277, 1743283, 31644, 5253, 9317, 234500, 234500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 137 ], [ 174, 192 ], [ 210, 233 ], [ 266, 300 ], [ 337, 349 ], [ 358, 372 ], [ 469, 520 ], [ 526, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2001, when the European Council met in Laeken, a fresh declaration was adopted committing the EU to greater democracy, transparency and efficiency, and setting out the process by which a constitution could be arrived at. This was to be achieved by a convention, which was intended to comprise the main 'stakeholders', in order to examine questions about the future direction of the EU. It was to produce a \"final document\", which soon became the draft constitution, to be handed over to the Intergovernmental Conference, scheduled for 2004, which would finalise a new treaty.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Laeken Declaration", "target_page_ids": [ 7959, 351227, 5253, 160455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 129 ], [ 131, 143 ], [ 199, 211 ], [ 503, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The European Convention was established with 102 members. Former French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing was appointed Chairman, former Italian Prime Minister Giuliano Amato and former Belgian Prime Minister Jean-Luc Dehaene were appointed Vice-Chairmen. Its members were drawn from the national parliaments of member states and candidate countries, the European Parliament, the European Commission, and representatives of heads of state and government. The Convention met for the first time in February 2002, and met thereafter in plenary session once or twice per month. It deliberated in public in the European Parliament building in Brussels.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 5843419, 79474, 14532, 434935, 294861, 9581, 9974, 13456, 37570, 2272961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 71 ], [ 82, 106 ], [ 138, 145 ], [ 161, 175 ], [ 210, 226 ], [ 356, 375 ], [ 381, 400 ], [ 425, 439 ], [ 444, 454 ], [ 534, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 13 member præsidium of the convention consisted of the chairman and vice-chairmen along with:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Government Representatives: Ana de Palacio y del Valle-Lersundi (Spain - PP); Henning Christophersen (Denmark - Venstre); Georgios Katiforis (Greece - PASOK).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 1842445, 1769083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 63 ], [ 78, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "European Commission Representatives: Michel Barnier - UMP; António Vitorino - PS", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 595565, 898039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 51 ], [ 59, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "European Parliament Representatives: Klaus Hänsch - SPD; Íñigo Méndez de Vigo y Montojo - PP", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 858148, 1802158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 49 ], [ 57, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Parliament Representatives: Gisela Stuart, Labour Party UK; John Bruton, FG Ireland", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 415020, 208031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 50 ], [ 69, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Invitee: Alojz Lojze Peterle - NSi (Slovenia)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 1401406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Conference on the Future of Europe (2019 / 2020–2022)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 62395964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " European Convention (1999–2000) which drafted the: Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (2000 / 2009)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26784691, 439040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ], [ 52, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " European Convention (official website, no longer updated)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Treaty_establishing_a_Constitution_for_Europe", "Constitutional_conventions_(political_meeting)", "Diplomatic_conferences_in_Belgium", "21st-century_diplomatic_conferences", "2001_in_international_relations", "2001_in_the_European_Union", "Valéry_Giscard_d'Estaing" ]

[ "European Convention" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The earliest arrival of people in the islands now known as The Bahamas was in the first millennium AD. The first inhabitants of the islands were the Lucayans, an Arawakan-speaking Taino people, who arrived between about 500 and 800 AD from other islands of the Caribbean.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3451, 150788, 3541992, 31998621, 18956035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 70 ], [ 149, 157 ], [ 162, 170 ], [ 180, 185 ], [ 261, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Recorded history began on 12 October 1492, when Christopher Columbus landed on the island of Guanahani, which he renamed San Salvador Island, on his first voyage to the New World. The earliest permanent European settlement was in 1648 on Eleuthera. During the 18th century slave trade, many Africans were brought to the Bahamas as slaves to work unpaid. Their descendants now constitute 85% of the Bahamian population. The Bahamas gained independence from the United Kingdom on July 10, 1973.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5635, 1059062, 673956, 2393552, 951708, 6585135, 31717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 68 ], [ 93, 102 ], [ 121, 140 ], [ 169, 178 ], [ 238, 247 ], [ 273, 284 ], [ 460, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sometime between 500 and 800 AD, Taínos began crossing in dugout canoes from Hispaniola and/or Cuba to the Bahamas. Suggested routes for the earliest migrations have been from Hispaniola to the Caicos Islands, from Hispaniola or eastern Cuba to Great Inagua Island, and from central Cuba to Long Island (in the central Bahamas). William Keegan argues that the most likely route was from Hispaniola or Cuba to Great Inagua. Granberry and Vescelius argue for two migrations, from Hispaniola to the Turks and Caicos Islands, and from Cuba to Great Inagua.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early history", "target_page_ids": [ 490476, 13714, 5042481, 30217, 993188, 38955139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 70 ], [ 77, 87 ], [ 95, 99 ], [ 194, 208 ], [ 245, 264 ], [ 291, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the initial colonisation(s), the Lucayan expanded throughout the Bahamas in some 800 years (c. 700 – c. 1500), growing to a population of about 40,000. Population density at the time of first European contact was highest in the south-central area of the Bahamas, declining towards the north, reflecting the migration pattern and progressively shorter time of occupation of the northern islands. Known Lucayan settlement sites are confined to the nineteen largest islands in the archipelago, or to smaller cays located less than one km. from those islands. Population density in the southernmost Bahamas remained lower, probably due to the drier climate there (less than 800mm of rain a year on Great Inagua Island and the Turks and Caicos Islands and only slightly higher on Acklins and Crooked Islands and Mayaguana).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early history", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1492 Christopher Columbus sailed from Spain on his first voyage with three ships, the Niña, the Pinta, and the flagship, Santa Maria, seeking a direct route to Asia. On 12 October 1492 Columbus reached an island in the Bahamas and claimed it for Spain, an event long regarded by Europeans as the 'discovery' of America. This island was called Guanahani by the Lucayan, and San Salvador by the Spanish. The identity of the first American landfall by Columbus remains controversial, but many authors accept Samuel E. Morison's identification of Columbus' San Salvador as what was later called Watling (or Watling's) Island. Its name has been officially changed to San Salvador. Columbus visited several other islands in the Bahamas before sailing to present-day Cuba and afterwards to Hispaniola.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European exploration", "target_page_ids": [ 5635, 26667, 7375831, 689, 1059062, 324385, 673956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 28 ], [ 41, 46 ], [ 54, 66 ], [ 163, 167 ], [ 346, 355 ], [ 508, 525 ], [ 665, 677 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bahamas held little interest to the Spanish except as a source of slave labor. Nearly the entire population of Lucayan (almost 40,000 people total) were transported to other islands as laborers over the next 30 years. When the Spanish decided to remove the remaining Lucayans to Hispaniola in 1520, they could find only eleven. The islands remained abandoned and depopulated for 130 years afterwards. With no gold to be found, and the population removed, the Spanish effectively abandoned the Bahamas. They retained titular claims to them until the Peace of Paris in 1783, when they ceded them to Britain in exchange for East Florida.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European exploration", "target_page_ids": [ 15032869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 553, 575 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Europeans first landed on the islands, they reported the Bahamas were lushly forested. Cleared to develop the land for sugarcane plantations, the forests have not regrown and have not been replanted.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European exploration", "target_page_ids": [ 13873779, 1055763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 133 ], [ 134, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For many years, historians believed that The Bahamas was not colonised until the 17th century. However, recent studies show that there may have been attempts of colonisation by groups from Spain, France, Britain, and the Netherlands. The French settled in Abaco in 1565, and tried again in 1625.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "European exploration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1648 a group from Bermuda called 'The Company of Adventurers for the Plantation of the Islands of Eleutheria,' which was led by William Sayle, sailed to the Bahamas to found a colony. These early settlers were Puritans and republicans. Bermuda was becoming overcrowded, and the Bahamas offered both religious and political freedom and economic opportunity. The larger of the company's two ships, the William, wrecked on the reef at the north end of what is now called Eleuthera Island, with the loss of all provisions. Despite the arrival of additional settlers, including Europeans, slaves and former African slaves from Bermuda and the receipt of relief supplies from Virginia and New England, the Eleuthera colony struggled for many years, hampered by poor soil, fighting between settlers, and conflict with the Spanish. In the mid-1650s many of the settlers returned to Bermuda. The remaining settlers founded communities on Harbour Island and Saint George's Cay (Spanish Wells) at the north end of Eleuthera. In 1670 about 20 families lived in the Eleuthera communities.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early English settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 3460, 3288697, 24091, 1548104, 951708, 32432, 21531764, 2669092, 4124238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 28 ], [ 131, 144 ], [ 213, 220 ], [ 226, 237 ], [ 471, 487 ], [ 673, 681 ], [ 686, 697 ], [ 932, 946 ], [ 971, 984 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1666 other colonists from Bermuda settled on New Providence, which soon became the centre of population and commerce in the Bahamas, with almost 500 people living on the island by 1670. Unlike the Eleutherians, who were primarily farmers, the first settlers on New Providence made their living from the sea, salvaging (mainly Spanish) wrecks, making salt, and taking fish, turtles, conchs and ambergris. Farmers from Bermuda soon followed the seamen to New Providence, where they found good, plentiful land. Neither the Eleutherian colony nor the settlement on New Providence had any legal standing under English law. In 1670 the Proprietors of Carolina were issued a patent for the Bahamas, but the governors sent by the Proprietors had difficulty imposing their authority on the independent-minded residents of New Providence.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early English settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 381047, 290749, 1697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 62 ], [ 385, 390 ], [ 396, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The early settlers continued to live much as they had in Bermuda, fishing, hunting turtles, whales, and seals, finding ambergris, making salt on the drier islands, cutting the abundant hardwoods of the islands for lumber, dyewood and medicinal bark; and wrecking, or salvaging wrecks. The Bahamas were close to the sailing routes between Europe and the Caribbean, so shipwrecks in the islands were common, and wrecking was the most lucrative occupation available to the Bahamians.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early English settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 1697, 9280142, 33787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 128 ], [ 222, 229 ], [ 254, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bahamians soon came into conflict with the Spanish over the salvaging of wrecks. The Bahamian wreckers drove the Spanish away from their wrecked ships, and attacked Spanish salvagers, seizing goods the Spanish had already recovered from the wrecks. When the Spanish raided the Bahamas, the Bahamians in turn commissioned privateers against Spain, even though England and Spain were at peace. In 1684 the Spanish burned the settlements on New Providence and Eleuthera, after which they were largely abandoned. New Providence was settled a second time in 1686 by colonists from Jamaica.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early English settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 50767, 28828983, 15660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 325, 334 ], [ 416, 438 ], [ 580, 587 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1690s English privateers (England was then at war with France) made a base in the Bahamas. In 1696 Henry Every (or Avery), using the assumed name Henry Bridgeman, brought his ship Fancy, loaded with pirates' loot, into Nassau harbor. Avery bribed the governor, Nicholas Trott (uncle of the Nicholas Trott who presided at the trial of Stede Bonnet), with gold and silver, and by leaving him the Fancy, still loaded with 50 tons of elephant tusks and 100 barrels of gunpowder. Following peace with France in 1697, many of the privateers became pirates. From this time the pirates increasingly made Nassau, the Bahamian capital founded in 1694, their base. The governors appointed by the Proprietors usually made a show of suppressing the pirates, but most were accused of dealing with them. By 1701 England was at war with France and Spain. In 1703 and in 1706 combined French-Spanish fleets attacked and sacked Nassau, after which some settlers left, and the Proprietors gave up on trying to govern the islands.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early English settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 5843419, 3439075, 15411417, 24184200, 1290566, 9279, 50715, 28775908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 68 ], [ 106, 117 ], [ 187, 192 ], [ 297, 311 ], [ 341, 353 ], [ 437, 451 ], [ 549, 556 ], [ 897, 916 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With no functioning government in the Bahamas, English privateers operated from Nassau as their base, in what has been called a \"privateers' republic,\" which lasted for eleven years. The raiders attacked French and Spanish ships, while French and Spanish forces burned Nassau several times. The War of the Spanish Succession ended in 1714, but some privateers were slow to get the news, or reluctant to accept it, and slipped into piracy. One estimate puts at least 1,000 pirates in the Bahamas in 1713, outnumbering the 200 families of more permanent settlers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early English settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 33604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 295, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"privateers' republic\" in Nassau became a \"pirates' republic\". At least 20 pirate captains used Nassau or other places in the Bahamas as a home port during this period, including Henry Jennings, Edward Teach (Blackbeard), Benjamin Hornigold and Stede Bonnet. Many settler families moved from New Providence to Eleuthera or Abaco to escape harassment from the pirates. On the other hand, residents of Harbor Island were happy to serve as middlemen for the pirates, as merchants from New England and Virginia came there to exchange needed supplies for pirate plunder. As mentioned above, the activities of pirates provoked frequent and brutal retaliatory attacks by the French and Spanish.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early English settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 7421387, 4572, 576008, 1290566, 856364, 21531764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 197 ], [ 199, 211 ], [ 226, 244 ], [ 249, 261 ], [ 327, 332 ], [ 486, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Starting in 1713, Woodes Rogers had conceived the idea of leading an expedition to Madagascar to suppress the pirates there and establish it as a British colony. Rogers' friends Richard Steele and Joseph Addison eventually convinced him to tackle the pirates nest in the Bahamas, instead. Rogers and others formed a company to fund the venture. They persuaded the Proprietors of Carolina to surrender the government of the Bahamas to the king, while retaining title to the land. In 1717 King George appointed Rogers governor of the Bahamas and issued a proclamation granting a pardon to any pirate who surrendered to a British governor within one year.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reasserting British control", "target_page_ids": [ 1197928, 18964, 163676, 163645, 46852, 68621978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 31 ], [ 83, 93 ], [ 178, 192 ], [ 197, 211 ], [ 487, 498 ], [ 553, 597 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Word of the appointment of a new governor and of the offer of pardons reached Nassau ahead of Rogers and his forces. Some of the pirates were willing to accept a pardon and retire from piracy. Henry Jennings and Christopher Winter, sailed off to find British authorities to confirm their acceptance of the amnesty.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reasserting British control", "target_page_ids": [ 7421387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Others were not ready to give up. Many of those were Jacobites, supporters of the House of Stuart, who identified as enemies of the Hanoverian King George. Still others simply identified as rebels, or thought they were better off as pirates than trying to earn an honest living. When a Royal Navy ship brought official word to Nassau of the pardon offer, many pirates planned to accept. Soon, however, the recalcitrant parties gained the upper hand, eventually forcing the Navy ship to leave.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reasserting British control", "target_page_ids": [ 15925, 253174, 176558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 62 ], [ 82, 97 ], [ 132, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Blackbeard, Stede Bonnet, Nicholas Brown and Edmond Condent left the Bahamas for other territories. Charles Vane, with \"Calico Jack\" Rackham and Edward England in his crew, came to prominence at this time. Vane worked to organise resistance to the anticipated arrival of Royal authority, even appealing to James Francis Edward Stuart, the Stuart pretender, for aid in holding the Bahamas and capturing Bermuda for the Stuarts. As aid from the Stuarts failed to materialise and the date for Rogers' arrival approached, Vane and his crew prepared to leave Nassau.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reasserting British control", "target_page_ids": [ 4572, 1290566, 8385839, 5988164, 418164, 2825496, 61987, 526207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 12, 24 ], [ 26, 40 ], [ 100, 112 ], [ 120, 131 ], [ 145, 159 ], [ 306, 333 ], [ 346, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Woodes Rogers arrived in Nassau in late July 1718, with his own 460-ton warship, three ships belonging to his company, and an escort of three ships of the Royal Navy. Vane's ship was trapped in Nassau harbor. His crew set that ship on fire, sending it towards Rogers' ships, and escaped in the ensuing confusion in a smaller ship they had seized from another pirate. The remaining population welcomed Rogers; they comprised about 200 settlers and 500 to 700 pirates who wanted to receive pardons, most prominently Benjamin Hornigold. After the pirates' surrender, the Proprietors leased their land in the Bahamas to Rogers' company for 21 years.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reasserting British control", "target_page_ids": [ 576008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 514, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rogers controlled Nassau, but Charles Vane was loose and threatening to drive the governor and his forces out. Learning that the King of Spain wanted to expel English from the islands, Rogers worked to improve the defenses of Nassau. He lost nearly 100 men of the new forces due to an unidentified disease, and the Navy ships left for other assignments. Rogers sent four of his ships to Havana to assure the Spanish governor that he was suppressing piracy and to trade for supplies. The crews of ex-pirates and men who had come with Rogers all turned to piracy. The ex-pirate Benjamin Hornigold later caught ten men at Green Turtle Cay as part of Rogers' suppression effort. Eight were found guilty and hanged in front of the fort.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reasserting British control", "target_page_ids": [ 5738846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 619, 635 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vane attacked several small settlements in the Bahamas but, after he refused to attack a stronger French frigate, he was deposed for cowardice and replaced as captain by \"Calico Jack\" Rackham. Vane never returned to the Bahamas; he was eventually caught, convicted and executed in Jamaica. After nearly being captured by Jamaican privateers, and hearing that the king had extended the deadline for pardons for piracy, Rackham and his crew returned to Nassau to surrender to Woodes Rogers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reasserting British control", "target_page_ids": [ 418164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Nassau Rackham became involved with Anne Bonny; he tried to arrange an annulment of her marriage to another ex-pirate, James Bonny. Rogers blocked the annulment, and Rackham and Bonny left Nassau to be pirates again, taking a small crew and Bonny's friend Mary Read with them. Within months, Rackham, Bonny and Read were captured and taken to Jamaica. They were convicted of piracy, and Rackham was executed. Bonny and Read were sent to prison, as both were pregnant and therefore excluded from execution. Read died in prison, while Bonny's fate is unknown.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reasserting British control", "target_page_ids": [ 934180, 418964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 49 ], [ 259, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Britain and Spain went to war again in 1719, many of the ex-pirates were commissioned by the British government as privateers. A Spanish invasion fleet set out for the Bahamas, but was diverted to Pensacola, Florida when it was seized by the French. Rogers continued to improve the defenses of Nassau, spending his personal fortune and going heavily into debt to do so. In 1720, the Spaniards finally attacked Nassau. Rogers returned to Britain in 1722 to plead for repayment of the money he had borrowed to build up Nassau, only to find he had been replaced as governor. He was sent to debtors' prison, although his creditors later absolved his debts, gaining him release.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reasserting British control", "target_page_ids": [ 109162, 25799802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 220 ], [ 388, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the publication in 1724 of A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pirates, which praised Rogers' efforts to suppress piracy in the Bahamas, his fortunes began to improve. The king awarded him a pension, retroactive to 1721. In 1728 Rogers was appointed Governor of the Bahamas for a second term. He dissolved the colony's assembly when it would not approve taxes to repair Nassau's defenses. He died in Nassau in 1732.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reasserting British control", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1741, Governor John Tinker and Peter Henry Bruce constructed Fort Montague. Additionally, the Governor also reported a privateering boom in the Thirteen Colonies in North America. He also reported that over 2300 sumptuous houses were built. In 1768 Governor William Shirley filled in mosquito-breeding swamps and extended Nassau.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Latter 18th century", "target_page_ids": [ 43730494, 34681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ], [ 147, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the American War of Independence the Bahamas was attacked by American and allied forces on several occasions. In 1778, American forces launched an amphibious assault against Nassau, resulting in its two-week occupation. In 1782, Spanish forces under General Galvez captured the Bahamas in 1782. A British-American Loyalist expedition led by Colonel Andrew Deveaux, recaptured the islands in 1783. After the American Revolution, the British issued land grants to American Loyalists who had gone into exile from the newly established United States. The sparse population of the Bahamas tripled within a few years. The Loyalists developed cotton as a commodity crop, but it dwindled from insect damage and soil exhaustion. In addition to slaves they brought with them, the planters' descendants imported more African slaves for labour.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Latter 18th century", "target_page_ids": [ 771, 3135955, 869687, 25905153, 26749051, 27986798, 1973, 1146288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 39 ], [ 154, 187 ], [ 257, 271 ], [ 272, 292 ], [ 356, 370 ], [ 372, 394 ], [ 414, 433 ], [ 469, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of the current inhabitants in the islands are descended from the slaves brought to work on the Loyalist plantations. In addition, thousands of captive Africans, who were liberated from foreign slave ships by the British navy after the abolition of the British slave trade in 1807, were resettled as free persons in the Bahamas.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Latter 18th century", "target_page_ids": [ 498157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 240, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 1820s, following the Adams–Onís Treaty ceding Florida from Spain to the United States, hundreds of African slaves and Black Seminoles escaped from Florida, most settling on Andros Island in the Bahamas. Three hundred escaped in a mass flight in 1823. While the flow was reduced by federal construction of a lighthouse at Cape Florida in 1825, slaves continued to find freedom in the Bahamas. In August 1834, the traditional plantation life ended with the British emancipation of slaves throughout most of its colonies. Freedmen chose to work on their own small plots of land when possible.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "19th century", "target_page_ids": [ 236971, 2572036, 612578, 3357821, 1811656, 13149886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 51 ], [ 131, 146 ], [ 186, 199 ], [ 334, 346 ], [ 468, 530 ], [ 532, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1830s and 1840s, tensions rose between Britain and the United States after American merchant ships, part of the coastwise slave trade, put into Nassau or were wrecked on its reefs. These included the Hermosa (1840) and the Creole (1841), the latter brought in after a slave revolt on board. Britain had notified nations that slaves brought into Bahama and Bermuda waters would be forfeited and freed the slaves, refusing US efforts to recover them. In 1853 Britain and the US signed a claims treaty and submitted to arbitration for claims dating to 1814; they paid each other in 1855.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "19th century", "target_page_ids": [ 49346920, 1219284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 214 ], [ 230, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With emancipation, Caribbean societies inherited a rigid racial stratification that was reinforced by the unequal distribution of wealth and power. The three-tier race structure, of whites, mixed-race, and primarily blacks, who comprised the large majority, existed well into the 1940s and in some societies beyond. Like African Americans, many also have European and Native American ancestry. Caribbean societies continue to struggle with racial issues.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "19th century", "target_page_ids": [ 243749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bahamas during the American Civil War prospered as a base for Confederate blockade-running, bringing in cotton to be shipped to the mills of England and running out arms and munitions. None of these provided any lasting prosperity to the islands, nor did attempts to grow different kinds of crops for export.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "19th century", "target_page_ids": [ 18802928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1911, there was a short-lived movement to make the Bahamas part of Canada. Although the movement enjoyed the support of many in Nassau and from the head of Sun Life, a Canadian insurance company, the movement failed. The failure of the movement was, in part, due to the British government's opposition to uniting a predominantly Black colony with a predominantly white country.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Colonial 20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 5042916, 21871, 1162161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 76 ], [ 131, 137 ], [ 159, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In World War I organisations such as the Imperial Order of the Daughters of Empire and the Bahamas Red Cross Guild, began collecting money, food and clothing for soldiers and civilians in Europe. \"The Gallant Thirty\" Bahamians set out to join the British West Indies Regiment as early as 1915 and as many as 1,800 served in the armed forces of Canada, Britain and the United States.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Colonial 20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oakes Field, the Bahamas first airport, was opened in Nassau in January 1940. It was named after Harry Oakes, a millionaire who made a large contribution to its creation. Prior to that, aviation in the Bahamas was largely carried out by seaplanes.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Colonial 20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 2274079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Duke of Windsor was installed as governor of the Bahamas, arriving at that post in August 1940 with his new Duchess. They were appalled at the condition of Government House, but they \"tried to make the best of a bad situation.\" He did not enjoy the position, and referred to the islands as \"a third-class British colony\". He opened the small local parliament on October 29, 1940, and they visited the 'Out Islands' that November, which caused some controversy because of on whose yacht they were cruising. The British Foreign Office strenuously objected when the Duke and Duchess planned to tour aboard a yacht belonging to a Swedish magnate, Axel Wenner-Gren, whom American intelligence wrongly believed to be a close friend of Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring. The Duke was praised, however, for his efforts to combat poverty on the islands, although he was as contemptuous of the Bahamians as he was of most non-white peoples of the Empire. He was also praised for his resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in June 1942, when there was a \"full-scale riot,\" even though he blamed the trouble on \"mischief makers – communists\" and \"men of Central European Jewish descent, who had secured jobs as a pretext for obtaining a deferment of draft\". The Duke resigned the post on 16 March 1945.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Colonial 20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 18835362, 888320, 46854, 1228774, 17885, 13487, 21871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 37, 60 ], [ 112, 119 ], [ 649, 665 ], [ 735, 744 ], [ 755, 769 ], [ 1026, 1032 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 1942 the United Kingdom asked Canada to provide military support in Nassau, in part to provide protection services to H.R.H. the Duke of Windsor. No. 33 company of the Veterans Guard of Canada was raised and arrived in June. No 33 company were relieved in 1943 by a company of The Pictou Highlanders. The Canadian garrison left Nassau in 1946 ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Colonial 20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 3110164, 2491187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 202 ], [ 288, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The wartime airfield became Nassau's international airport in 1957 and helped spur the growth of mass tourism, which accelerated after Havana was closed to American tourists in 1961. Freeport, on the island of Grand Bahama, was established as a free trade zone in the 1950s and became the Bahama's second city. Bank secrecy combined with the lack of corporate and income taxes led to a rapid growth in the offshore financial sector during the postwar years.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Colonial 20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 49719, 33696818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 141 ], [ 311, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern political development began after World War II. The first political parties were formed in the 1950s. The Progressive Liberal Party was formed in 1953, and the United Bahamian Party was formed in 1956.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Colonial 20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 408392, 32095709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 138 ], [ 167, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bahamians achieved self-government in 1964, with Sir Roland Symonette, of the United Bahamian Party, as the first Premier. Sir Lynden O. Pindling, leader of the Progressive Liberal Party, became the first black Premier of the colony in 1967, and in 1968 the title was changed to Prime Minister.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Colonial 20th century", "target_page_ids": [ 831054, 207870, 43215790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 69 ], [ 127, 145 ], [ 279, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Bahamas achieved full independence as a Commonwealth realm within the Commonwealth of Nations on 10 July 1973. Sir Milo Butler was appointed the first Governor-General of the Bahamas (the official representative of Queen Elizabeth II) shortly after independence. Pindling was prime minister until 1992. He was succeeded by Hubert Ingraham, leader of the Free National Movement, who was prime minister until 2002.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Independent Bahamas", "target_page_ids": [ 205142, 21175158, 728281, 611485, 12153654, 728820, 408386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 62 ], [ 74, 97 ], [ 115, 130 ], [ 155, 186 ], [ 219, 237 ], [ 327, 342 ], [ 358, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The College of the Bahamas was founded in 1974 and provided the nation's higher or tertiary education. The college was chartered in 2016 as the University of the Bahamas, offering baccalaureate, masters and associate degrees, on three campuses and teaching and research centres throughout the Bahamas.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Independent Bahamas", "target_page_ids": [ 3615541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Based on the twin pillars of tourism and offshore finance, the Bahamian economy has prospered since the 1950s. However, there remain significant challenges in areas such as education, health care, housing, international narcotics trafficking and illegal immigration from Haiti.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Independent Bahamas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2002 Bahamian general election, the PLP returned to power under Perry Christie. Ingraham returned to power from 2007 to 2012, followed by Christie again from 2012 to 2017. With economic growth faltering, Bahamians re-elected the FNM in 2017, with Hubert Minnis becoming the fourth prime minister.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Independent Bahamas", "target_page_ids": [ 10936319, 393734, 37799416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 37 ], [ 71, 85 ], [ 254, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2019, Hurricane Dorian struck the Abaco Islands and Grand Bahama at Category 5 intensity, devastating the northwestern Bahamas. The storm inflicted at least US$7 billion in damages and killed more than 50 people, with 1,300 people still missing.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Independent Bahamas", "target_page_ids": [ 61598956, 856364, 951664, 255313, 18717338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 35 ], [ 47, 60 ], [ 65, 77 ], [ 81, 91 ], [ 170, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2021, Prime Minister Hubert Minnis lost in a snap election as the economy struggles to recover from its deepest crash since at least 1971. Progressive Liberal Party (PLP) won 32 of the 39 seats in the House of Assembly. Free National Movement (FNM), led by Minnis, took the remaining seats. On 17 September 2021, the chairman of the Progressive Liberal Party (PLP) Phillip “Brave” Davis was sworn in as the new Prime Minister of the Bahamas.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Independent Bahamas", "target_page_ids": [ 68014854, 19387000, 43215790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 72 ], [ 380, 401 ], [ 426, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "British colonisation of the Americas", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of the Americas", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of the British West Indies", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3830249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of the Caribbean", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 51363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of North America", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 51370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Politics of the Bahamas", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 67647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Albury, Paul. (1975) The Story of the Bahamas. MacMillan Caribbean. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carr, J. Revell. (2008) Seeds of Discontent: The Deep Roots of the American Revolution 1659–1750. Walker & Company. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Craton, Michael. (1986) A History of the Bahamas. San Salvador Press. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Granberry, Julius and Gary S. Vescelius. (2004) Languages of the Pre-Columbian Antilles. The University of Alabama Press. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Johnson, Howard. (1996) The Bahamas from Slavery to Servitude, 1783–1933. University Press of Florida. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Keegan, William F. (1992) The People Who Discovered Columbus: The Prehistory of the Bahamas. University Press of Florida. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Woodard, Colin. (2007) The Republic of Pirates. Harcourt, Inc. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "State Dept Country Study - Includes information on the Bahamas including history.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rulers.org — Bahamas List of rulers for Bahamas", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Bahamas History & Culture", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Bahamas Historical Society", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bahamian Loyalists history", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "History_of_the_Bahamas", "History_of_the_Caribbean", "British_colonization_of_the_Americas" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "A sanity check or sanity test is a basic test to quickly evaluate whether a claim or the result of a calculation can possibly be true. It is a simple check to see if the produced material is rational (that the material's creator was thinking rationally, applying sanity). The point of a sanity test is to rule out certain classes of obviously false results, not to catch every possible error. A rule-of-thumb or back-of-the-envelope calculation may be checked to perform the test. The advantage of performing an initial sanity test is that of speedily evaluating basic function.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27491, 56538, 550392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 269 ], [ 395, 408 ], [ 412, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In arithmetic, for example, when multiplying by 9, using the divisibility rule for 9 to verify that the sum of digits of the result is divisible by 9 is a sanity test—it will not catch every multiplication error, however it's a quick and simple method to discover many possible errors.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 991210, 1598868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 78 ], [ 104, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In computer science, a sanity test is a very brief run-through of the functionality of a computer program, system, calculation, or other analysis, to assure that part of the system or methodology works roughly as expected. This is often prior to a more exhaustive round of testing.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5323, 5783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ], [ 89, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A sanity test can refer to various orders of magnitude and other simple rule-of-thumb devices applied to cross-check mathematical calculations. For example:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical", "target_page_ids": [ 22657, 56538, 18831, 239121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 54 ], [ 72, 85 ], [ 117, 129 ], [ 130, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If one were to attempt to square 738 and calculated 54,464, a quick sanity check could show that this result cannot be true. Consider that yet Since squaring positive integers preserves their inequality, the result cannot be true, and so the calculated result is incorrect. The correct answer, is more than 10 times higher than 54,464.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical", "target_page_ids": [ 659942, 89489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 32 ], [ 195, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In multiplication, is not 142,135 since 918 is divisible by three but 142,135 is not (digits add up to 16, not a multiple of three). Also, the product must end in the same digit as the product of end-digits: but 142,135 does not end in \"0\" like \"40\", while the correct answer does: An even quicker check is that the product of even and odd numbers is even, whereas 142,135 is odd.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mathematical", "target_page_ids": [ 208157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The power output of a car cannot be 700 kJ, since the unit joules is a measure of energy, not power (energy per unit time). This is a basic application of dimensional analysis.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Physical", "target_page_ids": [ 24236, 13673345, 16327, 9649, 8267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ], [ 22, 25 ], [ 40, 42 ], [ 82, 88 ], [ 155, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When determining physical properties, comparing to known or similar substances will often yield insight on whether or not the result is reasonable. For instance, most metals sink in water, so the density of most metals should be greater than that of water (~).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Physical", "target_page_ids": [ 179505, 8429, 24027000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 36 ], [ 196, 203 ], [ 242, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fermi estimates will often provide insight on the order of magnitude of an expected value.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Physical", "target_page_ids": [ 406885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In software development, a sanity test (a form of software testing which offers \"quick, broad, and shallow testing\") evaluates the result of a subset of application functionality to determine whether it is possible and reasonable to proceed with further testing of the entire application. Sanity tests may sometimes be used interchangeably with smoke tests insofar as both terms denote tests which determine whether it is possible and reasonable to continue testing further. On the other hand, a distinction is sometimes made that a smoke test is a non-exhaustive test that ascertains whether the most crucial functions of a programme work before proceeding with further testing whereas a sanity test refers to whether specific functionality such as a particular bug fix works as expected without testing the wider functionality of the software. In other words, a sanity test determines whether the intended result of a code change works correctly while a smoke test ensures that nothing else important was broken in the process. Sanity testing and smoke testing avoid wasting time and effort by quickly determining whether an application is too flawed to merit more rigorous QA testing, but needs more developer debugging.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Software development", "target_page_ids": [ 29090, 41413342, 1843409, 24998792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 66 ], [ 345, 356 ], [ 1179, 1189 ], [ 1216, 1225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Groups of sanity tests are often bundled together for automated unit testing of functions, libraries, or applications prior to merging development code into a testing or trunk version control branch, for automated building, or for continuous integration and continuous deployment.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Software development", "target_page_ids": [ 222828, 2341198, 3422285, 3422285, 7072152, 1774081, 36120070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 76 ], [ 127, 134 ], [ 170, 175 ], [ 192, 198 ], [ 204, 222 ], [ 231, 253 ], [ 258, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another common usage of sanity test is to denote checks which are performed programme code, usually on arguments to functions or returns therefrom, to see if the answers can be assumed to be correct. The more complicated the routine, the more important that its response be checked. The trivial case is checking to see whether the return value of a function indicated success or failure and to therefore cease further processing upon failure. This return value is actually often itself the result of a sanity check. For example, if the function attempted to open, write to, and close a file, a sanity check may be used to ensure that it did not fail on any of these actions—which is a sanity check often ignored by programmers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Software development", "target_page_ids": [ 933831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 332, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These kinds of sanity checks may be used during development for debugging purposes and also to aid in troubleshooting software runtime errors. For example, in a bank account management application, a sanity check will fail if a withdrawal requests more money than the total account balance rather than allowing the account to go negative (which wouldn't be sane). Another sanity test might be that deposits or purchases correspond to patterns established by historical data—for example, large purchase transactions or ATM withdrawals in foreign locations never before visited by the card holder may be flagged for confirmation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Software development", "target_page_ids": [ 1714274, 192263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 117 ], [ 127, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sanity checks are also performed upon installation of stable, production software code into a new computing environment to ensure that all dependencies are met, such as a compatible operating system and link libraries. When a computing environment has passed all of the sanity checks, it's known as a sane environment for the installation programme to proceed with reasonable expectation of success.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Software development", "target_page_ids": [ 220901, 2106840, 1425449, 22194, 18566, 106421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 72 ], [ 108, 119 ], [ 139, 151 ], [ 182, 198 ], [ 203, 207 ], [ 208, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A \"Hello, World!\" program is often used as a sanity test for a development environment in a similar fashion. Rather than a complicated script running a set of unit tests, if this simple programme fails to compile or execute, it proves that the supporting environment likely has a configuration problem that will prevent any code from compiling or executing. But if \"Hello world\" executes, then any problems experienced with other programmes likely can be attributed to errors in that application's code rather than the environment.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Software development", "target_page_ids": [ 13834, 46981896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 25 ], [ 63, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Certifying algorithm", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 51386092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Checksum", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fermi problem", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 406885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mental calculation", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 567292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Proof of concept", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 608668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] } ]

[ "Software_testing", "Error_detection_and_correction" ]

[ "sanity testing", "sanity test" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Bahrain was a central location of the ancient Dilmun civilization. Bahrain's strategic location in the Persian Gulf has brought rule and influence from mostly the Persians, Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Portuguese, the Arabs, and the British.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 245180, 24607, 50521, 266350, 46883, 970642, 2185, 4721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 52 ], [ 163, 171 ], [ 173, 178 ], [ 184, 193 ], [ 195, 204 ], [ 208, 218 ], [ 224, 228 ], [ 239, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bahrain was a central site of the ancient Dilmun civilization. Dilmun appears first in Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets dated to the end of fourth millennium BC, found in the temple of goddess Inanna, in the city of Uruk. The adjective Dilmun is used to describe a type of axe and one specific official; in addition there are lists of rations of wool issued to people connected with Dilmun.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Dilmun Civilization", "target_page_ids": [ 245180, 65677, 350137, 78332, 85442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 48 ], [ 87, 95 ], [ 96, 105 ], [ 192, 198 ], [ 215, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dilmun was mentioned in two letters dated to the reign of Burna-Buriash II (c. 1370 BC) recovered from Nippur, during the Kassite dynasty of Babylon. These letters were from a provincial official, Ilī-ippašra, in Dilmun to his friend Enlil-kidinni in Mesopotamia. The names referred to are Akkadian. These letters and other documents, hint at an administrative relationship between Dilmun and Babylon at that time. Following the collapse of the Kassite dynasty, Mesopotamian documents make no mention of Dilmun with the exception of Assyrian inscriptions dated to 1250 BC which proclaimed the Assyrian king to be king of Dilmun and Meluhha. Assyrian inscriptions recorded tribute from Dilmun. There are other Assyrian inscriptions during the first millennium BC indicating Assyrian sovereignty over Dilmun. Dilmun was also later on controlled by the Kassite dynasty in Mesopotamia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Dilmun Civilization", "target_page_ids": [ 4161215, 85478, 93371, 20609622, 33196770, 50515, 20609622, 955784, 93371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 74 ], [ 103, 109 ], [ 122, 129 ], [ 141, 148 ], [ 197, 208 ], [ 290, 298 ], [ 393, 400 ], [ 632, 639 ], [ 850, 865 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the early sites discovered in Bahrain indicate that Sennacherib, king of Assyria (707–681 BC), attacked northeast Persian Gulf and captured Bahrain. The most recent reference to Dilmun came during the Neo-Babylonian dynasty. Neo-Babylonian administrative records, dated 567 BC, stated that Dilmun was controlled by the king of Babylon. The name of Dilmun fell from use after the collapse of Neo-Babylon in 538 BC.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Dilmun Civilization", "target_page_ids": [ 28334, 5204236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 70 ], [ 208, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is both literary and archaeological evidence of extensive trade between Ancient Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley civilization (probably correctly identified with the land called Meluhha in Akkadian). Impressions of clay seals from the Indus Valley city of Harappa were evidently used to seal bundles of merchandise, as clay seal impressions with cord or sack marks on the reverse side testify. A number of these Indus Valley seals have turned up at Ur and other Mesopotamian sites.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Dilmun Civilization", "target_page_ids": [ 5223262, 46853, 955784, 50515, 14149, 32047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 97 ], [ 106, 131 ], [ 184, 191 ], [ 195, 203 ], [ 262, 269 ], [ 455, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"Persian Gulf\" types of circular, stamped (rather than rolled) seals known from Dilmun, that appear at Lothal in Gujarat, India, and Failaka, as well as in Mesopotamia, are convincing corroboration of the long-distance sea trade. What the commerce consisted of is less known: timber and precious woods, ivory, lapis lazuli, gold, and luxury goods such as carnelian and glazed stone beads, pearls from the Persian Gulf, shell and bone inlays, were among the goods sent to Mesopotamia in exchange for silver, tin, woolen textiles, olive oil and grains. Copper ingots from Oman and bitumen which occurred naturally in Mesopotamia may have been exchanged for cotton textiles and domestic fowl, major products of the Indus region that are not native to Mesopotamia. Instances of all of these trade goods have been found. The importance of this trade is shown by the fact that the weights and measures used at Dilmun were in fact identical to those used by the Indus, and were not those used in Southern Mesopotamia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Dilmun Civilization", "target_page_ids": [ 162248, 53707, 2335524, 15165, 44653, 12240, 44600, 24007, 27119, 30042, 125293, 657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 113 ], [ 117, 124 ], [ 137, 144 ], [ 307, 312 ], [ 314, 326 ], [ 328, 332 ], [ 359, 368 ], [ 393, 398 ], [ 503, 509 ], [ 511, 514 ], [ 555, 561 ], [ 583, 590 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"the ships of Dilmun, from the foreign land, brought him wood as a tribute\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Dilmun Civilization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mesopotamian trade documents, lists of goods, and official inscriptions mentioning Meluhha supplement Harappan seals and archaeological finds. Literary references to Meluhhan trade date from the Akkadian, the Third Dynasty of Ur, and Isin-Larsa Periods (c. 2350–1800 BC), but the trade probably started in the Early Dynastic Period (c. 2600 BC). Some Meluhhan vessels may have sailed directly to Mesopotamian ports, but by the Isin-Larsa Period, Dilmun monopolized the trade. The Bahrain National Museum assesses that its \"Golden Age\" lasted ca. 2200–1600 BC. Discoveries of ruins under the Persian Gulf maybe of Dilmun.]", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Dilmun Civilization", "target_page_ids": [ 1566, 1153620, 474916, 85439, 2986070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 200 ], [ 209, 228 ], [ 234, 238 ], [ 239, 244 ], [ 480, 503 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Mesopotamian epic poem Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh had to pass through Mount Mashu to reach Dilmun, Mount Mashu is usually identified with the whole of the parallel Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges, with the narrow gap between these mountains constituting the tunnel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Dilmun Civilization", "target_page_ids": [ 9418, 80028, 13151, 3207063, 381121, 316434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 29 ], [ 30, 47 ], [ 49, 58 ], [ 85, 90 ], [ 173, 180 ], [ 185, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dilmun, sometimes described as \"the place where the sun rises\" and \"the Land of the Living\", is the scene of some versions of the Sumerian creation myth, and the place where the deified Sumerian hero of the flood, Utnapishtim (Ziusudra), was taken by the gods to live forever. Thorkild Jacobsen's translation of the Eridu Genesis calls it \"Mount Dilmun\" which he locates as a \"faraway, half-mythical place\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Dilmun Civilization", "target_page_ids": [ 15630853, 6299726, 91556, 11526940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 152 ], [ 214, 225 ], [ 227, 235 ], [ 277, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dilmun is also described in the epic story of Enki and Ninhursag as the site at which the Creation occurred. The promise of Enki to Ninhursag, the Earth Mother: ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Dilmun Civilization", "target_page_ids": [ 9418, 10481, 77231, 7322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 36 ], [ 46, 50 ], [ 55, 64 ], [ 90, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ninlil, the Sumerian goddess of air and south wind had her home in Dilmun. It is also featured in the Epic of Gilgamesh.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Dilmun Civilization", "target_page_ids": [ 1368437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, in the early epic Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, the main events, which center on Enmerkar's construction of the ziggurats in Uruk and Eridu, are described as taking place in a world \"before Dilmun had yet been settled\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Dilmun Civilization", "target_page_ids": [ 10504367, 2064542, 81746, 85442, 42617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 58 ], [ 93, 101 ], [ 124, 132 ], [ 137, 141 ], [ 146, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the 6th century BC to the 3rd century BC Bahrain was a pivotal part of the Persian Empire of the Achaemenids, an Iranian dynasty. From the 3rd century BC to the arrival of Islam in the 7th century AD, Bahrain was controlled by two other Iranian dynasties, the Parthians and the Sassanids. By about 130 BC, the Parthian dynasty brought the Persian Gulf under their control and extended their influence as far as Oman; since they needed to control the Persian Gulf trade route, the Parthians established garrisons along the southern coast of the Persian Gulf.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Persian Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 30927438, 30927438, 19180442, 6037917, 4501200, 5876413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 94 ], [ 102, 113 ], [ 118, 133 ], [ 177, 182 ], [ 265, 274 ], [ 283, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 3rd century AD, the Sassanids succeeded the Parthians and held the area until the arrival of Islam four centuries later. Ardashir, the first ruler of the Iranian Sassanid dynasty marched to Oman and Bahrain and defeated Sanatruq (or Satiran), probably the Parthian governor of Bahrain. He appointed his son Shapur I as governor of Bahrain. Shapur constructed a new city there and named it Batan Ardashir after his father. At this time, Bahrain incorporated the southern Sassanid province covering the Persian Gulf's southern shore plus the archipelago of Bahrain. The southern province of the Sassanids was subdivided into three districts; Haggar (now al-Hafuf province, Saudi Arabia), Batan Ardashir (now al-Qatif province, Saudi Arabia), and Mishmahig (now Bahrain Island).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Persian Empire", "target_page_ids": [ 841099, 140700, 1581754, 456845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 136 ], [ 314, 322 ], [ 713, 721 ], [ 751, 760 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bahrain was referred to by the ancient Greeks as Tylos, the centre of pearl trading, when the Greek admiral, Nearchus, first visited there. Nearchus was serving under Alexander the Great, who overthrew the ruling tribe of Al Hamar.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tylos", "target_page_ids": [ 148363, 101413, 783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 44 ], [ 109, 117 ], [ 168, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nearchus is believed to have been the first of Alexander's commanders to visit Bahrain, and he found a verdant land that was part of a wide trading network. He recorded: \"That in the island of Tylos, situated in the Persian Gulf, are large plantations of cotton tree, from which are manufactured clothes called sindones, with very different degrees of value, some being costly, others less expensive. The use of these is not confined to India, but extends to Arabia.\" The Greek historian, Theophrastus, states that many of the islands were covered in these cotton trees and that Tylos was famous for exporting walking canes engraved with emblems that were customarily carried in Babylon.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tylos", "target_page_ids": [ 101413, 98409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 489, 501 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is not known whether Bahrain was part of the Seleucid Empire, although the archaeological site at Qalat Al Bahrain has been proposed as a Seleucid base in the Persian Gulf. Alexander had planned to settle the eastern shores of the Persian Gulf with Greek colonists, and although it is not clear that this happened on the scale he envisaged, Tylos was very much part of the Hellenised world: the language of the upper classes was Greek (although Aramaic was in everyday use). Local coinage shows a seated Zeus, who may have been worshiped there as a syncretised form of the Arabian sun-god Shams. Tylos was also the site of Greek athletics contests.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tylos", "target_page_ids": [ 28398, 26280791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 63 ], [ 101, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Strabo, the Greek historian, geographer and philosopher mentioned that the Phoenicians came from Eastern Arabia where they have similar gods, cemeteries and temples. This theory was accepted by the 19th-century German classicist Arnold Heeren who said that: \"In the Greek geographers, for instance, we read of two islands, named Tyrus or Tylos, and Arad, Bahrain, which boasted that they were the mother country of the Phoenicians, and exhibited relics of Phoenician temples\". The people of Tyre, Lebanon in particular have long maintained Persian Gulf origins, and the similarity in the words \"Tylos\" and \"Tyre\" has been commented upon. Later classicist theories were proposed prior to modern archaeological excavations which revealed no disruption of Phoenician societies between 3200 B.C. and 1200 B.C.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tylos", "target_page_ids": [ 52121, 34076091, 456845, 17930826, 30796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 75, 84 ], [ 338, 343 ], [ 349, 362 ], [ 491, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Herodotus's account (written c. 440BC) refers to the Phoenicians originating from Eastern Arabia. (History, I:1). ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tylos", "target_page_ids": [ 13574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name Tylos is thought to be a Hellenisation of the Semitic, Tilmun (from Dilmun). The term Tylos was commonly used for the islands until Ptolemy's Geographia when the inhabitants are referred to as 'Thilouanoi'. Some place names in Bahrain go back to the Tylos era, for instance, the residential suburb of Arad in Muharraq, is believed to originate from \"Arados\", the ancient Greek name for Muharraq island.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tylos", "target_page_ids": [ 245180, 23979, 3418022, 1293335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 83 ], [ 141, 148 ], [ 151, 161 ], [ 318, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the waning of Seleucid Greek power, Tylos was incorporated into Characene or Mesenian, the state founded in what today is Kuwait by Hyspaosines in 127BC. A building inscriptions found in Bahrain indicate that Hyspoasines occupied the islands, (and it also mentions his wife, Thalassia).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tylos", "target_page_ids": [ 28398, 2729902, 7515890, 30846632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 27 ], [ 69, 78 ], [ 127, 133 ], [ 137, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the time when Islam emerged in the 7th century until the early 16th century, the name Bahrain referred to the wider historical region of Bahrain stretching from Basrah to the Strait of Hormuz along the Persian Gulf coast. This was Iqlīm al-Baḥrayn, i.e. the Province of Bahrain, and the Arab inhabitants of the province were descendants of the Arab tribe Bani Abd al-Qais.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Islam", "target_page_ids": [ 7848092, 57580, 29005, 4070049, 12005586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 149 ], [ 166, 172 ], [ 180, 196 ], [ 349, 359 ], [ 360, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bahrain embraced Islam in 629 (the seventh year of hijra); the Prophet Mohammed ruled Bahrain through one of his representatives, Al-Ala'a Al-Hadhrami. During the time of Umar I the famous companion of the Prophet, Abu Hurayrah, was the governor of Bahrain. Umar I also appointed Uthman bin Abi Al Aas as governor of the area. Al Khamis Mosque, founded in 692, was one of the earliest mosques built in Bahrain, in the era of Umayyad caliph Umar II. Prior to Islam, Bahrain was a centre of Nestorian Christianity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Islam", "target_page_ids": [ 18934, 4723619, 4716618, 19894, 49855, 437373, 26176567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 79 ], [ 130, 150 ], [ 328, 344 ], [ 386, 392 ], [ 426, 433 ], [ 441, 448 ], [ 490, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The expansion of Islam did not affect Bahrain's reliance on trade, and its prosperity continued to be dependent on markets in Mesopotamia. After Baghdad emerged as the seat of the caliph in 750 and the main centre of Islamic civilization, Bahrain greatly benefited from the city's increased demand for foreign goods especially from China and South Asia. Bahrain became a hub for intellectuals for hundreds of years stretching from the early days of Islam in the 6th century to the 18th century. Philosophers of Bahrain were highly esteemed, such as the 13th century mystic, Sheikh Maitham Al Bahrani (died in 1299).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Islam", "target_page_ids": [ 4492, 804036, 15806499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 152 ], [ 180, 186 ], [ 581, 599 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Around the year 900, Abu Sa'id al-Hasan al-Jannabi led the Qarmatian revolution, a rebellion by a messianic Ismaili sect originating in Kufa in present-day Iraq. Al-Jannabi took over the city of Hajr, Bahrain's capital at that time, and al-Hasa, which he made the capital of his republic. Once in control of the state he sought to create a utopian society.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The Qarmatian Republic", "target_page_ids": [ 21768723, 1256582, 19616, 172701, 468383, 7888663, 31718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 50 ], [ 59, 68 ], [ 98, 107 ], [ 108, 115 ], [ 136, 140 ], [ 237, 244 ], [ 340, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Qarmatians' goal was to build a society based on reason and equality. The state was governed by a council of six with a chief who was a first among equals. All property within the community was distributed evenly among all initiates. The Qarmatians were organized as an esoteric society but not as a secret one; their activities were public and openly propagated, but new members had to undergo an initiation ceremony involving seven stages. The Qarmatian world view was one where every phenomenon repeated itself in cycles, where every incident was replayed over and over again.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The Qarmatian Republic", "target_page_ids": [ 495185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 274, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even before taking over Bahrain, the Qarmatians had instigated what some scholars have termed a 'century of terrorism' in Kufa. From Bahrain they launched raids along the pilgrim routes crossing Arabia: in 906 they ambushed the pilgrim caravan returning from Mecca and massacred 20,000 pilgrims. Under Abu Tahir al-Jannabi they came close to capturing Baghdad in 923, and sacked Mecca in 930. In the assault on Islam's holiest sites, the Qarmatians desecrated the Well of Zamzam with corpses of Hajj pilgrims, and took the Black Stone from Mecca to al-Hasa. According to historian al-Juwayni, the stone was returned 22 years later in 951 under mysterious circumstances. Wrapped in a sack, it was thrown into the Great Mosque of Kufa in Iraq, accompanied by a note saying \"By command we took it, and by command we have brought it back.\" The theft and removal of the Black Stone caused it to break into seven pieces.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The Qarmatian Republic", "target_page_ids": [ 23487999, 16744725, 21495990, 320453, 3163593, 20961626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 178 ], [ 302, 322 ], [ 464, 478 ], [ 523, 534 ], [ 581, 591 ], [ 712, 732 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sack of Mecca followed millenarian excitement among the Qarmatians (and in Persia) over the conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in 928. Bahrain became the seat of the Qarmatian Mahdi-Caliph from Isfahan who abolished Sharīa law. The new Mahdi also changed the qibla of prayer from Mecca to that of fire, a specifically Zoroastrian practice. Some scholars take the view that \"they may not have been Isamailis at all at the outset, and their conduct and customs gave plausibility to the belief that they were not merely heretics but bitter enemies of Islam.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The Qarmatian Republic", "target_page_ids": [ 98983, 28840, 251713, 34533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 38 ], [ 219, 225 ], [ 262, 267 ], [ 321, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For much of the 10th century the Qarmatians were the most powerful force in the Persian Gulf and Middle East, controlling the coast of Oman, and collecting tribute from the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad and from the rival Ismaili Fatimid caliph in Cairo, whom they did not recognize. The land they ruled over was extremely wealthy with a huge slave-based economy according to academic Yitzhak Nakash:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The Qarmatian Republic", "target_page_ids": [ 52330431, 56176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 187 ], [ 226, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Qarmatian state had vast fruit and grain estates both on the islands and in Hasa and Qatif. Nasiri Khusru, who visited Hasa in 1051, recounted that these estates were cultivated by some thirty thousand Ethiopian slaves. He mentions that the people of Hasa were exempt from taxes. Those impoverished or in debt could obtain a loan until they put their affairs in order. No interest was taken on loans, and token lead money was used for all local transactions. The Qarmatian state had a powerful and long-lasting legacy. This is evidenced by a coin known as Tawila, minted around 920 by one of the Qarmatian rulers, and which was still in circulation in Hasa early in the 20th century", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The Qarmatian Republic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Qarmatians were defeated in battle in 976 by the Abbasids, which encouraged them to look inward to build their utilitarian society. Around 1058, a revolt on the island of Bahrain led by two Shi'a members of the Abd al-Qays tribe, Abul-Bahlul al-'Awwam and Abu'l-Walid Muslim, precipitated the waning of Qarmatian power and eventually the ascendancy to power of the Uyunids, an Arab dynasty belonging to the Abdul Qays tribe.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "The Qarmatian Republic", "target_page_ids": [ 49856, 16745106, 33195078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 61 ], [ 234, 255 ], [ 411, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1076–1077, Sheikh Abdullah bin Ali Al Uyuni seized the country from the Qarmatians in Bahrain and Al-Hasa with the military assistance of Great Seljuq Empire and founded the Uyunid dynasty and established the Uyunid Emirate. The Uyunid dynasty, ruled Bahrain for 163 years, from the 11th to the 13th centuries. Their sect is disputed; some sources mention they were Shia, others Sunni. They were the remnants of Bani Abdul Qays tribe. The state of Al-Hasa was the first capital of the Uyunid Emirate. Then Al-Fadhl, son of Abdullah, transfers his capital to Qatif, then to Awal (today's state of Bahrain). In his reign, the state extended to Kuwait. Then in 513 H. the Capital went back to Qatif. Then in 531 H. Mohammed son of Al Fadhl 1 is assassinated there for the state was divided into two, one in Al-Hasa and the other in Al-Qatif.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uyunid dynasty", "target_page_ids": [ 38370512, 1256582, 7888663, 13090194, 7848092, 33195078, 7888663, 38363359, 1581754, 4723541, 18933277, 7515890, 7888663, 1581754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 46 ], [ 75, 85 ], [ 101, 108 ], [ 141, 160 ], [ 254, 261 ], [ 420, 430 ], [ 451, 458 ], [ 488, 502 ], [ 561, 566 ], [ 576, 580 ], [ 599, 606 ], [ 645, 651 ], [ 807, 814 ], [ 832, 840 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under Muhammad b. Ahmad b. Abu'l-Hussin b. Abu Sinan, the Uyunid's territory stretched from Najd to the Syrian desert. Due to the influence of the Uyunid kingdom, Caliph al-Nasir li-Din Allah gave Muhammad b. Ahmad authority to protect the pilgrimage route to Mecca. Muhammad was later murdered by a family member, instigated by his cousin, Gharir b. Shukr b. Ali. In the years 587 – 605 H. Mohammed bin Abi Al-hussain unites Qatif and Al-Hasa. The country was ruled by the Uyunid dynasty for 163 years. In 1253 C. Conflicts inside the Uyunid family gave the chance to the Bedouin Usfurids of Banu Uqayl to establish their state and destroy the Uyunid State. Thereby gaining control over eastern Arabia, including the islands of Bahrain. The famous poet Ali bin al Mugrab Al Uyuni is a descendant of the Uyunids.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uyunid dynasty", "target_page_ids": [ 178715, 2064417, 1091291, 21021, 16620222, 16674609, 37990625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 96 ], [ 104, 117 ], [ 163, 191 ], [ 260, 265 ], [ 581, 589 ], [ 593, 603 ], [ 754, 780 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1253, the Bahrani dynasty of the Usfurids of Banu Uqayl – named after its founder, Usfur ibn Rashid – gained control over eastern Arabia, including the islands of Bahrain. The late Middle Ages were a time of chronic instability with local disputes allowing various Persian-based Arab Kingdoms based in Qais, Qishm and Hormuz to involve themselves in Bahrain's affairs. In 1330, the islands became tributary to the rulers of Hormuz.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Usfurid, and Jabrid dynasties", "target_page_ids": [ 4027752, 16620222, 47858, 4210306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ], [ 36, 44 ], [ 133, 139 ], [ 428, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to historian Juan Cole it was under Sunni rule that Twelver Shiaism became established in Bahrain, as Shia Bahrainis gradually moved away from the radical, egalitarian Ismaili Qarmatian sect to the more quietist Twelver or Imami branch, a process which the Sunni rulers encouraged. But even in the 14th century, the North African traveller Ibn Battuta visiting Qatif around 1331, found it inhabited by Arabs whom he described as \"extremist Shi'is\" (rafidiyya ghulat), which Cole presumes is how a 14th-century Sunni would describe Ismailis. Ibn Battuta also noted the great wealth of the area thanks to the pearling industry.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Usfurid, and Jabrid dynasties", "target_page_ids": [ 1200499, 18369071, 15229, 2043744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 32 ], [ 62, 77 ], [ 350, 361 ], [ 469, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until the late Middle Ages, \"Bahrain\" referred to the larger historical region of Bahrain. Ibn Battuta's 14th-century account contains an early use of the term \"Bahrain\" to refer solely to the Awal islands. However, the exact date at which the term \"Bahrain\" began to refer solely to the Awal archipelago is unknown.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Usfurid, and Jabrid dynasties", "target_page_ids": [ 18836, 7848092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 26 ], [ 61, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the mid-15th century, another branch of the Banu Uqayl, led by Zamil ibn Jabir, wrested control of Bahrain, founding the dynasty of the Bedouin Jabrids. Based in al-Ahsa, the Jabrids ruled most of eastern Arabia and followed the Sunni Maliki rite, which they actively promoted within their domain.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Usfurid, and Jabrid dynasties", "target_page_ids": [ 10396982, 7848092, 29402, 249758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 154 ], [ 165, 172 ], [ 232, 237 ], [ 238, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Arab navigator, Ahmad Bin Majid, visited Bahrain in 1489 prior to the Portuguese' arrival in the region and gave an account of the country: \"In Awal (Bahrain) there are 360 villages and fresh water can be found in a number of places. A most wonderful al-Qasasir, where a man can dive into the salt sea with a skin and can fill it with fresh water while he is submerged in the salt water. Around Bahrain are pearl fisheries and a number of islands all of which have pearl fisheries and connected with this trade are 1,000 ships\" (Majid, Arab Navigation in the Indian Ocean before the Coming of the Portuguese. Trans. G.R. Tibbetts. The Royal Asisatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1981. page 222).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Portuguese rule", "target_page_ids": [ 2458644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Portuguese expansion into the Indian Ocean in the early 16th century followed Vasco da Gama's voyages of exploration in which the Portuguese battled the Ottomans up the coast of the Persian Gulf. The Portuguese, drawn in by the lucrative trade routes of the Gulf, sought control of the strategic Ormus region before setting its sights on Bahrain. Portuguese ships first entered the Gulf in 1485, the first reputed Portuguese traveller to visit Bahrain was Duarte Barbosa. After the Kingdom of Hormuz fell in 1507, Hormuz' political control of Bahrain was lost after the island fell to the princes of Al-Hasa. A combined Portuguese-Hormuz force led by António Correia conquered Bahrain in 1521 only to briefly lose it to the princes of Al-Hasa the same year. In response, the Portuguese sent another expedition to Bahrain and the Arabian coast to subdue the Al-Hasa attempts to regain power.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Portuguese rule", "target_page_ids": [ 230578, 45080, 22629, 215354, 1397550, 7888663, 16569784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 78, 91 ], [ 153, 161 ], [ 296, 301 ], [ 456, 470 ], [ 600, 607 ], [ 651, 666 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Portuguese later consolidated their position of the island by reconstructing the Qal'at al Bahrain fortress, which was to serve as the base for the Portuguese garrison. It is believed that the Portuguese ruled the islands via indirect rule, with some force, against the inhabitants for eighty years, despite incurring several revolts and protests (one of which resulted in temporary independence in 1534). Such a revolt was the rebellion of 1529 saw the deployment of a 400-man Portuguese force sent to subdue the island.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Portuguese rule", "target_page_ids": [ 26280791, 1881021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 102 ], [ 230, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Except for a brief period in 1559 when the governor of the Ottoman province of Al-Hasa tried to occupy the islands but were repelled, the Portuguese remained in control until they were driven out of the island in 1602, when a popular uprising led by Rukn ed-Din took control of the Bahrain Fort. The uprising was sparked by the governor's order of the execution of the island's richest traders. Portuguese attempts to retake Bahrain were thwarted due to aid from the prince of Shiraz. The uprising coincided with regional disputes between the Portuguese and rival European powers. The power vacuum that resulted was almost immediately filled by the Persian ruler, Shah Abbas I, who deployed a Persian garrison to the Bahrain Fort and subsumed it within the Safavid Empire.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Portuguese rule", "target_page_ids": [ 57658682, 39622, 299824, 26280791, 38455500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 114 ], [ 477, 483 ], [ 664, 676 ], [ 717, 729 ], [ 757, 771 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under Persian Safavid rule (1602–1717), Bahrain fell under the administrative jurisdiction of the Beglarbegi of Kuhgilu centered at Behbahan in southern Iran. In fact, the Safavids ruled Bahrain from a distance, seeking to control the islands not by force, but through ideology and the manipulation of local rivalries. Safavid rule was a period of intellectual flowering among the Shia theological elite, with Bahrain's seminaries producing such theorists as Sheikh Yusuf Al Bahrani. The Safavid's used the clergy to buttress their rule, hoping that by firmly implanting Imami Shiaism they could secure the islands of Bahrain, with their centrality to trade routes and pearl wealth.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Persian Safavid hegemony and Omani invasion", "target_page_ids": [ 1851297, 165511, 15707315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 140 ], [ 386, 403 ], [ 466, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, the Safavids' strategy was in many ways too successful: the power and influence of the religious class meant that they had a great deal of autonomy, and it was the subsequent tension between Safavid state and the clergy that drove Bahrain's theological vitality. Part of this flourishing was borne of the Bahraini clerics' adherence to conservative Akhbari Shiaism, while the Safavids encouraged the more state-centric, Usulism. Attempts by the Persians to reign in the Bahraini ulema were often counterproductive, and ended up strengthening the clerics against their local land-owning Bahraini rivals who challenged the clerics' control over the lucrative pearl trade. Cleric-landowner conflict was usually contained within very limited parameters given that the senior ulema were usually the sons of the land-owning class.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Persian Safavid hegemony and Omani invasion", "target_page_ids": [ 3058870, 3058875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 358, 365 ], [ 429, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An Afghan invasion of Iran at the beginning of the 18th century resulted in the near collapse of the Safavid state. In the resultant power vacuum, Oman invaded Bahrain in 1717, ending over a hundred years of Persian hegemony. The Omani invasion began a period of political instability and a quick succession of outside rulers took power with consequent destruction. According to a contemporary account by theologian, Sheikh Yusuf Al Bahrani, in an unsuccessful attempt by the Persians and their Bedouin allies to take back Bahrain from the Kharijite Omanis, much of the country was burnt to the ground. Bahrain was eventually sold back to the Persians by the Omanis, but the weakness of the Safavid empire saw Huwala tribes seize control.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Persian Safavid hegemony and Omani invasion", "target_page_ids": [ 15691868, 296037, 36687386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 175 ], [ 540, 549 ], [ 710, 716 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1730, the new Shah of Persia, Nader Shah, sought to re-assert Persian sovereignty in Bahrain. He ordered Latif Khan, the admiral of the Persian navy in the Persian Gulf, to prepare an invasion fleet in Bushehr. The Persians invaded in March or early April 1736 when the ruler of Bahrain, Shaikh Jubayr, was away on hajj. The invasion brought the island back under central rule and to challenge Oman in the Persian Gulf. He sought help from the British and Dutch, and he eventually recaptured Bahrain in 1736. During the Qajar era, Persian control over Bahrain waned and in 1753, Bahrain was occupied by the Arabs of Abu Shahr of the Bushire-based Al Madhkur family, who ruled Bahrain in the name of Persia and paid allegiance to Karim Khan Zand.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Persian Safavid hegemony and Omani invasion", "target_page_ids": [ 14653, 23386500, 205669, 23487999, 45061575, 205669, 1004460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 31 ], [ 33, 43 ], [ 205, 212 ], [ 318, 322 ], [ 523, 532 ], [ 636, 643 ], [ 732, 747 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The years of almost constant warfare and instability in the period led to a demographic collapse – German geographer Carsten Niebuhr found in 1763 that Bahrain's 360 towns and villages had, through warfare and economic distress, been reduced to only 60. The influence of Iran was further undermined at the end of the 18th century when the ideological power struggle between the Akhbari-Usuli strands culminated in victory for the Usulis in Bahrain.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Persian Safavid hegemony and Omani invasion", "target_page_ids": [ 177640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1782, war broke out between the army of Sheikh Nasr Al-Madhkur, the ruler of Bahrain and Bushehr and the Zubarah-based Bani Utbah clan, though hostilities arose since 1777 after the Persians saw the Zubarah base as a threat. The prosperity of Zubarah, which is in modern Qatar, had brought it to the attention of the two main powers at the time, Persia and Oman, which were presumably sympathetic to Sheikh Nasr's ambitions. At the same time, Bahrain offered great potential wealth because of the extensive pearls found in its waters.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [ 16963488, 205669, 2494439, 16845983, 2494439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 65 ], [ 92, 99 ], [ 108, 115 ], [ 122, 132 ], [ 246, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nasr enlisted the aid of the rulers of Bandar Rig, Bandar Ganaveh and Dashtestan and amassed an army of 2,000 soldiers to be commanded by his nephew, Mohammed. The Persians launched an assault of Zubarah's fort but were forced to break the siege after suffering stiff resistance from the Al Khalifa defenders and facing imminent naval reinforcements from Bani Utbah men in Kuwait. In retaliation to the assault, the Bani Utbah clan launched an invasion of Bahrain Island in 1783. Historians disagree on who attacked first; some historians believe that the incoming naval reinforcements from Kuwait intercepted a message from Nasr Al-Madhkur to his representative in Bahrain stating that the Persians had lost the battle. Upon learning this, the fleet switched course and invaded Bahrain, capturing the Bahrain fort and surrounding the Persian garrison. With a large coalition of tribesmen from the Bani Utbah and interior Arabia, the invasion of Bahrain was completed on 28 July 1783 Other historians believe that the Kuwaitis invaded Bahrain because they were closer to it than to Zubarah and as such, would deliver a tactical defeat to the Persians and would later handover possession to the Bani Utbah clan. The most probable version, as put forward by Historian J. G. Lorimer, was that the invasion was led by Ahmed Al Fateh in 1783 and that he defeated Nasr Al-Madhkur in battle on the outskirts of Manama and plundered the town.Historians dispute the date of the invasion, some stating it occurred in 1782 while others say it was 1783. Ahmed al-Fateh ruled Bahrain and Zubarah, visiting the former in the summer and the latter in the winter, until his death in 1796.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [ 24988212, 24988232, 7349660, 1120185, 16845983, 17812653, 16963488, 26280791, 47489307, 17085566, 16963488, 20481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 49 ], [ 51, 65 ], [ 70, 80 ], [ 288, 298 ], [ 355, 365 ], [ 456, 470 ], [ 625, 640 ], [ 802, 814 ], [ 1266, 1279 ], [ 1314, 1328 ], [ 1358, 1373 ], [ 1404, 1410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1797, fourteen years later after gaining the power of the Bani Utbah, the Al Khalifa family moved to Bahrain and settled in Jaww, later moving to Riffa. They were originally from Kuwait having left in 1766. Al-Sabah family traditions relates that the ancestors of their family and those of the Al-Khalifa family came to Kuwait after their expulsion from the Iraqi Umm Qasr town upon Khor Zubair by the Turks, an earlier base from which they preyed on the caravans of Basra and pirated ships in the Shatt al-Arab waterway. The first ruler of the Al Khalifa was Shaikh Ahmed Al-Fateh.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [ 16980273, 17767688, 7515928, 200154, 57580, 147227, 17085566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 131 ], [ 149, 154 ], [ 361, 365 ], [ 367, 375 ], [ 470, 475 ], [ 501, 514 ], [ 570, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Persian attempts to reconquer the island in 1783 and in 1785 failed; the 1783 expedition was a joint Persian-Qawasim invasion force that never left Bushehr. The 1785 invasion fleet, composed of forces from Bushehr, Rig and Shiraz was called off after the death of the ruler of Shiraz, Ali Murad Khan. Due to internal difficulties, the Persians could not attempt another invasion. In 1799, Bahrain came under threat from the expansionist policies of Sayyid Sultan, the Sultan of Oman, when he invaded the island under the pretext that Bahrain did not pay taxes owed. The Bani Utbah solicited the aid of Bushire to expel the Omanis on the condition that Bahrain would become a tributary state of Persia. In 1800, Sayyid Sultan invaded Bahrain again in retaliation and deployed a garrison at Arad Fort, in Muharraq island and had appointed his twelve-year-old son Salim, as Governor of the island. The Bani Utbah laid siege to Arad Fort later that year, ejecting Salim from power. In 1802, Sayyid Sultan once again sailed with a fleet to Bahrain however, the Al Khalifa enlisted the aid of Wahhabis from the mainland which forced the Omanis to abort their invasion.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [ 22092269, 39622, 3907583, 13774191, 1035250, 405325, 3302506, 4024916, 1293335, 757334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 116 ], [ 223, 229 ], [ 285, 299 ], [ 424, 436 ], [ 449, 462 ], [ 468, 482 ], [ 675, 690 ], [ 789, 798 ], [ 803, 811 ], [ 1087, 1113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1820, the Al Khalifa tribe regained power in Bahrain and entered a treaty relationship with Great Britain, by then the dominant military power in the Persian Gulf. This treaty recognised the Al Khalifa as the rulers (\"Al-Hakim\" in Arabic) of Bahrain. It was the first of several treaties including the 1861 Perpetual Truce of Peace and Friendship, which was further revised in 1892 and 1951.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [ 22464742, 13530298, 30967337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 89 ], [ 95, 108 ], [ 310, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This treaty was similar to those entered into by the British Government with the other Persian Gulf principalities. It specified that the ruler could not dispose of any of his territory except to the United Kingdom and could not enter into relationships with any foreign government without British consent. In return the British promised to protect Bahrain from all aggression by sea and to lend support in case of land attack. More importantly, the British promised to support the rule of the Al Khalifa in Bahrain, securing its unstable position as rulers of the country. According to School of Oriental and African Studies academic, Nelida Fuccaro, this treaty relationship with Britain was one aspect of an evolving polity:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [ 118652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 587, 625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Egyptian ruler, Mohammad Ali Pasha took the Arabian Peninsula from the Wahhabis on behalf of the Ottoman Empire in 1830, the Egyptian army demanded yearly tributes from Sheikh Abdul Al Khalifa. He had earlier sought Persian and British protection from the Egyptians. The Sheikh agreed to the terms of the Egyptians.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [ 38094479, 47858, 159040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 44 ], [ 54, 71 ], [ 81, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1860, the Government of Al Khalifa used the same tactic when the British tried to overpower Bahrain. Sheikh Mohammad bin Khalifa Al Khalifa wrote letters to both the Persian Prince-Governor of Fars and to the Ottoman Wali of Baghdad, to place Bahrain in the protection of each respective state. Both sides sent wakils (a person who is an authorised representative), who offered the Sheikh their conditions, of which the Ottoman terms were more beneficial and was accepted in March 1860. In another letter to the Iranian Foreign Minister, Sheikh Mohammad demanded that the Government of Iran provide direct guidance and protection from British pressure.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [ 448049, 22278, 12742430, 4492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 196, 200 ], [ 212, 219 ], [ 220, 224 ], [ 228, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later on, under pressure from Colonel Sir Lewis Pelly, Sheikh Mohammad requested military assistance from Iran, but the Government of Iran at that time provided no aid to protect Bahrain from British aggression. As a result, the Government of British India eventually overpowered Bahrain. Colonel Pelly signed an agreement with Sheikh Mohammad in May 1861 and later with his brother Sheikh Ali that placed Bahrain under British rule and protection.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [ 9195283, 4208015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 53 ], [ 229, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1868, following the Qatari–Bahraini War, British representatives signed another agreement with the Al Khalifa rulers, making Bahrain part of the British protectorate territories in the Persian Gulf. It specified that the ruler could not dispose of any of his territory except to the United Kingdom and could not enter into relationships with any foreign government without British consent. In return the British promised to protect Bahrain from all aggression by sea and to lend support in case of land attack. More importantly the British promised to support the rule of the Al Khalifa in Bahrain, securing its unstable position as rulers of the country. Other agreements in 1880 and 1892 sealed the protectorate status of Bahrain to the British.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [ 35314048, 35314048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 42 ], [ 75, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peace and trade brought a new prosperity. Bahrain was no longer dependent upon pearling, and by the mid-19th century, it became the pre-eminent trading centre in the Persian Gulf, overtaking rivals Basra, Kuwait, and finally in the 1870s, Muscat. At the same time, Bahrain's socio-economic development began to diverge from the rest of the Persian Gulf: it transformed itself from a tribal trading centre into a modern state. This process was spurred by the attraction of large numbers of Persian, Huwala, and Indian merchant families who set up businesses on the island, making it the nexus of a vast web of trade routes across the Persian Gulf, Persia and the Indian sub-continent. A contemporary account of Manama in 1862 found:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [ 20481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 710, 716 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mixed with the indigenous population [of Manamah] are numerous strangers and settlers, some of whom have been established here for many generations back, attracted from other lands by the profits of either commerce or the pearl fishery, and still retaining more or less the physiognomy and garb of their native countries. Thus the gay-coloured dress of the southern Persian, the saffron-stained vest of Oman, the white robe of Nejed, and the striped gown of Bagdad, are often to be seen mingling with the light garments of Bahreyn, its blue and red turban, its white silk-fringed cloth worn Banian fashion round the waist, and its frock-like overall; while a small but unmistakable colony of Indians, merchants by profession, and mainly from Guzerat, Cutch, and their vicinity, keep up here all their peculiarities of costume and manner, and live among the motley crowd, 'among them, but not of them'.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Palgrave's description of Manama's coffee houses in the mid-19th century portrays them as cosmopolitan venues in contrast to what he describes as the 'closely knit and bigoted universe of central Arabia'. Palgrave describes a people with an open – even urbane – outlook: \"Of religious controversy I have never heard one word. In short, instead of Zelators and fanatics, camel-drivers and Bedouins, we have at Bahrain [Manama] something like 'men of the world, who know the world like men' a great relief to the mind; certainly it was so to mine.\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The great trading families that emerged during this period have been compared to the Borgias and Medicis and their great wealth – long before the oil wealth for which the region would later be renowned – gave them extensive power, and among the most prominent were the Persian Al Safar family, who held the position of Native Agents of Britain in the 19th century. The Al Safar enjoyed an 'exceptionally close' relationship with the Al Khalifa clan from 1869, although the al-Khalifa never intermarried with them – it has been speculated that this could be related to political reasons (to limit the Safars' influence with the ruling family) and possibly for religious reasons (because the Safars were Shia).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [ 459456, 44175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 92 ], [ 97, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a result of Bahrain's trade with India, the cultural influence of the subcontinent grew dramatically, with styles of dress, cuisine, and education showing a marked Indian influence. According to Exeter University's James Onley \"In these and countless other ways, eastern Arabia's ports and people were as much a part of the Indian Ocean world as they were a part of the Arab world.\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Unrest amongst the people of Bahrain began when Britain officially established complete dominance over the territory in 1892. The first revolt and widespread uprising took place in March 1895 against Sheikh Issa bin Ali, then ruler of Bahrain. Sheikh Issa was the first of the Al Khalifa to rule without Iranian relations. Sir Arnold Wilson, Britain's representative in the Persian Gulf and author of The Persian Gulf, arrived in Bahrain from Mascat at this time. The uprising developed further with some protesters killed by British forces.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [ 3561788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 327, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bahrain underwent a period of major social reform between 1926 and 1957, under the de facto rule of Charles Belgrave, the British advisor to Shaikh Hamad ibn Isa Al-Khalifa (1872-1942). The country's first modern school was established in 1919, with the opening of the Al-Hiddaya Boys School, while the Persian Gulf's first girls school opened in 1928. The American Mission Hospital, established by the Dutch Reform Church, began work in 1903. Other reforms include the abolition of slavery, while the pearl diving industry developed at a rapid pace.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [ 3233271, 5322398, 510990, 27992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 116 ], [ 148, 184 ], [ 403, 422 ], [ 483, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These reforms were often vigorously opposed by powerful groups within Bahrain including sections within the ruling family and merchants. In order to counter conservatives, the British removed the Ruler, Isa ibn Ali Al Khalifa in 1923 and replaced him with his son. Some Sunni families left Bahrain to mainland Arabia, whilst clerical opponents of social reforms were exiled to Saudi Arabia and Iran. The heads of some merchant and notable families were likewise exiled. Britain's interest in Bahrain's development was motivated by concerns over the ambitions of the Saudi-Wahabi and the Iranians.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Invasion and British Protectorate", "target_page_ids": [ 5322441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The discovery of oil in 1932 by Bahrain Petroleum Company brought rapid modernisation to Bahrain. Relations with the United Kingdom became closer, as evidenced by the British Royal Navy moving its entire Middle Eastern command from Bushehr in Iran to Bahrain in 1935. British influence continued to grow as the country developed, culminating with the appointment of Charles Belgrave as advisor. He went on to establish a modern education system in Bahrain.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Discovery of oil", "target_page_ids": [ 35241753, 26061, 205669, 3233271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 57 ], [ 175, 185 ], [ 232, 239 ], [ 366, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bahrain participated in the Second World War on the Allied side, joining on 10 September 1939. On 19 October 1940, four Italian SM.82s bombers bombed Bahrain alongside Dhahran oilfields in Saudi Arabia, targeting Allied-operated oil refineries. Although minimal damage was caused in both locations, the attack forced the Allies to upgrade Bahrain's defences which further stretched Allied military resources. After World War II, increasing anti-British sentiment spread throughout the Arab World and led to riots in Bahrain. The riots focused on the Jewish community, which included distinguished writers, singers, accountants, engineers and middle managers working for the oil company, textile merchants with business all over the peninsula, and free professionals.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Discovery of oil", "target_page_ids": [ 1393850, 32927, 2198844, 10106304, 27495752, 6838977, 31917172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 20 ], [ 28, 44 ], [ 52, 58 ], [ 128, 134 ], [ 143, 157 ], [ 168, 175 ], [ 529, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The National Union Committee (NUC), a leftist nationalist movement associated with the labour unions, was formed in 1954 calling for the end of British interference and political reforms. Work sites were plagued with frequent strikes and occasional riots (including several fatalities) during this period. Following riots in support of Egypt defending itself against the tripartite invasion during 1956 Suez Crisis, the British decided to put an end to the NUC challenge to their presence in Bahrain. The NUC and its offshoots were declared illegal. Its leaders were arrested, tried and imprisoned. Some fled the country while others were forcibly deported.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Discovery of oil", "target_page_ids": [ 8087628, 58568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 336, 341 ], [ 403, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Strikes and riots continued during the 1960s, now under the leadership of underground cells of the NUC, namely the communist National Liberation Front and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Bahrain, the Bahraini section of the Arab Nationalist Movement.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Discovery of oil", "target_page_ids": [ 9209651, 1763676, 8810992, 38667908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 124 ], [ 125, 150 ], [ 159, 202 ], [ 232, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 1965, an uprising broke out, called the March Intifada, against the British presence in Bahrain. The spark of the riots was the laying off of hundreds of Bahraini workers at the Bahrain Petroleum Company. Several people died in the sometimes violent clashes between protesters and police.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Discovery of oil", "target_page_ids": [ 16010791, 35241753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 63 ], [ 187, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After World War II, Bahrain became the centre for British administration of the lower Persian Gulf.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1968, when the British Government announced its decision to end the treaty relationships with the Persian Gulf sheikdoms, Bahrain joined with Qatar and the seven Trucial States (which now form the United Arab Emirates) under British protection in an effort to form a union of Arab emirates. By mid-1971, however, the nine sheikhdoms still had not agreed on the terms of union. Accordingly, Bahrain sought independence as a separate entity.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 8238258, 69328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 150 ], [ 200, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1969, both the British and Iranian governments agreed to approach the United Nations Secretariat to resolve the dispute of Bahrain's sovereignty. In early 1970, the Iranian government asked the UN general secretary to assess the will of the Bahraini people with regards to their sovereignty. The survey (sometimes referred to as a \"referendum\") took the form of a United Nations poll on whether islanders preferred independence or Iranian control.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 14653, 162410, 36162240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 34 ], [ 73, 99 ], [ 367, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The report of the Personal Representative of the Secretary-General on the consultation stated that \"the overwhelming majority of the people of Bahrain wish to gain recognition of their identity in a full independent and sovereign State free to decide for itself its relations with other States.\"", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As a result, the United Nations Security Council unanimously passed Resolution 278 on 11 May 1970, while in the same month Iran renounced its claim to the island. The country subsequently became independent from the United Kingdom, declaring independence on 15 August 1971, and becoming formally independent as the State of Bahrain on 16 December 1971.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 31956, 14415200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 48 ], [ 68, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At independence, the permanent Royal Navy presence in Bahrain ended and the United States Navy moved onto the 10 acres (40,000 m2) previously occupied by British operations. The installation later grew into Naval Support Activity Bahrain, headquarters for the United States Fifth Fleet.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 20518076, 17504799, 418867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 94 ], [ 207, 237 ], [ 260, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The emirate emerged just as the price of oil skyrocketed after the 1973 Yom Kippur War; while Bahrain's own reserves were being depleted the high oil price meant there was massive capitalisation in the Kingdom's neighbours. The Kingdom was able to exploit the situation thanks to another war in the Levant in 1975: the Lebanese Civil War. Beirut had long been the financial centre of the Arab world, but the outbreak of hostilities in the country had an immediate impact on the banking industry. Bahrain offered a new location at the centre of the booming Persian Gulf with a large educated indigenous workforce and sound fiscal regulations. Realizing the opportunity to become a financial centre resulted in growth in other industries in the country.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 34276, 312905, 37428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 86 ], [ 319, 337 ], [ 339, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This bolstered the development of the middle class and gave Bahrain a very different class structure from its tribal dominated neighbours. Although there had long been a large Indian presence in Bahrain, it was at this time that mass migration to the Kingdom began to take off with subsequent consequences for the Kingdom's demographics. Large numbers of immigrants from Third World countries such as the Philippines, Pakistan, Egypt, and Iran were attracted by better salaries than at home.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 30305, 23440, 8087628, 14653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 371, 382 ], [ 405, 416 ], [ 428, 433 ], [ 439, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Based on its new 1973 constitution, Bahraini men elected its first National Assembly in 1973 (although Article 43 of the 1973 Constitution states that the Assembly is to be elected by \"universal suffrage\", the conditional clause \"in accordance with the provisions of the electoral law\" allowed the regime to prevent women from participating). Although the Assembly and then-Emir Isa ibn Salman al-Khalifa quarrelled over a number of issues (foreign policy; the U.S. naval presence, and the budget), the biggest clash came over the State Security Law (SSL). The Assembly refused to ratify the government-sponsored law, which allowed, among other things, the arrest and detention of people for up to three years, (renewable) without a trial.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 2082742, 3213491, 220636, 412004, 418867, 3190497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 34 ], [ 67, 84 ], [ 185, 203 ], [ 379, 404 ], [ 461, 480 ], [ 531, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The legislative stalemate over this act created a public crisis, and on 25 August 1975, the emir dissolved the Assembly. The emir then ratified the State Security Law by decree, and suspended those articles in the constitution dealing with the legislative powers of the Assembly. In that same year, the emir established the State Security Court, whose judgments were not subject to appeal.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 44800449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 324, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The tide of political Islam that swept the Middle East in the 1970s, culminating in the Iranian Revolution in 1979 was to have profound implications for Bahrain's social and political development.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 15012, 347268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 27 ], [ 88, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were a number of factors that had caused Bahrain to be more liberal than its neighbours, but these were challenged by the rise of Islamic religious fundamentalism. Bahrain's pluralist traditions were to a large extent a result of the complex confessional and demographic makeup of the country, which required Shi'a Moslems Arabs, Sunni Moslem Arabs, ethnic Farsis (Huwala), and Iranian Arabs (Ajams), and a plethora of minority faiths, to live and work together. This tolerance had been buttressed by the prominence of Arab nationalism and Marxism as the main modes of dissent, both of which were socially progressive and downplayed religious affiliations. The country's traditional dependence on trade further encouraged openness. It was the political earthquake represented by the Shah's fall that changed the dynamics of Bahrain's politics.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 26961, 29402, 36687386, 8624793, 38667910, 1904053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 315, 320 ], [ 336, 341 ], [ 371, 377 ], [ 399, 404 ], [ 525, 541 ], [ 546, 553 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1981, the Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain (an alleged Iranian front organisation), attempted a coup d'état. Their goal was the assassination of Bahrain's leadership and installing an Islamist theocracy with a cleric as supreme leader. The attempted coup and the outbreak of the Iran–Iraq War led to the formation of the Gulf Cooperation Council, which Bahrain joined with Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. The sense of regional uncertainty was further heightened when Saddam Hussein's Iraq invaded Kuwait, triggering the 1991 Persian Gulf War.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 2158765, 2295661, 14889, 220950, 7515890, 22316, 8238258, 349303, 69328, 29490, 7515928, 182000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 56 ], [ 98, 121 ], [ 293, 306 ], [ 335, 359 ], [ 387, 393 ], [ 395, 399 ], [ 401, 406 ], [ 408, 420 ], [ 430, 450 ], [ 514, 528 ], [ 531, 535 ], [ 572, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1990s saw growing criticism of the lack of democratic reforms. The unrest resulted in approximately forty deaths and ended after Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa became the Emir in 1999. The emir appointed a 30-member Consultative Council for a four-year term in December 1992. Demonstrations followed the arrest of Shia cleric, Sheikh Ali Salman, on 5 December 1994 after he called for the restoration of the National Assembly and criticised the ruling family. A group of youths clashed with police after throwing stones at female runners during an international marathon for running bare-legged. In January 1995, Sheikh Ali Salman was deported and sought asylum in Britain. A cabinet reshuffle in June 1995, brought five Shia ministers into the government. Shia cleric, Sheikh Abdul Amir al-Jamri, arrested in April 1995, was released five months later. After bomb explosions in Manama's business quarter, Al-Jamri was arrested again on 18 January 1996. A Sunni lawyer and poet, Ahmad al-Shamlan, was also detained on 8 February, but released in April. In June 1996, the government claimed it had uncovered another Iranian-backed coup plot by a group called \"Hezbollah-Bahrain\". Bahrain recalled its ambassador to Iran and downgraded its representation to chargé d'affaires level. In September 1996 the Consultative Council was increased from 30 to 40 members.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 392300, 2069836, 2069836, 10410698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 157 ], [ 332, 342 ], [ 618, 628 ], [ 775, 794 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The political impasse continued over the next few years during which time the regime dealt with its opponents using severe repression. Bomb attacks and police brutality marked this period in which over forty people were killed in violence between the two sides. Although the violence was never entirely stopped by the security measures, it was contained and continued as low-level intermittent disturbances.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In December 1998 Bahrain provided military facilities for \"Operation Desert Fox\", the US and UK bombing campaign against Iraq.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 203199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The emir, Sheikh Isa, died in March 1999, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa. Sheikh al-Jamri was sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment in July 1999, but then pardoned by the new Emir. For the first time, non-Muslims (a Christian and a Jewish businessman) and four women were appointed to the Consultative Council in September 2000.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 392300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2001 Bahrainis strongly backed proposals put by the emir – now the king – to turn the country into a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament and an independent judiciary. A referendum on 14–15 February 2001 massively supported the National Action Charter. The emir gave women the right to vote, and released all political prisoners.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 5315927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As part of the adoption of the National Action Charter on 14 February 2002, Bahrain changed its formal name from the State (dawla) of Bahrain to the Kingdom of Bahrain.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Local elections were held in May 2002. For the first time women could vote and stand as candidates, but failed to win a seat. Parliamentary elections – the first such in nearly 30 years – were held in October 2002 for a 40-member parliament, the Council of Deputies, which included a dozen Shia MPs. Authorities said the turnout was more than 50% despite a call by critics for a boycott.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In May 2003 thousands of victims of alleged torture petitioned the king to cancel a law which prevents them from suing suspected torturers. Nada Haffadh was made health minister in April 2004 – the first woman to head a government ministry. The following month, protests in Manama against fighting in the Iraqi holy cities of Najaf and Karbala saw the king sack his interior minister after police tried to prevent the protest. In March–June 2005, thousands of protest marchers demanded a fully elected parliament. In the general election of November 2006, the Shia opposition won 40% of the seats. A Shia Muslim, Jawad Al-Arrayedh, was named as a deputy prime minister.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 200512, 210957, 13660565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 326, 331 ], [ 336, 343 ], [ 613, 630 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Jewish woman, Houda Nonoo, was appointed Bahrain's ambassador to the US in 2008 May. She is believed to be the Arab world's first Jewish ambassador.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 8310332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Authorities arrest several people who allegedly planned to detonate homemade bombs during Bahrain's national celebrations in December 2008. In April 2009, the King pardoned more than 170 prisoners charged with endangering national security, including 35 Shias being tried on charges of trying to overthrow the state. However, in September 2010, in the run up to the elections, 20 Shia opposition leaders were arrested and accused of plotting to overthrow monarchy by promoting violent protests and sabotage. In the October parliamentary elections, the main Shia opposition group, Al Wefaq, could make only slender gains.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 1790735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 580, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The country participated in military action against the Taliban in October 2001 by deploying a frigate in the Arabian Sea for rescue and humanitarian operations. As a result, in November of that year, US president George W. Bush's administration designated Bahrain as a \"major non-NATO ally\". Bahrain opposed the invasion of Iraq and had offered Saddam Hussein asylum in the days prior to the invasion. Relations improved with neighbouring Qatar after the border dispute over the Hawar Islands was resolved by the International Court of Justice in The Hague in 2001. Bahrain negotiated a free trade agreement with the United States in 2004, although Saudi Arabia criticized the move, saying it hindered regional economic integration.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 19666611, 30635, 11464, 3414021, 3812445, 201936, 29490, 8238258, 13667, 14918, 30269, 2533562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 43 ], [ 56, 63 ], [ 95, 102 ], [ 214, 228 ], [ 271, 290 ], [ 313, 329 ], [ 346, 360 ], [ 440, 445 ], [ 480, 493 ], [ 514, 544 ], [ 548, 557 ], [ 588, 608 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Qatar and Bahrain have made plans to build the Qatar-Bahrain Friendship Bridge to link the countries across the Persian Gulf, which would be the longest fixed-link bridge in the world if completed.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 1923028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The protests in Bahrain started on 14 February, and were initially aimed at achieving greater political freedom and respect for human rights; they were not intended to directly threaten the monarchy. Lingering frustration among the Shiite majority with being ruled by the Sunni government was a major root cause, but the protests in Tunisia and Egypt are cited as the inspiration for the demonstrations. The protests were largely peaceful until a pre-dawn raid by police on 17 February to clear protestors from Pearl Roundabout in Manama, in which police killed four protesters. Following the raid, some protesters began to expand their aims to a call for the end of the monarchy. On 18 February army forces opened fire on protesters when they tried to reenter the roundabout, fatally wounding one. The following day protesters reoccupied Pearl Roundabout after the government ordered troops and police to withdraw. Subsequent days saw large demonstrations; on 21 February a pro-government Gathering of National Unity drew tens of thousands, whilst on 22 February the number of protestors at the Pearl Roundabout peaked at over 150,000 after more than 100,000 protesters marched there. On 14 March, Saudi-led GCC forces were requested by the government and entered the country, which the opposition called an \"occupation\".", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 36236754, 11175, 8432288, 1328181, 34349567, 30884312, 20481, 67658, 36520563, 36351565, 349303, 20259145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 46 ], [ 94, 111 ], [ 128, 140 ], [ 190, 198 ], [ 474, 485 ], [ 511, 527 ], [ 531, 537 ], [ 696, 707 ], [ 777, 797 ], [ 1171, 1178 ], [ 1199, 1204 ], [ 1209, 1219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa declared a three-month state of emergency on 15 March and asked the military to reassert its control as clashes spread across the country. On 16 March, armed soldiers and riot police cleared the protesters' camp in the Pearl Roundabout, in which 3 policemen and 3 protesters were reportedly killed. Later, on 18 March, the government tore down Pearl Roundabout monument. After the lifting of emergency law on 1 June, several large rallies were staged by the opposition parties. Smaller-scale protests and clashes outside of the capital have continued to occur almost daily. On 9 March 2012 over 100,000 protested in what the opposition called \"the biggest march in our history\".", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 392300, 298608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ], [ 53, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The police response has been described as a \"brutal\" crackdown on \"peaceful and unarmed\" protestors, including doctors and bloggers. The police carried out midnight house raids in Shia neighbourhoods, beatings at checkpoints, and denial of medical care in a \"campaign of intimidation\". More than 2,929 people have been arrested, and at least five people died from torture while in police custody. On 23 November 2011 the Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry released its report on its investigation of the events, finding that the government had systematically tortured prisoners and committed other human rights violations. It also rejected the government's claims that the protests were instigated by Iran. Although the report found that systematic torture had stopped, the Bahraini government has refused entry to several international human rights groups and news organizations, and delayed a visit by a UN inspector. More than 120 people had died since the start of the uprising.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Independent Bahrain", "target_page_ids": [ 26961, 47702, 32787022, 3186213, 14653, 3838409, 34444352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 184 ], [ 364, 371 ], [ 421, 462 ], [ 551, 584 ], [ 708, 712 ], [ 913, 925 ], [ 952, 956 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bahrain National Museum", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2986070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the Jews in Bahrain", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8345891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the Middle East", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 489526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Murair", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20661147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rival Empires of Trade and Imami Shiism in Eastern Arabia, 1300–1800, Juan Cole, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2, (May 1987), pp.177–203", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1200499, 5302081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 79 ], [ 81, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mahdi Abdalla Al-Tajir (1987). Bahrain, 1920–1945: Britain, the Shaikh, and the Administration. ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Talal Toufic Farah (1986). Protection and Politics in Bahrain, 1869–1915 ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Emile A Nakhleh (1976). Bahrain: Political development in a modernizing society. ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Andrew Wheatcroft (1995). The Life and Times of Shaikh Salman Bin Hamad Al-Khalifa : Ruler of Bahrain 1942–1961. ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fuad Ishaq Khuri (1980). Tribe and state in Bahrain: The transformation of social and political authority in an Arab state. ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fred H. Lawson (1989). Bahrain: The Modernization of Autocracy. ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mohammed Ghanim Al-Rumaihi (1975). Bahrain: A study on social and political changes since the First World War. University of Kuwait.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fakhro, Munira A. 1997. \"The Uprising in Bahrain: An Assessment.\" In The Persian Gulf at the Millennium: Essays in Politics, Economy, Security, and Religion, eds. Gary G. Sick and Lawrence G. Potter: 167–88. New York: St. Martin's Press. ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Abdulla, Khalid M. 1999. \"The State in Oil Rentier Economies: The Case of Bahrain.\" In Change and Development in the Gulf, ed. Abbas Abdelkarim: 51–78. New York: St. Martin's Press. ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Timeline: Bahrain, BBC", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bahrain: 1905–2005 Life before and after the discovery of oil", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Background Note: Bahrain", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Generational change and elite-driven reforms in the Kingdom of Bahrain. (Sir William Luce Fellowship Paper No. 7) Dr. Steven Wright (2006) Middle East and Islamic Studies, University of Durham, (PDF Format)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 29997930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Khalaf, Abdulhadi (1998). Contentious politics in Bahrain: From ethnic to national and vice versa.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 20396285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " University of Bahrain", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "বাহরাইন", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "History_of_Bahrain" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1411 (MCDXI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321344, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 16 ], [ 24, 56 ], [ 102, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 21 Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York, claimant to the English throne (d. 1460)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27532, 78356, 39506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 48 ], [ 85, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Juan de Mena, Spanish poet (d. 1456)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 657118, 39507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 28 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margareta of Celje, Polish Duchess (d. 1480)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22658335, 36298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 18 Jobst of Moravia, ruler of Moravia, King of the Romans", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16202, 38204, 20216, 302609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 29 ], [ 40, 47 ], [ 49, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 6 Esau de' Buondelmonti, ruler of Epirus ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11021, 5468805, 652533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 34 ], [ 45, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 3 Leopold IV, Duke of Austria (b. 1371)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15854, 1168621, 36368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 8, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September Anne de Mortimer, Countess of Cambridge (b. 1390)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 211544, 39551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 4 Khalil Sultan, ruler of Transoxiana (b. 1384)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21805, 2976015, 39545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 26 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Hasdai Crescas, Jewish philosopher", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 784618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 25 ] ] } ]

[ "1411" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1412 (MCDXII) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) on the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321374, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 25, 53 ], [ 99, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Black Death sweeps England for a final time, in a 60-year period.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 4501, 407950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ], [ 24, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 6 Joan of Arc, French soldier and saint (tradition holds that she was born on the Feast of the Epiphany, but there is no documentary evidence) (d. 1431)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15986, 16509, 1018093, 36127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 23 ], [ 92, 113 ], [ 157, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 26 William IV, Lord of Egmont, IJsselstein, Schoonderwoerd and Haastrecht and Stadtholder of Guelders (d. 1483)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15791, 28546348, 36162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 39 ], [ 116, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 22 Reinhard III, Count of Hanau (1451–1452) (d. 1452)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1710, 34492642, 39509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 39 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 5 Ludovico III Gonzaga, Marquis of Mantua (d. 1478)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15820, 214250, 36213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 29 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 22 Frederick II, Elector of Saxony and Margrave of Meissen (1428–1464) and Landgrave of Thuringia (1440–1445) (d. 1464)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1012, 3058238, 39504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 43 ], [ 123, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 17 Zanobi Strozzi, Italian painter (d. 1468)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21798, 37972364, 39501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 8 Astorre II Manfredi, Italian noble (d. 1468)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8194, 10791728, 39501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March Albrekt of Mecklenburg, king of Sweden 13641389 (b. 1336)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 195241, 36122, 34881, 36359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 30 ], [ 47, 51 ], [ 51, 55 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 2 Ruy Gonzáles de Clavijo, Castilian traveller and writer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1777, 1328771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 16 Gian Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19659, 1967920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 6 Margherita of Durazzo, Queen consort of Charles III of Naples (b. 1347)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1019, 9522436, 39512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 32 ], [ 77, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 14 Ingegerd Knutsdotter, Swedish abbess (b. 1356)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27947, 24538403, 39523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 35 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 28 Margaret I of Denmark, queen regnant of Denmark of Norway since 1387 and of Sweden since 1389 (b. 1353)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22341, 58726, 39548, 34881, 39520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 34 ], [ 77, 81 ], [ 102, 106 ], [ 111, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Ignatius Abraham bar Garib, Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Mardin", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 43366826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Jalal ad-Din khan, khan of the Golden Horde", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34769920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 32 ] ] } ]

[ "1412" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1413 (MCDXIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168851, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 56 ], [ 102, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 21 Henry V becomes King of England following the death of his father Henry IV.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 20329, 45597, 407950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 18 ], [ 35, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 5 Battle of Çamurlu: Mehmed I defeats his brother Musa, ending the Ottoman Interregnum.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15861, 32394019, 19987, 28179319, 217318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 26 ], [ 28, 36 ], [ 57, 61 ], [ 74, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 28 The University of St Andrews in Scotland is chartered by papal bull.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1781, 181348, 23248387, 336179, 210043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 16, 40 ], [ 44, 52 ], [ 56, 63 ], [ 69, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 2 The Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania sign the Union of Horodło.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 22527, 393169, 380252, 1270109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 33 ], [ 38, 62 ], [ 72, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Samogitia becomes the last region in Europe to be Christianized.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 392946, 38238985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 51, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty begin in Korea.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 481128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 24 Louis, Duke of Savoy (d. 1465)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11007, 69492, 34957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 34 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 8 Catherine of Bologna, Italian cloistered nun (d. 1463)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28488, 3619053, 39505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 34 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 19 Frederick II, Elector of Brandenburg (d. 1471)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21574, 39368, 35498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 50 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Joanot Martorell, Spanish writer (d. 1468)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 65127, 39501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 31 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 25 Maud de Ufford, Countess of Oxford (b. 1345)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15845, 24970289, 14944095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 47 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 20 Henry IV of England (b. 1367)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 14563107, 46861, 39532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 30 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 5 Musa Çelebi, Ottoman prince and co-ruler of the Ottoman Empire", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15861, 28179319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 26 Stephen III, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1337)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28178, 3460657, 39974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 43 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 6 Dawit I of Ethiopia (b. 1382)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22542, 1813758, 36370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 31 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 26 Michele Steno, Doge of Venice (b. 1331)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8360, 25214870, 36358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 27 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] } ]

[ "1413" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1414 (MCDXIV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168880, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 25, 55 ], [ 101, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 25 Thomas Clifford, 8th Baron de Clifford, English noble (d. 1455)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19773, 7246606, 39508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 49 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 11 Francis I, Duke of Brittany (d. 1450)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19452, 640424, 39510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 7 Henry II, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, Co-ruler of Nassau-Dillenburg (1442–1450) (d. 1451)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15863, 35381784, 34885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 45 ], [ 93, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 21 Pope Sixtus IV (d. 1484)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16179, 24845, 39494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 29, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 7 Jami, Persian poet (d. 1492)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21667, 420409, 34599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 17 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 9 Albrecht III Achilles, Elector of Brandenburg, Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (d. 1486)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21446, 39235, 39492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 58 ], [ 113, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Charles I, Count of Nevers, Count of Nevers and Rethel (d. 1464)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2605862, 39504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tenshō Shūbun, Japanese painter in the Muromachi period and Zen Buddhist monk (d. 1463)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1804503, 39505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 83, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Narsinh Mehta, poet-saint of Gujarat (d. 1481)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1907910, 34886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 24 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 19 Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1353)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11006, 206087, 2345, 39520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ], [ 30, 54 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 28 Jeanne-Marie de Maille, French Roman Catholic saint (b. 1331) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19347, 40496259, 36358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 33 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 6 King Ladislaus of Naples (b. 1377)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1019, 541959, 39540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 16, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 1 William de Ros, 6th Baron de Ros, Lord Treasurer of England (b. 1369)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27530, 1096029, 39534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 46 ], [ 78, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tewodros I, Emperor of Ethiopia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1816301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fairuzabadi, Persian lexicographer (b. 1329)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2709973, 39970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ali ibn Mohammed al-Jurjani, Persian encyclopaedic writer (b. 1339)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20884188, 39975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John I Stanley of the Isle of Man, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, King of the Isle of Man (b. 1350)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 861799, 39518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 92, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Zyndram of Maszkowice, Polish 14th- and 15th-century knight (b. 1355)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1265075, 39522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 32 ], [ 75, 79 ] ] } ]

[ "1414" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1416 (MCDXVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321387, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 25, 56 ], [ 102, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 27 The Republic of Ragusa is the first state in Europe to outlaw slavery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15866, 2946786, 9239, 27992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 17, 35 ], [ 58, 64 ], [ 75, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 29 Battle of Gallipoli: Venetian admiral Pietro Loredan destroys the Ottoman fleet.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19355, 53289993, 938867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 28 ], [ 47, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 30 The Catholic Church burns Jerome of Prague as a heretic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19654, 606848, 910547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 13, 28 ], [ 35, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Trezzo sull'Adda Bridge (the longest arch bridge in the world at the time) is destroyed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 10444490, 318272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 28 ], [ 42, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Hussite Bible is completed by Tamás Pécsi and Bálint Újlaki.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 9504086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 26 Christopher of Bavaria (d. 1448)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11141, 187755, 39932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 27 Antonio Squarcialupi, Italian organist and composer (d. 1480)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20585, 2097996, 36298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 31 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 28 Jodha of Mandore, Ruler of Marwar (d. 1489)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19347, 3525051, 39491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 27 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 25 Jakobus, nobleman from Lichtenberg in the northern part of Alsace (d. 1480)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19354, 47045402, 36298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 16 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 26 Edmund Grey, 1st Earl of Kent (d. 1490)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22403, 703007, 39489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 42 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Benedetto Cotrugli, Ragusan/Croatian merchant, economist, scientist, diplomat and humanist (d. 1469)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1908628, 34993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 96, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pal Engjëlli, Albanian Catholic clergyman (d. 1470)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 333645, 39500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Francis of Paola, founder of the Order of the Minims (d. 1507)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 437827, 434462, 38698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 34, 53 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Piero di Cosimo de' Medici, ruler of Florence (d. 1469)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 296774, 34993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Jacquetta of Luxembourg, English duchess and countess (d. 1472)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 232011, 39499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 34 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 2 Racek Kobyla of Dvorce, Bohemian Hetman and Burgrave.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11322, 62920070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 27 Eleanor of Castile, queen consort of Navarre (b. c. 1363)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11310, 4158204, 39528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 2 King Ferdinand I of Aragon (b. 1379)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1777, 1159512, 39542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 15, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 21 Anna of Celje, queen consort of Poland (b. c. 1381)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19684, 5477366, 39543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 22 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 30 Jerome of Prague, Czech theologian (executed) (b. 1379)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19654, 910547, 39542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 25 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 15 John, Duke of Berry, son of John II of France (b. 1340)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15936, 703592, 77502, 39517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 29 ], [ 38, 55 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 1 Yaqub Spata, lord of Arta ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22340, 19878965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 14 Henry the Mild, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22525, 8229818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 29 Mathew Swetenham, bowbearer of Henry IV", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8893, 51103511, 46861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 45, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown The Limbourg brothers, painters of the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 581876, 865117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 36 ], [ 54, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Owain Glyndŵr, Welsh prince and leader of the Welsh Revolt", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Julian of Norwich, English anchoress, mystic and author", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 43418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] } ]

[ "1416" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1417 (MCDXVII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168855, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 56 ], [ 102, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "<onlyinclude>", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " June 29 An English fleet, led by the Earl of Huntingdon, defeats a fleet of Genoese carracks and captures their admiral, the \"Bastard of Bourbon\". ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15842, 297470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 35, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 27 Avignon Pope Benedict XIII is deposed, bringing to an end the Great Western Schism. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15922, 1778562, 543939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 36 ], [ 72, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 12 King Henry V of England begins using English in correspondence (back to England from France whilst on campaign), marking the beginning of this king's continuous usage of English in prose, and the beginning of the restoration of English as an official language for the first time since the Norman Conquest, some 350 years earlier.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1491, 45597, 407950, 2687967, 68832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 17, 35 ], [ 84, 91 ], [ 97, 103 ], [ 301, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 20 Henry V of England captures Caen, Normandy, which remains in English hands until 1450.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 28148, 62081833, 39510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 34, 47 ], [ 96, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 14 Pope Martin V succeeds Pope Gregory XII (who abdicated in 1415), as the 206th pope.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 21762, 23937, 24242, 36126, 23056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 27 ], [ 37, 53 ], [ 72, 76 ], [ 92, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The earliest extant description of Tynwald Day; the annual meeting of the Isle of Man's parliament (Tynwald) is written down in law.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 392252, 14727, 24406, 302430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 47 ], [ 75, 86 ], [ 89, 99 ], [ 101, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The use of street lighting is first recorded in London, England when Sir Henry Barton, the mayor, orders lanterns with lights to be hung out on the winter evenings, between Hallowtide and Candlemas.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 17867, 13855, 4592625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 55 ], [ 174, 184 ], [ 189, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mircea cel Bătrân loses Dobruja to the Ottomans and pays them tribute, thus preventing Wallachia from becoming an Ottoman province. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 264587, 255578, 46026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 25, 32 ], [ 88, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chimalpopoca, son of Huitzilihuitl, succeeds his father as Tlatoani (monarch) of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1460255, 1460226, 1475346, 29988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 22, 35 ], [ 60, 68 ], [ 82, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 23", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pope Paul II (d. 1471)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 47173, 35498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 18, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria-Landshut (1450–1479) (d. 1479)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3484514, 39496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 25 Catherine of Cleves, Duchess consort regent of Guelders (d. 1479)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19354, 31273340, 39496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 28 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 19 Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta, lord of Rimini (d. 1468)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15817, 1306000, 39501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 39 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 8 Philipp I, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg (1458–1480) (d. 1480)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21759, 34014952, 36298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 50 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 19 Frederick I, Count Palatine of Simmern from 1459 until 1480 (d. 1480)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21574, 21458442, 36298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 52 ], [ 78, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 23 William FitzAlan, 16th Earl of Arundel, English politician (d. 1487)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21806, 1286869, 36137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 52 ], [ 77, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna, regent of Sweden 1457 and 14651466, archbishop of Uppsala 14481467", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 24008564, 36130, 34957, 39503, 39932, 39502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 46, 50 ], [ 55, 59 ], [ 59, 63 ], [ 87, 91 ], [ 91, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nicholas of Flüe, Swiss hermit and saint (d. 1487)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1633909, 36137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January Art mac Art MacMurrough-Kavanagh, King of Leinster (b. 1357)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2021552, 42837395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 42 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 5 Manuel III Megas Komnenos, Emperor of Trebizond (b. 1364)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20314, 1328882, 652643, 36122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 35 ], [ 37, 57 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 29 Louis II of Anjou (b. 1377)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1416, 732584, 39540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 28 ], [ 33, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 4 Robert Hallam, English Catholic bishop", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27765, 214721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 22 Anne of Auvergne, Sovereign Dauphine of Auvergne and Countess of Forez (b. 1358)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27889, 35915100, 39525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 31 ], [ 90, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 26 Francesco Zabarella, Italian jurist (b. 1360)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28178, 1686206, 36171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 34 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 18 Pope Gregory XII (b. c.1325)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22545, 24242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 17 Gazi Evrenos, Ottoman general (b. 1288)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21798, 1922670, 42513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 26 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 14 John Oldcastle, English Lollard leader (executed)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8851, 302980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Huitzilíhuitl, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1460226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 24 ] ] } ]

[ "1417" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1418 (MCDXVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321295, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 59 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 9 Juan Ramón Folch III de Cardona, Aragonese admiral (d. 1485)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16075, 29704524, 39493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 43 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 14 Philip II, Count of Nassau-Weilburg (1429–1492) (d. 1492)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20199, 35670117, 34599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 46 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 20 Earl David of Rookwood", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 16 John II of Cyprus, King of Cyprus and Armenia and also titular King of Jerusalem from 1432 to 1458 (d. 1458)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19659, 394104, 10918072, 36131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 26 ], [ 47, 54 ], [ 112, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 5 Malatesta Novello, Italian condottiero (d. 1465)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1990, 24134386, 34957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 28 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 24 Anne of Cyprus, Italian noble (d. 1462)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28202, 17278895, 36221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 29 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 2 Gaspare Nadi, Italian builder famous for his diary (diario) (d. 1504)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21461, 39488844, 38702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 25 ], [ 77, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 20 Robert de Morley, 6th Baron Morley, Lord of Morley Saint Botolph (d. 1442)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21575, 30011090, 39926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 48 ], [ 83, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 8 Queen Jeonghui, Queen consort of Korea (d. 1483)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8194, 27281415, 36162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 27 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 12 Archduke Albert VI of Austria (d. 1463)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8633, 1220240, 39505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 23, 43 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Peter II, Duke of Brittany (d. 1457)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 640455, 36130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Isotta Nogarola, Italian writer and intellectual (d. 1466)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9564348, 39503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 31 Mircea I of Wallachia, ruler of Wallachia (b. 1355)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15793, 264587, 39522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 34 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 22 Dietrich of Nieheim, German historian", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20211, 166584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 2 Katherine of Lancaster, queen of Henry III of Castile", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15855, 1784280, 153823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 31 ], [ 42, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 12 Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac, Constable of France (b. 1360)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15806, 1638171, 36171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 40 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 25 Henry Beaufort, 2nd Earl of Somerset (b. 1401)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21580, 538093, 39556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 50 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 11 Louis of Piedmont (b. 1364)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8396, 9968604, 36122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ixtlilxochitl I, ruler of the Mesoamerican city-state of Texcoco, and ally of the Aztecs", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1933972, 5301493, 224135, 53198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 31, 43 ], [ 58, 65 ], [ 83, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Foelke Kampana, Frisian lady and regent (b. 1355)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38336084, 39522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] } ]

[ "1418" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1419 (MCDXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168851, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 25, 55 ], [ 101, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "February Abu 'Amr 'Uthman, Hafsid caliph of Ifriqiya (d. 1488)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10845, 26309022, 1289726, 804036, 629237, 39490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 10, 26 ], [ 29, 35 ], [ 36, 42 ], [ 46, 54 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "February 16 John I, Duke of Cleves (d. 1481)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11362, 12519269, 34886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 13, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 24 Ginevra d'Este (d. 1440)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20209, 48289593, 39923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 25 ], [ 30, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 24 John of Sahagún, Spanish Augustinian friar, priest and saint (d. 1479)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15812, 13760899, 39496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 75, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 10 Emperor Go-Hanazono of Japan (d. 1471)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15809, 195018, 35498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 1 Albert II, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen (d. 1485)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21460, 32298583, 39493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 53 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abd al-Haqq II, last Marinid Sultan of Morocco (d. 1465)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 39386273, 34957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Barbara Fugger, German banker (d. 1497)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 45361095, 39485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 5 Vincent Ferrer, Spanish missionary and saint (b. 1350)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2194, 1195103, 39518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 16 Wenceslaus, King of the Romans, King of Bohemia (b. 1361)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1448, 38826, 39526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 42 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 10 John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy (assassinated) (b. 1371)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28020, 628938, 357292, 36368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 32 ], [ 34, 50 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 17 William Gascoigne, Chief Justice of England", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8322, 536348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 22 Antipope John XXIII", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8728, 2238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Je Tsongkhapa, founder of the Geluk school of Tibetan Buddhism (b. 1357)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1323461, 39524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stella de’ Tolomei, Italian courtier", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 50931422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] } ]

[ "1419" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1420 (MCDXX) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 314227, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 16 ], [ 24, 52 ], [ 98, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 9 Dorothea of Brandenburg, Duchess of Mecklenburg (d. 1491)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11361, 31913118, 39488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 60 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 23 George of Poděbrady, King of Bohemia (d. 1471)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1827, 233686, 35498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 30 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 5 Anna of Saxony, Landgravine of Hesse, German royalty (d. 1462)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15820, 31551122, 36221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 45 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 19 William VIII, Marquess of Montferrat (d. 1483)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16091, 7922209, 36162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 46 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 1 Elisabeth of Cleves, Countess of Schwarzburg-Blankenburg, German noble (d. 1488)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22340, 27711954, 39490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 68 ], [ 87, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jean Fouquet, French painter (d. 1481)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 735035, 34886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nicolas Jenson, French engraver (d. 1480)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 773187, 36298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antoinette de Maignelais, mistress of Charles VII of France (d. 1474)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15360480, 39498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tomás de Torquemada, first grand inquisitor of Spain (d. 1490)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 213302, 39489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 11 John III, Burgrave of Nuremberg (b. c. 1369)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15796, 3497966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August Mihail I, ruler of Wallachia (killed in battle)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1047569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 9 Pierre d'Ailly, French theologian and cardinal (b. 1351)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1027, 581822, 36365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 25 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 3 Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany, regent of Scotland", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27989, 528410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Andrew of Wyntoun, Scottish chronicler (b. 1350)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 148235, 39518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marina Galina, Dogaressa of Venice ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40603880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Epiphanius the Wise, Russian saint", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1353479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " King Lukeni lua Nimi of the Kingdom of Kongo (b. 1380)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8603923, 3208995, 34956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 21 ], [ 29, 45 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] } ]

[ "1420" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1422 (MCDXXII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321344, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 58 ], [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 8 Jacopo Piccolomini-Ammannati, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1479)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20053, 5648970, 39496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 38 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 7 Federico da Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino (d. 1482)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15795, 621744, 39495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 32 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 5 Catherine, Princess of Asturias, Spanish royal (d. 1424)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22536, 31253204, 39907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 43 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 27 Gaston IV, Count of Foix, French nobleman from Bearn (d. 1472)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21448, 5604369, 39499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 38 ], [ 71, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 29 Thomas Percy, 1st Baron Egremont, English baron (d. 1460)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21578, 10138011, 39506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 46 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza, Timurid ruler in Khurasan (d. 1457)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34807346, 36130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 37 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable William Caxton, English printer (d. c. 1491)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 142743, 39488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 25 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " approximate Agnès Sorel, French courtier, mistress of Charles VII of France (d. 1450)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20949337, 76701, 39510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 25 ], [ 56, 77 ], [ 82, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 9 Jan Želivský, Hussite priest (executed) (b. 1380) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20054, 2627169, 14291, 34956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 22 ], [ 24, 31 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 8 Michelle of Valois, French princess and duchess consort of Burgundy (b. 1395)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15874, 991201, 39552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 27 ], [ 81, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 31 King Henry V of England (b. 1386)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1711, 45597, 39547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 17, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 17 Emperor Constantine II of Bulgaria (b. after 1370)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27993, 4725021, 39535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 23, 49 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 21 King Charles VI of France (b. 1368)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22570, 77413, 39533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 18, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Thomas Walsingham, English chronicler", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 153271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 28 ] ] } ]

[ "1422" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1423 (MCDXXIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168855, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 4 Johann II of Nassau-Saarbrücken, Count of Nassau-Saarbrücken (1429–1472) (d. 1472)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18951826, 34187350, 39499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 41 ], [ 87, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 18 Lady Katherine Percy, English nobility (d. 1475)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19389, 8161737, 39497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 29 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 30 Georg von Peuerbach, Austrian astronomer (d. 1461)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19654, 172394, 36303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 28 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 2 Ferdinand I of Naples (d. 1494)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15855, 156954, 39487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 30 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 15 Gabriele Sforza, Archbishop of Milan (d. 1457)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15936, 35992990, 36130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 3 Louis XI of France, monarch of the House of Valois, King of France from 1461 to 1483 (d. 1483)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15848, 70506, 36162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 27 ], [ 98, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 6 Antonio Manetti, Italian mathematician and architect (d. 1497)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15862, 5518440, 39485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 24 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 24 Thomas Rotherham, English cleric (d. 1500)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1629, 247785, 35019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 28 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 10 Eleanor, Princess of Asturias (d. 1425)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28020, 31254406, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 44 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August Demetrios Chalkokondyles, Greek scholar (d. 1511)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1005, 567502, 38696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 33 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 23 Margaret of Bavaria, Burgundian regent (b. 1363)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15990, 10757059, 39528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March Richard Whittington, Lord Mayor of London (b. 1358)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19344, 55706, 39525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 27 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 23 Antipope Benedict XIII (b. 1328)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19655, 1778562, 39968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 31 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 20 Henry Bowet, Archbishop of York", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22442, 3552746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 1 Nicholas Eudaimonoioannes, Byzantine diplomat", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21460, 47594147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 15 Michael Küchmeister von Sternberg, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8145, 5250449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 47 ] ] } ]

[ "1423" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1424 (MCDXXIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321364, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 56 ], [ 102, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 1 Louis IV, Elector Palatine (1436–1449) (d. 1449)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15787, 4399875, 39934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 38 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 9 Blanche II of Navarre (d. 1464)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15865, 1799027, 39504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 30 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August Demetrios Chalkokondyles, Greek scholar (d. 1511)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1005, 567502, 38696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 33 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 31 King Władysław III of Poland (d. 1444)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22437, 42584, 39928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 18, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 8 Anselm Adornes, Merchant, politician and diplomat (d. 1483)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8194, 41822316, 36162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 27 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 25 Margaret Stewart, Dauphine of France (d. 1445)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8270, 4338969, 39929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 50 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 10 or 1426 Boniface III, Marquess of Montferrat (d. 1494)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2315, 39909, 32294011, 39487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 14, 18 ], [ 20, 56 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Abu Sa'id Mirza, ruler of Persia and Afghanistan (d. 1469)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34769199, 34993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 30 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 4 Muzio Sforza, Italian condottiero", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15982, 631496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 8 Stephen Zaccaria, Latin Archbishop of Patras", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15988, 42861743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 14 Lucia Visconti, English countess (b. 1372)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1862, 29155356, 39536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 25 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 10 Emperor Go-Kameyama of Japan", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19629, 45769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 5 Braccio da Montone, Italian condottiero", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15820, 1605026, 313007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 27 ], [ 37, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 10 Duke Ernest of Austria (b. 1377)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15805, 1167367, 39540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 15, 32 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 16 Johannes Ambundii, Archbishop of Riga", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15935, 799804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 12 Yongle Emperor of China (b. 1360)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1491, 74268, 36171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 26 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 17 John Stewart, Earl of Buchan (b. c. 1381)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1490, 5960691, 39543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 40 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 17 Catherine, Princess of Asturias, Austrian royal (b. 1422)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27993, 31253204, 39905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 46 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 11 Jan Žižka, Czech general and Hussite leader", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22440, 245698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Joan II, Countess of Auvergne (b. 1378)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8789523, 39541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 45 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Johannes Abezier, provost and bishop of the Teutonic Knights (b. 1380)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 761377, 34956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] } ]

[ "1424" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1425 (MCDXXV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168880, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 25, 55 ], [ 101, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 5 Henry IV of Castile (d. 1474)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19279054, 972071, 39498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 31 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 21 Henry Beauchamp, 1st Duke of Warwick, English nobleman (d. 1446)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20329, 294321, 39930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 47 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 31 Bianca Maria Visconti, Duchess of Milan (d. 1468)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20587, 2836453, 39501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 32 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 30 William III, Landgrave of Thuringia (1445–1482) and Duke of Luxembourg (1457–1482) (d. 1482)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1011, 4158794, 39495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 46 ], [ 98, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 14 Alesso Baldovinetti, Italian painter (d. 1499)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22525, 144054, 39484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 18 Kunigunde of Sternberg, first spouse of King George of Podebrady (d. 1449)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21452, 31367120, 39934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 36 ], [ 83, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Edmund Sutton, English nobleman (d. 1483)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 705665, 36162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Krokodeilos Kladas, Greek military leader (d. 1490) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2345986, 39489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Xicotencatl I, ruler of Tizatlan (in modern-day Mexico) (d. 1522)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11281491, 16511815, 3966054, 34995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 25, 33 ], [ 49, 55 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 18 Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March, English politician (b. 1391)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16202, 267631, 39550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 47 ], [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 27 Prince Vasily I of Moscow (b. 1371)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11310, 148189, 36368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 21, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 17 Ashikaga Yoshikazu, Japanese shōgun (b. 1407)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20223, 234787, 39559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 29 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 24 Murdoch Stewart, 2nd Duke of Albany, Scottish politician (b. 1362)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19459, 1088057, 39527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 44 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 29 Hongxi Emperor of China (b. 1378)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19355, 361865, 39541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 23 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 8 Lady Elizabeth FitzAlan, English noble (b. 1366)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15874, 433444, 39530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 32 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 21 Manuel II Palaiologos, Byzantine Emperor (b. 1350)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16179, 44839, 4016, 39518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 31 ], [ 33, 50 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 22 Eleanor, Princess of Asturias (b. 1423)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1012, 31254406, 39906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 8 King Charles III of Navarre (b. 1361)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28488, 343487, 39526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 19, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Madhava of Sangamagrama, Indian mathematician (b. 1350)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2793007, 39518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margareta, Swedish Sami missionary (b. 1369) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40866175, 39534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yi Jong Mu, Korean general (b. 1360)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1933515, 36171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 32, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Parameshvara, Indian mathematician (b. 1360)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1158661, 36171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] } ]

[ "1425" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1426 (MCDXXVI) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 311439, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 2 Eleanor of Navarre, queen regnant of Navarre (d. 1479)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11322, 2940926, 39496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 31 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February Christian of Oldenburg, King of Denmark 14481481, of Norway 14501481 and of Sweden 14571464 (d. 1481)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10845, 174698, 39932, 34886, 39510, 36130, 39504, 34886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 33 ], [ 51, 55 ], [ 55, 59 ], [ 71, 75 ], [ 94, 98 ], [ 98, 102 ], [ 107, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 13 Anne Neville, Countess of Warwick (d. 1492)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15878, 2082277, 34599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 43 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 19 Maria of Cleves, French noble (d. 1487)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28147, 9986508, 36137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 30 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 30 Johann IV Roth, Roman Catholic bishop (d. 1506)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21577, 39440978, 35499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown John II, Duke of Bourbon (d. 1488)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 703420, 39490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March / May Thomas Hoccleve, English poet (b. c. 1368)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19344, 19345, 1155869, 39533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 9, 12 ], [ 14, 29 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " c. late May Kale Kye-Taung Nyo, deposed King of Ava (b. c. 1385)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 26793976, 39546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 32 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 18 Hubert van Eyck, painter", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28146, 46406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 24 Elizabeth of Lancaster, Duchess of Exeter, English Plantagent noblewoman, daughter of John of Gaunt (b. c. 1363)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21522, 8140607, 39528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 55 ], [ 121, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December Pippo Spano, Hungarian military leader (b. 1369)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8143, 797065, 39534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 22 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 31 Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter, English nobleman and military leader (b. c. 1377)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8204, 70162, 39540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 45 ], [ 91, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Tezozomoc, Tepanec ruler of Azcapotzalco and military leader", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1916594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 24 ] ] } ]

[ "1426" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1427 (MCDXXVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 319725, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 60 ], [ 106, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 27 Ruprecht, Archbishop of Cologne (d. 1480)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11310, 31232596, 36298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 22 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 8 John Tiptoft, 1st Earl of Worcester, Lord High Treasurer (d. 1470)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19353, 3737379, 39500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 43 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 29 Françoise d'Amboise, duchess consort of Brittany, co-founder of the first monastery of the Carmelites in France (d. 1485)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19355, 9288349, 39493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 28 ], [ 125, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 22 Lucrezia Tornabuoni, Italian writer, adviser and spouse of Piero di Cosimo de' Medici (d. 1482)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15857, 21874567, 39495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 29 ], [ 100, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 9 Thomas de Ros, 9th Baron de Ros, English politician (d. 1464)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28544, 1096103, 39504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 45 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 26 Archduke Sigismund of Austria (d. 1496)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22403, 38715, 39486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 22, 42 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 24 John Stafford, 1st Earl of Wiltshire (d. 1473)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21522, 503347, 35077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 50 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 29 Zhengtong Emperor of China (d. 1464)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21578, 573451, 39504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 30 Casimir IV Jagiellon, King of Poland (d. 1492)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21577, 39064, 34599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 34 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Shen Zhou, Chinese painter (d. 1509)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2812132, 38700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 24 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 17 John IV, Duke of Brabant (b. 1403)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1974, 2616784, 34883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 7 Thomas la Warr, 5th Baron De La Warr, English churchman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19582, 1771433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 28 Henry IV, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg (b. 1397)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19672, 36177779, 39554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 46 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 19 Stefan Lazarević, Despot of Serbia (b. 1377)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16091, 1542969, 4789521, 2768125, 39540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 26 ], [ 28, 34 ], [ 38, 44 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chimalpopoca, Aztec Tlatoani (ruler) of Tenochtitlán (b. 1397)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1460255, 1475346, 29988, 39554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 21, 29 ], [ 41, 53 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Qu You, Chinese novelist (b. 1341)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 249600, 36364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 30, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jehuda Cresques, Catalan cartographer (b. 1350)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 53075, 39518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gentile da Fabriano, Italian painter", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 214827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Radu II Prasnaglava, ruler of Wallachia, probably killed in or after a lost battle", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3981567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] } ]

[ "1427" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1428 (MCDXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321380, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 58 ], [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 3 Helena Palaiologina, Queen of Cyprus (d. 1458)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11323, 23262200, 36131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 7 William Percy, late medieval Bishop of Carlisle (d. 1462)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2735, 12946062, 36221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 23 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 3 Pedro González de Mendoza, Spanish cardinal and statesman (d. 1495)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19350, 318236, 36173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 33 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 4 Filippo Strozzi the Elder, Italian banker (d. 1491)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15849, 7854060, 39488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 34 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 21 Jingtai Emperor of China (d. 1457)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27532, 995318, 36130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 30 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 2 Yolande, Duchess of Lorraine (d. 1483)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21461, 17178897, 36162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 22 Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, English kingmaker (d. 1471)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21526, 49676, 35498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 51 ], [ 75, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 4 Bernard VII, Lord of Lippe (1429–1511) (d. 1511)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8354, 35272312, 38696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 39 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Donato Acciaioli, Italian scholar (d. 1478)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1503653, 36213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 31 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Maria Ormani, Italian artist, scribe and illuminator", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 53375567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Didrik Pining, German explorer (approximate date)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 817963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 4 Frederick I, Elector of Saxony (b. 1370)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15982, 3101072, 39535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 42 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 3 Ashikaga Yoshimochi, Japanese shōgun (b. 1386)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11323, 234791, 39547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 12 Zawisza Czarny, Polish knight and diplomat", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15806, 1064272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 27 John I of Münsterberg, Duke of Ziebice (b. 1370)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1013, 22157237, 39535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 33 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 30 Emperor Shōkō, emperor of Japan (b. 1401)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1794, 47163, 39556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 25 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Autumn Masaccio, Italian painter (b. 1401)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 31086, 39556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 17 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 3 Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury, English military leader (mortally wounded in battle) (b. 1388)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21764, 23623417, 36124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 52 ], [ 111, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 4 Sophia of Bavaria, Queen regent of Bohemia (b. 1376)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21805, 4364223, 39539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Maxtla, Tepanec ruler of Azcapotzalco", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1920269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paul of Venice, Catholic theologian", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2364425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Isabella, Countess of Foix, French sovereign (b. 1361)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 29498949, 39526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable John Purvey, English theologian (b. 1353)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 652144, 39520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] } ]

[ "1428" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1429 (MCDXXIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321295, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 58 ], [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 17 Antonio del Pollaiuolo, Italian artist (d.c. 1498)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15920, 233347, 35500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 35 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Peter, Constable of Portugal (d. 1466)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8333460, 39503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 43 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Mino da Fiesole, Florentine sculptor (d. 1484)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 225495, 39494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici, founder of the Medici dynasty of Florence (b. c. 1360)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10845, 215651, 44175, 36171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 39 ], [ 56, 62 ], [ 90, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 22 Ghiyath al-Kashi, Persian mathematician and astronomer (b. 1380)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15857, 10553199, 34956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 26 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 4 Carlo I Tocco, ruler of Epirus (b. 1372)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15849, 5469765, 39536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 22 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 12 Jean Gerson, chancellor of the University of Paris (b. 1363)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15971, 23838961, 84692, 39528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 21 ], [ 41, 60 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 28 Cymburgis of Masovia, Duchess of Austria by marriage to Duke Ernest the Iron of Inner Austria (b. 1394)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27533, 1169336, 1167367, 1223689, 36125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 35 ], [ 76, 91 ], [ 95, 108 ], [ 113, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October Alexios IV Megas Komnenos, Empire of Trebizond (b. 1382)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22332, 2981895, 652643, 36370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 35 ], [ 37, 56 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Emperor Yeshaq I of Ethiopia (b. 1414)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1816339, 39898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 43 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] } ]

[ "1429" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1430 (MCDXXX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168851, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 25, 55 ], [ 101, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 10 Oliviero Carafa, Italian Catholic cardinal (d. 1511)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20196, 5478879, 38696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 26 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 23 Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI of England (d. 1482)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20210, 47411, 46858, 39495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 28 ], [ 39, 58 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 13 Beatrice, Duchess of Viseu, Portuguese infante (d. 1506)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15816, 12151980, 35499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 36 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 27 Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter, Lancastrian leader during the English Wars of the Roses (d. 1475)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15801, 250832, 39497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 43 ], [ 105, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 16 King James II of Scotland (d. 1460) and his twin Alexander Stewart, Duke of Rothesay (d. 1430)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22556, 148026, 39506, 1139701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 18, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ], [ 62, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 28 Richard West, 7th Baron De La Warr, English soldier, son of Reginald West (d. 1475)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22341, 2107847, 39497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 47 ], [ 91, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 11 Jošt of Rožmberk, Bishop of Breslau, Grand Prior of the Order of St. John (d. 1467)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21447, 37598432, 39502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 92, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hosokawa Katsumoto, Japanese warlord", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 415716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Barbara von Ottenheim, German alleged witch and sculpture model (d. 1484) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36196634, 39494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Isabel Bras Williamson, Scottish merchant (d. 1493)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 42539835, 36887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joana de Castre, Catalan noble (d. 1480)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 53223147, 36298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Heinrich Kramer, German churchman and inquisitor (d. 1505)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 175982, 38701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " approximate Clara Hätzlerin, German scribe (d. 1476)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10638399, 34779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 29 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 5 Philippa of England, queen consort of Denmark, Norway and Sweden (b. 1394)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19279054, 7537146, 36125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 31 ], [ 81, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 29 or 1427 Andrei Rublev, Russian iconographer (possible date; b. 1360)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15814, 39910, 658590, 36171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 15, 19 ], [ 21, 34 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 4 Philip I, Duke of Brabant (b. 1404)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2418, 2617103, 39557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 18 Thomas de Ros, 8th Baron de Ros, English soldier and politician (b. 1406)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1496, 1096074, 39558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 43 ], [ 80, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 27 Vytautas, Grand Prince of Lithuania (b. 1352)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22434, 599923, 39519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 21 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas FitzAlan, English noble", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1343730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Christine de Pizan, Italian proto-feminist writer (b. 1364)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 7628, 36122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] } ]

[ "1430" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1432 (MCDXXXII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 319727, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 56 ], [ 102, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 15 King Afonso V of Portugal (d. 1481)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15790, 1661, 34886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 18, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 1 Isabella of Coimbra, Portuguese infanta (d. 1455)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19346, 4760937, 39508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 29 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 2 Countess Palatine Margaret of Mosbach, Countess consort of Hanau (d. 1457)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19516, 36926330, 36130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 47 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 30 Mehmed II, the Conqueror, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1481)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19849, 19046, 20427700, 34886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 35 ], [ 37, 51 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 12 Anne of Austria, Landgravine of Thuringia, consort of William III, Landgrave of Thuringia (d. 1462)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1009, 4158841, 36221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 52 ], [ 105, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 15 Luigi Pulci, Italian poet (d. 1484)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1442, 1554154, 39494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 23 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Pope Innocent VIII (d. 1492)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 24643, 34599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 33 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Alvise Cadamosto, Italian explorer (d. 1488)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1034020, 39490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 1 Alexandru cel Bun, Prince of Moldavia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15787, 879451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 22 John of Schoonhoven, Flemish theologian (b. 1356)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15940, 10394207, 39523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 5 Francesco Bussone da Carmagnola, Italian adventurer (executed)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19352, 998372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 19 Joan of Valois, Duchess of Alençon, French duchess (b. 1409)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19632, 17528659, 39561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 43 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 1 Dan II, former Prince of Wallachia (killed in battle against Ottomans)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15856, 1047608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 13 Uko Fockena, East Frisian chieftain (b. c. 1408)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15816, 32489026, 39560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 21 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 29 Janus of Cyprus (b. 1375)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15842, 394118, 39538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 30, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 19 John de Mowbray, 2nd Duke of Norfolk, English politician (b. 1392)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22568, 985987, 39549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 49 ], [ 74, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 14 Anne of Burgundy, Duchess of Bedford (b. 1404)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21762, 414949, 39557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gyaltsab Je, throne holder of the Gelug tradition of Buddhism (b. 1364)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 102420, 36122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Art Mac Cathmhaoil, Bishop of Clogher", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1299905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Centurione II Zaccaria, last Prince of Achaea, Baron of Arcadia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 7703487, 1286012, 39860977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 30, 46 ], [ 48, 64 ] ] } ]

[ "1432" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1433 (MCDXXXIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321344, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 60 ], [ 106, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kalantiaw (of what would later be known as the Philippines) supposedly promulgates the legal code eventually referred to as the Code of Kalantiaw. Modern historians doubt its existence.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1893774, 47840638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 129, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 31 Sigismondo d'Este, Italian nobleman (d. 1507)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1711, 48245706, 38698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 29 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 17 James of Portugal, Portuguese cardinal (d. 1459)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27993, 8006812, 36190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 32 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 24 Shekha of Amarsar, Rajput chieftain (d. 1488)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28202, 1297942, 39490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 32 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 27 Stanisław Kazimierczyk, Polish canon regular and saint (d. 1489)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27934, 25711015, 39491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 37 ], [ 74, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 19 Marsilio Ficino, Florentine philosopher (d. 1499)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22568, 19963, 39484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 10", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (d. 1477)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 151328, 357292, 36172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 19, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jeanne de Laval, French noble, queen consort of Naples (d. 1498)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20359272, 35500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stephen III of Moldavia, prince from 1457 (d. 1504)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 264208, 36130, 38702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ], [ 37, 41 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Giovanni Giocondo, Veronese-born friar, architect and classical scholar (d. 1515)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1846758, 38693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Kettil Karlsson, regent of Sweden from 1464 (d. 1465)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 187552, 39504, 34957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ], [ 50, 54 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 14 Lidwina, Dutch saint (b. 1380)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1862, 3624589, 34956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 18 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 14 King John I of Portugal (b. 1357)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1417, 153575, 39524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 17, 35 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 30 Peter I, Count of Saint-Pol (b. 1390) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1794, 22800598, 39551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September Zweder van Culemborg, Bishop of Utrecht (birth year unknown)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 24331733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 28 Přemek I, Duke of Opava (b. c.1365)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27533, 33885776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 1 Emperor Go-Komatsu, the 100th emperor of Japan (b. 1377)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8357, 195020, 39540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 31 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] } ]

[ "1433" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1434 (MCDXXXIV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168855, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 7 Adolf, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1441)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15987, 21620537, 39925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 34 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 12 William III, Count of Henneberg-Schleusingen (d. 1480)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20197, 34078588, 36298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 55 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 19 Ashikaga Yoshikatsu, Japanese shōgun (d. 1443)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20316, 234768, 39927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 30 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 25 Eustochia Smeralda Calafato, Italian saint (d. 1485)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19773, 12115905, 39493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 38 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 13 Cristoforo della Rovere, Roman Catholic cardinal (d. 1478)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15816, 36149101, 36213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 33 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 18 Eleanor of Portugal, Holy Roman Empress (d. 1467)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28146, 2439341, 39502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 54 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 23 Yolande of Valois, Duchess consort of Savoy (d. 1478)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27651, 1607546, 36213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 32 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 28 Antonio Grimani, Italian admiral (d. 1523)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8198, 5582693, 36226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 29 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Isabella of Bourbon, Burgundian countess, spouse of Charles the Bold (d. 1465)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1647929, 151328, 34957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 53, 69 ], [ 74, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Matteo Maria Boiardo, Italian poet (d. 1494)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 929929, 39487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kano Masanobu, Japanese painter (d. 1530)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 938844, 38683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January John I, Duke of Bourbon (b. 1381)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 703409, 39543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 33 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 20 Alexandra of Lithuania, Duchess of Masovia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2195, 5363388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 30 Prokop the Great, Hussite general (b. 1380)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19654, 706885, 34956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 10, 26 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June Amda Iyasus, Emperor of Ethiopia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1816525, 606626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 19 ], [ 21, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 1 King Wladislaus II of Poland (age unknown)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15856, 42586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 14, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 5 Yuri IV, Russian grand prince (b. 1374)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15820, 7739932, 36367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 10, 17 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 12 King Louis III of Anjou (b. 1403)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21631, 1784382, 34883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 19, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] } ]

[ "1434" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1435 (MCDXXXV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321295, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 58 ], [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 1 Amadeus IX, Duke of Savoy (d. 1472)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10846, 69494, 39499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 8 John Clifford, 9th Baron de Clifford, English noble (d. 1461)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2224, 4048682, 36303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 46 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 16 Jan II the Mad, Duke of Żagań (1439–1449 and 1461–1468 and again in 1472) (d. 1504)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1334, 21721134, 38702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 25 ], [ 89, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 4 Joan of France, Duchess of Bourbon, French princess (d. 1482)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19351, 5308352, 39495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 42 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 24 Andrea della Robbia, Italian artist (d. 1525)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22345, 8321410, 38687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jean Molinet, French poet and chronicler (d. 1507)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2050967, 38698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kim Si-seup, Korean scholar and author (d. 1493)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5455281, 36887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sophie of Pomerania, Duchess of Pomerania (d. 1497) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 32635134, 39485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby (d. 1504)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 78374, 38702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Johannes Tinctoris, Flemish music theorist and composer (approximate date; d. 1511)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 684031, 38696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Andrea del Verrocchio, Florentine sculptor (approximate date; d. 1488)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 214865, 39490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 31 Xuande Emperor of China (b. 1399)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15793, 390537, 39555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 27 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 2 Queen Joanna II of Naples (b. 1371)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11322, 954798, 36368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 19, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 27 Spytek z Tarnowa i Jarosławia, Polish nobleman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20585, 1870694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 12 John FitzAlan, 14th Earl of Arundel, English military leader (b. 1408)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15806, 432547, 39560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 45 ], [ 75, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 9 Sir Robert Harling, English knight under the Duke of Bedford", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28544, 3331461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 18, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 14 John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford, regent of England (b. 1389)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27947, 213578, 34881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 53 ], [ 77, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 24 Isabeau of Bavaria, queen of Charles VI of France", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28202, 954222, 77413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 33 ], [ 44, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 27 Savvatiy, Russian monastery founder", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27934, 1277488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 9 Paweł Włodkowic, Polish scholar (b. 1370)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22549, 367130, 39535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 27 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 13 Hermann II of Celje, Ban of Croatia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22554, 1597261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 30 Bonne of Berry, Regent of Savoy (b. 1362)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8677, 9841227, 39527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Standard and most common railway gauge in millimetres operated by about 61% of the world railways.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28961, 267139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 26, 39 ] ] } ]

[ "1435" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1438 (MCDXXXVIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 319725, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 21 ], [ 29, 62 ], [ 108, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 5", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret of Bourbon, French noble (d. 1483)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4831964, 36162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Philip II, Duke of Savoy (d. 1497)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 69515, 39485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 30, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 12 Adolf, Duke of Guelders and Count of Zutphen (1465–1471) (d. 1477)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11158, 25423629, 36172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 37 ], [ 75, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 23 Ludovico II, Marquess of Saluzzo, Italian noble (d. 1504)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20210, 9120906, 38702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 43 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 3 John III of Egmont, Dutch noble (d. 1516)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2279, 28623727, 38692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 28 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 7 Louis II, Landgrave of Lower Hesse (1458–1471) (d. 1471)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27949, 10588924, 35498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 48 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 1 Peter II, Duke of Bourbon, son of Charles I (d. 1503)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8357, 703427, 34971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 38 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Husayn Bayqarah, Timurid ruler of Herat (d. 1506)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1783970, 35499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 30 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset, English nobleman and military commander during the Wars of the Roses (d. 1471)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 245084, 30275656, 35498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 48 ], [ 101, 118 ], [ 123, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 24 Humphrey FitzAlan, 15th Earl of Arundel (b. 1429)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2734, 432547, 39913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 50 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 9 Edward, King of Portugal (b. 1391)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28544, 253962, 39550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 16 Anne of Gloucester, English noblewoman (b. 1383)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22556, 1820338, 39544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 31 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 20 Jacopo della Quercia, Sienese sculptor (b. c. 1374)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22442, 220857, 36367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 33 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] } ]

[ "1438" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1439 (MCDXXXIX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321344, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 59 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 3 Ashikaga Yoshimi, brother of Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimasa (d. 1491)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19633, 2575071, 39488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 26 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 3 Ludwig II, Count of Württemberg-Urach, German noble (d. 1457)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2279, 8489911, 36130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 47 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 29 Pope Pius III (d. 1503)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19355, 24073, 34971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 22 ], [ 27, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 18 John V, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, German duke (d. 1507)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16090, 25294658, 38698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 40 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 26 Sigismund, Duke of Bavaria, member of the Wittelsbach dynasty (d. 1501)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15892, 38717, 38706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 36 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 10 Anne of York, Duchess of Exeter, Duchess of York, second child of Richard Plantagenet (d. 1476)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2315, 9460256, 34779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 43 ], [ 102, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Hua Sui, Chinese inventor and printer (d. 1513)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11004908, 38695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 22 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 30 Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick, English military leader (b. 1382)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1011, 294297, 36370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 53 ], [ 83, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 24 Duke Frederick IV of Austria (b. 1382)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15812, 1085742, 36370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 15, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 12 Sidi El Houari, Algerian imam (b. 1350) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28021, 23380368, 39518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 29 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 20 Ambrose the Camaldulian, Italian theologian", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22442, 1716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 27 Albert II of Germany, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1397)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22434, 38447, 50853, 39554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 33 ], [ 35, 53 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 30 Margaret Holland, English noblewoman (b. 1385)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8677, 72725, 39546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] } ]

[ "1439" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": " January 22 – Ivan III of Russia (d. 1505)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15940, 148191, 38701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 13 – Hartmann Schedel, German physician (d. 1514)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11170, 14159, 38694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 15, 31 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown – Clara Tott, German court singer (d. 1520)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36280341, 34888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 26 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 9 – Frances of Rome, Italian Benedictine nun and saint (b. 1384)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20054, 1586332, 4240, 39545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 11, 26 ], [ 36, 47 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 20 – Sigismund Kęstutaitis, Grand Duke of Lithuania (b. 1365)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 14563107, 3358687, 70287700, 36123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 12, 33 ], [ 35, 58 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 2 – Giovanni Vitelleschi, Italian Roman Catholic bishop and soldier", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1777, 1072870, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 11, 31 ], [ 41, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 6 – Henry Wardlaw, Scottish church leader", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1008, 334704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 11, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 20 – Frederick I, Elector of Brandenburg (b. 1371)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28148, 39363, 36368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 16, 51 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 30 – Reginald Grey, 3rd Baron Grey de Ruthyn, English soldier and politician", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27843, 1651305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 16, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 12 – Ginevra d'Este (b. 1419)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22530, 48289593, 39902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 14, 28 ], [ 33, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 26 – Gilles de Rais, French soldier (b. 1404)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22403, 7713064, 39557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 14, 28 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 13 – Joan Beaufort, Countess of Westmoreland", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21761, 70147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 15, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown –", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Itzcóatl, Aztec Tlatoani (ruler) of Tenochtitlan", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 454031, 1475346, 29988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 17, 25 ], [ 37, 49 ] ] } ]

[ "1440" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": " February 9 – Ali-Shir Nava'i, Central Asian poet, politician and writer (d. 1501)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11361, 1633378, 38706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 14, 29 ], [ 77, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 24 – Ernest, Elector of Saxony, German ruler of Saxony (d. 1486)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20209, 1565385, 39492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 12, 37 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 25 – Federico I Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua (1478–1484) (d. 1484)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15799, 7440926, 39494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 11, 49 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 27 – John III, Count of Nassau-Weilburg, German nobleman (d. 1480)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15801, 37069121, 36298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 11, 45 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 23 – Danjong of Joseon, King of Joseon (d. 1457)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16181, 3121209, 324222, 36130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 11, 28 ], [ 38, 44 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 11 – Charlotte of Savoy, French queen (d. 1483)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21447, 5287544, 36162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 15, 33 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 8 – Margaret of Burgundy, Duchess of Bavaria", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20053, 25333558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 11, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 1 – Blanche I of Navarre, Queen of Navarre (1425–1441) and Regent of Sicily (1404–1405 and 1408–1415)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1175, 5611312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 11, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 14 – Corrado IV Trinci, former lord of Foligno", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15797, 10791203, 1019282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 11, 28 ], [ 45, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 9 – Jan van Eyck, Dutch painter", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15883, 46381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 12 – Kyōgoku Takakazu, Japanese noble and vassal of Ashikaga Yoshinori", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15971, 41895736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 11, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 12 – Ashikaga Yoshinori, Japanese shōgun (b. 1394)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15971, 234784, 36125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 11, 29 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 25 – Akamatsu Mitsusuke, Japanese samurai", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28203, 15195724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 16, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 24 – Adolf, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1434)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22345, 21620537, 39918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 14, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 27 – Margery Jourdemayne, Englishwoman executed for treasonable witchcraft", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22434, 31062135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 14, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 18 – Roger Bolingbroke, English cleric, astronomer, astrologer, magister and alleged necromancer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21452, 31069413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 15, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 26 – Niccolò III d'Este, Marquis of Ferrara (b. 1383)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8360, 8486427, 39544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 15, 53 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] } ]

[ "1441" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1442 (MCDXLII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168880, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 56 ], [ 102, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 13 Henry IV of Neuhaus, High Treasurer of Bohemia (1485–1503), Burgrave of Prague Castle (1503–1507) (d. 1507)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1541, 33012672, 38698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 30 ], [ 113, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 15 John Paston, English noble (d. 1479)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1010, 40674891, 39496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 22 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 28 King Edward IV of England, King of England from 4 March 1461 until 3 October 1470, and again from 11 April 1471 to 3 October 1480 (d. 1483)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1639, 46390, 36162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 16, 36 ], [ 145, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 3 Emperor Go-Tsuchimikado of Japan (d. 1500)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15848, 195017, 35019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 32 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 15 Boček IV of Poděbrady, Bohemian nobleman, eldest son of King George of Podebrady (d. 1496)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16088, 31575012, 39486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 31 ], [ 95, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 8 John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford (d. 1513)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28488, 251377, 38695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 47 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 27 John de la Pole, 2nd Duke of Suffolk (d. 1492)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27934, 1550188, 34599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 51 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ahmad Zarruq, Moroccan scholar and Sufi sheikh (d. 1493)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8664418, 36887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tamás Bakócz, Hungarian archbishop (d. 1521)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 143590, 35225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vannozza dei Cattanei, mistress of Pope Alexander VI", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1345903, 23791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 36, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 29 John VI, Duke of Brittany (b. 1389)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1793, 640418, 34881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 25 Robert de Morley, 6th Baron Morley, Lord of Morley Saint Botolph (b. 1418)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28203, 30011090, 39901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 49 ], [ 84, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 18 Infante João of Portugal (b. 1400)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22545, 2438361, 36302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 14 Yolande of Aragon, politically active French noblewoman (b. 1384)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21762, 1296558, 39545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 74, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 18 Pierre Cauchon, French Catholic bishop (b. 1371)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8334, 346700, 36368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 19 Elizabeth of Luxembourg (b. 1409)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8848, 1934139, 39561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Maqrizi, Egyptian Arab historian", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 343809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ahmed Shah, Sultan of Gujarat", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8202238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nguyễn Trãi, Vietnamese Confucian scholar.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5046859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] } ]

[ "1442" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1443 (MCDXLIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 311439, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 58 ], [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "<onlyinclude>", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " July 22 Battle of St. Jakob an der Sihl (Old Zürich War): The forces of the city of Zürich are defeated, but the Swiss Confederacy have insufficient strength to besiege and take the city.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15996, 7153963, 1058134, 40334603, 6754871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 41 ], [ 43, 57 ], [ 86, 92 ], [ 115, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 8 Battle of Niš: John Hunyadi and the army of the Crusade of Varna defeat three armies of the Ottoman Empire, and capture the city of Niš in modern-day Serbia; Skanderbeg deserts the Ottoman camp and goes to Albania.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 21759, 8937565, 285013, 10769179, 541798, 249039, 29265, 10780405, 738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 26 ], [ 28, 40 ], [ 61, 77 ], [ 91, 119 ], [ 145, 148 ], [ 163, 169 ], [ 171, 181 ], [ 219, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 28 Skanderbeg and his forces, rebelling against the Ottoman Empire, liberate Krujë, in Middle Albania, and raise the Albanian flag.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 21579, 22278, 1077521, 738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 63, 77 ], [ 88, 93 ], [ 128, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In Moldavia, the conflict between brothers and co-rulers Iliaș and Stephen II reignites, and Stephen captures Iliaș and blinds him, thus remaining sole ruler of the country.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 46007, 7468425, 7469812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 58, 63 ], [ 68, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Portuguese explorer Nuno Tristão penetrates the Arguin Gulf, off the west coast of Africa.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 970642, 1642962, 1507351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 21, 33 ], [ 49, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " King Sejong the Great establishes Hangul, as the native alphabet of the Korean language.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 159204, 42538288, 16756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 22 ], [ 35, 41 ], [ 73, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vlad II Dracul begins his second term as ruler of Wallachia, succeeding Basarab II.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 501160, 46026, 1111492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 51, 60 ], [ 73, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Buddhist Zhihua Temple (智化寺) is built in Beijing, at the order of Wang Zhen, chief eunuch at the court of the Zhengtong Emperor of Ming Dynasty China.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 3742737, 18603746, 9681284, 68555, 573451, 43449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 27 ], [ 46, 53 ], [ 71, 80 ], [ 88, 94 ], [ 115, 132 ], [ 136, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A powerful earthquake destroys the Timișoara Fortress in Kingdom of Hungary", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 57784450, 41235379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 54 ], [ 58, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 27 Albert III, Duke of Saxony (d. 1500)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15866, 3270, 35019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 2 Elisabeth of Bavaria, Electress of Saxony (d. 1484)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11322, 32071713, 39494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 54 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 12 Giovanni II Bentivoglio, Italian noble (d. 1508)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11158, 30858676, 38699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 37 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 23 Matthias Corvinus, of Hungary (d. 1490)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11008, 272105, 39489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 17 Edmund, Earl of Rutland, brother of Kings Edward IV of England and Richard III of England (d. 1460)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19631, 1420053, 46390, 26284, 39506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 32 ], [ 51, 71 ], [ 76, 98 ], [ 103, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 29 Victor, Duke of Münsterberg, Reichsgraf, Duke of Münsterberg and Opava, Count of Glatz (d. 1500)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19355, 31577006, 35019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 36 ], [ 100, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 31 or 1441 Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and Derby, English noble, mother of King Henry VII, grandmother of King Henry VIII of England (d. 1509)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19653, 39925, 70194, 38700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 11, 15 ], [ 17, 66 ], [ 155, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 29 Anthony Browne, English knight (d. 1506)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15842, 12087051, 35499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 9 Muhammad Jaunpuri (d. 1505)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28544, 780885, 38701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 36, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 10 Adolf III of Nassau-Wiesbaden-Idstein, Germany noble (d. 1511)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21760, 34589838, 38696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 51 ], [ 71, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 1 Magdalena of France, French princess and regent of Navarre (d. 1495)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8357, 5602577, 36173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 5 Pope Julius II (d. 1513)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8353, 24755, 38695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 27 ], [ 32, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Piero del Pollaiuolo, Italian painter (d. 1496)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 233351, 39486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ygo Gales Galama, Frisian warlord and freedom fighting rebel (d. 1492)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11552380, 34599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 16 Erasmo of Narni, Italian mercenary (b. 1370)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16022, 880938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 28 Robert le Maçon, Chancellor of France", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15792, 1826758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February Guidantonio da Montefeltro, count of Urbino (b. 1377)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 9741654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 24 James Douglas, 7th Earl of Douglas (b. 1371)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20209, 4927589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 12 Henry Chichele, Archbishop of Canterbury", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1009, 351065, 2345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 25 ], [ 27, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 9 Niccolò Albergati, Italian cardinal and diplomat (b. 1373)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19524, 11913903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 5 Ferdinand the Holy Prince of Portugal (b. 1402)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15820, 2438462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 16 Ashikaga Yoshikatsu, Japanese shōgun (b. 1434)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1448, 234768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 18 Lewis of Luxembourg, Archbishop of Rouen ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28146, 13037150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Infante Diogo, Constable of Portugal", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 24512434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jelena Balšić, Serbian duchess (b. 1366)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38201594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Zeami Motokiyo, Japanese actor and playwright (b. 1363)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 659316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 25 ] ] } ]

[ "1443" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1444 (MCDXLIV) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. It is one of eight years (CE) to contain each Roman numeral once (1000(M)+(-100(C)+500(D))+(-10(X)+50(L))+(-1(I)+5(V)) = 1444.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6683766, 321387, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 24 Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan (d. 1476)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15954, 1191397, 34779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 34 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 15 Francesco Gonzaga, Catholic cardinal (d. 1483)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19635, 33039477, 36162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 28 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 22 Elizabeth of York, Duchess of Suffolk (d. 1503)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1710, 9459495, 34971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 48 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 29 Otto III, Duke of Pomerania-Stettin (1460–1464) (d. 1464)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19355, 33925311, 39504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 36 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 14 Nilakantha Somayaji, Indian astronomer-mathematician (d. 1544)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15797, 1156676, 38676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 29 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 28 Charlotte, Queen of Cyprus (d. 1487)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15802, 394071, 36137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 36 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 18 John de Mowbray, 4th Duke of Norfolk (d. 1476)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22545, 1432117, 34779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 49 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Donato Bramante, Italian architect (d. 1514)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 219366, 38694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 30 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 8 Wilhelm II, Count of Henneberg-Schleusingen (b. 1415)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15988, 33634665, 36126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 55 ], [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 14 Henriette, Countess of Montbéliard, regent of Württemberg (b. 1387)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10882, 9853970, 39548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 48 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 9 Leonardo Bruni, Italian humanist (b. 1374)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20054, 51134, 36367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 26 Robert Campin, Flemish painter (b. 1378)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1261, 311423, 39541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 24 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 20 Saint Bernardino of Siena, Italian Franciscan missionary (b. 1380)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19677, 220230, 34956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 15, 34 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 27 John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset, English military leader (b. 1404)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19624, 236118, 39557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 44 ], [ 74, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 15 Niccolò Piccinino, Italian mercenary (b. 1386)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22555, 998353, 39547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 10 King Władysław III of Poland (in battle) (b. 1424)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21760, 42584, 39907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 19, 42 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 25 Martin Gouge, French chancellor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21580, 1302632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Pier Paolo Vergerio the Elder, Italian humanist, statesman, and canon lawyer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 9245860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 11, 1444 is the start date for grand strategy video game Europa Universalis IV by Paradox Development Studio.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Trivia", "target_page_ids": [ 21447, 10635004, 5363, 36690993, 36736514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 41, 55 ], [ 56, 66 ], [ 67, 88 ], [ 92, 118 ] ] } ]

[ "1444" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1445 (MCDXLV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168855, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 25, 55 ], [ 101, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 16 Johann Geiler von Kaisersberg, Swiss-born priest (d. 1510)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19818, 735608, 38697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 40 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 4 Wiguleus Fröschl of Marzoll, Bishop of Passau (1500–1517) (d. 1517)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18951826, 37677334, 38691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 37 ], [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 25 Fulk Bourchier, 10th Baron FitzWarin, English baron (d. 1479)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22333, 14618919, 39496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 49 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 31 Hedwig, Abbess of Quedlinburg, Princess-Abbess of Quedlinburg (d. 1511)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22437, 33671947, 38696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 42 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 11 Eberhard I, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1496)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8396, 8068284, 39486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 45 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Albert Brudzewski, Polish astronomer (d. 1497)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 52659, 39485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 32 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable Nicolas Chuquet, French mathematician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 260938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " approximate Sandro Botticelli, Italian painter (d. 1510)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 73515, 38697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 31 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 19 Antonio Correr, Spanish cardinal (b. 1359)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16011, 15893876, 34880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 27 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 19 Leonor of Aragon, queen of Portugal (b. 1402)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11006, 4761010, 34882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 30 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 7 Louis VIII, Duke of Bavaria, German noble (b. 1403)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2735, 5538223, 34883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 37 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 15 Johanna van Polanen, Dutch noblewoman (b. 1392)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19674, 34708731, 39549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 28 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 5 Leonel Power, English composer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15820, 1668187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 15 Joan Beaufort, Queen of Scotland", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16088, 1725438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 2 Oswald von Wolkenstein, Austrian composer (b. 1377)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1154, 72459, 39540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 33 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Olug Moxammat of Kazan, Khan of Kazan", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34867683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 37 ] ] } ]

[ "1445" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1446 (MCDXLVI) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. It is one of eight years (CE) to contain each Roman numeral once (1000(M)+(-100(C)+500(D))+(-10(X)+50(L))+5(V)+1(I) = 1446).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 321295, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 58 ], [ 104, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 18 Ippolita Maria Sforza, Italian noble (d. 1484)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1826, 20407276, 39494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 32 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 3", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frederick I of Liegnitz, Duke of Chojnów and Strzelin from 1453 (d. 1488)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21151932, 39490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret of York, duchess consort of Burgundy by marriage to Charles the Bold (d. 1503)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 71402, 151328, 34971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 62, 78 ], [ 83, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 14 Andrey Bolshoy, Russian royal (d. 1493)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1417, 4468531, 36887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 26 ], [ 46, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 26 Charles de Valois, Duke de Berry, French noble (d. 1472)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8360, 5691114, 39499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 46 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Edmund de Ros, 10th Baron de Ros, English politician (d. 1508)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1096109, 38699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 47 ], [ 72, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Agricola, Flemish composer (d. 1506)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 924406, 35499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Grocyn, English scholar (d. 1519)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 163665, 36169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 37, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pietro Perugino, Italian painter (d. 1524)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 871200, 38688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 15 Filippo Brunelleschi, Italian architect (b. 1377)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1010, 90007, 39540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 31 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 9 Mary of Enghien, Queen of Naples (b. 1367)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19524, 1944156, 39532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 23 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 24 Ambroise de Loré, Baron of Ivry (b. 1396)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19459, 1806761, 39553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 25 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 11 Henry Beauchamp, 1st Duke of Warwick, English nobleman (b. 1425)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15796, 294321, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 46 ], [ 69, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 28 Antipope Clement VIII", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8198, 842607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 2 Vittorino da Feltre, Italian humanist (b. 1378)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11322, 975866, 39541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown Nuno Tristão, Portuguese explorer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1642962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ] ] } ]

[ "1446" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1447 (MCDXLVII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 168851, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 19 ], [ 27, 57 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "<onlyinclude>", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " March 6 Pope Nicholas V succeeds Pope Eugene IV, to become the 208th pope.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19865, 44993, 49069, 23056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 35, 49 ], [ 71, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 16 A major fire destroys the centre of Valencia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19818, 63861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 47, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 15 The Spanish Inquisition is revived. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 16088, 5980301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 14, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 8143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vlad II Dracul, ruler of Wallachia, and his eldest son Mircea are assassinated. Vladislav II succeeds him, with the assistance of John Hunyadi.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 501160, 46026, 1055154, 1111507, 285013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 25, 34 ], [ 55, 61 ], [ 80, 92 ], [ 130, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Albanian–Venetian War of 1447–48 begins.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 22828456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roman II seizes the throne of Moldavia after killing his uncle, Stephen II, and will have his other uncle, Petru as co-ruler.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 14757532, 46007, 7469812, 14651500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 31, 39 ], [ 65, 75 ], [ 108, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Siege of Soest occurs, in the course of the Soest Feud.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 184089, 44807175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 19 ], [ 49, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " According to Ryū'''s own sources, Iizasa Ienao founds Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū, the earliest historically verifiable Japanese koryū martial art, that is still extant in modern times.</onlyinclude>", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 455627, 410222, 234251, 15573, 235554, 19501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 17 ], [ 35, 47 ], [ 55, 87 ], [ 126, 131 ], [ 135, 140 ], [ 141, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 1 Eberhard II, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1504)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10846, 8099230, 38702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 45 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 4 Lodovico Lazzarelli, Italian poet (d. 1500)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11359, 8380401, 35019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 32 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 27 Jean IV de Rieux, Breton noble and Marshal (d. 1518)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15801, 37506678, 38690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 26 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 10 Paolo da San Leocadio, Italian painter in Spain (d. 1520)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28020, 27565847, 34888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 36 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 30 Lucas Watzenrode, Prince-Bishop of Warmia (d. 1512)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22436, 4248882, 34887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 29 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 3 Bayezid II, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1512)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8355, 4242, 20427700, 34887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 23 ], [ 25, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 9 Chenghua Emperor of China (d. 1487)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8589, 390585, 36137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 29 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 15 Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1508)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8145, 3082417, 38699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 40 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Piero Capponi, Italian soldier and statesman (d. 1496)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 348796, 39486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Philippe de Commines, Flemish historian (d. 1511)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 89440, 38696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 45, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Catherine of Genoa, Catholic mystic (d. 1510)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6113705, 38697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 41, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Giovanni Antonio Amadeo, Italian sculptor (d. 1522)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2859687, 34995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 23", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pope Eugene IV (b. 1383)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 49069, 39544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 20, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (b. 1390)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 213455, 39551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 6 Colette of Corbie, French abbess and saint in the Catholic Church (b. 1381)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19865, 6280452, 39543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 27 ], [ 80, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 13 Shahrukh Mirza, ruler of Persia and Transoxonia (b. 1377)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22693343, 1311513, 39540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 25 ], [ 63, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 11 Henry Beaufort, Cardinal, Lord Chancellor of England (b. 1377)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2395, 69100, 9316, 39540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 25 ], [ 56, 63 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 5 John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter (b. 1395)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1990, 297470, 39552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 43 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 13 Filippo Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan (b. 1392)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1129, 998335, 39549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 34 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 17 Euphemia of Münsterberg, German sovereign (b. 1385)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21798, 22216903, 39546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 37 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December Vlad II Dracul, Prince of Wallachia, and his son Mircea II", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 501160, 1055154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 25 ], [ 60, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " unknown'' Stephen II of Moldavia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 7469812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New Advent. (2020). 'Pope Nicholas V'. Retrieved from ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1447" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1448 (MCDXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 314227, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 28, 56 ], [ 102, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 14 Nannina de' Medici, Florentine member of the de' Medici family (d. 1493)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10882, 19814483, 36887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 32 ], [ 81, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March 20 Marie of Savoy, Countess of Saint-Pol, Luxembourgian noble (d. 1475)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14563107, 25221755, 39497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 48 ], [ 74, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " July 14 Philip, Elector Palatine (d. 1508)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16018, 4743878, 38699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 34 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 7 Henry, Count of Württemberg-Montbéliard (1473–1482) (d. 1519)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27949, 32819823, 36169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 41 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 31 Władysław II of Płock, Polish noble (d. 1462)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22437, 45083431, 36221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 34 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 4 King Alphonso II of Naples (d. 1495)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21805, 1520970, 36173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 18, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 12 John Talbot, 3rd Earl of Shrewsbury, English Earl (d. 1473)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8633, 4784576, 35077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 49 ], [ 68, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Baeda Maryam of Ethiopia (d. 1478)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1816670, 36213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 29, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nicholas I, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1473)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 655724, 35077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Suor Barbara Ragnoni, Italian painter (d. 1533)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3266199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 6 Christopher of Bavaria, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden (b. 1418)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15986, 187755, 20714373, 39901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 34 ], [ 36, 51 ], [ 75, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " June 18 Elizabeth de Beauchamp, Baroness Bergavenny, English baroness (b. 1415)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15815, 19252823, 36126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 53 ], [ 76, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 23 Adolph I, Duke of Cleves (b. 1373)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27651, 7567453, 39537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "October Carlo II Tocco, ruler of Epirus", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22332, 5469975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 9, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 12 Zhu Quan, Prince of Ning, Chinese military commander, historian and playwright (b. 1378)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22530, 4867538, 39541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 21 ], [ 96, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 31 John VIII Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor (b. 1390)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22437, 74228, 4016, 39551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 34 ], [ 36, 53 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Petru III of Moldavia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 14651500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] } ]

[ "1448" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Year 1449 (MCDXLIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 319725, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 26, 59 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 1 Lorenzo de' Medici, Italian statesman (d. 1492)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15787, 18633, 34599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 30 ], [ 54, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 17 Osanna of Mantua, Italian Dominican tertiary (d. 1505)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15920, 10534764, 38701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 29 ], [ 62, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 7 Adriana of Nassau-Dillenburg, consort of Count Philip I of Hanau-Münzenberg (d. 1477)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11063, 37244368, 36172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 41 ], [ 93, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 27 Asakura Ujikage, 8th head of the Asakura clan of Japan (d. 1486)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2326, 15091887, 39492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 26 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 10 Bona of Savoy, Duchess of Savoy (d. 1503)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2315, 8772916, 34971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 25 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " September 20 Philipp I, Count of Hanau-Münzenberg, German noble (d. 1500)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28148, 34177469, 35019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 51 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 21 George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV of England and Richard III of England (d. 1478)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22570, 49673, 46390, 26284, 36213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 53 ], [ 66, 86 ], [ 91, 113 ], [ 118, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 11 Catherine of Poděbrady, Hungarian Queen (d. 1464)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21447, 24002629, 39504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 36 ], [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 14 Sidonie of Poděbrady, Bohemian princess, duchess consort of Saxony (d. 1510)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21762, 28286147, 38697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 34 ], [ 85, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 6 Dorotea Gonzaga, Italian noble (d. 1467)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8352, 30701216, 39502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " date unknown ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aldus Manutius, Italian printer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 163647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Archibald Douglas, 5th Earl of Angus (d. 1513)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1129297, 38695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Axayacatl, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan (d. 1481)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2907, 29988, 34886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 26, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Domenico Gagini, Italian sculptor (d. 1492)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2896754, 34599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 39, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Domenico Ghirlandaio, Italian artist (d. 1494)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 199689, 39487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 42, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnus Hundt, German physician and theologian (d. 1519)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6525313, 36169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 51, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Margaret of Thuringia, Electress consort of Brandenburg (d. 1501)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4161572, 38706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " probable ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ilham Ghali khan of Kazan Khanate, (d. 1490)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1404667, 185015, 607902, 39489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 13, 17 ], [ 21, 34 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Srimanta Sankardeva, Assamese scholar and religious figure (d. c. 1568)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 725017, 34960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 67, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mandukhai Khatun, Mongolian queen", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8849487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 4 Cecilia of Brandenburg, Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (b. c.1405)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15982, 32823208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " January 21 Giovanni Berardi, Archbishop of Taranto (b. 1380)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 23751607, 14751094, 34956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 29 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " February 2 Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Islamic scholar (b. 1372)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11322, 30865968, 39536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 34 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " March Dolce dell'Anguillara, Italian condottiero (b. 1401)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19344, 12377448, 39556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 8, 29 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May Alexander of Islay, Earl of Ross, Lord of the Isles", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19345, 6794423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " May 20 (at the Battle of Alfarrobeira)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Álvaro Vaz de Almada, 1st Count of Avranches", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10456927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peter, Duke of Coimbra (b. 1392)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2433119, 39549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 28, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 13 Louis IV, Elector Palatine (b. 1424)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1129, 4399875, 39907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 27 Ulugh Beg, Timurid ruler and astronomer (b. 1394)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22434, 44328, 36125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 22 ], [ 57, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " October 31 Elisabeth of Brandenburg, Duchess of Brzeg-Legnica and Cieszyn, German princess (b. 1403)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22437, 21417119, 34883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 75 ], [ 97, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " November 19 Kunigunde of Sternberg, first spouse of the King George of Podebrady (b. 1425)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21574, 31367120, 39908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 36 ], [ 87, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " December 24 Walter Bower, Scottish chronicler (b. 1385)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8359, 148243, 39546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 26 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] } ]

[ "1449" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Necrosis () is a form of cell injury which results in the premature death of cells in living tissue by autolysis. Necrosis is caused by factors external to the cell or tissue, such as infection, or trauma which result in the unregulated digestion of cell components. In contrast, apoptosis is a naturally occurring programmed and targeted cause of cellular death. While apoptosis often provides beneficial effects to the organism, necrosis is almost always detrimental and can be fatal.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5221389, 8221, 4230, 103915, 2538686, 2457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ], [ 68, 73 ], [ 77, 82 ], [ 93, 99 ], [ 103, 112 ], [ 280, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cellular death due to necrosis does not follow the apoptotic signal transduction pathway, but rather various receptors are activated and result in the loss of cell membrane integrity and an uncontrolled release of products of cell death into the extracellular space. This initiates in the surrounding tissue an inflammatory response, which attracts leukocytes and nearby phagocytes which eliminate the dead cells by phagocytosis. However, microbial damaging substances released by leukocytes would create collateral damage to surrounding tissues. This excess collateral damage inhibits the healing process. Thus, untreated necrosis results in a build-up of decomposing dead tissue and cell debris at or near the site of the cell death. A classic example is gangrene. For this reason, it is often necessary to remove necrotic tissue surgically, a procedure known as debridement.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33051527, 5925522, 70425, 25164668, 443416, 206508, 188731, 237977, 45599, 8210888, 712345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 172 ], [ 246, 265 ], [ 311, 332 ], [ 349, 359 ], [ 371, 380 ], [ 416, 428 ], [ 657, 668 ], [ 757, 765 ], [ 832, 842 ], [ 846, 855 ], [ 865, 876 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Structural signs that indicate irreversible cell injury and the progression of necrosis include dense clumping and progressive disruption of genetic material, and disruption to membranes of cells and organelles.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 4250553, 22393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 145 ], [ 200, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are six distinctive morphological patterns of necrosis:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Coagulative necrosis is characterized by the formation of a gelatinous (gel-like) substance in dead tissues in which the architecture of the tissue is maintained, and can be observed by light microscopy. Coagulation occurs as a result of protein denaturation, causing albumin to transform into a firm and opaque state. This pattern of necrosis is typically seen in hypoxic (low-oxygen) environments, such as infarction. Coagulative necrosis occurs primarily in tissues such as the kidney, heart and adrenal glands. Severe ischemia most commonly causes necrosis of this form.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 1803894, 8456, 4984761, 13292, 604141, 490305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 247, 259 ], [ 269, 276 ], [ 366, 373 ], [ 409, 419 ], [ 523, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Liquefactive necrosis (or colliquative necrosis), in contrast to coagulative necrosis, is characterized by the digestion of dead cells to form a viscous liquid mass. This is typical of bacterial, or sometimes fungal, infections because of their ability to stimulate an inflammatory response. The necrotic liquid mass is frequently creamy yellow due to the presence of dead leukocytes and is commonly known as pus. Hypoxic infarcts in the brain presents as this type of necrosis, because the brain contains little connective tissue but high amounts of digestive enzymes and lipids, and cells therefore can be readily digested by their own enzymes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 1804030, 25164668, 19719185, 13292, 604141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 374, 383 ], [ 410, 413 ], [ 415, 422 ], [ 423, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gangrenous necrosis can be considered a type of coagulative necrosis that resembles mummified tissue. It is characteristic of ischemia of lower limb and the gastrointestinal tracts. If superimposed infection of dead tissues occurs, then liquefactive necrosis ensues (wet gangrene).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 237977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Caseous necrosis can be considered a combination of coagulative and liquefactive necrosis, typically caused by mycobacteria (e.g. tuberculosis), fungi and some foreign substances. The necrotic tissue appears as white and friable, like clumped cheese. Dead cells disintegrate but are not completely digested, leaving granular particles. Microscopic examination shows amorphous granular debris enclosed within a distinctive inflammatory border. Some granulomas contain this pattern of necrosis.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 1804031, 395846, 30653, 4412382, 2889, 446252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 112, 124 ], [ 131, 143 ], [ 222, 229 ], [ 367, 376 ], [ 449, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fat necrosis is specialized necrosis of fat tissue, resulting from the action of activated lipases on fatty tissues such as the pancreas. In the pancreas it leads to acute pancreatitis, a condition where the pancreatic enzymes leak out into the peritoneal cavity, and liquefy the membrane by splitting the triglyceride esters into fatty acids through fat saponification. Calcium, magnesium or sodium may bind to these lesions to produce a chalky-white substance. The calcium deposits are microscopically distinctive and may be large enough to be visible on radiographic examinations. To the naked eye, calcium deposits appear as gritty white flecks.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 18798591, 21281347, 38300, 63547, 1057785, 40583, 56525, 10975, 268331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 92, 98 ], [ 129, 137 ], [ 173, 185 ], [ 209, 227 ], [ 246, 256 ], [ 307, 319 ], [ 332, 343 ], [ 356, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fibrinoid necrosis is a special form of necrosis usually caused by immune-mediated vascular damage. It is marked by complexes of antigen and antibodies, referred to as immune complexes deposited within arterial walls together with fibrin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 1186919, 1915, 2362, 4323523, 36790, 238685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 130, 137 ], [ 142, 152 ], [ 169, 183 ], [ 203, 211 ], [ 232, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " There are also very specific forms of necrosis such as gangrene (term used in clinical practices for limbs which have had severe hypoxia), gummatous necrosis (due to spirochaetal infections) and hemorrhagic necrosis (due to the blockage of venous drainage of an organ or tissue).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 237977, 61750, 206790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 64 ], [ 140, 149 ], [ 167, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Some spider bites may lead to necrosis. In the United States, only spider bites from the brown recluse spider (genus Loxosceles) reliably progress to necrosis. In other countries, spiders of the same genus, such as the Chilean recluse in South America, are also known to cause necrosis. Claims that yellow sac spiders and hobo spiders possess necrotic venom have not been substantiated.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 4525077, 59746, 326494, 5951839, 5982415, 278014, 32771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 17 ], [ 90, 110 ], [ 118, 128 ], [ 220, 235 ], [ 300, 317 ], [ 323, 334 ], [ 353, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In blind mole rats (genus Spalax), the process of necrosis replaces the role of the systematic apoptosis normally used in many organisms. Low oxygen conditions, such as those common in blind mole rats' burrows, usually cause cells to undergo apoptosis. In adaptation to higher tendency of cell death, blind mole rats evolved a mutation in the tumor suppressor protein p53 (which is also used in humans) to prevent cells from undergoing apoptosis. Human cancer patients have similar mutations, and blind mole rats were thought to be more susceptible to cancer because their cells cannot undergo apoptosis. However, after a specific amount of time (within 3 days according to a study conducted at the University of Rochester), the cells in blind mole rats release interferon-beta (which the immune system normally uses to counter viruses) in response to over-proliferation of cells caused by the suppression of apoptosis. In this case, the interferon-beta triggers cells to undergo necrosis, and this mechanism also kills cancer cells in blind mole rats. Because of tumor suppression mechanisms such as this, blind mole rats and other spalacids are resistant to cancer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 1283013, 2457, 31207, 24762, 9659923, 1256201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 33 ], [ 96, 105 ], [ 344, 360 ], [ 369, 372 ], [ 763, 778 ], [ 1134, 1142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Necrosis may occur due to external or internal factors.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "External factors may involve mechanical trauma (physical damage to the body which causes cellular breakdown), damage to blood vessels (which may disrupt blood supply to associated tissue), and ischemia. Thermal effects (extremely high or low temperature) can result in necrosis due to the disruption of cells.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 490305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In frostbite, crystals form, increasing the pressure of remaining tissue and fluid causing the cells to burst. Under extreme conditions tissues and cells die through an unregulated process of destruction of membranes and cytosol.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 377055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Internal factors causing necrosis include: trophoneurotic disorders (diseases that occur due to defective nerve action in a part of an organ which results in failure of nutrition); injury and paralysis of nerve cells. Pancreatic enzymes (lipases) are the major cause of fat necrosis.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Necrosis can be activated by components of the immune system, such as the complement system; bacterial toxins; activated natural killer cells; and peritoneal macrophages. Pathogen-induced necrosis programs in cells with immunological barriers (intestinal mucosa) may alleviate invasion of pathogens through surfaces affected by inflammation. Toxins and pathogens may cause necrosis; toxins such as snake venoms may inhibit enzymes and cause cell death. Necrotic wounds have also resulted from the stings of Vespa mandarinia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 543131, 21107825, 211955, 40583, 169270, 41543593, 35038133, 999617, 1002559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 91 ], [ 93, 108 ], [ 121, 141 ], [ 147, 157 ], [ 158, 168 ], [ 244, 261 ], [ 289, 297 ], [ 398, 409 ], [ 507, 523 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pathological conditions are characterized by inadequate secretion of cytokines. Nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are also accompanied by intense necrotic death of cells. A classic example of a necrotic condition is ischemia which leads to a drastic depletion of oxygen, glucose, and other trophic factors and induces massive necrotic death of endothelial cells and non-proliferating cells of surrounding tissues (neurons, cardiomyocytes, renal cells, etc.). Recent cytological data indicates that necrotic death occurs not only during pathological events but it is also a component of some physiological process.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 48791, 153663, 235287, 640697, 490305, 22303, 12950, 6339, 23597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 69, 78 ], [ 80, 92 ], [ 102, 125 ], [ 234, 242 ], [ 281, 287 ], [ 289, 296 ], [ 484, 495 ], [ 609, 622 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Activation-induced death of primary T lymphocytes and other important constituents of the immune response are caspase-independent and necrotic by morphology; hence, current researchers have demonstrated that necrotic cell death can occur not only during pathological processes, but also during normal processes such as tissue renewal, embryogenesis, and immune response.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 170417, 291111, 36624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 48 ], [ 110, 117 ], [ 335, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until recently, necrosis was thought to be an unregulated process. However, there are two broad pathways in which necrosis may occur in an organism.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Pathogenesis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first of these two pathways initially involves oncosis, where swelling of the cells occurs. Affected cells then proceed to blebbing, and this is followed by pyknosis, in which nuclear shrinkage transpires. In the final step of this pathway cell nuclei are dissolved into the cytoplasm, which is referred to as karyolysis.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Pathogenesis", "target_page_ids": [ 28325705, 8495880, 903171, 2741772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 58 ], [ 127, 135 ], [ 161, 169 ], [ 314, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The second pathway is a secondary form of necrosis that is shown to occur after apoptosis and budding. In these cellular changes of necrosis, the nucleus breaks into fragments (known as karyorrhexis).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Pathogenesis", "target_page_ids": [ 903117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The nucleus changes in necrosis and characteristics of this change are determined by the manner in which its DNA breaks down:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Pathogenesis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Karyolysis: the chromatin of the nucleus fades due to the loss of the DNA by degradation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Pathogenesis", "target_page_ids": [ 2741772, 6933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 17, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Karyorrhexis: the shrunken nucleus fragments to complete dispersal.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Pathogenesis", "target_page_ids": [ 903117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pyknosis: the nucleus shrinks, and the chromatin condenses.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Pathogenesis", "target_page_ids": [ 903171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other typical cellular changes in necrosis include:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Pathogenesis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cytoplasmic hypereosinophilia on samples with H&E stain. It is seen as a darker stain of the cytoplasm.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Pathogenesis", "target_page_ids": [ 3255718, 5184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 56 ], [ 94, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The cell membrane appears discontinuous when viewed with an electron microscope. This discontinuous membrane is caused by cell blebbing and the loss of microvilli.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Pathogenesis", "target_page_ids": [ 33051527, 9730, 162350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 18 ], [ 61, 80 ], [ 153, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On a larger histologic scale, pseudopalisades (false palisades) are hypercellular zones that typically surrounds necrotic tissue. Pseudopalisading necrosis indicates an aggressive tumor.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Pathogenesis", "target_page_ids": [ 61749939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are many causes of necrosis, and as such treatment is based upon how the necrosis came about. Treatment of necrosis typically involves two distinct processes: Usually, the underlying cause of the necrosis must be treated before the dead tissue itself can be dealt with.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Debridement, referring to the removal of dead tissue by surgical or non-surgical means, is the standard therapy for necrosis. Depending on the severity of the necrosis, this may range from removal of small patches of skin to complete amputation of affected limbs or organs. Chemical removal of necrotic tissue is another option in which enzymatic debriding agents, categorised as proteolytic, fibrinolytic or collagenases, are used to target the various components of dead tissue. In select cases, special maggot therapy using Lucilia sericata larvae has been employed to remove necrotic tissue and infection.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [ 712345, 2992, 24594, 241010, 5597441, 2683920, 2171243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 235, 245 ], [ 381, 392 ], [ 394, 406 ], [ 410, 421 ], [ 507, 521 ], [ 528, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the case of ischemia, which includes myocardial infarction, the restriction of blood supply to tissues causes hypoxia and the creation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that react with, and damage proteins and membranes. Antioxidant treatments can be applied to scavenge the ROS.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [ 490305, 20556798, 13292, 640697, 3277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 24 ], [ 41, 62 ], [ 114, 121 ], [ 142, 165 ], [ 224, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wounds caused by physical agents, including physical trauma and chemical burns, can be treated with antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs to prevent bacterial infection and inflammation. Keeping the wound clean from infection also prevents necrosis.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [ 515534, 628093, 1805, 726241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 60 ], [ 65, 79 ], [ 101, 112 ], [ 117, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chemical and toxic agents (e.g. pharmaceutical drugs, acids, bases) react with the skin leading to skin loss and eventually necrosis. Treatment involves identification and discontinuation of the harmful agent, followed by treatment of the wound, including prevention of infection and possibly the use of immunosuppressive therapies such as anti-inflammatory drugs or immunosuppressants. In the example of a snake bite, the use of anti-venom halts the spread of toxins whilst receiving antibiotics to impede infection.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [ 168944, 22071, 715934, 391320, 1805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 305, 322 ], [ 341, 364 ], [ 408, 418 ], [ 431, 441 ], [ 486, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even after the initial cause of the necrosis has been halted, the necrotic tissue will remain in the body. The body's immune response to apoptosis, which involves the automatic breaking down and recycling of cellular material, is not triggered by necrotic cell death due to the apoptotic pathway being disabled.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If calcium is deficient, pectin cannot be synthesized, and therefore the cell walls cannot be bonded and thus an impediment of the meristems. This will lead to necrosis of stem and root tips and leaf edges. For example, necrosis of tissue can occur in Arabidopsis thaliana due to plant pathogens.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In plants", "target_page_ids": [ 159750, 37138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 31 ], [ 252, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cacti such as the Saguaro and Cardon in the Sonoran Desert experience necrotic patch formation regularly; a species of Dipterans called Drosophila mettleri has developed a p450 detoxification system to enable it to use the exudates released in these patches to both nest and feed larvae.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In plants", "target_page_ids": [ 61858354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Avascular necrosis", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1498676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frostbite", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 377055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gangrene", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 237977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Necrotizing fasciitis", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 287543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Osteonecrosis of the jaw", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7234402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Toxic epidermal necrolysis", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 944191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Necroptosis", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37431639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Life In The Fast Lane: toxicology Conundrum #018", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Secondary necrosis of a neutrophil", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Necrosis", "Cellular_processes", "Cell_death" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The history of New Zealand (Aotearoa) dates back to between 1320 and 1350 CE, when the main settlement period started, after it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture. Like other Pacific cultures, Māori society was centred on kinship links and connection with the land but, unlike them, it was adapted to a cool, temperate environment rather than a warm, tropical one.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 60002, 20611385, 162883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 36 ], [ 158, 167 ], [ 196, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first European explorer known to visit New Zealand was Dutch navigator Abel Tasman on 13 December 1642. In 1643 he charted the west coast of the North Island, his expedition then sailed back to Batavia without setting foot on New Zealand soil. British explorer James Cook, who reached New Zealand in October 1769 on the first of his three voyages, was the first European to circumnavigate and map New Zealand. From the late 18th century, the country was regularly visited by explorers and other sailors, missionaries, traders and adventurers.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4913064, 1988, 354064, 15630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 54 ], [ 75, 86 ], [ 198, 205 ], [ 265, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1840 the Treaty of Waitangi was signed between representatives of the United Kingdom and various Māori chiefs, bringing New Zealand into the British Empire and giving Māori the same rights as British subjects. Disputes over the differing translations of the Treaty and settler desire to acquire land from Māori led to the New Zealand Wars from 1843. There was extensive British settlement throughout the rest of the 19th century and into the early part of the next century. The effects of European infectious diseases, the New Zealand Wars and the imposition of a European economic and legal system led to most of New Zealand's land passing from Māori to Pākehā (European) ownership, and Māori became impoverished.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 127254, 31717, 2487755, 4721, 203959, 205751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 30 ], [ 73, 87 ], [ 106, 112 ], [ 144, 158 ], [ 325, 341 ], [ 658, 664 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The colony gained responsible government in the 1850s. From the 1890s the New Zealand Parliament enacted a number of progressive initiatives, including women's suffrage and old age pensions. After becoming a self-governing Dominion with the British Empire in 1907, the country remained an enthusiastic member of the empire, and over 100,000 New Zealanders fought in World War I as part of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force. After the war, New Zealand signed the Treaty of Versailles (1919), joined the League of Nations, and pursued an independent foreign policy, while its defence was still controlled by Britain. When World War II broke out in 1939, New Zealand contributed to the defence of Britain and the Pacific War; the country contributed some 120,000 troops. From the 1930s the economy was highly regulated and an extensive welfare state was developed. From the 1950s Māori began moving to the cities in large numbers, and Māori culture underwent a renaissance. This led to the development of a Māori protest movement which in turn led to greater recognition of the Treaty of Waitangi in the late 20th century.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26329, 340639, 9175501, 43613, 25544562, 4764461, 649488, 30030, 17926, 32927, 342641, 8062334, 56114, 7037009, 10590775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 40 ], [ 74, 96 ], [ 152, 168 ], [ 173, 189 ], [ 223, 231 ], [ 366, 377 ], [ 393, 424 ], [ 464, 484 ], [ 504, 521 ], [ 622, 634 ], [ 712, 723 ], [ 835, 848 ], [ 891, 911 ], [ 948, 971 ], [ 1006, 1028 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The country's economy suffered in the aftermath of the 1973 global energy crisis, the loss of New Zealand's biggest export market upon Britain's entry to the European Economic Community, and rampant inflation. In 1984, the Fourth Labour Government was elected amid a constitutional and economic crisis. The interventionist policies of the Third National Government were replaced by \"Rogernomics\", a commitment to a free market economy. Foreign policy after 1984 became more independent especially in pushing for a nuclear-free zone. Subsequent governments have generally maintained these policies, although tempering the free market ethos somewhat.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 244180, 9578, 8964212, 9041989, 9032086, 105039, 11826, 12509323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 80 ], [ 158, 185 ], [ 223, 247 ], [ 267, 301 ], [ 339, 364 ], [ 383, 394 ], [ 415, 426 ], [ 514, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New Zealand was first settled by Polynesians from Eastern Polynesia. Genetic and archaeological evidence suggests that humans emigrated from Taiwan via southeast Asia to Melanesia and then radiated eastwards into the Pacific in pulses and waves of discovery which gradually colonised islands from Samoa and Tonga all the way to Hawaii, the Marquesas, Easter Island, the Society Islands and, finally, New Zealand.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Māori arrival and settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 350969, 162594, 25734, 83393, 5195311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 44 ], [ 50, 67 ], [ 141, 147 ], [ 170, 179 ], [ 370, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In New Zealand there are no human artifacts or remains dating earlier than the Kaharoa Tephra, a layer of volcanic debris deposited by the Mount Tarawera eruption around 1314 CE. The 1999 dating of some kiore (Polynesian rat) bones to as early as 100 CE was later found to be an error; new samples of rat bone (and also of rat-gnawed shells and woody seed cases) mostly gave dates later than the Tarawera eruption with only three samples giving slightly earlier dates.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Māori arrival and settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 487539, 1062339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 153 ], [ 203, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pollen evidence of widespread forest fires a decade or two before the eruptions has been interpreted by some scientists as a possible sign of human presence, leading to a suggested first settlement period of 1280–1320 CE. However, the most recent synthesis of archaeological and genetic evidence concludes that, whether or not some settlers arrived before the Tarawera eruption, the main settlement period was in the decades after it, somewhere between 1320 and 1350 CE, possibly involving a coordinated mass migration. This scenario is also supported by a much debated, and now largely ignored, third line of evidence – traditional genealogies which point to 1350 AD as a probable arrival date for the main founding canoes from which most Māori trace their descent.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Māori arrival and settlement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The descendants of these settlers became known as the Māori, forming a distinct culture of their own. The latter settlement of the tiny Chatham Islands in the east of New Zealand about 1500 CE produced the Moriori; linguistic evidence indicates that the Moriori were mainland Māori who ventured eastward. There is no evidence of a pre-Māori civilisation in mainland New Zealand.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Māori arrival and settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 23202689, 176552, 300233, 38347912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 59 ], [ 136, 151 ], [ 206, 213 ], [ 331, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The original settlers quickly exploited the abundant large game in New Zealand, such as moa, which were large flightless ratites pushed to extinction by about 1500. As moa and other large game became scarce or extinct, Māori culture underwent major change, with regional differences. In areas where it was possible to grow taro and kūmara, horticulture became more important. This was not possible in the south of the South Island, but wild plants such as fernroot were often available and cabbage trees were harvested and cultivated for food. Warfare also increased in importance, reflecting increased competition for land and other resources. In this period, fortified pā became more common, although there is debate about the actual frequency of warfare. As elsewhere in the Pacific, cannibalism was part of warfare.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Māori arrival and settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 62366, 927476, 160220, 49417, 1634911, 51628, 27797787, 444182, 1056681, 6173994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 91 ], [ 110, 120 ], [ 121, 127 ], [ 139, 149 ], [ 323, 327 ], [ 332, 338 ], [ 456, 464 ], [ 490, 503 ], [ 671, 673 ], [ 787, 798 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leadership was based on a system of chieftainship, which was often but not always hereditary, although chiefs (male or female) needed to demonstrate leadership abilities to avoid being superseded by more dynamic individuals. The most important units of pre-European Māori society were the whānau or extended family, and the hapū or group of whānau. After these came the iwi or tribe, consisting of groups of hapū. Related hapū would often trade goods and co-operate on major projects, but conflict between hapū was also relatively common. Traditional Māori society preserved history orally through narratives, songs, and chants; skilled experts could recite the tribal genealogies (whakapapa) back for hundreds of years. Arts included whaikōrero (oratory), song composition in multiple genres, dance forms including haka, as well as weaving, highly developed wood carving, and tā moko (tattoo).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Māori arrival and settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 880454, 1799003, 219984, 22687, 318672, 25084, 352591, 4225673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 289, 295 ], [ 324, 328 ], [ 370, 373 ], [ 583, 589 ], [ 682, 691 ], [ 747, 754 ], [ 816, 820 ], [ 877, 884 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New Zealand has no native land mammals (apart from some rare bats) so birds, fish and sea mammals were important sources of protein. Māori cultivated food plants which they had brought with them from Polynesia, including sweet potatoes (called kūmara), taro, gourds, and yams. They also cultivated the cabbage tree, a plant endemic to New Zealand, and exploited wild foods such as fern root, which provided a starchy paste.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Māori arrival and settlement", "target_page_ids": [ 51628, 1634911, 140498, 3152275, 444182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 235 ], [ 253, 257 ], [ 259, 265 ], [ 271, 275 ], [ 302, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first Europeans known to reach New Zealand were the crew of Dutch explorer Abel Tasman who arrived in his ships Heemskerck and Zeehaen. Tasman anchored at the northern end of the South Island in Golden Bay (he named it Murderers' Bay) in December 1642, and sailed northward to Tonga following an attack by local Māori, Ngāti Tūmatakōkiri. Tasman sketched sections of the two main islands' west coasts. Tasman called them Staten Landt, after the States General of the Netherlands, and that name appeared on his first maps of the country. In 1645 Dutch cartographers changed the name to Nova Zeelandia in Latin, from Nieuw Zeeland, after the Dutch province of Zeeland.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early contact periods", "target_page_ids": [ 1988, 62049, 34463994, 30158, 68753400, 208206, 73588, 52229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 90 ], [ 183, 195 ], [ 199, 209 ], [ 281, 286 ], [ 323, 341 ], [ 449, 482 ], [ 644, 658 ], [ 662, 669 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over 100 years elapsed before Europeans returned to New Zealand; in 1769, British naval captain James Cook of HM Bark Endeavour visited New Zealand, and coincidentally, only two months later, Frenchman Jean-François de Surville, in command of his own expedition, reached the country. When Cook left on his first voyage, the sealed orders given to him by the British Admiralty ordered him to proceed \"...to the Westward between the Latitude beforementioned and the Latitude of 35° until’ you discover it, or fall in with the Eastern side of the Land discover’d by Tasman and now called New Zeland.\" He would return to New Zealand on both of his subsequent voyages of discovery.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early contact periods", "target_page_ids": [ 15630, 183655, 11249942, 1175256, 2413170, 2988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 106 ], [ 110, 127 ], [ 128, 135 ], [ 202, 227 ], [ 324, 337 ], [ 358, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Various claims have been made that New Zealand was reached by other non-Polynesian voyagers before Tasman, but these are not widely accepted. Peter Trickett, for example, argues in Beyond Capricorn that the Portuguese explorer Cristóvão de Mendonça reached New Zealand in the 1520s, and the Tamil bell discovered by missionary William Colenso has given rise to a number of theories, but historians generally believe the bell \"is not in itself proof of early Tamil contact with New Zealand\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early contact periods", "target_page_ids": [ 10701042, 2625667, 2331488, 21192814, 53831, 6563438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 197 ], [ 227, 248 ], [ 249, 268 ], [ 291, 301 ], [ 316, 326 ], [ 327, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the 1790s, the waters around New Zealand were visited by British, French and American whaling, sealing and trading ships. Their crews traded European goods, including guns and metal tools, for Māori food, water, wood, flax and sex. Māori were reputed to be enthusiastic and canny traders, even though the levels of technology, institutions and property rights differed greatly from the standards in European societies. Although there were some conflicts, such as the killing of French explorer Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne in 1772 and the destruction of the Boyd in 1809, most contact between Māori and European was peaceful.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early contact periods", "target_page_ids": [ 897420, 1844757, 208716, 15157915, 650126, 322393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 98 ], [ 100, 107 ], [ 223, 227 ], [ 232, 235 ], [ 499, 527 ], [ 544, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "European (Pākehā) settlement increased through the early decades of the 19th century, with numerous trading stations established, especially in the North Island. Christianity was introduced to New Zealand in 1814 by Samuel Marsden, who travelled to the Bay of Islands where he founded a mission station on behalf of the Church of England's Church Missionary Society. By 1840 over 20 stations had been established. From missionaries, the Māori learnt not just about Christianity but also about European farming practices and trades, and how to read and write. Building on the work of the Church Missionary Society missionary Thomas Kendall, beginning in 1820, linguist Samuel Lee worked with Māori chief Hongi Hika to transcribe the Māori language into written form. In 1835 the country's first successful printing was two books from the Bible produced by Church Missionary Society printer William Colenso, translated into Māori by the Rev. William Williams.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early contact periods", "target_page_ids": [ 205751, 11198719, 1192370, 350664, 3124464, 3297325, 2355983, 2798097, 50788, 3390, 6563438, 50788, 21033938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 16 ], [ 162, 174 ], [ 216, 230 ], [ 253, 267 ], [ 340, 365 ], [ 624, 638 ], [ 668, 678 ], [ 703, 713 ], [ 732, 746 ], [ 837, 842 ], [ 889, 904 ], [ 922, 927 ], [ 935, 956 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first European settlement was at Rangihoua Pā where the first full-blooded European infant in the territory, Thomas Holloway King, was born on 21 February 1815 at the Oihi Mission Station near Hohi Bay in the Bay of Islands. Kerikeri, founded in 1822, and Bluff founded in 1823, both claim to be the oldest European settlements in New Zealand. Many European settlers bought land from Māori, but misunderstanding and different concepts of land ownership led to conflict and bitterness.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early contact periods", "target_page_ids": [ 350609, 492150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 237 ], [ 260, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The effect of contact on Māori varied. In some inland areas life went on more or less unchanged, although a European metal tool such as a fish-hook or hand axe might be acquired through trade with other tribes. At the other end of the scale, tribes that frequently encountered Europeans, such as Ngāpuhi in Northland, underwent major changes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early contact periods", "target_page_ids": [ 778299, 350784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 296, 303 ], [ 307, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pre-European Māori had no distance weapons except for tao (spears) and the introduction of the musket had an enormous impact on Māori warfare. Tribes with muskets would attack tribes without them, killing or enslaving many. As a result, guns became very valuable and Māori would trade huge quantities of goods for a single musket. From 1805 to 1843 the Musket Wars raged until a new balance of power was achieved after most tribes had acquired muskets. In 1835, the peaceful Moriori of the Chatham Islands were attacked, enslaved, and nearly exterminated by mainland Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama Māori. In the 1901 census, only 35 Moriori were recorded although the numbers subsequently increased.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early contact periods", "target_page_ids": [ 22355227, 185324, 507688, 300233, 176552, 16822167, 16822191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 57 ], [ 95, 101 ], [ 353, 364 ], [ 475, 482 ], [ 490, 505 ], [ 567, 580 ], [ 585, 595 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Around this time, many Māori converted to Christianity. In the 1840s, there were probably a higher percentage of Christians attending services among Māori than among people in the United Kingdom, and their moral practices and spiritual lives were transformed. The New Zealand Anglican Church, (the missionary church), was, and is, the largest Māori denomination. Māori made Christianity their own and spread it throughout the country often before European missionaries arrived.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early contact periods", "target_page_ids": [ 1771301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Colony of New South Wales was founded by 1788. According to the future Governor, Captain Arthur Phillip's amended Commission, dated 25 April 1787 the colony of New South Wales included \"all the islands adjacent in the Pacific Ocean within the latitudes of 10°37'S and 43°39'S\" which included most of New Zealand except for the southern half of the South Island. In 1825 with Van Diemen's Land becoming a separate colony, the southern boundary of New South Wales was altered to the islands adjacent in the Pacific Ocean with a southern boundary of 39°12'S which included only the northern half of the North Island. However, these boundaries had no real impact as the New South Wales administration had little interest in New Zealand.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 1275854, 2563, 32581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ], [ 94, 108 ], [ 380, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New Zealand was first mentioned in British statute in the Murders Abroad Act 1817. It made it easier for a court to punish \"murders or manslaughters committed in places not within His Majesty's dominions\", and the Governor of New South Wales was given increased legal authority over New Zealand. The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of New South Wales over New Zealand was initiated in the New South Wales Act 1823, and lesser offences were included at that time. In response to complaints from missionaries, and a petition from Māori chiefs calling for King William IV to be a \"friend and guardian\" of New Zealand about lawless sailors and adventurers in New Zealand, the British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident in 1832. In 1834 he encouraged Māori chiefs to assert their sovereignty with the signing of the Declaration of Independence () in 1835. The declaration was sent to King William IV and was recognised by Britain. Busby was provided with neither legal authority nor military support and was thus ineffective in controlling the Pākehā (European) population.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 54384762, 25544562, 12850, 1951864, 9338540, 43271, 25318118, 277406, 491489, 309191, 1933238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 81 ], [ 194, 202 ], [ 214, 241 ], [ 320, 352 ], [ 391, 415 ], [ 560, 570 ], [ 674, 692 ], [ 703, 714 ], [ 718, 734 ], [ 831, 858 ], [ 1059, 1087 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1839 the New Zealand Company announced plans to buy large tracts of land and to establish colonies in New Zealand. This and the increased commercial interests of merchants in Sydney and London spurred the British Government to take stronger action.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 315351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Captain William Hobson was sent to New Zealand by the British government with instructions to persuade Māori to cede their sovereignty to the British Crown. In reaction to the New Zealand Company's moves, on 15 June 1839 the issue of new Letters Patent expanded the territory of New South Wales to include all of New Zealand. Governor of New South Wales George Gipps was appointed governor over New Zealand. This represented the first clear expression of British intent to annex New Zealand.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 182020, 28791, 357357, 238216, 12850, 1722696, 4618604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 22 ], [ 123, 134 ], [ 142, 155 ], [ 238, 252 ], [ 326, 353 ], [ 354, 366 ], [ 381, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 6 February 1840, Hobson and about forty Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi at Waitangi in the Bay of Islands. The British subsequently took copies of the Treaty around the islands of New Zealand for signature by other chiefs. A significant number refused to sign or were not asked but, in total, more than five hundred Māori eventually signed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 2487755, 127254, 456517, 350664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 55 ], [ 67, 85 ], [ 89, 97 ], [ 105, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Treaty gave Māori sovereignty over their lands and possessions and all of the rights of British citizens. What it gave the British in return depends on the language-version of the Treaty used. The English version can be said to give the British Crown sovereignty over New Zealand; but in the Māori version, the Crown receives kāwanatanga, which, arguably, is a lesser power (see interpretations of the Treaty). The dispute over the \"true\" meaning and the intent of the signatories remains an issue.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 357357, 28791, 249294, 127254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 241, 254 ], [ 255, 266 ], [ 330, 341 ], [ 383, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Britain was motivated by the desire to forestall the New Zealand Company and other European powers (France established a very small settlement at Akaroa in the South Island later in 1840), to facilitate settlement by British subjects and, possibly, to end the lawlessness of European (predominantly British and American) whalers, sealers and traders. Officials and missionaries had their own positions and reputations to protect. Māori chiefs were motivated by a desire for protection from foreign powers, for the establishment of governorship over European settlers and traders in New Zealand, and for allowing wider European settlement that would increase trade and prosperity for Māori.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 372836, 374278, 484089, 62049, 9344386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 97 ], [ 100, 106 ], [ 146, 152 ], [ 160, 172 ], [ 203, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Governor Hobson died on 10 September 1842. Robert FitzRoy, the new governor (in office: 1843–1845), took some legal steps to recognise Māori custom.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 271121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, his successor, George Grey, promoted rapid cultural assimilation and reduction of the land-ownership, influence and rights of the Māori. The practical effect of the Treaty was, in the beginning, only gradually felt, especially in predominantly Māori regions, where the settler government had little or no authority.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 272495, 505730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 35 ], [ 52, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At first New Zealand was administered from Australia as part of the colony of New South Wales, and from 16 June 1840 New South Wales laws were deemed to operate in New Zealand. However, this was a transitional arrangement and in May 1841 New Zealand became a colony in its own right.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 35546258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 250, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Settlement continued under British plans, inspired by a vision of New Zealand as a new land of opportunity. In 1846, the British Parliament passed the New Zealand Constitution Act 1846 for self-government for the 13,000 settlers in New Zealand. The new Governor, George Grey, suspended the plans. He argued that the Pākehā could not be trusted to pass laws that would protect the interests of the Māori majority – already there had been Treaty violations – and persuaded his political superiors to postpone its introduction for five years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 8899235, 272495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 184 ], [ 263, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Church of England sponsored the Canterbury Association colony with assisted passages from Great Britain in the early 1850s. As a result of the influx of settlers, the Pākehā population grew explosively from fewer than 1000 in 1831 to 500,000 by 1881. Some 400,000 settlers came from Britain, of whom 300,000 stayed permanently. Most were young people and 250,000 babies were born. The passage of 120,000 was paid by the colonial government. After 1880 immigration reduced, and growth was due chiefly to the excess of births over deaths.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 5955, 1591396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 36, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The New Zealand Company was responsible for 15,500 settlers coming to New Zealand. Company prospectuses did not always tell the truth, and often colonists would only find out the reality once they had arrived in New Zealand. This private colonisation project was part of the reason that the British Colonial Office decided to speed up its plans for the annexation of New Zealand. Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1796–1862) exerted a far-reaching influence by helping create the New Zealand Company. Due to his conviction and three-year imprisonment for abducting an heiress, his role in forming the New Zealand Company was necessarily out of sight from the public. Wakefield's colonisation programmes were over-elaborate and operated on a much smaller scale than he hoped for, but his ideas influenced law and culture, especially his vision for the colony as the embodiment of post-Enlightenment ideals, the notion of New Zealand as a model society, and the sense of fairness in employer-employee relations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 317365, 30758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 380, 403 ], [ 875, 888 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Māori had welcomed Pākehā for the trading opportunities and guns they brought. However it soon became clear that they had underestimated the number of settlers that would arrive in their lands. Iwi (tribes) whose land was the base of the main settlements quickly lost much of their land and autonomy through government acts. Others prospered– until about 1860 the city of Auckland bought most of its food from Māori who grew and sold it themselves. Many iwi owned flour mills, ships and other items of European technology, and some exported food to Australia for a brief period during the 1850s gold rush. Although race relations were generally peaceful in this period, there were conflicts over who had ultimate power in particular areas– the Governor or the Māori chiefs. One such conflict was the Northern or Flagstaff War of the 1840s, during which Kororareka was sacked.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 219984, 18660332, 209233, 315901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 197 ], [ 372, 380 ], [ 812, 825 ], [ 853, 863 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the Pākehā population grew, pressure grew on Māori to sell more land. Land was used communally but under the mana of chiefs. In Māori culture, there was no such idea as selling land until the arrival of Europeans. The means of acquiring land was to defeat another hapu or iwi in battle and seize their land. Te Rauparaha seized the land of many iwi in the lower North Island and upper South Island during the musket wars. Land was usually not given up without discussion and consultation. When an iwi was divided over the question of selling this could lead to great difficulties as at Waitara.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pākehā had little understanding of Māori views on land and accused Māori of holding onto land they did not use efficiently. Competition for land was one important cause of the New Zealand Wars of the 1860s and 1870s, in which the Taranaki and Waikato regions were invaded by colonial troops and Māori of these regions had some of their land taken from them. The wars and confiscation left bitterness that remains to this day. After the conclusion of the wars some iwi, especially in the Waikato, such as Ngati Haua sold land freely.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 171986, 251598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 230, 238 ], [ 243, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some iwi sided with the government and, later, fought with the government. They were motivated partly by the thought that an alliance with the government would benefit them, and partly by old feuds with the iwi they fought against. One result of their co-operation strategy was the establishment of the four Māori electorates in the House of Representatives, in 1867.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 770838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 308, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the wars, some Māori began a strategy of passive resistance, most famously the ploughing campaigns at Parihaka on 26 May 1879 in Taranaki. Most, such as NgaPuhi and Arawa continued co-operating with Pākehā. For example, tourism ventures were established by Te Arawa around Rotorua. Resisting and co-operating iwi both found that Pākehā desire for land remained. In the last decades of the century, most iwi lost substantial amounts of land through the activities of the Native Land Court. Due to its Eurocentric rules, the high fees, its location remote from the lands in question, and unfair practices by some Pākehā land agents, its main effect was to allow Māori to sell their land without restraint from other tribal members.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 19698044, 314175, 6138159, 330869, 16583191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 65 ], [ 108, 116 ], [ 263, 271 ], [ 279, 286 ], [ 476, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The effects of disease, as well as war, confiscations, assimilation and intermarriage, land loss leading to poor housing and alcohol abuse, and general disillusionment, caused a fall in the Māori population from around 86,000 in 1769 to around 70,000 in 1840 and around 48,000 by 1874, hitting a low point of 42,000 in 1896. Subsequently, their numbers began to recover.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In response to increased petitioning for self-governance from the growing number of British settlers, the British Parliament passed the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, setting up a central government with an elected General Assembly (Parliament) and six provincial governments. The General Assembly did not meet until 24 May 1854, 16 months after the Constitution Act had come into force. Provinces were reorganised in 1846 and in 1853, when they acquired their own legislatures, and then abolished with effect in 1877. The settlers soon won the right to responsible government (with an executive supported by a majority in the elected assembly). But the governor, and through him the Colonial Office in London, retained control of native policy until the mid-1860s.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 5596572, 340639, 275023, 26329, 45281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 169 ], [ 219, 248 ], [ 392, 401 ], [ 558, 580 ], [ 735, 741 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Māori tribes at first sold the land to the settlers, but the government voided the sales in 1840. Now only the government was allowed to purchase land from Māori, who received cash. The government bought practically all the useful land, then resold it to the New Zealand Company, which promoted immigration, or leased it for sheep runs. The Company resold the best tracts to British settlers; its profits were used to pay the travel of the immigrants from Britain.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 315351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of the vast distances involved, the first settlers were self-sufficient farmers. By the 1840s, however, large scale sheep stations were exporting large quantities of wool to the textile mills of England. Most of the early settlers were brought over by a programme operated by the New Zealand Company and were located in the central region on either side of Cook Strait, and at Wellington, Wanganui, New Plymouth and Nelson. These settlements had access to some of the richest plains in the country and after refrigerated ships appeared in 1882, they developed into closely settled regions of small-scale farming. Outside these compact settlements were the sheep runs. Pioneer pastoralists, often men with experience as squatters in Australia, leased lands from the government at the annual rate of £5 plus £1 for each 1,000 sheep above the first 5,000. The leases were renewed automatically, which gave the wealthy pastoralists a strong landed interest and made them a powerful political force. In all between 1856 and 1876, 8.1million acres were sold for £7.6million, and 2.2million acres were given free to soldiers, sailors and settlers. With an economy based on agriculture, the landscape was transformed from forest to farmland.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gold discoveries in Otago (1861) and Westland (1865), caused a worldwide gold rush that more than doubled the population in a short period, from 71,000 in 1859 to 164,000 in 1863. The value of trade increased fivefold from £2 million to £10 million. As the gold boom ended, Colonial Treasurer and later (from 1873) Premier Julius Vogel borrowed money from British investors and launched in 1870 an ambitious programme of public works and infrastructure investment, together with a policy of assisted immigration. Successive governments expanded the program with offices across Britain that enticed settlers and gave them and their families one-way tickets.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 343781, 172106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 274, 292 ], [ 323, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From about 1865, the economy lapsed into a long depression as a result of the withdrawal of British troops, peaking of gold production in 1866 and Vogel's borrowing and the associated debt burden (especially on land). Despite a brief boom in wheat, prices for farm products sagged. The market for land seized up. Hard times led to urban unemployment and sweated labour (exploitative labour conditions) in industry. The country lost people through emigration, mostly to Australia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 102075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 354, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1870 Julius Vogel introduced his grand go-ahead policy to dispel the slump with increased immigration and overseas borrowing to fund new railways, roads and telegraph lines. Local banks – notably the Bank of New Zealand and the Colonial Bank of New Zealand — were \"reckless\" and permitted \"a frenzy of private borrowing\". The public debt had increased from £7.8 million in 1870 to £18.6 million in 1876. But of railway had been built with under construction. of road had been opened, and electric telegraph lines increased from in 1866 to in 1876. A record number of immigrants arrived in 1874 (32,000 of the 44,000 were government assisted) and the population rose from 248,000 in 1870 to 399,000 in 1876.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 58077969, 765639, 61384333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 57 ], [ 203, 222 ], [ 231, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although norms of masculinity were dominant, strong minded women originated a feminist movement starting in the 1860s, well before women gained the right to vote in 1893. Middle-class women employed the media (especially newspapers) to communicate with each other and define their priorities. Prominent feminist writers included Mary Taylor, Mary Colclough (pseud. Polly Plum), and Ellen Elizabeth Ellis. The first signs of a politicised collective female identity came in crusades to pass the Contagious Diseases Prevention Act.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 33530557, 51050467, 34648140, 34619695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 95 ], [ 329, 340 ], [ 342, 356 ], [ 382, 403 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Feminists by the 1880s were using the rhetoric of \"white slavery\" to reveal men's sexual and social oppression of women. By demanding that men take responsibility for the right of women to walk the streets in safety, New Zealand feminists deployed the rhetoric of white slavery to argue for women's sexual and social freedom. Middle-class women successfully mobilised to stop prostitution, especially during the First World War.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Māori women developed their own form of feminism, derived from Māori nationalism rather than European sources.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 10590775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1893 Elizabeth Yates was elected mayor of Onehunga, making her the first woman in the British Empire to hold the office. She was an able administrator: she cut the debt, reorganised the fire brigade, and improved the roads and sanitation. Many men were hostile however, and she was defeated for re-election. Hutching argues that after 1890 women were increasingly well organised through the National Council of Women, the Women's Christian Temperance Union, the Women's International League, and others. By 1910 they were campaigning for peace, and against compulsory military training, and conscription. They demanded arbitration and the peaceful resolution of international disputes. The women argued that women-hood (thanks to motherhood) was the repository of superior moral values and concerns and from their domestic experience they knew best how to resolve conflicts.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 2903391, 22269715, 101759, 2161664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 23 ], [ 394, 419 ], [ 425, 459 ], [ 465, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to 1877 schools were operated by the provincial government, churches, or by private subscription. Education was not a requirement and many children did not attend any school, especially farm children whose labour was important to the family economy. The quality of education provided varied substantially depending on the school. The Education Act of 1877 created New Zealand's first free national system of primary education, establishing standards that educators should meet, and making education compulsory for children aged 5 to 15.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 1814054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 340, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1840 there was considerable European settlement, primarily from England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland; and to a lesser extent the United States, India, China, and various parts of continental Europe, including the province of Dalmatia in what is now Croatia, and Bohemia in what is now the Czech Republic. Already a majority of the population by 1859, the number of Pākehā settlers increased rapidly to reach over one million by 1916.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 5867, 47286, 5573, 4345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 205 ], [ 233, 241 ], [ 257, 264 ], [ 270, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1870s and 1880s, several thousand Chinese men, mostly from Guangdong, migrated to New Zealand to work on the South Island goldfields. Although the first Chinese migrants had been invited by the Otago Provincial government they quickly became the target of hostility from white settlers and laws were enacted specifically to discourage them from coming to New Zealand.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 65109, 100011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 75 ], [ 201, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1861 gold was discovered at Gabriel's Gully in Central Otago, sparking a gold rush. Dunedin became the wealthiest city in the country and many in the South Island resented financing the North Island's wars. In 1865 Parliament defeated a proposal to make the South Island independent by 17 to 31.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 1085203, 742382, 1085526, 628345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 46 ], [ 50, 63 ], [ 76, 85 ], [ 87, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The South Island was home to most of the Pākehā population until around 1911 when the North Island again took the lead, and has supported an ever-greater majority of the country's total population through the 20th century and into the 21st.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scottish immigrants dominated the South Island and evolved ways to bridge the old homeland and the new. Many local Caledonian societies were formed. They organised sports teams to entice the young and preserved an idealised Scottish national myth (based on Robert Burns) for the elderly. They gave Scots a path to assimilation and cultural integration as Scottish New Zealanders. The settlement of Scots in the Deep South is reflected in the lasting predominance of Presbyterianism in the South Island.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 21222213, 20070926, 24403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 257, 269 ], [ 355, 377 ], [ 466, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The pre-war era saw the advent of party politics, with the establishment of the Liberal Government. The landed gentry and aristocracy ruled Britain at this time. New Zealand never had an aristocracy but it did have wealthy landowners who largely controlled politics before 1891. The Liberal Party set out to change that by a policy it called \"populism\". Richard Seddon had proclaimed the goal as early as 1884: \"It is the rich and the poor; it is the wealthy and the landowners against the middle and labouring classes. That, Sir, shows the real political position of New Zealand.\" The Liberal strategy was to create a large class of small land-owning farmers who supported Liberal ideals.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 23996, 8898707, 163835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 48 ], [ 80, 98 ], [ 354, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To obtain land for farmers the Liberal government from 1891 to 1911 purchased 3.1million acres of Māori land. The government also purchased 1.3million acres from large estate holders for subdivision and closer settlement by small farmers. The Advances to Settlers Act of 1894 provided low-interest mortgages, while the Agriculture Department disseminated information on the best farming methods.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 1909 Native Land Act allowed the Māori to sell land to private buyers. Māori still owned five million acres by 1920; they leased three million acres and used one million acres for themselves. The Liberals proclaimed success in forging an egalitarian, anti-monopoly land policy. The policy built up support for the Liberal party in rural North Island electorates. By 1903 the Liberals were so dominant that there was no longer an organised opposition in Parliament.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Liberal government laid the foundations of the later comprehensive welfare state: introducing old age pensions; maximum hour regulations; pioneering minimum wage laws; and developing a system for settling industrial disputes, which was accepted by both employers and trade unions, to start with. In 1893 it extended voting rights to women, making New Zealand the first country in the world to enact universal female suffrage.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 222839, 43613, 552168, 18862, 12059344, 9175501, 175581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 84 ], [ 98, 114 ], [ 116, 128 ], [ 153, 165 ], [ 187, 228 ], [ 311, 342 ], [ 403, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New Zealand gained international attention for its reforms, especially how the state regulated labour relations. The impact was especially strong on the reform movement in the United States.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 200964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coleman argues that the Liberals in 1891 lacked a clear-cut ideology to guide them. Instead they approached the nation's problems pragmatically, keeping in mind the constraints imposed by democratic public opinion. To deal with the issue of land distribution, they worked out innovative solutions to access, tenure, and a graduated tax on unimproved values.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1870s Julius Vogel's grand go-ahead policy of borrowing overseas had increased the public debt from £7.8 million in 1870 to £18.6 million in 1876, but had constructed many miles of railways, roads and telegraph lines and attracted many new migrants.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1880s, New Zealand's economy grew from one based on wool and local trade to the export of wool, cheese, butter and frozen beef and mutton to Britain. The change was enabled by the invention of refrigerated steamships in 1882 and a result of the large market demands overseas. In order to increase production, alongside a more intensive use of factor inputs a transformation of production techniques was necessary. The required capital came mainly from outside of New Zealand. Refrigerated shipping remained the basis of New Zealand's economy until the 1970s. New Zealand's highly productive agriculture gave it probably the world's highest standard of living, with fewer at the rich and poor ends of the scale.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [ 21356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 527, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During this era () the banking system was weak and there was little foreign investment, so businessmen had to build up their own capital. Historians have debated whether the \"long depression\" of the late 19th century stifled investment, but the New Zealanders found a way around adverse conditions. Hunter has studied the experiences of 133 entrepreneurs who started commercial enterprises between 1880 and 1910. The successful strategy was to deploy capital economising techniques, and reinvesting profits rather than borrowing. The result was slow but stable growth that avoided bubbles and led to long-lived family owned firms.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Colonial period", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "New Zealand initially expressed interest in joining the proposed Federation of the Australian colonies, attending the 1891 National Australia Convention in Sydney. Interest in the proposed Australian Federation faded and New Zealand decided against joining the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. New Zealand instead changed from being a colony to a separate \"Dominion\" in 1907, equal in status to Australia and Canada. Dominion status was a public mark of the self-governance that had evolved over half a century through responsible government. Just under one million people lived in New Zealand in 1907 and cities such as Auckland and Wellington were growing rapidly.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [ 1241326, 4689264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 75 ], [ 261, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In New Zealand, prohibition was a moralistic reform movement begun in the mid-1880s by the Protestant evangelical and Nonconformist churches and the Women's Christian Temperance Union New Zealand and after 1890 by the Prohibition League. It never achieved its goal of national prohibition. It was a middle-class movement which accepted the existing economic and social order; the effort to legislate morality assumed that individual redemption was all that was needed to carry the colony forward from a pioneering society to a more mature one. However, both the Church of England and the largely Irish Catholic Church rejected prohibition as an intrusion of government into the church's domain, while the growing labour movement saw capitalism rather than alcohol as the enemy. Reformers hoped that the women's vote, in which New Zealand was a pioneer, would swing the balance, but the women were not as well organised as in other countries. Prohibition had a majority in a national referendum in 1911, but needed a 60% majority to pass. The movement kept trying in the 1920s, losing three more referenda by close votes; it managed to keep in place a 6pm closing hour for pubs and Sunday closing (leading to the so-called six o'clock swill). The Depression and war years effectively ended the movement.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [ 24856, 67232592, 3221521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 27 ], [ 149, 195 ], [ 1222, 1239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The country remained an enthusiastic member of the British Empire. 4 August is the date the outbreak of World War I is marked in New Zealand. During the war, more than 120,000 New Zealanders enlisted to the New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and around 100,000 served overseas; 18,000 died, 499 were taken prisoner, and about 41,000 men were listed as wounded. Conscription had been in force since 1909, and while it was opposed in peacetime there was less opposition during the war. The labour movement was pacifistic, opposed the war, and alleged that the rich were benefiting at the expense of the workers. It formed the New Zealand Labour Party in 1916. Māori tribes that had been close to the government sent their young men to volunteer. Unlike in Britain, relatively few women became involved. Women did serve as nurses; 640 joined the services and 500 went overseas.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [ 4721, 649488, 5735, 153190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 65 ], [ 207, 238 ], [ 359, 371 ], [ 622, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New Zealand forces captured Western Samoa from Germany in the early stages of the war, and New Zealand administered the country until Samoan Independence in 1962. However Samoans greatly resented the imperialism, and blamed inflation and the catastrophic 1918 flu epidemic on New Zealand rule.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [ 27238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More than 2700 men died in the Gallipoli Campaign. The heroism of the soldiers in the failed campaign made their sacrifices iconic in New Zealand memory, and is often credited with securing the psychological independence of the nation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [ 214109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the war New Zealand signed the Treaty of Versailles (1919), joined the League of Nations and pursued an independent foreign policy, while its defence was still controlled by Britain. New Zealand depended on Britain's Royal Navy for its military security during the 1920s and 1930s. Officials in Wellington trusted Conservative Party governments in London, but not Labour. When the British Labour Party took power in 1924 and 1929, the New Zealand government felt threatened by Labour's foreign policy because of its reliance upon the League of Nations. The League was distrusted and Wellington did not expect to see the coming of a peaceful world order under League auspices. What had been the Empire's most loyal dominion became a dissenter as it opposed efforts the first and second British Labour governments to trust the League's framework of arbitration and collective security agreements.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [ 30030, 17926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 57 ], [ 77, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The governments of the Reform and United parties between 1912 and 1935 followed a \"realistic\" foreign policy. They made national security a high priority, were sceptical of international institutions, and showed no interest on the questions of self-determination, democracy, and human rights. However the opposition Labour Party was more idealistic and proposed a liberal internationalist outlook on international affairs.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Labour Party emerged as a force in 1919 with a socialist platform. It won about 25% of the vote. However its appeals to working class solidarity were not effective because a large fraction of the working class voted for conservative candidates of the Liberal and Reform parties. (They merged in 1936 to form the New Zealand National Party.) As a consequence the Labour party was able to jettison its support for socialism in 1927 (a policy made official in 1951), as it expanded its reach into middle class constituencies. The result was a jump in strength to 35% in 1931, 47% in 1935, and peaking at 56% in 1938. From 1935 the First Labour Government showed a limited degree of idealism in foreign policy, for example opposing the appeasement of Germany and Japan.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [ 333149, 10492614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 316, 342 ], [ 632, 655 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like many other countries, New Zealand suffered in the Great Depression of the 1930s, which affected the country via its international trade, with steep decreases in farm exports subsequently affecting the money supply and in turn consumption, investment and imports. The country was most affected around 1930–1932, when average farm incomes for a short time dipped below zero, and the unemployment rate peaked. Though actual unemployment numbers were not officially counted, the country was affected especially strongly in the North Island.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [ 19283335, 31741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 71 ], [ 386, 403 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike in later years, there were no public benefit (\"dole\") payments– the unemployed were given \"relief work\", much of which was however not very productive, partly because the size of the problem was unprecedented. Women also increasingly registered as unemployed, while Māori received government help through other channels such as the land-development schemes organised by Sir Āpirana Ngata, who served as Minister of Native Affairs from 1928 to 1934. In 1933, 8.5% of the unemployed were organised in work camps, while the rest received work close to their homes. Typical occupations in relief work included road work (undertaken by 45% of all part-time and 19% of all full-time relief workers in 1934, with park improvement works (17%) and farm work (31%) being the other two most common types of work for part-time and full-time relief workers respectively).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [ 378430, 722635, 1869411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 59 ], [ 381, 394 ], [ 410, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Attempts by the United–Reform Coalition to deal with the situation with spending cuts and relief work were ineffective and unpopular. In 1935, the First Labour Government was elected, and the post-depression decade showed that average Labour support in New Zealand had roughly doubled comparable to pre-depression times. By 1935 economic conditions had improved somewhat, and the new government had more positive financial conditions. Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage proclaimed that: \"Social Justice must be the guiding principle and economic organization must adapt itself to social needs.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [ 23476479, 10492614, 179266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 39 ], [ 147, 170 ], [ 450, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The new government quickly set about implementing a number of significant reforms, including a reorganisation of the social welfare system and the creation of the state housing scheme. Labour also gained Māori votes by working closely with the Rātana movement. Savage was idolised by the working classes, and his portrait hung on the walls of many houses around the country. The newly created welfare state promised government support to individuals \"from the cradle to the grave\", according to the Labour slogan. It included free health care and education, and state assistance for the elderly, infirm, and unemployed. The opposition attacked the Labour Party's more left-wing policies, and accused it of undermining free enterprise and hard work. The Reform Party and the United Party merged to become the National Party, and would be Labour's main rival in future years. However the welfare state system was retained and expanded by successive National and Labour governments until the 1980s.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [ 1965488, 169626, 222839, 333149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 176 ], [ 244, 250 ], [ 393, 406 ], [ 808, 822 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In foreign policy, the Labour Party in power after 1935 disliked the Versailles Treaty of 1919 as too harsh on Germany, opposed militarism and arms build-ups, distrusted the political conservatism of the National Government in Britain, sympathized with the Soviet Union, and increasingly worried about threats from Japan. It denounced Italy's role in Ethiopia and sympathized with the republican forces in the Spanish Civil War. Those policies favoured the left but it also was pro-German. It consistently advocated negotiations with Nazi Germany, signed a trade agreement with it, welcomed the Munich agreement of 1938 regarding the division of Czechoslovakia, discouraged public criticism of the Nazi regime, and pursued a slow rearmament programme. When World War II broke out in September 1939, it recommended to London a negotiated peace with Berlin; however after the fall of France in the spring of 1940, it did support the British war effort militarily and economically.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [ 1084164, 26779, 18842471, 21212, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 223 ], [ 257, 269 ], [ 410, 427 ], [ 534, 546 ], [ 757, 769 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When war broke out in 1939, New Zealanders saw their proper role as defending their proud place in the British Empire. It contributed some 120,000 troops. They mostly fought in North Africa, Greece/Crete, and Italy, relying on the Royal Navy and later the United States to protect New Zealand from the Japanese forces. Japan had no interest in New Zealand in the first place; it had already over-reached when it invaded New Guinea in 1942. (There were a few highly publicised but ineffective Japanese scouting incursions.) The 3rd New Zealand Division fought in the Solomons in 1943–44, but New Zealand's limited manpower meant 2 Divisions could not be maintained, and it was disbanded and its men returned to civilian life or used to reinforce the 2nd Division in Italy. The armed forces peaked at 157,000 in September 1942; 135,000 served abroad, and 10,100 died.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [ 26061, 3202606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 241 ], [ 527, 551 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New Zealand, with a population of 1.7million, including 99,000 Māori, was highly mobilised during the war. The Labour party was in power and promoted unionisation and the welfare state. Agriculture expanded, sending record supplies of meat, butter and wool to Britain. When American forces arrived, they were fed as well.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The nation spent £574million on the war, of which 43% came from taxes, 41% from loans and 16% from American Lend Lease. It was an era of prosperity as the national income soared from £158million in 1937 to £292million in 1944. Rationing and price controls kept inflation to only 14% during 1939–45.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [ 55832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over £50million was spent on defence works and military accommodation and hospitals, including of roads.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Montgomerie shows that the war dramatically increased the roles of women, especially married women, in the labour force. Most of them took traditional female jobs. Some replaced men but the changes here were temporary and reversed in 1945. After the war, women left traditional male occupations and many women gave up paid employment to return home. There was no radical change in gender roles but the war intensified occupational trends under way since the 1920s.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Dominion and Realm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Labour remained in power after the Second World War and in 1945, Labour Prime Minister Peter Fraser played an important role in the establishment of the United Nations, of which New Zealand was a founding member. However, domestically Labour had lost the reforming zeal of the 1930s and its electoral support ebbed after the war. After Labour lost power in 1949, the conservative National Party began an almost continuous thirty-year stint in government, interrupted by single-term Labour governments in 1957 to 60 and 1972 to 75. National Prime Minister Sidney Holland called a snap election as a result of the 1951 waterfront dispute, an incident that reinforced National's dominance and severely weakened the union movement.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [ 400991, 31769, 15926948, 340378, 1236308, 1262202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 99 ], [ 153, 167 ], [ 194, 211 ], [ 555, 569 ], [ 577, 592 ], [ 612, 635 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cooperation with the United States set a direction of policy which resulted in the ANZUS Treaty between New Zealand, America and Australia in 1951, as well as participation in the Korean War.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [ 4792222, 10079507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 88 ], [ 180, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fedorowich and Bridge argue that the demands of the Second World War produced long-term consequences for New Zealand's relationship with the government in London. The key component was the office of the high commissioner. By 1950 it was the main line of communications between the British and New Zealand governments.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [ 189082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1950s New Zealand culture was deeply British and conservative, with the concept of \"fairness\" holding a central role. New immigrants, still mainly British, flooded in while New Zealand remained prosperous by exporting farm products to Britain. In 1953 New Zealanders took pride that a countryman, Edmund Hillary, gave Queen Elizabeth II a coronation gift by reaching the summit of Mount Everest.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [ 73572, 12153654, 23957213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 297, 311 ], [ 318, 336 ], [ 339, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the 1890s, the economy had been based almost entirely on the export of frozen meat and dairy products to Britain, and in 1961, the share of New Zealand exports going to the United Kingdom was still at slightly over 51%, with approximately 15% going to other European countries. The 1960s was a decade of rising prosperity for most New Zealanders, but from 1965 there were also protests – in support of women's rights and the nascent ecological movement, and against the Vietnam War. Irrespective of political developments, many New Zealanders still perceived themselves as a distinctive outlying branch of the United Kingdom until at least the 1970s. In 1973 Britain joined the European Community and abrogated its preferential trade agreements with New Zealand, forcing New Zealand to not only find new markets but also re-examine its national identity and place in the world.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [ 10138311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 475, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Māori always had a high birth rate; that was neutralised by a high death rate until modern public health measures became effective in the 20th century when tuberculosis deaths and infant mortality declined sharply. Life expectancy grew from 49 years in 1926 to 60 years in 1961 and the total numbers grew rapidly. Many Māori served in the Second World War and learned how to cope in the modern urban world; others moved from their rural homes to the cities to take up jobs vacated by Pākehā servicemen. The shift to the cities was also caused by their strong birth rates in the early 20th century, with the existing rural farms in Māori ownership having increasing difficulty in providing enough jobs. Māori culture had meanwhile undergone a renaissance thanks in part to politician Āpirana Ngata. By the 1980s 80% of the Māori population was urban, in contrast to only 20% before the Second World War. The migration led to better pay, higher standards of living and longer schooling, but also exposed problems of racism and discrimination. By the late 1960s a Māori protest movement had emerged to combat racism, promote Māori culture and seek fulfilment of the Treaty of Waitangi.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [ 722635, 10590775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 783, 796 ], [ 1061, 1083 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Urbanisation proceeded rapidly across the land. In the late 1940s, town planners noted that the country was \"possibly the third most urbanised country in the world\", with two-thirds of the population living in cities or towns. There was also increasing concern that this trend was badly managed, with it being noted that there was an \"ill-defined urban pattern that appears to have few of the truly desirable urban qualities and yet manifests no compensating rural characteristics\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The country's economy suffered in the aftermath of the 1973 global energy crisis, the loss of New Zealand's biggest export market upon Britain's entry to the European Economic Community, and rampant inflation. Robert Muldoon, Prime Minister from 1975 to 1984, and his Third National Government responded to the crises of the 1970s by attempting to preserve the New Zealand of the 1950s. He attempted to maintain New Zealand's \"cradle to the grave\" welfare state, which dated to 1935. His government sought to give retirees 80% of the current wage, which would require large-scale borrowing; critics said it would bankrupt the treasury. Muldoon's response to the crisis also involved imposing a total freeze on wages, prices, interest rates and dividends across the national economy.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [ 9578, 308842, 9032086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 185 ], [ 210, 224 ], [ 268, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Muldoon's conservatism and antagonistic style exacerbated an atmosphere of conflict in New Zealand, most violently expressed during the 1981 Springbok Tour. In the 1984 elections Labour promised to calm down the increasing tensions, while making no specific promises; it scored a landslide victory.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [ 255926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, Muldoon's government was not entirely backward looking. Some innovations did take place, for example the Closer Economic Relations (CER) free-trade programme with Australia to liberalise trade, starting in 1982. The aim of total free trade between the two countries was achieved in 1990, five years ahead of schedule.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [ 2509143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1984, the Fourth Labour Government, led by David Lange, was elected amid a constitutional and economic crisis. The crisis led the incoming government to review New Zealand's constitutional structures, which resulted in the Constitution Act 1986. In power from 1984 to 1990, the Labour government launched a major programme of restructuring the economy, radically reducing the role of government. A political scientist reports:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [ 8964212, 308825, 9041989, 43650424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 37 ], [ 46, 57 ], [ 78, 112 ], [ 226, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1984 and 1993, New Zealand underwent radical economic reform, moving from what had probably been the most protected, regulated and state-dominated system of any capitalist democracy to an extreme position at the open, competitive, free-market end of the spectrum.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The economic reforms were led by Roger Douglas, finance minister from 1984 to 1988. Dubbed Rogernomics, it was a rapid programme of deregulation and public-asset sales. Subsidies to farmers and consumers were phased out. High finance was partly deregulated. Restrictions on foreign exchange were relaxed and the dollar was allowed to float and seek its natural level on the world market. The tax on high incomes was cut in half from 65% to 33%. The shares exchange entered a bubble, which then burst, with the total value of shares falling from $50 billion in 1987 to $15 billion in 1991; at one point the crash was \"the worst in world\". Economic growth fell from 2% a year to 1%. Douglas's reforms resembled the contemporaneous policies of Margaret Thatcher in Britain and Ronald Reagan in the United States.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [ 352842, 105039, 314544, 19831, 25433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 46 ], [ 91, 102 ], [ 483, 499 ], [ 741, 758 ], [ 774, 787 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Strong criticism of Rogernomics came from the left, especially from Labour's traditional trade union support-base; Lange broke with Douglas's policies in 1987; both men were forced out and Labour was in confusion.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [ 18499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In keeping with the mood of the 1980s the government sponsored liberal policies and initiatives in a number of social areas; this included Homosexual Law Reform, the introduction of 'no-fault divorce', reduction in the gender pay gap and the drafting of a Bill of Rights. Immigration policy was liberalised, allowing an influx of immigrants from Asia; previously most immigrants to New Zealand had been European and especially British. The Treaty of Waitangi Amendment Act 1985 enabled the Waitangi Tribunal to investigate claims of breaches of the Treaty of Waitangi going back to 1840, and to settle grievances.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [ 4645595, 1691859, 46496318, 5345650, 8850676, 317072, 4838458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 160 ], [ 183, 199 ], [ 219, 233 ], [ 256, 270 ], [ 440, 477 ], [ 490, 507 ], [ 523, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Fourth Labour Government revolutionised New Zealand's foreign policy, making the country a nuclear-free zone and effectively withdrawing from the ANZUS alliance. The French intelligence service's sinking of the Rainbow Warrior, and the diplomatic ramifications following the incident, did much to promote the anti-nuclear stance as an important symbol of New Zealand's national identity.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [ 12509323, 572319, 2298023, 1929895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 112 ], [ 170, 197 ], [ 200, 230 ], [ 373, 390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Voters unhappy with the rapid speed and far-reaching extent of reforms elected a National government in 1990, led by Jim Bolger. However the new government continued the economic reforms of the previous Labour government, in what was known as Ruthanasia. Unhappy with what seemed to be a pattern of governments failing to reflect the mood of the electorate, New Zealanders in 1992 and 1993 voted to change the electoral system to mixed-member proportional (MMP), a form of proportional representation. New Zealand's first MMP election was held in 1996. Following the election National was returned to power in coalition with the New Zealand First party.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [ 9204302, 362227, 362148, 344125, 182855, 23298, 536679, 342835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 100 ], [ 117, 127 ], [ 243, 253 ], [ 399, 426 ], [ 430, 455 ], [ 473, 500 ], [ 516, 534 ], [ 629, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the end of the Cold War in 1991, the nation's foreign policy turned increasingly to issues of its nuclear-free status and other military issues, its adjustment to neoliberalism in international trade relations, and its involvement in humanitarian, environmental and other matters of international diplomacy.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Post-war era", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 21st century, international tourism was a major contributor to the New Zealand economy, until it was brought almost to a halt by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, and the service sector more generally has grown. Meanwhile, the traditional agricultural exports of meat, dairy and wool have been supplemented by other products such as fruit, wine and timber as the economy has diversified.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 558365, 21356, 62750956, 20243191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 42 ], [ 74, 93 ], [ 140, 157 ], [ 243, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Fifth Labour Government led by Helen Clark was formed following the December 1999 election. In power for nine years, it maintained most of the previous governments' economic reforms– restricting government intervention in the economy much more so than previous governments– while putting more emphasis on social policy and outcomes. For example, employment law was modified to give more protection to workers, and the student loan system was changed to eliminate interest payments for New Zealand resident students and graduates.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 11826753, 22838615, 376561, 10904516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 35, 46 ], [ 72, 94 ], [ 422, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New Zealand retains strong but informal links to Britain, with many young New Zealanders travelling to Britain for their \"OE\" (overseas experience) due to favourable working visa arrangements with Britain. Despite New Zealand's immigration liberalisation in the 1980s, Britons are still the largest group of migrants to New Zealand, due in part to recent immigration law changes that privilege fluent speakers of English. One constitutional link to Britain remains– New Zealand's head of state, the Queen in Right of New Zealand, is a British resident. However, British imperial honours were discontinued in 1996, the governor-general has taken a more active role in representing New Zealand overseas, and appeals from the Court of Appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council were replaced by a local Supreme Court of New Zealand in 2003. There is public debate about whether New Zealand should become a republic, with public sentiment divided on the issue.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 2773183, 720425, 4618604, 2004550, 15960, 346169, 1717053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 146 ], [ 499, 528 ], [ 618, 634 ], [ 723, 738 ], [ 746, 785 ], [ 811, 839 ], [ 905, 922 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Foreign policy has been essentially independent since the mid-1980s. Under Prime Minister Clark, foreign policy reflected the priorities of liberal internationalism. She stressed the promotion of democracy and human rights, the strengthening of the role of the United Nations, the advancement of anti-militarism and disarmament, and the encouragement of free trade. She sent troops to the War in Afghanistan, but did not contribute combat troops to the Iraq War, although some medical and engineering units were sent.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 19666611, 5043324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 390, 408 ], [ 454, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Key led the National Party to victory in the November 2008. Key became Prime Minister of the Fifth National Government, which entered government at the beginning of the late-2000s recession. In February 2011, a major earthquake in Christchurch, the nation's third-largest urban area, significantly impacted the national economy and the government formed the Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Authority in response. In foreign policy, Key announced the withdrawal of New Zealand Defence Force personnel from their deployment in the war in Afghanistan, and signed the Wellington Declaration with the United States.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 1075887, 7188443, 20693500, 19337279, 30965066, 31345252, 21359, 194200, 12792048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 50, 63 ], [ 98, 123 ], [ 174, 194 ], [ 216, 248 ], [ 363, 403 ], [ 468, 493 ], [ 504, 525 ], [ 568, 590 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Labour-led coalition Government led by Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern was formed in October 2017. Among other issues, it hoped to tackle a burgeoning housing shortage crisis in New Zealand.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 55572197, 20436507, 54216711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 33 ], [ 56, 70 ], [ 151, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 15 March 2019, a lone terrorist shooter attacked two mosques during Friday Prayer, killing 51 people and injuring 40 more, and live streamed the attack. Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern, who referred to the attack as \"one of New Zealand's darkest days\", led efforts to support the Muslim community and ban semi-automatic rifles.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 60232721, 1162603, 18996908, 14063623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 63 ], [ 71, 84 ], [ 130, 143 ], [ 302, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The COVID-19 pandemic, which reached New Zealand in early 2020, has seriously affected the country. In March 2020, borders and entry ports of New Zealand were closed to all non-residents. A national lockdown was imposed by the government, beginning on 25 March 2020, with all restrictions (except border controls) lifted on 9 June. The government's elimination approach has been praised internationally. The government has a planned response to the projected severe economic impact from the pandemic.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 63277599, 63465223, 63926963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 98 ], [ 199, 207 ], [ 459, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2020 general election resulted in a victory for the Labour Party—the first outright majority for a single party since the introduction of MMP.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 52435000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 2020 election there were two referendums, to legalise recreational cannabis and to legalise voluntary euthanasia. The cannabis referendum was rejected and the euthanasia referendum was supported.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 55587962, 62335309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 148 ], [ 170, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bibliography of New Zealand history", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36752001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Europeans in Oceania", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2112567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of Oceania", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military history of New Zealand", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3674789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Māori history", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 61491470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Natural history of New Zealand", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15089769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Timeline of New Zealand history", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 903996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Timeline of nursing history in Australia and New Zealand", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38692132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Timeline of the New Zealand environment", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1033286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hunter, Ian, and Marie Wilson. \"Origins and opportunity: 150 years of New Zealand entrepreneurship.\" Journal of Management & Organization 13.4 (2007): 295-311. online", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Michael King (2003) The Penguin History of New Zealand. Immensely popular, this well-written and comprehensive single-volume history is probably the best place to start for those new to New Zealand history.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 565069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Loveridge, Steven. \"Another Great War? New Zealand interpretations of the First World War towards and into the Second World War\" First World War Studies (2016), pp.303–25.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Parsons, Gwen. \"The New Zealand Home Front during World War One and World War Two\". History Compass 11.6 (2013): 419–428.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Smith, Philippa Mein. A Concise History of New Zealand (Cambridge Concise Histories) (2nd ed. 2012) 368pp; a survey by a leading scholar. excerpt and text search", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Keith Sinclair, ed., (1996) The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand. Shorter than most recent general histories and with many good illustrations.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 5164259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " First published in 1959, this is a classic of New Zealand history. The latest, 5th edition of 2000, brings the content up to the 1990s with extra content by History Professor Raewyn Dalziel.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ranginui Walker (2004), Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle Without End. The only general history written from a Māori perspective; fair, informative and interesting.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 7252839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New Zealand in History – an overview of pre-historic, colonial and modern periods.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Catholic Encyclopedia – entry on New Zealand from the 1911 edition", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "New Zealand Official Yearbook annual 1893–2008", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Waitangi Treaty Grounds website", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NZHistory.net.nz – New Zealand history website from the Ministry for Culture and Heritage, including an ever-growing number of multimedia features on a wide range of topics.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Early New Zealand Books Collection – 260 searchable books 1805–1870", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "New Zealand Journal of History – 1967– except latest issues", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Map of Early 19th Century Missions in New Zealand", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "History_of_New_Zealand" ]

[ "New Zealand history" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Jennifer Joanna Aniston (born February 11, 1969) is an American actress and producer. She is the recipient of various accolades, including a Primetime Emmy Award, a Golden Globe Award and two Screen Actors Guild Awards, in addition to a nomination for a Critics’ Choice Award. Since her career progressed in the 1990s, she has become one of the world's highest-paid actresses. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27206648, 6579025, 142724, 4293294, 28901997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 127 ], [ 141, 161 ], [ 165, 183 ], [ 192, 218 ], [ 254, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The daughter of actors John Aniston and Nancy Dow, she began working as an actress at an early age with an uncredited role in the 1988 film Mac and Me; her first major film role came in the 1993 horror comedy Leprechaun. She later rose to international fame for her role as Rachel Green on the television sitcom Friends (1994–2004), for which she earned Primetime Emmy, Golden Globe, and Screen Actors Guild awards. She has since played starring roles in numerous dramas, comedies and romantic comedies. Her biggest box office successes include Bruce Almighty (2003), The Break-Up (2006), Marley & Me (2008), Just Go with It (2011), Horrible Bosses (2011), and We're the Millers (2013), each of which grossed over $200million in worldwide box office receipts. Some of her most critically acclaimed film roles include Office Space (1999), The Good Girl (2002), Friends with Money (2006), Cake (2014), and Dumplin' (2018). She returned to television in 2019, producing and starring in the Apple TV+ drama series The Morning Show, for which she won another Screen Actors Guild Award.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 297483, 10498822, 2525385, 1688077, 335816, 11315, 6579025, 142724, 4293294, 237303, 2385928, 12981662, 26107567, 28386410, 38337190, 95953, 930143, 4299508, 42217172, 54915099, 60328532, 56617976, 4842092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 35 ], [ 40, 49 ], [ 140, 150 ], [ 209, 219 ], [ 274, 286 ], [ 312, 319 ], [ 354, 368 ], [ 370, 382 ], [ 388, 407 ], [ 545, 559 ], [ 568, 580 ], [ 589, 600 ], [ 609, 624 ], [ 633, 648 ], [ 661, 678 ], [ 817, 829 ], [ 838, 851 ], [ 860, 878 ], [ 887, 891 ], [ 904, 912 ], [ 987, 996 ], [ 1010, 1026 ], [ 1054, 1079 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston has been included in numerous magazines' lists of the world's most beautiful women. Her net worth is estimated as $300million. With a box office gross of over $1.6 billion worldwide, Aniston has been referred as one of few performers to have influenced several generations of viewers. She is the recipient of a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and is the co-founder of the production company Echo Films, established in 2008. She has been married twice: first to actor Brad Pitt, to whom she was married for five years, and later to actor Justin Theroux, whom she married in 2015 and separated from in 2017.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 105776, 16712054, 44849, 2286019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 331, 353 ], [ 402, 412 ], [ 478, 487 ], [ 548, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston was born on February 11, 1969, in the Sherman Oaks neighborhood of Los Angeles to Greek-born actor John Aniston and actress Nancy Dow. One of her maternal great-grandfathers, Louis Grieco, was from Italy. Her mother's other ancestry includes English, Irish, Scottish, and a small amount of Greek. Her father's ancestry is from the Greek island of Crete. Aniston has two half-brothers: John Melick, her older maternal half-brother; and Alex Aniston, her younger paternal half-brother. Her godfather was actor Telly Savalas, one of her father's best friends.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 434509, 297483, 10498822, 265032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 58 ], [ 107, 119 ], [ 132, 141 ], [ 516, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Her family moved to New York City when she was a child. Despite her father's television career, she was discouraged from watching television, though she found ways around the prohibition. When she was six, she began attending a Waldorf school. Her parents divorced when she was nine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 6711330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having discovered acting at age 11 at the Waldorf school, Aniston enrolled in Manhattan's Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts, where she joined the school's drama society, and where Anthony Abeson was her drama teacher. She performed in The Sign in Sidney Brustein's Window by Lorraine Hansberry and Three Sisters by Anton Chekhov.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 205098, 34579399, 464831, 629033, 2447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 158 ], [ 270, 306 ], [ 310, 328 ], [ 333, 346 ], [ 350, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston first worked in off-Broadway productions such as For Dear Life and Dancing on Checker's Grave, and supported herself with part-time jobs including work as a telemarketer, waitress and bike messenger. In 1988 she had an uncredited minor role in the critically panned sci-fi adventure film Mac and Me. The next year she appeared on The Howard Stern Show as a spokesmodel for Nutrisystem, and moved back to LosAngeles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 89127, 162180, 2525385, 1092791, 2770307, 9665838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 36 ], [ 165, 177 ], [ 296, 306 ], [ 338, 359 ], [ 365, 376 ], [ 381, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "She obtained her first regular television role on Molloy in 1990, and appeared in Ferris Bueller, a television adaptation of the 1986 film Ferris Bueller's Day Off; both series were quickly canceled. She starred as a teenager going to summer camp in the made-for-television film Camp Cucamonga (1990), and as a spoiled daughter followed by a vengeful leprechaun in the horror film Leprechaun (1993). A 2014 retrospective from Entertainment Weekly identified Leprechaun as her worst role, and Aniston herself has expressed embarrassment over it.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 27612074, 2034332, 88326, 3222995, 1688077, 541239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 56 ], [ 82, 96 ], [ 139, 163 ], [ 279, 293 ], [ 381, 391 ], [ 426, 446 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston also appeared in the two failed television comedy series The Edge and Muddling Through, and guest-starred in Quantum Leap, Herman's Head and Burke's Law.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 8311740, 37749186, 54586, 1460334, 53807844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 73 ], [ 78, 94 ], [ 117, 129 ], [ 131, 144 ], [ 149, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Depressed over her four unsuccessful television shows, Aniston approached Warren Littlefield at a Los Angeles gas station asking for reassurance. The head of NBC entertainment encouraged her to continue acting, and a few months later helped cast her in Friends, a sitcom set to debut on NBC's 1994–1995 fall lineup. The producer wanted Aniston to audition for the role of Monica Geller, but Courteney Cox was deemed more suitable, and Aniston was cast as Rachel Green. She was also offered a spot as a featured player on Saturday Night Live, but turned it down in favor of Friends. She played Rachel until the show ended in 2004, when Aniston took a 15-year hiatus from television save for occasional guest roles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 10334971, 11315, 827336, 299717, 335816, 763013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 92 ], [ 253, 260 ], [ 372, 385 ], [ 391, 404 ], [ 455, 467 ], [ 521, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The program was a massive hit and Aniston, along with her co-stars, gained worldwide recognition. Her character was especially popular. She received five Primetime Emmy Award nominations (two for Supporting Actress, three for Lead Actress), and won for Lead Actress. She was also nominated for two Golden Globe Awards and won in 2003 as Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy. According to the Guinness Book of World Records, Aniston (along with her female co-stars) became the highest-paid television actress of all time with her $1million-per-episode paycheck during the final season of Friends. Her character's relationship with Ross Geller, portrayed by David Schwimmer, was widely popular among audiences; they were frequently voted television's favorite couple in polls and magazines.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 6579025, 3625648, 3621935, 142724, 1476781, 100796, 832954, 170146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 174 ], [ 196, 214 ], [ 226, 238 ], [ 298, 317 ], [ 337, 387 ], [ 406, 436 ], [ 644, 655 ], [ 670, 685 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After a four-year hiatus, Aniston returned to film work in 1996, when she performed in the ensemble cast of romantic comedy She's the One. Her first starring film vehicle was Picture Perfect (1997), where she played a struggling young advertising executive opposite Kevin Bacon and Jay Mohr. It received mixed reviews and was only a moderate commercial success; but Aniston's performance was more warmly received, with many critics suggesting that she had screen presence. In 1998, she appeared as a woman who falls for a gay man (played by Paul Rudd) in the romantic comedy The Object of My Affection, and the next year she starred as a restaurant waitress in the cult film Office Space.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2217354, 6241436, 16827, 717996, 685608, 290633, 5645, 95953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 137 ], [ 175, 190 ], [ 266, 277 ], [ 282, 290 ], [ 541, 550 ], [ 575, 601 ], [ 665, 674 ], [ 675, 687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston appeared in the dramedy Rock Star (2001) opposite Mark Wahlberg and Dominic West. She starred in the independent dramedy The Good Girl (2002) as an unglamorous cashier who cheats on her husband. The film was a commercial success in limited release, taking in over $14million in North America. Film critic Roger Ebert declared it her breakthrough: ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 317308, 1530223, 6944155, 1948469, 930143, 50908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 31 ], [ 32, 41 ], [ 58, 71 ], [ 76, 88 ], [ 129, 142 ], [ 313, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston's biggest commercial success in film has been the comedy Bruce Almighty (2003), where she played the girlfriend of a television field reporter (Jim Carrey) offered the chance to be God for one week. With a worldwide box office gross of $484million, it was the fifth-highest-grossing feature film of the year. Aniston next starred as the old classmate of a tightly wound newlywed in the romantic comedy Along Came Polly (2004) opposite Ben Stiller, which placed number one at the North American box office, earning $27.7million in its opening weekend; it eventually made $172million worldwide.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 237303, 86665, 547378, 90095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 79 ], [ 152, 162 ], [ 410, 426 ], [ 443, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2005, Aniston appeared as an alluring woman having an affair with an advertising executive in the thriller Derailed, and as an obituary and wedding announcement writer in the romantic comedy Rumor Has It. Both films were moderate box office hits. Aniston took on the role of a single, cash-strapped woman working as a maid in the independent drama Friends with Money (2006), which received a limited release.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2987094, 2492165, 4299508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 118 ], [ 194, 206 ], [ 351, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Her next film was the romantic comedy The Break-Up (2006), alongside Vince Vaughn, in which she starred as one half of a couple having a complicated split when both refuse to move out of the pair's recently purchased home. It received mixed reviews but grossed approximately $39.17million during its opening weekend and $204million worldwide. The A.V. Clubs Keith Phipps gave the film a negative review, stating, \"It's like watching the 'we were on a break' episode of Friends stretched to feature length, and without the blessed relief of commercial breaks or the promise of Seinfeld around the corner.\" CinemaBlend gave the film a positive review stating, \"In an era of formulaic romantic movies that bear no resemblance to reality, The Break-Up offers a refreshing flipside.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2385928, 666910, 4444257, 28606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 50 ], [ 69, 81 ], [ 343, 356 ], [ 576, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2006, Aniston directed the short film Room 10, set in a hospital emergency room and starring Robin Wright and Kris Kristofferson, as part of Glamours Reel Moments film series. She noted that she was inspired to direct by actress Gwyneth Paltrow, who also directed a short film that year. In 2007, Aniston guest-starred in an episode of Dirt—playing the rival of Courteney Cox's character—and in an episode of 30 Rock, playing a woman who stalks Jack Donaghy. For the latter she received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination as Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 498104, 39759439, 26265, 168094, 20366496, 32925705, 42621, 4310106, 299717, 5174671, 25272420, 8418314, 3626752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 40 ], [ 41, 48 ], [ 96, 108 ], [ 113, 131 ], [ 144, 151 ], [ 153, 165 ], [ 232, 247 ], [ 339, 343 ], [ 365, 378 ], [ 412, 419 ], [ 441, 447 ], [ 448, 460 ], [ 527, 571 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2008 comedy drama Marley & Me, starring Aniston and Owen Wilson as the owners of the titular dog, set a record for the largest Christmas Day box office sales ever with $14.75million. It earned a total of $51.7million over the four-day weekend and placed number one at the box office, a position it maintained for two weeks. The total worldwide gross was $242.7million. Her next film in wide release, the romantic comedy He's Just Not That Into You (2009), in which she starred opposite Ben Affleck, grossed $178.8million globally and ranked number one at the United States box office for its opening weekend. While it received mixed reviews, Aniston, along with Affleck, Ginnifer Goodwin, and Jennifer Connelly, were praised by critics as standouts in the film.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 12981662, 294260, 13229264, 159599, 3543763, 20647767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 33 ], [ 56, 67 ], [ 424, 451 ], [ 490, 501 ], [ 675, 691 ], [ 697, 714 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston appeared as the former wife of a bounty hunter (Gerard Butler) in the romantic comedy action film The Bounty Hunter (2010). The film was panned by critics, with The Hollywood Reporter writing that \"the mishmash ends up as a thoroughly unfunny adult cartoon.\" Nevertheless, it was a box office success, garnering over $130million worldwide. A lukewarm box office reception greeted her next film, the romantic comedy The Switch (2010), in which she starred with Jason Bateman as a 30-something single woman who decides to have a child using a sperm bank. The film's opening weekend drew what The Hollywood Reporter dubbed \"a dispiriting $8.4million\". The film received generally mixed reviews, with review site Metacritic showing 13 out of 30 critics delivering a positive verdict.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 251386, 757257, 23535297, 791422, 21550540, 685922, 805870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 54 ], [ 56, 69 ], [ 106, 123 ], [ 169, 191 ], [ 423, 433 ], [ 468, 481 ], [ 717, 727 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, Aniston was also a guest star on the season two premiere of ABC's sitcom Cougar Town, playing a psychiatrist. Her announcement that she would appear on Cougar Town garnered excitement and was dubbed her return to television. The A.V. Club wrote, \"[her role] is a funny bit, and it highlights just how much Jennifer Aniston is built to be a TV star.\" In 2011, she starred opposite Adam Sandler as an office manager posing as the wife of a plastic surgeon in the romantic comedy Just Go with It, and played a sexually aggressive dentist in Horrible Bosses. Just Go with It and Horrible Bosses both made over $100million in North America and $200million worldwide.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 62027, 22379510, 102690, 26107567, 28386410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 72 ], [ 82, 93 ], [ 389, 401 ], [ 486, 501 ], [ 547, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston appeared in the comedy Wanderlust (2012) with Paul Rudd, with whom she acted in The Object of My Affection and also Friends, as a married couple who join a commune after losing their money and deciding modern life is not for them. The script for Wanderlust, bought by Universal Pictures, was produced by Judd Apatow. Wanderlust received positive reviews but was a box office failure, grossing only $21million worldwide, against a production budget of $35million. Aniston starred as a struggling stripper who agrees to pose as a wife for a drug deal, with Jason Sudeikis, in We're the Millers (2013). The film received mixed reviews from critics, but was a financial success, grossing $269million against a budget of $37million.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 28922481, 685608, 170326, 1762460, 1990980, 38337190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 41 ], [ 54, 63 ], [ 276, 294 ], [ 312, 323 ], [ 563, 577 ], [ 582, 599 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston played the role of a stoic socialite who becomes the target of an ill-planned kidnapping plot in Life of Crime (2014), a film adaptation of Elmore Leonard's 1978 novel The Switch. The film was released in limited theaters, to positive reviews. Catherine Shoard of The Guardian described her performance as \"endearingly comic\" and Eric Kohn of IndieWire wrote that \"Aniston tops any of her recent performances with a spirited turn that harkens back to her neurotic days on Friends.\" She also reprised her role for Horrible Bosses 2 (2014).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 39758804, 412908, 19344515, 13930822, 39518188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 118 ], [ 148, 162 ], [ 272, 284 ], [ 351, 360 ], [ 521, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Cake (2014), Aniston starred as an astringent woman named Claire Simmons who struggles with chronic pain. The film received mixed reviews; nonetheless, Aniston's performance was acclaimed, dubbed by some critics as \"Oscar-worthy\". The Toronto International Film Festival called her performance \"heartbreakingly good\", Gregory Ellwood of HitFix stated, \"It's really on most people's radar for being a rare dramatic turn for Jennifer Aniston, and she doesn't disappoint.\" He further stated, \"Aniston makes you believe in Claire's pain. She makes you believe this character is at her lowest point and only she can pull herself out of it. ... It's a complete performance from beginning to end and she deserves the appropriate accolades for it.\" For her performance, Aniston was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama, SAG Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role, and Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 42217172, 324, 178751, 30645882, 186068, 3627401, 3396154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 7 ], [ 219, 224 ], [ 238, 273 ], [ 340, 346 ], [ 795, 858 ], [ 860, 933 ], [ 939, 983 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, Aniston starred as a reluctant therapist in the screwball comedy She's Funny That Way, which received mixed reviews and found a limited release in theaters, but her performance was once again noticed. Wesley Morris of Grantland called her \"one of the great screen comedians. ... Most of her scenes here are extraneous, but her vulgarity and tartness are so sharp that the movie needs them. ... This isn't just Aniston having the best stuff. It's her having the most fun with her talent. She's funny in every way.\" She was \"one of the film's few bright spots\" according to Lou Lumenick of the New York Post.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 39462241, 6085466, 34495520, 19277729, 102227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 94 ], [ 210, 223 ], [ 227, 236 ], [ 581, 593 ], [ 601, 614 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston starred as the recently divorced mother of two children in the romantic comedy Mother's Day (2016), directed by Garry Marshall, and opposite Julia Roberts and Kate Hudson. The film was panned by critics and a moderate commercial success. In 2016, she voiced a workaholic and overprotective mother in the animated film Storks, alongside Andy Samberg and Kelsey Grammer, which was released to mostly positive reviews; it grossed over $183.4million against a $70million budget. Her last 2016 film role was that of a frigidly cold head honcho of a company in the comedy Office Christmas Party, directed by Will Speck and Josh Gordon and opposite Jason Bateman and Kate McKinnon. It grossed $114.5million worldwide.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 47124526, 543262, 16553, 219349, 47790164, 2697824, 17130, 49497418, 67702927, 685922, 15844154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 99 ], [ 120, 134 ], [ 149, 162 ], [ 167, 178 ], [ 326, 332 ], [ 344, 356 ], [ 361, 375 ], [ 574, 596 ], [ 610, 636 ], [ 650, 663 ], [ 668, 681 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In The Yellow Birds, a war drama directed by Alexandre Moors, Aniston portrays the mother of a deceased soldier, alongside Alden Ehrenreich, Tye Sheridan, Jack Huston, and Toni Collette. While she said she does not \"normally gravitate toward being in war films\", she made an exception because the film was \"written so beautifully and in such a way [she] had never experienced\". The film, first presented at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival, received a VOD release in June 2018. The Los Angeles Times wrote in its review: \"Toni Collette and Jennifer Aniston as the soldiers' quite different but equally concerned mothers, deliver uniformly naturalistic performances\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 48326149, 48951089, 23185487, 39209161, 8682515, 363250, 52437641, 147143, 273319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ], [ 45, 60 ], [ 123, 139 ], [ 141, 153 ], [ 155, 166 ], [ 172, 185 ], [ 411, 438 ], [ 451, 454 ], [ 481, 498 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2018, Netflix released the musical comedy Dumplin', with Aniston as executive producer and star—marking her first project for a streaming service.<ref>{{cite web|url= Lands Jennifer Aniston Dramedy 'Dumplin (Exclusive)|website=Hollywood Reporter|first=Borys|last=Kit|date=September 12, 2018|access-date=September 12, 2018}}</ref> That year, she began work on two more Netflix projects: Murder Mystery, a comedy that reunites her with Adam Sandler, which premiered on June 14, 2019; and First Ladies, a film about the first lesbian president of the United States, with Tig Notaro as her wife.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 175537, 54915099, 57627587, 24113, 22407180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 25 ], [ 54, 62 ], [ 398, 412 ], [ 543, 573 ], [ 580, 590 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston made her return to television on November 1, 2019, producing and starring alongside Reese Witherspoon in the Apple TV+ drama The Morning Show. It is her first main television role since the conclusion of Friends in 2004. Aniston won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series, and was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series and two Golden Globe Awards for Best Actress – Television Series Drama and Best Television Series – Drama as the series' producer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 93560, 60328532, 56617976, 4842092, 4037941, 1476769, 163220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 109 ], [ 117, 126 ], [ 133, 149 ], [ 245, 334 ], [ 360, 427 ], [ 460, 498 ], [ 503, 533 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "She reunited with her Friends cast mates for an HBO Max unscripted television special titled The Reunion in May 2021.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 61240499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston is one of the world's highest-paid actresses . She has been on the Forbes Top Earning Actresses list for 15 years, every year since 2001—and since then also on its Celebrity 100 list (based on \"earnings and fame\"), topping it in 2003. According to Forbes, in October 2007, Aniston was the best-selling celebrity face of the entertainment industry.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In the media", "target_page_ids": [ 294894, 7047757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 81 ], [ 172, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The magazine estimated her net worth at $110million in 2007, $150million in 2014, and $200million in 2017. It listed her earnings as $19.5million in 2018.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In the media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston has been included in various magazine lists of the world's most beautiful women. In 2005, she became the first GQ Woman of the Year. She has frequently appeared on People magazine's annual list of Most Beautiful Women, topping the ranking in 2004 and 2016. She also topped the magazine's Best Dressed List in 2006. She has been a regular on FHMs 100 Sexiest Women in the World list since 1996, most recently ranking at number 79 in 2012. In 2011, The Daily Telegraph reported the most sought-after body parts of the rich and famous revealed by two Hollywood plastic surgeons who carried out a survey among their patients to build up the picture of what the perfect woman would look like. Under the category of the most sought-after body shape, Aniston was voted in the top three, alongside Gisele Bündchen and Penélope Cruz. In the same year, readers of Men's Health voted Aniston as the Sexiest Woman of All Time. Men's Health also included her on its 100 Hottest Sex Symbols of All Time list, explaining that \"Her down-to-earth persona makes her seem attainable, and anyone who's seen her in Office Space has to admit she makes even pieces of flair look good. She rarely plays the airhead, and she seldom overplays a role: she's funny in a quiet, refreshingly human way. And her all-too-human love life off screen inspires sympathy that not even a string of bland romantic comedies can diminish. Other sex symbols drift toward one-dimensionality, becoming flat icons in the process, but throughout her career Aniston has remained sexy, funny, and unmistakably real.\" Although Aniston disliked the hairstyle she wore during her first two years on Friends, \"The Rachel\" became very popular.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In the media", "target_page_ids": [ 558974, 507970, 507970, 263052, 51110517, 23797577, 42048, 272134, 926934, 23006, 349340, 6056628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 121 ], [ 172, 178 ], [ 205, 225 ], [ 349, 352 ], [ 354, 384 ], [ 455, 474 ], [ 566, 582 ], [ 601, 607 ], [ 798, 813 ], [ 818, 831 ], [ 862, 874 ], [ 1666, 1676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "She received a motion picture star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on February 22, 2012, located at 6270 Hollywood Boulevard. She was ranked third on Forbes list of the 100 Most Powerful Actresses in Hollywood in 2013.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In the media", "target_page_ids": [ 53884328, 105776, 725872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 34 ], [ 42, 64 ], [ 103, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2016, amidst media speculation over whether she was pregnant, Aniston penned an essay for The Huffington Post condemning the \"objectification and scrutiny we put women through\". She asserted: \"We are complete with or without a mate, with or without a child. We get to decide for ourselves what is beautiful when it comes to our bodies. [...] We don't need to be married or mothers to be complete. We get to determine our own 'happily ever after' for ourselves.\" The piece was supported by many celebrities and widely covered in the media.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In the media", "target_page_ids": [ 1890505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After years of aversion to social media, Aniston joined Instagram on October 15, 2019, causing the app to \"break\" (for hours the \"follow\" button became inoperable due to an overload of web traffic to her account) with the first picture of the planned Friends cast reunion for HBO Max (whose release was delayed until 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic). Within five hours and sixteen minutes, she broke the Guinness World Record for fastest time to reach one million followers on the platform. The record was broken in September 2020, by Sir David Attenborough, who achieved the same feat in 44 minutes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In the media", "target_page_ids": [ 31591547, 61240499, 62750956, 100796, 78468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 65 ], [ 276, 283 ], [ 333, 350 ], [ 406, 427 ], [ 541, 559 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston practices Hatha yoga and Budokan karate. In 2014, she spoke of her Transcendental Meditation practice. The following year, she revealed she has dyslexia, which had affected her education and self-esteem, and that after being diagnosed in her twenties, her outlook toward life changed. She stated, \"I thought I wasn't smart. I just couldn't retain anything. Now I had this great discovery. I felt like all of my childhood trauma-dies, tragedies, dramas were explained.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 315141, 11735208, 28677895, 8305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 28 ], [ 33, 47 ], [ 75, 100 ], [ 152, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston donated to Barack Obama's 2008 presidential campaign and took part in a fundraiser for Hillary Clinton during her 2016 presidential campaign. She endorsed Joe Biden in the 2020 presidential election.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 534366, 17881122, 5043192, 43054047, 145422, 48410011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 31 ], [ 34, 60 ], [ 95, 110 ], [ 122, 148 ], [ 163, 172 ], [ 180, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston met Brad Pitt in 1998, and their relationship was highly publicized. She married Pitt, after two years of dating, on July 29, 2000, in a lavish Malibu wedding. For a few years, their marriage was considered the rare Hollywood success. On January 7, 2005, they announced their separation, and finalized their divorce on October 2. During their divorce proceedings, news media speculated that Pitt had been unfaithful to Aniston with his Mr. & Mrs. Smith co-star Angelina Jolie, with whom he began a relationship soon after the split. In the months following, the public's reaction towards the divorce was reported in the press, and \"Team Aniston\" and \"Team Jolie\" T-shirts appeared throughout the country. Aniston commented on the divorce in a January 2015 interview with The Hollywood Reporter, stating, \"Nobody did anything wrong... It was just like, sometimes things [happen].\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 44849, 107655, 2447674, 1745050, 5792809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 21 ], [ 152, 158 ], [ 219, 241 ], [ 444, 460 ], [ 469, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2005, amid reports that their divorce was due to Aniston's refusal to have children with Pitt, Aniston said, \"I've never in my life said I didn't want to have children. I did and I do and I will! ... I would never give up that experience for a career.\" Aniston said the divorce prompted her to reach out to her mother, Nancy, from whom she had been estranged for nearly a decade. Nancy had talked about her daughter on a television show and written From Mother and Daughter to Friends: A Memoir (1999). Aniston said she had been devastated by the death of her longtime therapist, whom she credited for helping make her separation from Pitt easier. She said she did not regret her relationship with Pitt, describing it as \"very intense\" and \"a beautiful, complicated relationship\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston began a relationship with actor, director, and screenwriter Justin Theroux in May 2011. The following January, they purchased a home in the Bel Air neighborhood of Los Angeles for roughly $22million. They became engaged on August 10, 2012 and were married on August 5, 2015, at their estate. They separated at the end of 2017.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 2286019, 425258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 82 ], [ 148, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston has appeared in commercials and music videos throughout her career. After starting on Friends, Aniston and her co-star Matthew Perry shot a 60-minute instructional video for the release of Microsoft's Windows 95 operating system. The next year she appeared in commercials for L'Oréal hair products.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other ventures", "target_page_ids": [ 233338, 19001, 34064, 728579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 140 ], [ 197, 206 ], [ 209, 219 ], [ 284, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under a contract with Elizabeth Arden, Inc., Aniston worked for over a year on her first perfume, which was released in July2010. Original plans called for the perfume to be named \"Lolavie by Jennifer Aniston\", but to avoid confusion with a similarly named perfume, the name was changed to simply \"Jennifer Aniston\". In 2014, she launched her second perfume, named J, followed by Near Dusk (2015), Beachscape (2016), Luxe & Chapter One (both in 2017), Chapter Two (2018), Silver & Solstice Bloom (both in 2020).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other ventures", "target_page_ids": [ 34177594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 2007, she has worked in a publicity campaign for the drink SmartWater; on March 7, 2011, she released a YouTube video for SmartWater, Jennifer Aniston Goes Viral, which tripled online interest in the product within 24 hours of its release. In 2012, Aniston co-founded hair care brand Living Proof and also became its spokeswoman. She left when the company was sold to Unilever in 2016. In January 2013, she became the new spokeswoman of Aveeno Skincare. She replaced Daniella van Graas as Aveeno's spokesmodel and became its new \"face\". Reportedly, Aniston is paid \"eight figures\" for her endorsement. For roughly $5million she became the new face of Emirates airline in 2015, which was reportedly a success. For pharmaceutical company Shire, she appeared in a 2016 campaign raising awareness about chronic dry eye.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other ventures", "target_page_ids": [ 2575024, 3524766, 31145569, 240220, 6619980, 4282168, 2770307, 142715, 871579, 794008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 75 ], [ 110, 117 ], [ 140, 167 ], [ 374, 382 ], [ 443, 458 ], [ 473, 491 ], [ 504, 515 ], [ 657, 673 ], [ 742, 747 ], [ 805, 820 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "She appeared in the 1996 Tom Petty and The Heartbreakers music video for \"Walls\", and in 2001, in Melissa Etheridge's music video for \"I Want To Be in Love\". She also appeared in a Heineken commercial.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other ventures", "target_page_ids": [ 148556, 84275, 4793292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 56 ], [ 98, 115 ], [ 181, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Along with Brad Pitt and Brad Grey, CEO of Paramount Pictures, Aniston founded the film production company Plan B Entertainment in 2002, although she and Grey withdrew in 2005. In 2008, she and producer Kristin Hahn formed Echo Films.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other ventures", "target_page_ids": [ 3816035, 22918, 8989578, 16712054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 34 ], [ 43, 61 ], [ 107, 127 ], [ 223, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston has been a celebrity advocate for numerous charities and received attention for her own donations. She has appeared in television commercials for St. Jude's Children's Research Hospital, and hosted September 2008's Stand Up to Cancer show. In the \"It Can't Wait\" campaign to free Burma, Aniston directed and starred in a video. She is a supporter of Friends of ElFaro, a nonprofit organization that helps raise money for Casa Hogar Sion, an orphanage in Tijuana, Mexico.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 17652930, 19457, 101739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 241 ], [ 288, 293 ], [ 462, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On April 14, 2007, Aniston received GLAAD's Vanguard Award for her contributions to increased visibility and understanding of the LGBT community. On Earth Day 2010, she joined Courteney Cox, Woody Harrelson, Ben Stiller and others,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 338600, 66936, 158548, 299717, 171528, 90095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 41 ], [ 130, 134 ], [ 149, 158 ], [ 176, 189 ], [ 191, 206 ], [ 208, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "in \"The Cove PSA: My Friend is...\", an effort directed by Andres Useche to stop the slaughter of dolphins based on the documentary The Cove.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 16189604, 3565169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 71 ], [ 131, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2013, she was named the Entertainment Industry Foundation (EIF) ambassador for the Saks Fifth Avenue Key to the Cure campaign, which raises funds for the EIF Women's Cancer Research Fund. In 2015, she supported the Comic Relief, Inc. charity. Other charities that Aniston has publicly supported include Clothes Off Our Back, Feeding America, EB Medical Research Foundation, Project A.L.S., OmniPeace, and the Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 17675471, 29483, 32225930, 30232234, 82951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 60 ], [ 86, 103 ], [ 218, 236 ], [ 393, 402 ], [ 412, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston donated $500,000 to Doctors Without Borders, Haitian health care provider Partners in Health and AmeriCares, and also participated in the Hope for Haiti Now telethon. She donated $500,000 to the Red Cross and another $500,000 to the Ricky Martin Foundation in 2017 to help victims of hurricanes Harvey, Irma and Maria.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 20498, 2077506, 12102204, 54769882, 301917, 15487, 55016388, 55140572, 55262011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 51 ], [ 82, 100 ], [ 105, 115 ], [ 146, 164 ], [ 165, 173 ], [ 203, 212 ], [ 303, 309 ], [ 311, 315 ], [ 320, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After being honored by SmartWater in 2016 for her ongoing philanthropic work for St. Jude's, Aniston spoke of the importance of philanthropy in her life to InStyle magazine: \"We live an extremely beautiful, fortunate life being able to do what we get to do for a living. And so it's a way of being able to be in a position to do something for people who are less able. It's something that makes my heart smile.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Philanthropy", "target_page_ids": [ 1138003, 6349753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 91 ], [ 156, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aniston received five Primetime Emmy Award nominations, two Golden Globe Award nominations, and nine SAG Award nominations for her role in Friends. From these, she won one of each. She also garnered a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for her guest appearance in 30 Rock, while her performance in Cake earned her nominations at the Golden Globe and SAG awards. Aniston additionally won a SAG Award and was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award and two Golden Globe Awards for The Morning Show.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Acting credits and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes and the box-office site Box Office Mojo, Aniston's most critically acclaimed and commercially successful films are Office Space (1999), The Good Girl (2002), Bruce Almighty (2003), Friends with Money (2006), The Break-Up (2006), Marley & Me (2008), Just Go with It (2011), Horrible Bosses (2011), We're the Millers (2013), and Dumplin'' (2018).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Acting credits and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 832482, 3386966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 51 ], [ 76, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1310953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jennifer Aniston at Box Office Mojo", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

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[ "Jennifer Joanna Aniston", "Genovéfa Anastasáki", "Genovéfa Ioánna Anastasáki" ]